Technical Interview

Aerodynamics

Why do jet aircraft climb at constant IAS and then transition to constant Mach
number?
At lower levels jet aircraft is limited with the Vno. Climbing at constant IAS will generate an
increase in TAS and MN. At the changeover level (often between FL260 and 280) the aircraft will
then climb at a constant MN (CAS and TAS will reduce in the climb). This is because at higher
level the aircraft is limited with a Mmo.

What is the purpose of winglets?

Winglets are aerodynamic efficient surfaces located at the wing tips. They are designed to reduce
induced drag, reduce SFC (5% on the 737), increase the range. They reduce the strength of the
tip vortex and dispense the spanwise airflow from the upper and lower surface often at different
points, depending on the particular design, thus preventing the intermixing of these airflows that
otherwise would create induced drag vortices. Wing tip stall is also delayed...

Describe a wing of a jet?

The wing of a jet is designed thin, with minimal camber, and swept wings.

How do swept wings work?

The swept wing increases its Mcrit speed because it is only sensitive to the airflow normal to the
leading edge for a given aircraft Mach number. The effective chordwise velocity is reduced. This
means that the airspeed can be increased before the effective chordwise component becomes
sonic, and the critical number is raised.

What are the advantages/disadvantages of a swept wing?

+ 1) High mach cruise speeds (higher Mcrit)
2) Stability in turbulence (due to poor lift qualities, it is more stable in turbulence, the swept wing
is less responsive to updraughts)

- 1) Poor lift qualities

2) Higher stall speeds
3) Speed instability (consequence of poor lift at lower speeds, speed unstable below VMD and
above VMC / VMD = Induced Drag is equal to Parasite Drag)
4) A wing-tip stalling tendency is particular for a swept wing aircraft

What is a superstall?

A superstall may be referred to as a deep stall, it is a stall from which the aircraft is unable to
recover. It is associated with rear-engined, high
What are the advantages/disadvantages of a T-Tail?
+ Increase elevator efficiency. High elevator effectiveness is required for high lift wings often
mounted above the fuselage, thus the tail has to be out of the downwash

- Possibility of deep stall

Why some aircraft doesn’t need a dihedral?

Because the CG is located beneath the wing

Explain manoeuvring speed?

This is the highest speed at which full flight controls deflection can be made without exceeding the
limit load factor. Up to this speed if the load factor is exceeded the aircraft will stall first, there is no
structural damage. Otherwise, at speeds above Va high load factors could lead to a structural
damage. Va varies with aircraft weight. (Va decreases if weight decreases and opposite is true)

What do spoiler do?

Spoilers consist of opening panels that extend from the upper surface of the wing and have the
effect of spoiling the airflow over the wing, thereby reducing lift.
Spoiler can be used for roll control: spoilers are raised on one wing only to create an imbalance of
lift that produces a rolling moment. More efficient roll control than ailerons.
As speed brakes: they are raised symmetrically on both wings to a flight detent position, which
cause a large increase in drag.
As ground lift dumpers: they are raised symmetrically resulting in a large increase in drag and
causing the aircraft to sink to the ground.

What types of high lift devices are there?

- Trailing edge flaps (Fowler flaps) increase lift at lower level of deflection
- Leading edge falps (Krueger flaps) and slats increase lift by creating a longer wing chord line,
camber and area.
- Slots delay the separation of the airflow and therefore produce an increase of CLmax.

Leading flaps: increase stalling angle

Trailing edge flaps: decrease stalling angle

How do slats work?

Slats are aerodynamic surfaces on the leading edge of the wings, which, when deployed, allow
the wing to operate at a higher angle of attack. This create a longer wing chord line, area and give
a higher lift coefficient. Slats re-energise the boundary layer and the aircraft can fly at slower
speeds, take-off and land in shorter distances.

How do leading edge flaps work?

Leading edge flaps increases the leading edge camber resulting in an increase of Clmax and
delay separation. Krueger flaps is present on some Boeing aircraft, to promote root stall on a
swept wing, Krueger flaps are used on the inboard.
What is DutchRoll?

