FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE, ABEOKUTA

COLLEGE PHYSICAL SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS

MTS 241 (MATHEMATICAL METHOD I)

BY

NKWUDA, FRANCIS MONDAY

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MODULE ONE
Real Valued Function of Real Variable

Recall that a function is a rule that establishes the relationship between two or more variables.
If X and Y are an arbitrary sets. For every x ∈ X there is assigned a unique element f (x) = y ∈ Y , then
f is called a function. This is written as f : X → Y , where the set X is the domain of the function and

Y is the codomain of the function. The value of f at x is written as f (x) and is called image or range
of the function. When the set X is actually a subset of Rn , then we say that f : Rn → Y is a function of
several variables (even if the dimension n is huge). If the set Y is R, the set of real numbers, then we say

that f : X → R is a real-valued function. The special cases of real-valued function of a single variable is
the primary topic of discussion in calculus I and graphical methods do enhance intuition on the attitude of
such functions.

Definition: A function whose range is a set of real numbers is called a real valued function. In other
words, it is a function that assigns a real number to each member of its domain.
Pictorial examples of real valued function:

Figure 1: Example of Real valued function.

A f
5
B
9
C
7
D
6

Set D 𝑆𝑒𝑡 𝑌 ⊂ ℝ

In the above example, every element in the set D is related to exactly one element in the set Y ⊂ R
The range = {5, 6, 7, 9}
The following are said to be real valued function since their range is the set of real numbers or some subset

of the real numbers.

(i) f (x)2, the range is {2} ⊂ R.
(ii) f (x) = 11x, the range is R.

(iii) f (x) = ex , the range is (0, +∞) ⊂ R

1
(iv) f (x) = x2
, the range is (0, +∞) ⊂ R
Now, given the domain of a function, we find the range of the function g(t) = 6t 2 + 5 at
 3

(i) t = 0, (ii) t = 2 and (iii) t = 3

Solution
The given function g(t) = 6t 2 + 5
At t = 0, g(0) = 6(0)2 + 5 = 5

At t = 1, g(1) = 6(1)2 + 5 = 29
At t = 3, g(3) = 6(3)2 + 5 = 59
Therefore, the domain= {0, 2, 3} and the range = {5, 29, 59}

Types of Functions:
(i) One -to - one (Injective) function: is the type of function that each element in the domain has a distinct
image in the co-domain. In another way, a function f : X → Y is said to be one-to- one or injective if

f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) in Y implies that x1 = x2 in X or equivalently, x1 = x2 in X implies that f (x1 ) = f (x2 )

Figure 2: Example of one –to -one function.

f
𝑎1
5
𝑎2
9
𝑎3
7
𝑎4
6

𝑆𝑒𝑡 𝐴 𝑆𝑒𝑡 𝐵 ⊂ 𝑅

For instance, Let f : R → R (R is a set of real numbers) be a function defined by f (x) = 3x + 1, is f one

-to- one function?

Solution.
f (x) = f (y) implies that 3x + 1 = 3y + 1 = 3x = 3y or x = y

Hence, f is injective.
(ii) Onto (Surjective)function: is a function that every element in the codomain has at least one pre-image
in the domain.

Example :Let f : R → R (R is a set of real numbers) be a function defined by f (x) = 3x +1, is f surjective?
Solution.
Let y ∈ R be arbitrary. Is there x ∈ R such that 3x + 1 = y
 4

y−1 3(y−1)
Yes, set x = 3 , then 3x + 1 = 3 + 1 = y − 1 + 1 = y. Hence f is surjective.

(iii) Bijective function: a function f : X → Y is said to bijective if it is both injective and onto function.
Example: a function defined by f (x) = 3x + 1 is a bijective function since it is both one to one and onto.
(iv) Many -to- one function: A function is said to be many to one function if there are at least two elements

in the domain whose images are the same.

Example : a function f : R → R given by f (x) = x2 + 1
Solution.

f (1) = (1)2 + 1 = 2
f (−1)2 + 1 = 2
f (2)2 + 1 = 5

f (−2)2 + 1 = 5 and so on
(v) Constant function: f : R → R defined by b = f (x) = D.a ∈ R.
Domain is f = R

Range f = {D}
(vi) Composite function: Let f : R → R, g : R → R defined by
f (x) = x2 + 1, g(x) = 2x + 5.

