6 - Acero
6 - Acero
6 - Acero
ICI 4051
Daniela Martínez, M.S., Ph.D.
Profesora Departamento de Ing. Civil y Ambiental
lopezmd@uninorte.edu.co
Concreto vs Acero
• Resistencia a la tracción del concreto: 2-5MPa
• Resistencia a la tracción del acero: 420-550 Mpa
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Atributos de los metales?
• Alto módulo de elasticidad
• Conductores eléctricos
• Materiales rígidos
• Abundancia de material
• Fácil de fabricar
• Facilidad de reciclar
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Limitaciones de los metales?
• Costo
• Problemas de corrosión
• Altas densidades
• Susceptible a la temperatura
• Susceptible a la fatiga
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Introduction – Steel
3rd most used construction material after concrete and
asphalt
• Mineral de hierro (Iron ore) → 1500 B.C. primitive
furnace: iron
→ 18th century – alto horno: producción masiva
→ mid-1800s Convertor Bessemer: steel (iron-carbon)
Difference:
• Concrete & asphalt
Engineers and contractors directly influence
strength, stability, & durability
• Steel
Civil engineer has less flexibility in specifying
steel
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Steel Production
1. Reduction of iron ore (mineral de hierro) to pig iron
(arrabio) (high carbon)
2. Refining pig iron to steel
3. Forming steel into products
Steel is iron with varying carbon (0,03%-2,1%)
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Definiciones
• Ferrous Metals: Iron and Steel and alloys of iron and steel
such as stainless steel.
• Pig Iron (arrabio): initial product of smelting in a blast
furnace which must be further refined to produce usable
iron and steel. Pig Iron is very hard, but too brittle to be
used for construction purposes.
• Cast Iron (hierro fundido): Ferrous metals composed
primarily of iron, carbon and silicon which is shaped by
being cast in a mold.
• Wrought Iron (hierro forjado): highly refined iron with
slag incorporated, but not in chemical union with the iron.
Wrought iron can be easily machined into various shapes
and can be used for ornamental work and where corrosion
resistance is desirable.
• Steel: Additional oxidation of pig iron produces steel for
structural purposes. Alloying elements can be added to
enhance basic properties to produce desired properties.
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Construction Uses of Steel
• Structural steel → plates, bars, pipes,
structural shapes, etc.
• Cold formed steel →studs, roofing,
cladding
• Fastening products → bolts, nuts, washers
• Reinforcing steel → rebar for concrete
• Miscellaneous → forms, pans, hardware,
etc.
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https://corporate.arcelormittal.com/about/making-steel?backToSlide=true
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Reduction of Iron Ore to Pig Iron
Blast furnace with carbon (coal or coke) &
limestone
Limestone removes impurities from iron ore
Slag (molten rock & impurities) is skimmed
off the top
Molten iron w/carbon is collected at the
bottom
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Refining Pig Iron and Scrap to Steel
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Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram
Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon
• Higher carbon: steel is harder & more brittle
• Modulus of Elasticity is the same for all three (same atomic
bonds)
Cast iron : high (>2%) carbon = brittle
High carbon steel : medium (0.8%-2%) carbon = brittle
Structural steel : low (0.15%-0.27%) carbon = ductile
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1539
δ Liquidus
Solidus
eutectoids
eutectic
Solubility limit
γ & carbon 2.1%
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Mamlouk/Zaniewski, Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers, Third Edition. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
1539 Three phases of solid iron
δ δ = high temperature ferrite, FCC no
practical significance to CE
γ = austenite, BCC
α = low temperature ferrite, FCC
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Mamlouk/Zaniewski, Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers, Third Edition. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
1539 Solid austenite with carbon in solution
δ grains of uniform material
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Annealing (recocido)
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Annealing (recocido)
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Normalizing (normalización)
Similar to annealing, but hotter & air cooled
Gives a uniform, fine-grained structure
Provides high fracture toughness
More corrective rather than strengthening or
hardening
Objetivo: creación de nuevos granos. A
diferencia del recocido, el material se enfría con
aire.
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Hardening
Higher heat, then rapid cooling by quenching
in water/oil
Steel is harder & more brittle & must be
followed by tempering.
Objetivo: endurecer la estructura del acero.
Formación de martensita.
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Tempering (templado)
Reheating hardened steel to a lower
temperature and then cooling to room
temperature.
Increases ductility and toughness after
hardening – both effects
Objetivo: aumentar la ductibilidad y tenacidad
del acero que ha sido edurecido.
