ROCK

DEFORMATION
 INTRODUCTION OF ROCK
DEFORMATION
Rock deformation refers to the process which affects
the shape, size, or volume of an area of the crust of
the earth.
 Rocks also experienced stress.

Stressed rocks subjected has an impact: Stress causes

rocks to deform meaning the rocks changes size and
shape.
 Stress and strain
Stress is a force applied over an area. One type of stress that we are
all used to is uniform stress, called pressure. Uniform stress is a
stress wherein the forces act equally from all directions. In the Earth,
the pressure due to the weight of overlaying rocks is a uniform stress
and is sometimes referred to as confining stress.

3 DIFFERENT KINDS OF STRESS

- Tensional stress
- Compressional stress
- Shear stress
 Stress and strain

Strain - When rocks deform they are said to strain. A

strain is a change in size, shape, or volume of a material.
 TWO CLASSES THAT DEPEND ON THEIR RELATIVE
BEHAVIOR UNDER STRESS

Brittle materials - have a small or large region of elastic

behavior but only a small region of ductile behavior
before they fracture

Ductile materials - have a small region of elastic behavior

and a large region of ductile behavior before they
fracture
 STAGES OF DEFORMATION

Elastic Deformation - wherein the strain is reversible.

Ductile Deformation - wherein the strain is irreversible.
Fracture - irreversible strain wherein the material breaks.
 FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE DEFORMATION
MECHANISMS
Temperature - At high temperature molecules and their bonds can stretch and move, thus materials will behave in more
ductile manner. At low Temperature, materials are brittle.

Confining Pressure - At high confining pressure materials are less likely to fracture because the pressure of the
surroundings tends to hinder the formation of fractures. At low confining stress, material will be brittle and tend to
fracture sooner.

Strain rate - at high strain rates material tends to fracture. At low strain rates more time is available for individual atoms
to move and therefore ductile behavior is favored.

Composition - The composition of the material being deformed can also influence the deformation mechanism
 FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE DEFORMATION
MECHANISMS
Fluids - The presence of fluids, such as water, can also influence deformation mechanisms.

Time - low, sustained stress tends to favor ductile deformation, while rapid, short-term stress tends to favor brittle
deformation.

Pressure - High pressure tends to favor ductile deformation, while low pressure favors brittle deformation

Grain size - Smaller grain sizes tend to favor ductile deformation, while larger grain sizes tend to favor brittle
deformation.
 EVIDENCE OF FORMER DEFORMATION

- Structural geology is the study of rock deformation.

- The law of original horizontality tells us that
sedimentary strata and lava flows were initially
horizontal.
- If such rocks are tilted, we can conclude that
deformation has occurred.
 TYPES OF FAULTS
Dip Slip Faults - are faults that have an inclined fault plane and along which the relative
displacement or offset has occurred along the dip direction

Normal Faults - are faults that result from horizontal tensional stresses in brittle rocks and where
the hanging-wall block has moved down relative to the footwall block.

Horsts & Grabens - Due to the tensional stress responsible for normal faults, they often occur in a
series, with adjacent faults dipping in opposite directions. In such a case the down-dropped blocks
from grabens and the uplifted blocks from horsts.
 Dip Slip Faults:
- Half-Grabens - A normal fault that has a curved fault plane with the dip decreasing
with depth can cause the down-dropped block to rotate.
- Reverse Faults - are faults that result from horizontal compressional stresses in
brittle rocks, where the hanging-wall block has moved up relative the footwall block.

Strike Slip Faults - Are faults where the relative motion on the fault has taken place
along a horizontal direction.
Left-lateral strike-slip fault - if the block on the other side has moved to the left
Right-lateral strike-slip fault - if the block on the other side has moved to the right
 Fault Breccias - are crumbled up rocks consisting of angular fragments that were
formed as a result grinding and crushing movement along a fault. When the rock is
broken into clay or silt size particles as a result of slippage on the fault, it is referred
to as fault gouge.