Find (i) (go f )(x) (ii) (go f )(0) (iii) (go f )(2) (iv) ( f og)(x) (v) ( f og)(3)
Solution.
(i) (go f )(x) = g[ f (x)] = g[x2 + 1] = 2(x2 + 1) + 5(by the definition of g)

⇒ 2x2 + 2 + 5 = 2x2 + 7
(ii) (go f )(0) = 2 × 02 + 7 = 0 + 7 = 7
(iii) (go f )(2) = 2 × 22 + 7 = +7 = 15

(iv) ( f og)(x) = f [g[x]] = f [2x + 5] = (2x + 5)2 + 1(by definition of f )

⇒ 4x2 + 20x + 25 + 1 = 4x2 + 20x + 26
( f og)(3) = 4 × 32 + 20 × 3 + 26 = 36 + 60 + 26 = 122

Exercises
(1). Let X,Y be any two sets, which of the following relations f : X → Y is a function? When f is a
function, determine whether it is injective, surjective or bijective.

(i) X = {2, 6, 8, 12},Y = {a, b, c}. f = {(2, a), (6, b), (12, c)}
(ii) X = {a, b, c, d},Y = {5, 12, 7, 10}. f = {(a, 7), (b, 12), (c, 10), (d, 5)
(iii) X = {6, 4, 7, 11},Y = {a, b, c}. f = {(6, a), (4, c), (7, b), (11, c)
 5

(iv) X = Y = R (the set of real numbers) f = {x, 3x + 5 : x ∈ X

(v) X = the set of integers, Y =the set of positive integers. f = {n, n2 : n ∈ X}

(2). Let f : R → R, g : R → R be defined by
f (x) = x2 , i f x ≥ 0 or 21 , i f x < 0

Find (i) (go f )(0) (ii) (go f )(−1), (iii) ( f og)(x)(x > 0), (iv)(go f )(x)(x, 0)
(3). Let X = [−1, 1] and let f : X → R, g : X → R. h : X → R be defined by f (x) = sinx, g(x) =
sin(πx), h(x) = logx

Examine whether
(i) f is injective, surjective
(ii) g is injective, surjective

(iii) h is injective, surjective.

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MODULE ONE

Review of Differentiation

The Gradient Function

Consider the curve whose equation is given by y = f (x)

Let m be the gradient of the secant line AB, then
increase in y
m= increase in x

From the idea of gradient of a line, we have that

y2 −y1
m= x2 −x1

Suppose we put x2 − x1 = 4x (4 x 6= 0, Since x2 6= x1 ) we have x2 = x1 + 4x

y1 = f (x1 ), y2 = f (x2 ) = f (x1 + 4x)

y2 −y1 f (x1 +4x)− f (x)
Therefore m = x2 −x1 = 4x

Let the point A remain fixed, and let the point B move closer to A along the curve. As B moves closer to A

along the curve, 4x gets closer to zero. 4x is called the increment of x, and is read ’δ x’. As B approaches
A along the curve, the slope of the secant approaches the slope of the tangent at A.
If 4x is made to approach zero, the function
f (x1 +4x)− f (x)
m= 4x is called the gradient function of y = f (x)
The Derivative of a function
Recall that the gradient of the curve y = f (x) is given by
f (x+4x)− f (x)
m1 = 4x

The expression m1 is the gradient of the secant AB. As B moves closer to A, 4x becomes smaller and it
tends to zero. Let m2 be the gradient of the tangent at a point A. As B approaches A along the curve, m1

tends to m2 .
In other words, the gradient of the secant AB tends to the gradient of the tangent to the curve at A. We say
that m2 is the limiting value of m1 as 4x tends to zero. This limiting value is written as
f (x1 +4x)− f (x)
lim 4x
4x→0
and it is denoted simply as f 0 (x). Thus
f (x1 +4x)− f (x)
f 0 (x) = lim 4x
4x→0
Consider again the function y = f (x). A small increment in x will cause a small increment in y. If we
represent the small increment in x by 4x, then we can also represent a small increment in y by 4y. Thus
if y = f (x), then y + 4y = f (x + 4x)
 7

As B moves closer to A, 4x → 0.

