- What is a great circle track?

Line of the shortest distance between two points on a sphere with a constantly
changing track direction as a result of convergence.

- What is Dutch-roll?
Oscillatory instability in swept-wing jet aircraft. Yawing and rolling motions.
Occurs when a yaw is induced (natural or commanded).

➢ Outer wing travels faster

○ More lift
○ Increased angle of attack.

➢ Inner wing will travel slower

○ Reducing its lift
○ Wing drops
○ Yaw

= Dutch roll.

Yaw dampers prevent Dutch roll on a swept-wing aircraft.

- What is Mack tuck?

Nose-down pitching moment an aircraft experiences as it passes its critical
Mach number (Mcrit). Because of the center of pressure’s rearward movement
behind the center of gravity

- What is a flat-rated engine?

Give a constant rate of thrust up to a max temperature. Take off thrust can be
achieved below full throttle position. Increased engine life, overhaul cost and
save fuel.

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 - What is an inversion?
Occurs when the air closest to the ground is cooler than the air above it. The
air temperature increases with height (rather than the usual decrease). It acts
like a blanket, stopping vertical movement/currents.

- What are the three purposes of spoilers? Give 3 types?

1. Roll control (in combination with the ailerons) with roll spoilers
The spoilers are raised on one wing and not the other => creates an imbalance
of lift that produces a rolling moment.

2. Airspeed brakes with flight spoilers

The spoilers are raised symmetrically on both wings which causes a large
increase in drag that slows down the speed of the aircraft.

3. Ground lift dumpers with ground spoilers

The spoilers are raised systematically on both wings which causes a large
increase in drag that (1) decreases lift over the wing, causing the aircraft to
sink to the ground, and (2) acts as ground speed brakes to slow down the
speed of the aircraft.

- What is a stopway?
Area beyond the runway which can be used for deceleration in the event of a
rejected takeoff.

- What is a clearway?
Length of an obstacle-free area at the end of the runway in the direction of the
takeoff, with a minimum dimension of 75 m either side of the extended runway
centerline.

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 - What is Vmcg?
Minimum control speed on the ground for a multi engine aircraft at a constant
power setting and configuration, at and above which it is possible to maintain
directional control of the aircraft.

- What is the most efficient system for stopping at high speed?

Most efficient method of stopping that maintains the initial deceleration rate
=> Reverse thrust.

1. Amount of reverse thrust increases with speed

2. The kinetic energy of the aircraft is being destroyed at a greater rate at

higher speeds.

- Dry, wet, contaminated runway?

Dry, clear of visible moisture
Wet, sufficient moisture to appear reflective, depth less than 3mm
Contaminated, more than 25% rwy surface is covered with standing water,
slush, snow, ice

- What is RVSM?
Reduction, from 2,000 feet to 1,000 feet, of the standard vertical separation
required between aircraft flying between FL290 and FL410. Aircraft with
advanced and more accurate altimeters. Increases the number of aircraft that
fly in a controlled airspace.

Requirements are:

- 2 independent altimeters (within 75ft on ground and 200ft before

entering RVSM)

- Altitude alerting system

- Automatic altitude control system

- A Sec Surv Radar (transponder) with altitude reporting

- Definition of BECMG?
Means “Becoming” followed by a four-figure time group, which is two different
whole UTC hours. Permanent change in the forecasted conditions.

- What is FADEC?
Full authority digital engine control: Automatically controls engine functions,
i.e., start procedures, engine monitoring, fuel flow, ignition system, and power
levels required.

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 - How are thunderstorms a hazard to aviation?

1. Severe windshear, which can cause

a. Handling problems
b. Flight path deviations, especially vertically
c. Loss of airspeed
d. Possible structural damage

2. Severe turbulence, which can cause

a. Possible loss of control
b. Possible structural damage

3. Severe icing, especially clear ice formed from supercooled water droplets

4. Airframe structural damage from hail

5. Reduced visibility

6. Lightning strikes, which can cause damage to the electrical system

7. Radio communication and navigation interference from static electricity

present in the thunderstorm

Therefore, cumulonimbus clouds (and thunderstorms) should be avoided by a

minimum of 10 nautical miles and in severe conditions by at least 20 nautical
miles.