Dutch Roll is an oscillatory instability associated with swept wing aircraft. It is a combination of
rolling and yawing motions. When the aircraft yaw is introduced, the strong “dihedral effect” will roll
the aircraft due to the lift increase on the wing into wind. The increased induced drag on the rising
wing will yaw the aircraft in the opposite direction. Dutch Roll occurs when the lateral stability is
predominant over directional stability.

What is a Yaw Dumper?

Yaw Dumper is a system introduced to prevent Dutch Roll and coordinate turns. This is a gyro
system that is sensitive to changes in yaw and it feels the signal into the rudder, which applies
opposite rudder to the yaw before the roll occurs.

What is Mcrit?

Mcrit is the speed at which the airflow over the wing becomes sonic.

-Mach buffet because of the shock waves

-Increase of drag requiring a pull force
-Mach tuck
-Possible loss of control

What is Mach Tuck?

Mach Tuck is the nose down pitching moment that an aircraft experiences as it passes its critical
Mach number. This is a form of longitudinal stability which occurs with a movement of the CP
behind the CG introducing a nose down pitch attitude.

What is Mach Trim?

Mach trimmer is a system that artificially corrects for mach tuck above the aircraft’s Mcrit by
sensing the aircraft speed and signalling an upward movement of the elevator or variable
incidence stabilizer in order to maintain aircraft’s pitch attitude throughout its speed range up to its
maximum demonstrated diving speed.

Where does a swept wing stall first?

A swept wing first stall at the wingtip, causing a loss of lift outboard which move the center of
pressure forward creating a nose up pitch attitude with an unrecover capability.

What design functions are there to reduce tip stall?

To reduce tip stall we can washout or twist the wing, this creates a lower angle of incidence from
root to tip or we can increase the camber at the tip to increase the airflow speed over the surface.

What is dihedral?

Dihedral is a upward inclination of a wing from root to tip.

How would you load an aircraft to gain maximum range?

To gain maximum range, I will load the aircraft with an AFT CG. Loading the cargo in the aft hold
or put more passengers in aft zone in the cabin. The stabilizer can be streamlined with the airflow,
producing no relevant drag. The AFT CG will also increase the overall lifting capabilities.

What is Coffin Corner?

Coffin corner occurs at an aircraft’s absolute ceiling, where the speeds at which Mach number
buffet and low stall buffet are coincident. Therefore, a margin is imposed between aircraft’s
operating and absolute ceiling.

Navigation
What is INS?

An INS is an onboard self-contained inertia navigation system that can provide continuous
information on an aircraft’s position without any external assistance.

IRS: modern INS which has a greater integration into the FMS (provide aircraft’s magnetic position
and heading information).

An INS system measures the aircraft’s inertia movement from an initial position and continuously
update this position with the aid of accelerometers. (change of acceleration in the horizontal plane)

How does INS differ from GPS?

INS is free from external navigation aids and atmospheric errors but has bounded and unbounded
errors. For GPS 4 satellites need always to be in the line of sight range of the aircraft, ability to
integrate GPS data into the FMS, very accurate but we can have some system errors.

What line joins two points on the Earth’s surface by the shortest distance?

A great circle track joins 2 points on the Earth with the shortest distance but constantly changing
track direction as a result of convergence.

What is convergence?

Convergence is the change of direction experienced along east-west tracks.

What is RNAV?

RNAV is a form of onboard area navigation aircraft equipment that uses either VOR/DME system,
DME/DME, INS/IRS, or Loran C. An Area Navigation allows the operator to input the bearing and
the distance of a geographic location with reference to a given station to position a waypoint.

Define RNP?

Required Navigation Performance is a type of performance based navigation that allows the
aircraft to fly a specific path between 2-3D points defined in space. RNAV and RNP are similar.
What is RVSM?

Reduced Vertical Separation Minima is the reduction of the standard vertical separation of 2000ft
to 1000ft between flight level 290 and FL410. This increases the number of aircraft capable to fly
within this altitude range at the same time.
To fly RVSM the aircraft has to be equipped with a sensitive pressure altimeter, airline must also
receive the approval.

What is GPS

GPS constellation consists of a minimum of 24 satellites which 21 are operational at one time.
Each circular orbital plane is at 55° to the equator, satellites at height of 20200Km. 4 satellites with
line of sight of the acft.
Sat 1 and 2 : Lat/Long // Sat 3: Confirm lat and long // Sat 4: Altitude

Performance
What is Vmca?