If m1 is the gradient of the secant AB and m2 is the gradient of the tangent at A. m2 is the limiting value of
4y
m1 as 4x → 0. m2 = lim 4x
4x→0
4y dy dy
The expression m2 = lim 4x is denoted by dx , which is read 0 dee y dee x0 . dx is the limiting value of the
4x→0
slope of the secant AB as B gets closer to A.
The process of finding the derivative of a function is called differentiation. The notations which are
commonly used for the derivative of a function are:

f 0 (x) read f −prime of x;

d
dx f read dee − deex of f ;
df
dx read dee − f − by − deex;
dy dy dy
If y = f (x) then dx = f 0 (x). The notations dx and f 0 (x) will often be used interchangeably. Sometimes, dx

is called the differential coefficient of y with respect to (wrt) x.

dy dy
As we proceed, different meanings associated with dx will be unfolded, but for the time being dx is either

the gradient function of the curve y = f (x) or the rate of change of y with respect to x.
Differentiation by First Principle
The technique adopted in the last section in finding the derivative of a function from the consideration of

the limiting value is called differentiation from first principle.

Examples
(i)Find the derivative of f (x) = x2 from the first principle.

Solution
f (x) = x2
f (x + 4x) = (x + 4x)2 = x2 + 2x 4 x + (4x)2

f (x + 4x) − f (x) = x2 + 2x 4 x + (4x)2 − x2 = 2x 4 x + (4x)2

Thus
f (x+4x)− f (x)
4x = 2x + 4x
f (x+4x)− f (x)
lim 4x = 2x
4x→0
Therefore f 0 (x) = 2x.
(ii) Find the derivative of y = x3 from the first principle

Solution.
y = x3
y + 4y = (x + 4x)3 = x3 + 3x2 4 x + 3x(4x)2 + (4x)3
 8

4y = (x + 4x)3 − y = (x + 4x)3 − x3

= 3x2 4 x + 3x(4x)2 + (4x)3

4y 3x2 4x+3x(4x)2 +(4x)3
4x = 4x = 3x2 + 3x 4 x + (4x)2
dy 4y
Therefore, dx = lim 4x = 3x2
4x→0
dy
Hence, dx = 3x2 .
(iii) Find from the first principle, the derivative of y = ax + b, a and b are constants.
Solution.

Given y = ax + b
y + 4y = a(x + 4x) + b = ax + a 4 x + b
4y = ax + a 4 x + b − (ax + b)

= ax + a 4 x + b − ax − b = a 4 x
4y
Therefore 4x =a
dy 4y dy
So that dx = lim 4x =a⇒ dx =a
4x→0
1
(iv) Find the derivative of y = x

Solution.
1
y= x
1
y + 4y = x+4x
1 1
4y = x+4x −y = x+4x − 1x
x−(x+4x) −4x
= (x+4x)x = x(x+4x)
4y
lim = − x12
4x→0 4x
dy 1
Hence, dx = x2

In what follows, we are going to prove some theorems that gives basic formulas for differentiation.
dy
Theorem 1: If y = xn , then dx = nxn−1
Proof. Let y = xn
y + 4y = (x + 4x)n

= xn + nxn−1 4 x + n(n−1)
1.2 x
n−2 (4x)2 + ... + (4x)n

4y = xn + nxn−1 4 x + n(n−1)
1.2 x
n−2 (4x)2 + ... + (4x)n − xn

= nxn−1 4 x + n(n−1)
1.2 x
n−2 (4x)2 + ... + (4x)n

4y
4x = nxn−1 4 x + n(n−1)
1.2 x
n−2 (4x)2 + ... + (4x)n−1

dy 4y
Therefore, = lim = nxn−1
dx 4x→0 4x
dy
Hence if, y = xn , then dx = nxn−1
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Examples

(i) y = axn :
dy
dx = naxn−1
(ii) y = −2x3 :
dy
dx = −2.3x3−1 = −6x2
dy
(iii) 1
x3
= x−3 : dx = −3x−3−1 = −3x−4 = − x34
Theorem 2: (The Derivative of a sum ) Let f ,U and V be differential functions of x such that f (x) =

U(x) +V (x) then

f 0 (x) = u0 (x) + v0 (x)
In other words, If y = u + v, where u and v are differential functions of x
dy du dv
then dx = dx + dx
Hence, the derivative of sum is the sum of the derivatives.
Proof. Let y = u(x) + v(x), where u and v are differentiable functions of x. Then applying first principle

rule gives the desired result.