- Describe the two types of taxiway lighting systems.

1. One line of green taxiway centerline lights

2. Two lines of blue taxiway edge lights

Sometimes red stop bars indicate the position of a hold, for instance, before
entering an active runway.

- What are the ICAO ISA conditions at sea level?

International Standard Atmosphere
Temperature: +15°C (–2°C per 1000 ft)
Pressure: 29.92 inches of mercury or 1013 hectopascals (millibars)
Density: 1225 g/m3 (density is influenced by temperature and pressure)

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 - What is wake turbulence?
Disturbed airflow (wing-tip vortices) created behind an aircraft’s wing as the
aircraft moves forward.

Two methods of avoiding wake turbulence:

1. Separation minima (time)
2. Alteration to the flight path

- What is an approach ban?

An approach to land may not be commenced when weather conditions are
reported to be below landing minima. Limits aircraft from proceeding beyond
the IAF, unless weather is reported at or above specified minima. Weather
deteriorates after approach ban point, aircraft may continue to DA(H) or
MDA(H).

- Explained MORA limitations?

MORA/Grid MORA gives at least 1,000 feet altitude clearance above terrain
(-5000ft MSL), and 2,000 feet in mountainous terrain (+5000ft MSL).

Route MORAs provide an obstacle clearance within 10 nautical miles on both

sides of the airways and within a 10-nautical-mile radius around the ends of
the airways.

- What is coffin corner?

Speed where mach number buffet and prestall buffet are coincident. Occurs at
an aircraft absolute ceiling.

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 - Effect of cold temperature on Baro VNAV approach?
A lower than standard temperature = shallower descent angle and reduced
descent rate

Higher than standard temperature = steeper angle and increased descent rate

Correct all altitude below MSA

- Which aircraft will descent first (90 & 100 T)?

Maximum descent speed: Heavier aircraft = lower rate of descent than a

lighter aircraft

Descent is function of
➔ ground speed, which depends on momentum, which depends on weight.
➔ Greater the aircraft’s weight, the earlier is its required descent point,
lower the rate of descent

-> heavier aircraft = early descent than lighter aircraft because of shallower
descent.

- Departure separation?

Same position:

➢ 2 minutes between
● HEAVY behind SUPER
● LIGHT/MEDIUM behind HEAVY
● LIGHT behind MEDIUM
➢ 3 minutes between LIGHT/MEDIUM behind SUPER

Intermediate position:

➢ 3 minutes between
● HEAVY behind SUPER
● LIGHT/MEDIUM behind HEAVY
● LIGHT behind MEDIUM
➢ 4 minutes between a LIGHT/MEDIUM behind SUPER

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 - Explain missed approach segments?

Initial phase: Missed approach point to where climb is established. No turn.

Intermediate phase: Climb continued till first point where 164ft/50m

obstacle clearance is obtained and maintained.

Final phase: Begin at point 164ft/50m to where a new approach, holding is

initiated.

- What is climb gradient?

Ratio, expressed as a percentage of change in height divided by horizontal
distance traveled.

- What is a drift down procedure?

Descent necessitated by an engine failure in a multi-engine aircraft in the latter
stages of climb or during cruise when an aircraft cannot maintain its current
altitude and terrain clearance or other factors are critical.

- What is an electric current?

Stream of charged particles, such as electrons or ions, moving through an
electrical conductor or space. It is measured in amperes (A)

- How does an generator work?

Convert mechanical energy into DC electrical energy by moving a wire
armature within a fixed magnetic field. Dead at idle.

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 - How does an alternator work?
Convert mechanical energy into AC electrical energy by a rotating magnetic
field in a stationary coil. Lighter and generate more power even at low RPM.

- What is the difference between AC & DC?

AC continuously reverses its direction of flow in an electric circuit. Constantly
changing in value and polarity & voltage. Sinusoidal wave.

DC voltage stays constant, linear current flows in the same direction.

- SIGMET symbols

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 - What are the take-off segments?