VMCA is the minimum control speed in the air for a multi engine aircraft at and above which it is
possible to maintain directional control around the normal axis by use of rudder after the failure of
an engine. (max bank towards the live engine of 5°)

What is Vmcg?

VMCG is the minimum control speed on the ground for a multi engine aircraft at and above which
it is possible to maintain directional control around the normal axis by use of rudder only after the
failure of an engine.

How many climb segments are there? Describe them?

There are 4 climb segments.

Segment 1: From the reference zero, screen height to the point where the landing gear is retracted
Segment 2: From gear up to 400ft AGL (2 eng, >= 2,4%)
Segment 3: >400ft AGL to flaps up (2 eng : >= 1,2%)
Segment 4: From flaps up to 1500ft AGL (2 eng : >= 1,2%)

What is v1?

V1 is the takeoff decision speed in the event of an engine failure during the takeoff roll, at which it
is possible to continue the takeoff phase and achieve the screen height within TODA or to bring
the aircraft to a full stop within ASDA. (Jet : 1.05 VMA and 1,1 VMU)

What is v2, how it is calculated?

V2 is the take-off safety speed achieved by the screen height in the event of an engine failure that
maintains adequate directional control and climb performance.
Fir a Jet aircraft V2 is 1.1 VMCA and 1.13 VSR
How will v2 change with an increase in mass?

With an increase in mass, V2 will increase as it is dependent of the stall speed and stall speed
increases with an increase in mass.

What is the difference between TORA and TODA?

Takeoff run available is length of the runway available for ground roll of an aircraft taking off.
TODA is the Takeoff Distance Available, it’s the TORA + clearway.
TODA max = 1.5 x TORA

Definitions of TORA, TODA, Clearway, ASDA, Stopway?

TORA: Take-Off Run Available

TODA: Take-Off Distance Available, TORA+Clearway
Clearway: Is the length of an area free of obstacle at the end of the runway in the direction of take-
off, with a minimum dimension of 75m either side of the runway centreline.
ASDA: Accelerate Stop Distance Available is the length of the Take-off run available + length of
any stopway available
Stopway: Is the length of an unprepared surface at the en d of the runway capable of supporting
an aircraft if he has to stopped during the takeoff run.

What is a balance field?

A balance field exists when TODA=ASDA, when the end of the clearway is the end of the stopway
and the aircraft achieves screen height by the end of the runway.
A balance field determines the maximum take off weight (MTOW). Using balance field calculation
is to optimize the V2 climb performance (second segment)

What is absolute ceiling?

Absolute ceiling is an aircraft’s maximum attainable altitude at which the Mach number buffet and
pre stall buffet occur. Also known as Coffin Corner. An aircraft is unable to climb above its
absolute ceiling.

What is service ceiling?

The maximum service ceiling is an aircraft’s imposed en route maximum operating altitude which
provide a safety margin. (aircraft should be capable to have a roc of 300ft/min)

What is screen height? Where it is located?

Screen height relates to the minimum height achieved over the runway before the end of the
clearway if an engine failure occurs. For a jet aircraft it is 35ft (wet runway: 15ft). Class B and C
acft: 50ft.
Screen height is located at the end of the take-off distance.
How does a wet runway affect your takeoff?

A wet runway badly affects the take-off performance, the acceleration is retarded on the ground,
and therefore the TORR and TODR are increased.
If the runway is wet, screen height is reduced down to 15ft, and a wet V1 will be introduced to
improve the maximum speed for abandoning the takeoff on a contaminated runway. Wet V1 is
about 10 kts below dry V1. V1 wet is not a speed because it does not imply any ability to continue
the take-off following an engine failure.

Meteorology

What are the three stages of thunderstorms development?

The life cycle of thunderstorms can be divided into three stages : the initial stage, the mature stage
and the dissipating stage.