Examples. Find the derivative of each of the following:
x3 +2x2 +1
(i) 2x3 − 5x2 + 2 (ii) 3x2 + 1x (iii) x

Solutions.
(i)Let y = 2x3 − 5x2 + 2
dy
Therefore, dx = 6x2 − 10x

(ii) Let y = 3x2 + 1x = 3x2 + x−1

dy
dx = 6x − x12
dy
(iii) Let y = 1
x3
= x−3 : dx = −3x−3−1 = −3x−4 = − x34 = x2 + 2x + x−1
dy
dx = 2x + 2 − x12
Derivative of function of a function (Composite function).
Theorem 3: Suppose y = f (u) and u = g(x), then
dy dy du
dx = du . dx

The above formula is called Chain Rule and the prove is left as Exercise for the reader.
Examples. Find the derivative of each of the following:
p
(i) y = (3x2 − 2)3 (ii) y = (1 − 2x3 ) (iii) y = (6−x5 2 )3 .
Solutions.
(i) Given y = (3x2 − 2)3 , Let u = 3x2 − 2, then y = u3
 10

dy du
du = 3u2 , dx = 6x
dy dy du
dx = du . dx = 3u2 .6x = 18xu2
Substituting for u, we have
dy
dx = 18x(3x2 − 2)2
p
(ii) Given y = (1 − 2x3 ). Let u = 1 − 2x3 . Then y = u 12
dy 1
dx = 21 u− 2 = 1
√ , du
2 u dx
= −6x2
dy dy du 1 3x 2
dx = du . dx = √
2 u
, −6x2 = √
u

Hence, substituting for u, gives

dy 2
dx = − √ 3x
1−2x3
5
(iii) y = (6−x2 )3
.

Let u = 6 − x2 , Then y = 5
u3
= 5u−3 .
dy
dx = −15u−4 , du
dx = −2x
dy dy du
dx = du . dx = −15u−4 . − 2x = 30xu−4 = 30x
u4

Hence, substituting for u, you have

dy 30x
dx = (6−x2 )4

The Derivative of a Product

We shall now consider the derivative of y = uv where u and v are functions of x.

Theorem 4: Suppose y = uv where u and v are functions of x, then
dy dv
dx = u dx + v du
dx

The above formula is called Product Rule. Examples: Find the derivative of the following;
√
(i) y = (3 + 2x)(1 − x) (ii) y = (1 − 2x + 3x2 )(4 − 5x2 ) (iii) y = x(1 + 2x)2
Solutions.

(i) y = (3 + 2x)(1 − x). Let u = 3 + 2x, v = 1 − x

du dv
= 2, dx = −1
dx
dy dv
Therefore, dx = u dx + v du
dx

= (3 + 2x)(−1) + (1 − x)(2)
= −(3 + 2x) + 2(1 − x)
= −3 − 2x + 2 − 2x
dy
dx = −1 − 4x
(ii) y = (1 − 2x + 3x2 )(4 − 5x2 ). Let u = 1 − 2x + 3x2 , v = 4 − 5x2
du dv
dx = −2 + 6x, dx = −10x
 11

Therefore
dy dv
dx = u dx + v du
dx

= (1 − 2x + 3x2 )(−10x) + (4 − 5x2 )(−2 + 6x)

= −10x(1 − 2x + 3x2 ) + (6x − 2)(4 − x2 )
√ √
(iii)y = x(1 + 2x)2 . Let u = x, v = (1 + 2x)2 .
du 1
dx = √ , dv
2 x dx
= 4(1 + 2x)
dy dv
dx = u dx + v du
dx
√ 1
= x. 4(1 + 2x) + (1 + 2x)2 . 2√ x
dy √ 1 2
dx = 4 x(1 + 2x) + 2 x (1 + 2x)
√

The Derivative of a Quotient

u
Theorem 6: Let y = v where u and v are functions of x and v(x) 6= 0 for all x, then
dy v du du
dx −u dx
dx = v2

u
Let y = v where u and v are functions of x and v(x) 6= 0 for all x

The above formula is called Quotient Rule.