- What is the screen height?

Minimum height achieved before the end of the clearway should an engine
failure occur on takeoff. Marks the end of the takeoff distance. 35ft

- Explain V Speeds in order?

V1: Decision speed in the event of an engine failure during the takeoff roll, at
which it is possible to continue the takeoff and achieve the screen height.

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VMCG: Minimum control speed on the ground for a multi engine aircraft at and
above which it is possible to maintain directional control of the aircraft by use
of the rudder to maintain runway heading.

VR: Speed at which the pilot initiates rotation during the takeoff to achieve
V2 at the screen height, even with an engine failure.

V2: Takeoff safety speed achieved by the screen height in the event of an
engine failure that maintains adequate directional control and climb
performance properties of the aircraft.

VFTO: Final take off speed for the plane to climb and maneuver as designed.

- What is TODR?
Takeoff distance required. Distance required to accelerate to the rotation speed
(VR) and to a climb and to attain screen height at V2.

- What is a balanced field?

When your Take-off Distance Required (TODR) equals your Accelerated Stop
Distance Required (ASDR).

- What is a wet start?

Failure to start after the fuel has been delivered to the engine. Ignition
problem.

Indications of a wet start:

1. Exhaust gas temperature (EGT) does not rise.
2. RPM stabilizes at starter maximum.

Actions required for a wet start:

1. Close the fuel lever/supply
2. Motor over the engine to blow out the fuel (approximately 60 seconds).

- What is a hot start?

Engine ignites and reaches self-sustaining rpms, but the combustion is
unstable and the exhaust gas temperature (EGT) rises rapidly past its
maximum limit.

Actions required for a hot start:

- Close the fuel lever/supply before max EGT reached.
- Motor over the engine to blow out the fuel (approximately 60 seconds).

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 - What is a circling approach?
Visual phase of flight following an instrument procedure not suitably located for
straight in approach. 300 feet of obstacle clearance guaranteed within the
protected area (depending on aircraft class). Maintain visual with the runway
environment while established at minimum descent altitude/height (MDA/H).
If visual reference is lost
➢ Initiate a climbing turn, within the circling area, towards the landing
runway
➢ Intercept and execute the missed approach procedure.

CAT C maneuvering speed 180kt, Radius 1.7nm, 4.2 from THR

- Explain TORA TODA ASDA?

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TORA is the runway length available for the takeoff run
ASDA is TORA plus stopway when available.
TODA is TORA plus clearway when available.
LDA is the length of runway that is available for the ground run of the landing
of an aircraft.

- Explain abbreviations?

PBN: Performance Based Navigation based on Area Navigation, or RNAV,

permits to implement automated flight paths that will facilitate airspace design,
traffic flow, and improved access to runways, reduce CO2 emission and cost.

RNP: Required Navigation Performance, part of PBN, enables an aircraft’s

navigation system to monitor the navigation performance it achieves, and
inform the crew if the requirement is not met during an operation.

MOCA: Minimum Obstacle Clearance Altitude. Minimum altitude for a defined

segment that provides the required obstacle clearance.

REIL: Runway End Identifier Lights system provides rapid and positive
identification of the end of the runway.

NADP: Noise Abatement Departure Procedure. Areas close airport = 1 (Thr

Red 1000ft, Acc 3000ft). Areas further away = 2 (Thr red + Acc 1000ft)

ETOPS: Extended-range Twin-engine Operational Performance Standards. Set

of rules that allows aircraft to fly long-distance routes that were previously
off-limits to twin-engined aircraft. Different levels of ETOPS.

TCAS: Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System. Increase cockpit

awareness of nearby aircraft against mid-air collisions.

FADEC: Full Authority Digital Engine Control. Digital computer and

components that control an aircraft’s engine ignition and operation.

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 - What weights are used in an aircraft?

Payload: Passengers, baggage and cargo.

Zero Fuel Weight (ZWF): Total weight of the airplane and all its contents.

Dry Operating Weight (DOW): Basic weight of an aircraft including the

crew, all fluids necessary for operation, all operator items and equipment
required for flight.