Initial phase : updrafts move air aloft, allowing condensation to take place throughout the ascent of
the convective currents. (20min)

Mature phase : water drops start to fall through the cloud. The downdraft is often in the middle of
the cloud, surrounded on all sides by strong continuing updrafts. During this stage, downdrafts can
reach 3000ft/min, and updrafts can reach 6000 ft/min. The mature phase of a CB is the most
hazardous stage of its thunderstorms. The dangers include : heavy rain, hail, severe turbulence,
severe icing, windsher and microbusts, lightning. (20min)

Dissipating phase : final stage of the CB cloud. It starts with the end of the thunderstorm, marked
by the continuous rain and the start of showers, sometimes as virga due to a temperature
inversion beneath the cloud base which can still cause a marked windshear. At the higher levels it
may take on the familiar anvil shape as upper wind spread out under the tropopause. Strong
windshear is generally associated with the anvil. (2 hrs)

How far laterally should an aircraft avoid a thunderstorm?

CAA and FAA recommends to avoid thunderstorm by at least 20 miles.

What is Jetstream?

Jetstream are narrow bands of high speed winds at very high altitude. (>60kts). Typically are 1500
miles long, 200 miles wide, 2 miles deep with speed proportional to thermal gradient.
They are generated by a difference in temperature over large areas at upper heights.
Jetstream are always in warm air below the tropopause with Clear Air Turbulence facing to the
cold air. With the wind in our back, cold air is on our left.
In Europe we find 2 predominant westerly Jet Stream, the Polar front Jetstream located between
40°N and 65°N and close to FL300. The SubTropical Jetstream between 25° and 45°N at FL390.
In winter the Jetstream tend to have a more southerly position.
What is windshear?

Windshear is the sudden change in speed and/or direction of the wind including vertical currents.
We can find both vertical and horizontal windshear. (vertical ws: change in
speed/direction with a change of height, horizontal ws: change in speed/direction in the horizontal
plane)
What conditions are required for ice to form?

Icing is the change of the state of the water from liquid to solid. Ice can be formed by two states,
by water vapour, sublimation, causing hoar frost, or by water droplets, freezing rain, supercooled
water droplets.
The conditions required are a water drops present in clouds, high moisture, and temperature
between +10°C and -40°C.

What is rime ice?

Rime ice when supercooled water droplets are small, the droplet freeze on impact and a white
opaque deposit is visible. (small scwd: upper levels -20 to -40°C CU/CB/NS and ST/SC/AS/AC 0°
to -40°C).

What is clear ice?

Clear ice occurs if large supercooled water droplets strikes an aircraft, it will start to freeze and
release latent heat. This will delay the freezing process and the ice will flow back over the surface
forming clear ice.
Lscwd: temp 0°>-20°C CU/CB/NS)

What is radiation fog?

Fog is present when the RH is saturated (100%). Visibility reduces below 1000m. For radiation fog
to form we need a cloudless night (earth surface to lose heat), moist air, light wind (5kts).
Radiation fog occurs inland, especially in valleys and low flying areas.

What is advection fog?

Fog is present when the RH is saturated (100%). Visibility reduces below 1000m. For advection
fog, we need a horizontal flow of air, advection fog can occur suddenly, day or night, land or sea, if
a warm, moist air moves over a colder surface, which is cooled from below. Light to moderate
winds (10-15kts).

Warm front?

A warm front is the boundary between two air masses (warm air behind cold air), where the
warmer air, less dense rises up and replaces at altitude the colder air mass. The slope of a
warmfront is about 1/150, the top of the warm front is usually composed of Cirrus and can be up to
600nm ahead of the front. Cirrus, CS, AS, NS, Stratus.
As the warm front approaches, a lowering cloud base is experienced, giving the possibility of virga
giving way to nimbo stratus clouds with increasing rainfall. Poor visibility, atmospheric pressure
usually fall.
As the warm front passes: rise in temperature (warm sector), low level cloud base, wind veers in
NH, pressure stop falling, visibility is improving.
Speed : 2/3 of the geostrophic wind
Cold front?

A cold front is the boundary between two air masses (cold air behind warm air), where the colder,
denser replaces the warmer preceding air mass. The slope is relatively steep 1:50.
Approaching a cold front we observed unstable clouds like cumulus, even CB associated with
thunderstorms (band of 30-50 miles).
Pressure will start to rise after the cold front, temperature low, visibility good except in showers.
Speed : geostrophic wind (denser air, less tendency to resist)

What is microburst?