Examples. Find the derivative of each of the following;
1+x2 3+2x−x
√
2 2+x
(i) 1−x2
(ii) 1+x
(iii) x2 +2x+7

Solutions.
1+x2
(i) y = 1−x2
. Let u = 1 + x2 , v = 1 − x2
du dv
dx = 2x, dx = −2x
dy v du du
dx −u dx
dx = v2

(1−x2 )(2x)−(1+x2 )(−2x)

= (1−x2 )2
2x−2x3 +2x+2x3
= (1−x2 )2
4x
= (1−x2 )2
3+2x−x 2 1
(ii) y = √
1+x
. Let u = 3 + 2x − x2 , v = (1 + x) 2 .
1
du
dx = 2 − 2x = 2(1 − x), dv
dx = 12 (1 + x)− 2 = 1
1
√ 2(1+x) 2
1
( 1+x).2(1−x)−(3+2x−x2 ). 1
dy 2(1+x) 2
dx = 1+x
4(1+x)(1−x)−(3+2x−x2 ) 4−4x2 −3−2x+x2 1−2x−3x2
= 1 = 3 = 3
2(1+x)(1+x) 2 2(1+x) 2 2(1+x) 2
2+x
(iii) y = x2 +2x+7
, Put u = 2 + x, v = x2 + 2x + 7
du dv
dx = 1, dx = 2x + 2
dy (x2 +2x+7).1−(2+x)(2x+2)
dx = (x2 +2x+7)2
 12

x2 +2x+7−2(x+2)(x+1) x2 +2x+7−2x2 −6x−4 −x2 −4x+3

= (x2 +2x+7)2
= (x2 +2x+7)2
= (x2 +2x+7)2
dy 3−4x−x2
dx = (x2 +2x+7)2

Derivative of Trigonometric, logarithmic, Exponential and Hyperbolic Functions are summarized in

the table below;

 13

dy
S/N y dx

1 cosx −sinx

2 sinx cosx

3 tanx sec2 x

4 secx secx tanx

5 cosecx −cosecx cotx

6 cotx −cosec2 x

1
7 loga x x loga e

1
8 ln x, x

9 ax ax lna

10 ex ex

11 eax aeax

12 cosh x sinh x

13 sinhx coshx

14 tanhx sech2 x

15 tan−1 x 1
1+x2

−1
16 cot −1 x 1+x2

17 cos−1 x √−1
1−x2

18 sin−1 x √ 1
1−x2

19 sec−1 x √1
x x2 −1

20 tanh−1 x 1
1−x2

21 cosh−1 x √ 1
x2 −1

22 sinh−1 x √ 1
x2 +1

Table 1.0
Examples: Find the derivative of each of the following;
 14

3
(a) cos 2x (b) sec 6x (c) cosec 4 x2

Solutions.
(a) Given that y = cos 2x, let u = 2x, ⇒ y = cos u.
Therefore by chain rule,
dy dy du
dx = du . dx = −sin u.2 = −2sin 2x
(b) Let y = sin 13 x
dy
dx = cos 31 x. dx
d 1
( 3 x) = 13 cos 13 x

(c) Let y = cosec 34 x2 . Put u = 34 , So y = cosec u

dy
du = −cosec u.cot u and du
dx = 32 x
dy du dy
dx = dx . du = − 32 x cot 34 x2 .cosec 34 x2 .

(d) loga (5x + 1)

Solution
Given that y = loga (5x + 1), let u = 5x + 1, then y = loga u
dy
du = u1 loga e, du
dx =5
dy du dy
Thus dx = dx . du = 5. u1 loga e = 5
5x+1 loga e

(e) y = sinh 3x
dy d
dx = cosh 3x dx (3x) = 3cosh 3x
Application of Differentiation
The differential Calculus is a powerful tool for solving problems or determining the maximum or minimum

values of a function. The business man wants to maximize profit and minimize cost, the government deter-
mines the tax rate that optimize tax revenue. Hence, the nature determines many maximum or minimum
problems.

Definition: Turning points are those points along the graph of the function which have a zero gradient or
the points with horizontal tangents to the graph of the functions.
dy
It is where the gradient of the curve vanishes. i.e, where dx =0

Maximum and Minimum Values

Definition: A function f is said to have a local (or relative ) maximum at a x = x0 , if f (x0) ≥ f (x0 + h)
for all positive and negative values of h sufficiently near zero, and it is said to have a local (or relative

)minimum at a point x = x0 , if f (x0 ) ≤ f (x0 + h) for all values of h near zero.