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Temperatures for Heat Treating
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Alloying Elements
Typical Range s in Principal Effe cts
Alloy Ste e ls (%)
Aluminum <2 Aids nitriding
Restricts grain froth
Removes oxygen in steel melting
Sulfur <0.5 Adds machinability
Reduces weldability and ductility
Chromium 0.3 to 0.4 Increases resistance to corrosion and oxidation
Increases hardenability
Increases high-temperature strength
Can combine with carbon to form hard, wear-resistant microconstituents
Nickel 0.3 to 5 Promotes an austenitic structure
Increases hardenability
Increases toughness
Copper 0.2 to 0.5 Promotes tenacious oxide film to aid atmospheric corrosion resistance
Manganese 0.3 to 2 Increases hardenability
Promotes an austenitic structure
Combines with sulfur to reduce its adverse effects
Silicon 0.2 to 2.5 Removes oxygen in steel making
Improves toughness
Increases hardenability
Molybdenum 0.1 to 0.5 Promotes grain refinement
Increases hardenability
Improves high-temperature strength
Vanadium 0.1 to 0.3 Promotes grain refinement Increases hardenability
Will combine with carbon to form wear-resistant microconstituents
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Structural Steel
Cold formed
cladding
Hot rolled
structural
shapes
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Mamlouk/Zaniewski, Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers, Third Edition. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Structural Steel – Acero Estructural
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Mamlouk/Zaniewski, Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers, Third Edition. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Mechanical Requirements for “Carbon” Steel
AS TM designation 1
Fy (ksi)
1
Fu (ksi) Elon-
2
gation
(%)
A36 36 58–80 23
A53 Gr. B 35 60
42 58
Gr. B 23
46 58
A500
46 62
Gr. C 21
50 62
A501 36 58 23
Gr.50 50 65–100
A529 19
Gr.55 55 70–100
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Example Chemical Specifications
for Carbon Steel
AS TM designation Typical Chemical Composition
3
C Cu5 Mn P S
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Aceros para estructuras metálicas
• A36
• A572
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Low-Carbon Steel – Tensión Test
𝑃𝑃
𝜎𝜎 =
𝐴𝐴
𝑙𝑙𝑓𝑓 − 𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑖
𝜀𝜀 =
𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑖
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Low-Carbon Steel – Tensión Test
Julian Carrillo, Harold Lozano, Carlos Arteta, Mechanical properties of steel reinforcing bars for concrete structures in central
Colombia, Journal of Building Engineering, Volume 33, 2021, 101858, ISSN 2352-7102, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2020.101858.
(https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352710220334914)
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Ensayo a Tracción del Acero
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DLE-ieOVFjI
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Specialty Steels
• High performance steels
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Cold Formed Steel
• Grades
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Stages of Cold Forming
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Cold Formed Steel Shapes
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Reinforcing Steel
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Reinforcing Steel
• Conventional Reinforcing Steel
Plain bars, deformed bars, and plain and deformed wire
fabrics
• Bars are made of 4 types of steel: A615 (billet - palanquilla),
A616 (rail), A617 (axle - eje), and A706 (low-alloy – baja
aleación)
• Steel for Prestressed Concrete
Requires special wires, strands, cables, and bars
Must have high strength and low relaxation properties
Made of high-carbon steels and high-strength alloy steels
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ASTM Reinforcing Bare Identification
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ASTM Reinforcing Bare Identification
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Mamlouk/Zaniewski, Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers, Third Edition. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Acero Estructural en Colombia
Dúctil
Dúctil –
especificación
sísmica
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Mamlouk/Zaniewski, Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers, Third Edition. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Aceros de refuerzo para concreto
reforzado
A615
Dúctil
10-15%
A706
deformación
Especificación
Acero Colombia sísmica
ASTM A1064 Gr 70
Malla Menos dúctil. Mayor
electrosoldada resistencia.
2% deformación
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Curvas Esfuerzo vs Deformación
Mallas electrosoldadas vs Acero de refuerzo
Julian Carrillo, Carlos Diaz, Carlos A. Arteta, Tensile mechanical properties of the electro-welded wire meshes available in Bogotá, Colombia,
Construction and Building Materials, Volume 195, 2019, Pages 352-362, ISSN 0950-0618, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.11.096.
(https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0950061818327685)
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Mechanical Testing of Steel
Tension Test (ASTM E8)
• Determine yield strength,
ultimate (tensile) strength,
elongation, and reduction of
area (Poisson's Ratio)
• Plate, sheet, round rod, wire,
and tube can be tested
Typical specimens
are round or
rectangular
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Testing Set Up Extensiometer
Crosshead
Specimen
Fixed beam
Threaded end
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Sample Loaded to Failure
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Typical Stress-Strain Behavior of Mild Steel
• σ-εis linear elastic up to proportional limit.
•Then non-linear elastic up to elastic limit = yield point =
strain increases at constant stress.
•Then plastic deformation until failure.
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"Engineering" (red) and "true"
(blue) stress–strain curve typical
of structural steel.
1: Ultimate strength
2: Yield strength (yield point)
3: Rupture
4: Strain hardening region
5: Necking region
A: Apparent stress (F/A0)
B: Actual stress (F/A)
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Effect of Carbon on Mechanical
Behavior
Structural Steel
0.12 to 0.30
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¿Cómo varía la resistencia del acero
con el contenido de carbono?