Microburst is a severe downdraft, often a the base of a cumulonimbus and associated with
thunderstorms.
Found during the mature phase of the CB, typically only 5km across and concentrated in the
middle of the TS. The vertical speed can reach up to 3000ft/min and 100kts.

Engines

What is specific fuel consumption?

Specific fuel consumption is the quantity/weight (lb) of fuel consumed per hour divided by the
thrust of an engine in pound.

Fuel burn (lb) per hour

engine thrust (lb)

Define bypass ratio?

Bypass ratio is the ratio of the cold air mass flow passed through the bypass duct to the air mass
flow passed through the high pressure system.

What is a critical Engine?

The critical engine is the engine that will give the biggest yawing moment if it fails.
The factors influencing the yawing moment following an engine failure on a multi-engine
aircraft is the length of the thrust arm (distance from the CG to the thrust line of the operating
engine).
In the case of clockwise rotating propellers when view from the rear, the thrust line is displaced to
the right of the engine centre line. This is because the down-going blade generates more thrust
than the up-going blade. If both engines rotate clockwise, the right engine will have a longer thrust
arm than the left engine.
If the left engine fails, the thrust of the right engine acts through a longer thrust arm and will give a
bigger yawing moment, hence a higher Vmc would be necessary to maintain directional control.
On a modern jet engine, which flow produces the most thrust?

On modern jet engine, the flow which produces the most thrust come from the Hi Bypass Ratio, all
the air entering into the engine is given to an initial low compression, and a percentage is the
ducted to bypass the engine core, the remainder of the air is delivered to the combustion chamber.
The bypass air is then either mixed with the hot airflow from the engine core in the jet pipe exhaust
to generate a resulting forward force. Hi Bypass ratio is 5:1, they have a better SFC, better
propulsive efficiency and produces less noise. They are very efficient and are designed to operate
at high altitude at high RPM.

What is a turbo charger?

A turbocharger is a centrifugal compressor powered by a high speed turbine that is driven by an

engine’s exhaust gases. This increase the mass of air entering the engine (forced induction),
resulting in greater performance.

What is a supercharger?

A supercharger increases the air delivered to the engine cylinder above it’s normal capacity by
compressing the intake air requiring more fuel to be delivered to the carburettor to maintain the
correct mixture ratio. The difference with turbocharger is that the supercharger engine is not
powered by exhaust gases, it is connected directly to an engine. A supercharger uses mechanical
energy from the engine. A turbocharger is more efficient because it’s converts the waste heat of
the exhaust gas into horse power used to drive the compressor.

Why do we takeoff with mixture full rich?

We takeoff with mixture full rich, this help the engine cooling, the excess fuel helps to cool the
engine. In low density altitude this enables the aircraft to maintain the correct stoichiometric
coefficient of 15:1.

Describe how a jet engine works?

The jet engine consists of a duct with a divergent entry and convergent exit. Air is forced into the
engine intake, where it loses velocity and therefore its pressure energy increases. As it passes
through the divergent duct. The total of the energy is then increased by the combustion of fuel and
the expanding gases accelerate through the outlet converging duct, producing a propulsive
efficiency.

What is the difference between a 2-stroke and 4-stroke engine?

A four stroke engine has one power stroke for every two crankshaft revolution as a two stroke
engine for each crankshaft revolution. Four stroke engine is heavier, complicated engine design,
more cost, more output, engine runs cooler, water cooled, less fuel consumption, complicated
lubricating system, more thermal efficiency and less wear.
Explain Carburettor Icing?

Carburettor icing occur in the engine induction system and in the carburettor of piston engines,
particularly in the venture and around the throttle valve, where acceleration of the air can produce
a temperature fall by as much as 25°C. We can detect carb icing with engine rough running,
reduction in RPM or MAP on constant speed propeller. Carb icing is present when the temperature
is between -10 to +25°C with relative humidty.

What is FADEC?

FADEC stands for Full Authority Digital Engine Control and is a system that automatically controls
engine functions, start procedures, engine monitoring, fuel flow, ignition system, and power levels
required.