The conditions for the function to attain their minimum or maximum values are as follows
d2y
(1) For minimum, dx2
>0
 15

d2y
(2) For maximum, dx2
<0
Example: A monopolist’s revenue function is R = 240x + 57x2 − x3

Find the output level that gives maximum revenue. What is the maximum revenue?
Solution.

R = 240x + 57x2 − x3
dR
dx = 240 + 114x − 3x2
dR
At turning point dx = 0 i.e,x2 − 38x − 80 = 0 ⇒ (x − 40)(x + 2) = 0 ⇒ x = 40 or x = −2

The output level that gives maximum revenue is 40. Thus

Maximum Revenue R = 240x + 57x2 − x3 = 240(40) + 57(40) − 403 = 36, 800
Therefore, the maximum revenue is 36, 800.

Integration

Integration is the opposite of differentiation.

Recall that during differentiation, we multiplied the power by the function and subtract 1 from the power.
But in integration, we add 1 to the power and divide the function by the addition of power and 1. That is,

in carrying out integration, the first step is to determine whether the function to be integrated fits one of the
basic integration formula. If it doesn’t, the next step is to try convert the function into a form to which the
basic formula may be applied.

In determining which rule is applicable, try the power rule first. This rule states that :
n+1
x = xn+1 .
R n

5+1 6 x6
Examples : Evaluate 3x5 , ⇒ 3. x5+1 = 3. x6 = = 12 x6
R
2

Indefinite Integral: We know that after the integration of an indefinite integral, there is need to add a
constant of integration as follows;
n +1
x = xn+1
R n
+C where C is a constant
Definition: A function F is called the integral of a function f on an interval if F 0 (x) = f (x) for every

value of x ∈ I.
If F is defined by F(x) = 4x2 + x2 + 5, then F 0 (x) = 12x2 + 2x. Thus, if f is the function defined by

f (x) = 12x2 + 2x, we say that f is the derivative of F and that F is an integral of f .
In general, if a function F is an integral of a function f on an intervals I and G defined by
G(x) = F(x) +C
 16

where C is an arbitrary constant, then

G0 (x) = F 0 (x) = f (x)

and G is also an integral of f on the interval I. In fact, we shall show below that if F is any particular
integral of f on an interval I, then all possible integral of f on I are defined by F(x) + C, where is an

arbitrary constant. To do this we need these two preliminary theorems.

Theorem 1: If f is a function such that f 0 (x) = 0 for all values of x in the interval, then f is constant on I.
Proof. Assume that f is not constant on the interval I. Then, there exists two distinct numbers, x1 , x2 on I

where x1 < x2 such that f (x1 ) 6= f (x2 ). Because, by hypothesis, f 0 (x) = 0 for all x ∈ I, then f 0 (x) = 0 for
all x ∈ [x1 , x2 ]. Hence, f is differentiable at all x ∈ [x1 , x2 ] and f is continuous on [x1 , x2 ]. Therefore, the
hypothesis of the mean theorem is satisfied, and we conclude that there exists a number c ∈ (x1 , x2 ), such

that
f (x1 )− f (x2 )
f 0 (c) = x1 −x2 (1)
But f 0 (x) = 0 for all x ∈ [x1 , x2 ], then f 0 (c) = 0, and from (1) it follows that f (x1 ) = f (x2 ). Hence a
contradiction, and so f is constant on I.

Theorem 2: If f and g are functions such that f 0 (x) = g0 (x) for all values of x in the interval I, then there
is a constant k such that
f (x) = g(x) + K for all x ∈ I

Basic Functions of Integral (Standard Integrals).

R
1. dx = x +C
R R
2. a f (x)dx = a f (x)dx, where a is a constant.
R R R
3. [ f1 (x) + f2 (x)]dx = f1 (x)dx + f2 (x)dx

∑n ci fi (x)dx = ∑n ci fi (x)dx, where n ∈ N, and ci , i = 1, ..., n are arbitrary constants.