Slickensides - are scratch marks that are left on the fault planes as one block moves
relative to the other

Mylonite - along some faults rocks are sheared or drawn out by ductile deformation
along the fault. This results in a type of localized metamorphism called dynamic
metamorphism. The resulting rock is a fine grained metamorphic rock show evidence
of shear, called mylonite. Faults that show such ductile shear are reffered to as shear
zones.
 DEFORMATION OF DUCTILE ROCKS
Folds - are when rocks deform in a ductile manner, instead of fracturing to form
faults or joints, they may bend or fold, and the resulting structure

Monoclines - are the simplest types of folds, Monoclines occur when horizontal
strata are bent upward so that the two limbs of the fold are still horizontal

Anticlines - are folds where the originally horizontal strata has been folded upward,
and the two limbs of the fold dip away from the hinge of the fold

Synclines - are folds where the originally horizontal strata have been folded
downward, and the two limbs of the fold dip inward toward the hinge of the fold.
Synclines and anticlines usually occur together such that the limb of a syncline is
also the limb of an anticline.
 GEOMETRY OF FOLDS
Folds are described by their form and orientation

Limbs - sides of a fold.

Hinge - The limbs intersect at the tightes part of the fold.

Fold axis - A line connecting all points on the hinge.

Plunging fold - the fold axes are horizontal, but if the fold axis is not horizontal fold

Plunge of the fold - the angle that the fold axis makes with a horizontal line

Axial plane of the fold - An imaginary plane that includes the fold axis and divides the
fold as symmetrically as possible.
 CLASSIFICATION OF FOLDS BASED ON THEIR APPEARANCE

If the two limbs of the fold dip away from the axis with the same angle, the fold is said to be a symmetrical
fold.
If the limbs dip at different angles, the folds are said to be asymmetrical folds.
If the compressional stresses that cause the folding are intense, the fold can close up and have limbs that
are parallel to each other. Such a fold is called an isoclincal fold (iso means same, and cline means angle, so
isoclinal means the limbs have the same angle. Note the isoclinal fold depicted in the diagram is also a
symmetrical fold.
If the folding is so intense that the strata on one limb of the fold becomes nearly upside down, the fold is
called an overturned fold.
An overturned fold with an axial plane that is nearly horizontal is called recumbant fold.
A fold that has no curvature in its hinge and straight-sided limbs that form a zigzag pattern is called a
chevronfold.
 Types of folds
Flexural folds are the most common folds in sedimentary Flow folds form when rocks are very ductile and flow like a fluid.
basins. Flexural folds are subdivided into flexural-slip Different parts of the fold are drawn out by this flow to different
folds and flexural-flow folds. In flexural-slip folds, there extents resulting in layers becoming thinner in some places and
are displacements along bedding surfaces, much like the thicker in outer places. The flow results in shear stresses that
bending of a telephone directory book smear out the layers
 FOLDS AND TOPOGRAPHY

Since different rocks have different resistance to erosion and weathering, erosion of folded areas can lead
to a topography that reflects the folding. Resistant strata would form ridges that have the same form as the
folds, while less resistant strata wil form valleys.

THREE TYPES OF MOUNTAINS

Fault Block Mountains

Fold & Thrust Mountains
Volcanic Mountains
 Fault Block Mountains
Fault-block mountains are formed by the movement of large crustal blocks
when forces in the Earth's crust pull it apart. Some parts of the Earth are
pushed upward and others collapse down. To understand a fault-block
mountain, or sometimes referred as a “fault mountain”, you need to
understand what a fault is
 Fold & Thrust Mountains
Fault-block mountains are formed by the movement of large crustal blocks
when forces in the Earth's crust pull it apart. Some parts of the Earth are
pushed upward and others collapse down. To understand a fault-block
mountain, or sometimes referred as a “fault mountain”, you need to
understand what a fault is
 Volcanic Mountains
Formed as a result of volcanic activities on the surface of the Earth. The
magma inside the Earth erupts out as lava through the cracks on the
Earth's surface. This cools down repeatedly to form volcanic mountains.
 THIS IS WHY WE STUDY ROCK DEFORMATIONS

Earthquakes are a powerful and violent force and cause

great destrucion.
Geologic Structures can act as traps for economically
important materials
Magmas often rise to the surface along structures such
as faults.
Geologic Structures are a record of rock deformation -
which caused by plate tectonic forces