Explain Hi Bypass Engine?

For a Hi Bypass Engine, all the air entering into the engine is given to an initial low compression,
and a percentage is the ducted to bypass the engine core, the remainder of the air is delivered to
the combustion chamber. The bypass air is then either mixed with the hot airflow from the engine
core in the jet pipe exhaust to generate a resulting forward force. Hi Bypass ratio is 5:1, they have
a better SFC, better propulsive efficiency and produces less noise. They are very efficient and are
designed to operate at high altitude at high RPM.

Does a jet engine have a critical engine?

There is no critical engine on a jet engine aircraft. P-factor is negligible due to the higher number
of blades. However, aerodynamically, crosswind effect can result as a critical engine: crosswind
coming from the failed engine.

Instruments
Explain how an altimeter works?

An altimeter is designed to measure static pressure; it relates to an indicated altitude. As the

aircraft ascends, the static pressure in the instrument case will decrease, allowing the capsule to
expand and moves the needle to the correct altitude. For a descent he opposite applies. Altimeter
are calibrated to ISA. Errors are PIM BLT (Baro, Lag, Temperature)

Explain how a VSI works?

The VSI measures the rate of change of static pressure and displays this as a rate of climb or
descent. The capsule is fed with static pressure and reacts to any change, whereas the static
pressure feed into the case is restricted by a metering unit creating a differential static pressure
between the capsule and the case.
Errors of the VSI are PIM Lag.

Explain how an ASI works?

The airspeed indicator measures dynamic pressure as the difference between the total pitot
pressure measured in the instrument’s capsule and the static pressure measured in the case. The
dynamic pressure represents the IAS on the instrument. Errors of the ASI are PIM.
What is glass cockpit?
A glass cockpit is an aircraft cockpit that features electronic flight instrument displays typically
large LCD screens rather than the analog instrumentation.

What information does a mode S transponder transmit?

Mode S transponder transmits information about the aircraft to the Secondary Surveillance Radar
that allows selective interrogation of aircraft. This give the possibility of the ACAS II
(anticollisioning system) and to the ADS-B to work.
ADS-B: Automated Dependent Surveillance Broadcast is a traffic collision avoidance system
similar to TCAS. ADS-B incorporates cockpit display of traffic information and is overall a more
capable system than TCAS II.

What is TCAS?
TCAS stands for Traffic Collision Avoidance System, this system can determine the track and
closing speed of other aircraft fitted with transponders and determines if a collision is possible, it
provides visual and aural warnings as well as a command actions and how to avoid the collision.
This is done with vertical avoidance command only.
Mode S: Coordinated Evasive manoeuvre
First we will get a TA: Traffic Advisory (3,3 nm – 40s) and if the aircraft is approaching we will get
a RA: Resolution Advisory (2,1 nm – 25s)

What are NDB/ADF errors?

Errors of the NDB/ADF are interference from other NDB stations, thunderstorms, night effect,
coastal refraction, mountain effect. An NDB must maintain a minimum accuracy of 5°.

What happens with the ASI if the pitot probe is blocked during the climb/the
descent?
PUDSOD, Pitot Blocked Underead in descent, Static Blocked over read in the climb.
Pitot probe blocked during the climb will result in the ASI over reading the actual aircraft speed. In
descent the opposite is true, the ASI will under-read.

What is the difference between IAS and TAS?

TAS is the aircraft True Air Speed and is the only speed. It’s the IAS (Indicated Airspeed)
corrected for Position, Instrument and Manoeuvre error, but also for compressibility effect and
density.

What is LSS?
LSS is the Local Speed of Sound. It’s calculated by 38.95 * sqrt (T° in K). At sea level
LSS=660kts.

What is GPWS/EGPWS?
Ground Proximity warning system is a central computer that receives various data inputs on
configuration, altitude, ILS Glide slope deviation, radioaltimeter. It then calculates these inputs to
detect if any of the following dangerous circumstances exist: Excessive rate of descent, terrain
closure rate, height loss after take-off, flaps or gear not selected for landing.
EGPWS is a GPSW with its own terrain database and able to detect predictive terrain closure.
Probable windshear aural and visual warnings can also be generated.