R R
4.
i=1 i=1
n+1
5. xn dx = xn+1 +C, if n 6= −1
R

R cosax
6. sinaxdx = − a +C, a 6= 0
R sinax
7. cosaxdx = a +C, a 6= 0
R ln|secax|
8. tanaxdx = a +C, a 6= 0
9. 1x dx = ln|x| +C
R

R ax 1 ax
10. e dx = a e +C, a 6= 0

The above formulas can be seen as Integration of basic functions. Some complicated functions could be
done knowing fully well the Integrals of these basic functions.
R
Example. Evaluate (3x + 5)dx
 17

Solution.
R R R
(3x + 5)dx = 3 xdx + 5 dx by formula (4)
2
= 3( x2 +C1 ) + 5(x +C2 ), by formula (5) and (1).
= 23 x2 + 5x + (3C1 + 5C2 )

= 32 x2 + 5x +C
where C = 3C1 + 5C2 . C is also a constant, since 3C1 and 5C2 are also arbitrary constants.
Integration by Partial Fractions

Our Concern here will be on rational functions which could be resolved by partial fractions into sum of
integrals of the forms we have seen so far.
R 7x+8
Expressions of the form 2x2 +11x+5
dx do not appear in our list of standard integral, but do occur in many

mathematical applications.
So, the above equation can be expressed in partial fractions which are simpler to solve
7x+8 7x+8 3 1
2x2 +11x+5
dx = (x+5)(2x+3) dx = x+5 + 2x+3
R 3x2 +18x+3
Example. Evaluate 3x2 +5x−2
dx
Solution. Since the integral’s denominator is not greater than that of the numerator, we divide out so that
3x2 +18x+3
3x2 +5x−2
dx = 1 + 3x13x+5
2 +5x−2

13x+5 4 3
(3x−1)(x+2) = 3x−1 + x+2
13x+5 4 3
Therefore 3x2 +5x−2
= 1 + 3x−1 + x+2
13x+5
= dx + 34 3x−1
4 1
R R
Hence, 3x2 +5x−2
dx dx + 3 x+2 dx

= x + 43 ln|3x − 1| + 3ln|x + 2| +C, x 6= 31 , −2

Integration by Parts
This is applied to integrate a product where either function is not derivative of the other.

For instance x2 ln|x|dx.ln|x| is not the derivative of x2 neither is x2 the derivative of ln|x|.
R

Therefore, it is necessary that we find another methods of obtaining such integral.

If u and v are functions of x, then we know that
d dv
dx (uv) = u dx + v du
dx .

If we integral both sides with respect to x, we have

dv
+ v du
R R R R
uv = u dx dx . To make the memorization of formula easier. We have udv = uv − vdu (2)

The equation (2) above is called Integration by parts formula.

Example. Evaluate x2 ln|x|dx
R

Solution.
 18

x3
From x2 ln|x|dx, we set u = ln|x| and dv = x2 dx, and obtain du = 1x dx and v = x2 dx =
R R
3

Using the integration by parts formula

R R
udv = uv + vdu
R 2 R
x ln|x|dx = udv
x3 1 R 31
= ln|x|( 3 ) − 3 x x dx
x3 1 x3
= 3 ln|x| − 3 ( 3 ) +C
x3 1
= 3 [ln|x| − 3 ] +C, x 6= 0.

Method of Substitution
Suppose we are interested in finding a function of the form
R √
2x 1 + x2 dx (3)

If we make the substitution u = 1 + x2 , then it follows that

1 3
du = 2xdx and (3) becomes u 2 du = 23 u 2 +C
R

Now we replace u by (1 + x2 ), and obtain finally that

R √ 3
2x 1 + x2 dx = 23 (1 + x2 ) 2 +C
The justification of this procedure used in the illustration above is given by the theorem that follows. The
theorem is analogous to the chain rule for differentiation, and hence may be called the chain rule for

integration.
Theorem. Let g be a differentiable function of x, and let the range of g be an interval I. Suppose that f is
a function defined on I and F is an anti derivative of f on I. Then if u = g(x),

f (g(x)g0 (x))dx =
R R
f (u)du = F(u) +C = F(g(x)) +C
The proof of the above theorem is left as Exercise to the reader.
Definite Integral

Before we develop this section we give the following important theorems.