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Torsion Test
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Charpy V Notch Impact Test
• Measure toughness or fracture energy at different
temperatures
• Specimen of rectangular cross-section with a V notch
Charpy machine with a pendulum that breaks the
specimen
By measuring the height of the swing arm after striking the
specimen, the energy required to fracture is computed
(higher head = less energy absorbed)
• Energy absorbed is high at high temp. (shear = ductile)
and low at low temp. (cleavage = brittle)
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Loss of Toughness with Reduction in
Temperature
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Bend Test
• Ability of steel or a weld to resist
cracking during bending
• Steel is often bent to a desired
shape, especially rebar
• Bend the specimen through a
certain angle and to a certain
inside radius
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Hardness Test
Rockwell hardness tester
• Measures resistance to small dents and
scratches
• Need very high hardness for many
machine parts & tools
• Spring-loaded indenter (hardened steel
penetrating ball) is forced into the
surface of the material with a specified
load and rate.
• Depth or size of indentation is related to
hardness number.
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Welding
• Joining two metal pieces by
applying heat
partial melting fuses the pieces
together
distortion caused by uneven
heating
• Arc Welding or “Stick Welding”
Flux on the electrode (“stick”)
shields the molten metal from
atmosphere to prevent
oxidation.
• Gas Welding or “MIG Welding”
“Metal in Gas” uses shielding
gas instead of flux.
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Ejercicio
Una varilla de acero No.4 se somete a una prueba de
resistencia a la tracción. La varilla alcanza un punto de
fluencia para una carga de 36 kips y punto de fractura
para 48 kips.
1. Determine los esfuerzos de tracción para fluencia y
para fractura.
2. Si la longitud nominal original era de 4 in, estime la
longitud nominal cuando se somete la varilla a un
esfuerzo igual a ½ del esfuerzo de fluencia.
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Corrosión en Acero
• La mayoría de los metales en la naturaleza están
presentes como minerales, en combinación con
oxígeno, azufre, etc.
• Los metales son separados de sus compuestos
naturales por el proceso de fundición.
• Los materiales metálicos así extraídos son útiles, pero
inestables en el entorno natural.
• Con el tiempo, y dado un medio apropiado (agua), los
metales eventualmente regresan a su estado natural.
• El proceso de "volver a la naturaleza" es una
manifestación principal de la corrosión -inevitable,
pero puede ser retardado.
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Steel Corrosion
• Oxidation (rust) can cause serious weakening of structures.
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https://www.tuf-bar.com/causes-corrosion-steel-how-avoid-them/
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Required for Corrosion
1. Anode: Positive electrode where corrosion occurs
2. Cathode: Negative electrode needed for electric current
3. Conductor: Metallic pathway for electrons to flow
between electrodes
4. Electrolyte: Liquid that can support the flow of electrons
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Corrosion Mechanism
Bazli, Leila & Yusuf, Mohammad & Farahani, Ali & Kiamarzi, Morvarid & Seyedhosseini, Zahra & Nezhadmansari, Mehran & Aliasghari, Maryam & Iranpoor,
Marjan. (2020). Application of composite conducting polymers for improving the corrosion behavior of various substrates: A Review. Journal of Composites
and Compounds. 2. 228-240. 10.29252/jcc.2.4.7.
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Corrosion Mechanism
Chong Cao, Moe M.S. Cheung, Ben Y.B. Chan, Modelling of interaction between corrosion-induced concrete cover crack and steel corrosion rate,
Corrosion Science, Volume 69, 2013, Pages 97-109, ISSN 0010-938X, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.corsci.2012.11.028.
(https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0010938X12005707)
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Corrosion Protection Methods
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http://www.rollanet.org/~conorw/cwome/de_bridge_corrosion1.jpg
Corrosion Resistance
• Control rather than stop corrosion
• Protective coatings (paint, etc.) can be used to isolate the
steel from moisture.
1. Barrier coatings
Standard paint isolates steel from moisture &
must be repeated.
2. Inhabitive primer coatings
Pigments that migrate to the steel surface to
passivate it (transfer electrons)
3. Sacrificial primers (cathodic protection)
Metal pigments (zinc) become the anode, give
up electrons to the steel, and corrode instead
of the steel.
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Cathodic Protection
• Protective current supplies electrons to the structure.
• The electrons cover the electron requirements for the
reduction of oxygen which comes into contact with
the metal surface.
• Without cathodic protection, the electrons cause
decomposition of the metal.
• The potential of the metal surface is sufficiently
reduced to prevent disassociation of positive ions
from the metal.
• Where formerly an anodic reaction took place, the
oxygen is reduced by cathodic reaction.
• The entire surface of the structure becomes a safe
cathode, i.e., the metal is "cathodically " protected.
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