Maximum Take-Off Weight (MTOW): Maximum permitted weight at the

start of the take-off. Depends on standard performance variables such as
runway temperature, altitude, atmospheric pressure, wind components, flaps,
etc.

Maximum Landing Weight (MLW): To ensure structural safety of the aircraft

MLW. MTOW – Trip Fuel = MLW.

- Protected area for holding and typical obstacle clearance?

Obstacle clearance is 1000 ft (2000 ft over mountainous terrain). In a buffer
area of 5 NM around the holding area obstacle clearance gradually reduces to
zero.

- What is the relationship between stall speed and weight?

An aircraft stalls when the laminar airflow over the wing’s upper surface, which
produces lift, breaks away from the surface when the critical angle of attack is
exceeded. Decrease the angle of attack (relax the back pressure and/or move
the control column forward).

Properties:

1. Weight
a. Actual weight
b. Load factor, g in a turn
c. Center of gravity position
2. Altitude
3. Wing design

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4. Configuration

Heavier the aircraft = more lift needed (lift must equal weight force) = higher
indicated stall speed.

Stall occurs at constant AOA so we can only increase lift by increasing speed.
So stall speed will increase with an increased weight of the aircraft. Stall speed
proportional to the square root of the weight.

- Factors affecting take off & landing performance?

1. Aircraft weight
2. Aircraft flaps setting
3. Aerodrome pressure altitude
4. Air density (temperature and pressure altitude)
5. Humidity
6. Wind
7. Runway length, slope, and surface

- How to calculate CG of aircraft?

How to calculate ROC/ROD of aircraft?

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ROC = % gradient X GS

ROC = GS (knots) ÷ 60 * Climb Gradient (Feet Per Mile)

ROD (3°) = GS x 5

- Explain basic QNH calculation?

elevation (ft) = elevation (m) X 3.28

QFE (mb) = Elevation (ft) / 30

QNH = QFE + QFE (mb)

QFE 980, Elevation 200m, QNH?

- You go around at minimums after a CAT I approach. You climb

following the standard missed approach gradient. What is your
elevation after 10 NM? (hint: 2,5%, don't forget to add the DH)

CAT 1 minima 200ft

CG = (H/D)X100

H= CG X (D X 6076) / 100 + CAT 1 minima

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- Effect of increased landing distance with increased speed?

- Explain 1 in 60 rule?

16
- Hold entry?

17
- What is the required fuel for a flight?

1. Start up & Taxi fuel

2. Trip fuel: take off, climb, cruise, approach and landing
3. Contingency fuel, higher of:
a. 5% trip fuel
b. 20’ flying time
c. 5’ at holding speed at 1500ft above destination
4. Alternate fuel: missed approach, climb, cruise, approach and landing
alternate aerodrome
5. Final reserve fuel: 30’ holding at 1500ft
6. Extra fuel, commander discretion

- What are the approach and landing climb segments?

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 - FWD or AFT CG and why?

FWD: Increased longitudinal stability, lower cruise speed, higher stall speed.

AFT: Decreased longitudinal stability, higher cruise speed, lower stall speed,
poor stall/spin recovery.

- What is a fail passive - fail active AP?

Fail passive: Two digital control computer channels. Single control channel
failure -> no significant out-of-trim condition or deviation of the flight path or
attitude. Landing not automatically (minimum dual channel system being
required) pilot to assume control of the aircraft to complete the landing.

Fail active: Three digital control computer channels -> redundant operational
capability. Single control channel failure below the alert height, the approach,
flare, and landing can be completed by the remaining automatic systems due
to the minimum required dual channel system still being available.

- What is the minimum gradient SID?

The minimum gradient on a SID is 3.3%, 2.5% of obstacle identification and

0.8% safety margin

- What are the planning minimas?

● Type B PA = DH / +200ft RVR / +800m
● Type A NPA = DH MDH / +400ft RVR / +1500m
● Circling = MDH / +400ft RVR / + 1500m

- TCAS display

Empty diamond = Distant traffic

Full blue diamond = Close traffic

Full Orange circle = Traffic advisory

Full red square = Resolution advisory

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