Theorem. (The Fundamental theorem of Calculus) Let f : [a, b] → R be continuous, then the function

defined on [a, b] into R by

Rx
g(x) = a f (t)dt, a ≤ x ≤ b is continuous and differentiable in (a, b) and g0 (x) = f (x).
Theorem. Let f : [a, b] → R be continuous then
Rb
a f (x)dx = F(b) − F(a) where F is any integral of f i.e., a function such that F 0 = f .
Rb
Definition. Let f : [a, b] → R, the definite integral of f from a to b is denoted by a f (x)dx. and is given
by
 19

Rb
a f (x)dx = lim ∑n f (ξi ) 4i x
k4k→0i=1
if this limit exists.
R4√
Example. Evaluate 2x + 1dx.
0
R√ 3
Solution. We know that 2x + 1dx = 31 (2x + 1) 2 . Hence
R4√ 3
0 2x + 1dx = 13 (2x + 1) 2 |40
3 3
= 31 (9) 2 − 13 (1) 2
= 13 (27 − 1)
26
= 3

Mean Value Theorem

In this section, we discuss some of the most useful theorem in Differential Calculus known as the mean-

value theorems given again by the two famous French mathematicians Cauchy and Lagrange. Lagrange
proved a result only by using the first two conditions of Rolle’s theorem.
Hence, it is called Lagrange’s Mean-Value theorem. Cauchy gave another mean-value theorem in which

he used two functions instead of one function as in the case of Rolle’s theorem and Lagrange’s Mean-
Value theorem. You will see later that Lagrange’s theorem is a particular of Cauchy’s mean value theorem.
Finally, we discuss the generalised form of these two theorems. We begin with Mean-Value theorem given

by J. L. Lagrange.
Lagrange’s Mean-Value Theorem
If a function f : [a, b] → R is

(i) continuous on [a, b] and

(ii) derivable on]a, b[, then there exists at least a point c ∈]a, b[ such that
f (b)− f (a)
f 0 (c) = b−a

Now the function φ , being the sum of two continuous and derivable functions is itself
(i) continuous on [a, b]
(ii) derivable on ]a, b[, and

(iii) φ (a) = φ (b).

Therefore, by Rolle’s theorem a real number c ∈]a, b[ Such that, φ .(c) = 0.
But φ .(x) = f 0 (x) + A

So φ = φ 0 (c) = f 0 (c) + A
f (b)− f (a)
which means that f 0 (c) = −A = b−a

In the statement of the above theorem, sometimes b is replaced by a + h, so that the number c between a
 20

and b can be taken as a + θ h where 0 < θ < 1. According them, the theorem can be restated as follows:

Let f be defined and continuous on [a, a + h] and derivable on ]a, a + h[, then there exists θ ,0 < θ < 1 such
that
f (a + h) = f (a) + h f 0 (a + θ h).

Certain important and useful results can be deduced from Lagrange Mean-Value theorem.
We state and prove these results as follows:
You already know that derivative of a constant function is zero.

Conversely, if the derivative of a function is zero, then it is a constant function. This can be formalised in
the following way:
I) If a function f is continuous on [a, b], derivable on ]a, b[ and f 0 (x) = 0 for all x ∈]a, b[, then f (x) = k for

all x ∈ [a, b], where k is some fixed real number.

To prove it, let λ be any point of [a, b]. Then [a, λ ] ⊂ [a, b]
Thus, f is

i) continuous on [a, λ ]
ii) derivable on ]a, λ
Therefore, by Lagrange’s mean value theorem, c ∈]a, λ [ such that
( f (λ )− f (a))
f 0 (c) = (λ −a)

Now f 0 (x) = 0 ∀ x ∈]a, b[

f 0 (x) = 0∀ x ∈]a, λ

f 0 (c) = 0
f (l) = f (a) ∀ l ∈ [a, b]
But l is any arbitrary point of [a, b].

Therefore f (x) = f (a) = k for all x ∈ [a, b].

Example : Prove that for any quadratic function x2 + mx + n, the value of θ in Lagranges mean value
1
theorem is always 2 , whatever 1, m, n and h may be.

Solution: Let f (x) = x2 + mx + n; x[a, a + h].

f being a polynomial function is continuous in [a, a + h] and derivable in ]a, a + h[. Thus, f satisfies the
conditions of Lagranges mean value theorem.

Therefore, there exists θ (0 < θ < 1) such that

f (a + h) = f (a) + h f (a + θ h)
Putting the values of f and f you will get
 21

(a + h)2 + m(a + h) = n = a2 + ma + n + h[21(a + θ h) + m]

i.e. ⇒ h2 = 2θ h2
which gives θ = 12 , whatever a, h, l, m, n may be.