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Chapter One

Functions and their Graphs

Definition: If a variable y depends on a variable x in such a way that each value of x determines exactly
one value of y, then we say that y is a function of x.
Or, A function f is a rule that assigns to each element in a set D exactly one element, called f ( x) , in a
set .

Definition: A function f is a rule that associates a unique output with each input. If the input is denoted
by x, then the output is denoted by f ( x) (read “f of x”).

Independent and Dependent Variables: For a given input x, the output of a function f is called the value
of f at x or the image of x under f . Sometimes we will want to denote the output by a single letter, say y,
and write
y  f ( x)
This equation expresses y as a function of x; the variable x is called the independent variable (or
argument) of f , and the variable y is called the dependent variable of f . For now we will only consider
functions in which the independent and dependent variables are real numbers, in which case we say that f
is a real-valued function of a real variable.
Domain and Range: If x and y are related by the equation y = f(x), then the set of all allowable inputs (x-
values) is called the domain of f , and the set of outputs (y-values) that result when x varies over the
domain is called the range of f .
Example-1 Find the natural domain of the following functions:
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Example-2 Find the domain and range of

Example-3 The natural domain of the function

x2  4
f ( x) 
x2
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Example-4 Find the natural domain and range of the functions:

(i) f ( x)  x  2 (ii) f ( x)  2  x (iii) f ( x)  x  1  5  x (iv) f ( x)  x  3
1 x3
(v) f ( x)  2  x  2 (vi) f ( x)  (vii) f ( x) 
x x
2
2x 1
Solution Try yourself.

Example-5 Find the natural domain of the functions

4x  x2 5x  x2 1
(i) f ( x)  ln( x 2  5 x  6) (ii) f ( x)  ln (iii) f ( x)  ln (iv) f ( x) 
3 4 x x
1 x
(v) f ( x)  ln
1 x
Solution Try yourself.

Graphs of Functions:
If f is a real-valued function of a real variable, then the graph of f in the xy-plane is defined to be the
graph of the equation y  f ( x) . For example, the graph of the function f ( x)  x is the graph of the
equation y  x , shown in following Figure. The graphs of some other basic functions are shown below:
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Note: Graphs can provide valuable visual information about a function. For example, since the graph of a
function f in the xy-plane is the graph of the equation y  f ( x) , the points on the graph of f are of the form
(x, f(x)); that is, the y-coordinate of a point on the graph of f is the value of f at the corresponding x-
coordinate (Figure 0.1.5). The values of x for which f ( x)  0 are the x-coordinates of the points where
the graph of f intersects the x-axis (Figure below). These values are called the zeros of f , the roots of
f ( x)  0 , or the x-intercepts of the graph of y  f ( x) .

Fig 1(a): The y-coordinate of a point on the graph of

y  f ( x) is the value of f at the corresponding x- Fig 1(b): f has zeros at x1 , x2 and x3 .
coordinate.
The vertical line test: A curve in the xy-plane is the graph of some function f if and only if no vertical
line intersects the curve more than once.
Example: The graph of the equation x 2  y 2  52 is a circle of radius 5 centered at the origin and hence
there are vertical lines that cut the graph more than once (Figure 2(b)). Thus this equation does not define
y as a function of x.

Fig-2(a): This curve cannot be the graph of a function. Fig-2(b): This curve cannot be the graph of a function.

Piecewise-Defined Functions:
The absolute value function f ( x)  x is an example of a function that is defined piecewise in the sense
that the formula for f changes, depending on the value of x. The functions in the following examples are
defined by different formulas in different parts of their domains. Such functions are called piecewise
defined functions.
Example-6 A function is defined by

1  x , if x  1
f ( x)   2
 x , if x  1
Evaluate f (2) , f (1) , and f (0) and sketch the graph.
Solution
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Example-7 Sketch the graph of the function defined piecewise by the formula
 0 if x  1

f ( x)   1  x 2 if 1  x  1
 x if x 1


TRANSLATIONS
The following Table illustrates the geometric effect on the graph of y = f(x) of adding or subtracting a
positive constant c to f or to its independent variable x. For example, the first result in the table illustrates
that adding a positive constant c to a function f adds c to each y-coordinate of its graph, thereby shifting
the graph of f up by c units. Similarly, subtracting c from f shifts the graph down by c units. On the other
hand, if a positive constant c is added to x, then the value of y = f (x + c) at x − c is f(x); and since the
point x − c is c units to the left of x on the x-axis, the graph of y = f (x + c) must be the graph of y = f(x)
shifted left by c units. Similarly, subtracting c from x shifts the graph of y = f(x) right by c units.
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Example-8 Sketch the graph of the functions:

(i) y  x  3 (ii) y  x  3 .
Solution Using the translation principles, the graph of the equation y  x  3 can be obtained by
translating the graph of y  x right 3 units. The graph of y  x  3 can be obtained by translating the
graph of y  x left 3 units (see the following figures).

Example-9 Sketch the graph of the functions: (i) y  x 2  4 x  5 . (ii) y  x 2  6 x  10 .

Solution (i) Completing the square on the first two terms yields
y  ( x 2  4 x  4)  1  ( x  2) 2  1
In this form we see that the graph can be obtained by translating the graph of y  x 2 right 2 units because
of the x  2 , and up 1 unit because of the 1 .
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(ii)

REFLECTIONS
The graph of y  f ( x) is the reflection of the graph of y  f ( x) about the y-axis because the point (x, y)
on the graph of f ( x) is replaced by (−x, y). Similarly, the graph of y   f ( x) is the reflection of the graph
of y  f ( x) about the x-axis because the point (x, y) on the graph of f ( x) is replaced by (x,−y) [the
equation y   f ( x) is equivalent to  y  f ( x) ]. This is summarized in the following Table:

Example-10 Sketch the graph of the functions: (i) y  3 2  x . (ii) y  4  x  2 .

Solution (i) Using the translation and reflection principles , we can obtain the graph by a reflection followed by a
translation as follows: First reflect the graph of y  3 x about the y-axis to obtain the graph of y  3  x , then
translate this graph right 2 units to obtain the graph of the equation y  3 ( x  2)  3 2  x (See the Figure).
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(ii) The graph can be obtained by a reflection and two translations: First translate the graph of y  x right
2 units to obtain the graph of y  x  2 ; then reflect this graph about the x-axis to obtain the graph of
y   x  2 ; and then translate this graph up 4 units to obtain the graph of the equation
y   x  2  4  4  x  2 (See the Figure).

STRETCHES AND COMPRESSIONS

Multiplying f ( x) by a positive constant c has the geometric effect of stretching the graph of y  f ( x) in
the y-direction by a factor of c if c  1 and compressing it in the y direction by a factor of 1/ c if 0  c  1 .
For example, multiplying f ( x) by 2 doubles each y-coordinate, thereby stretching the graph vertically by
a factor of 2, and multiplying by 1/ 2 cuts each y-coordinate in half, thereby compressing the graph
vertically by a factor of 2. Similarly, multiplying x by a positive constant c has the geometric effect of
compressing the graph of y  f ( x) by a factor of c in the x-direction if c  1 and stretching it by a factor
of 1/ c if 0  c  1 . [If this seems backwards to you, then think of it this way: The value of 2x changes
twice as fast as x, so a point moving along the x-axis from the origin will only have to move half as far for
y  f (2 x) to have the same value as y  f ( x) , thereby creating a horizontal compression of the graph.]
All of this is summarized in the following Table:
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SYMMETRY
The following Figure illustrates three types of symmetries: symmetry about the x-axis, symmetry about
the y-axis, and symmetry about the origin. As illustrated in the figure, a curve is symmetric about the x-
axis if for each point (x, y) on the graph the point (x,−y) is also on the graph, and it is symmetric about the
y-axis if for each point (x, y) on the graph the point (−x, y) is also on the graph. A curve is symmetric
about the origin if for each point (x, y) on the graph, the point (−x,−y) is also on the graph. (Equivalently,
a graph is symmetric about the origin if rotating the graph 180◦ about the origin leaves it unchanged.)
This suggests the following symmetry tests.

Theorem (Symmetry Tests)

(a) A plane curve is symmetric about the y-axis if and only if replacing x by −x in its equation
produces an equivalent equation.
(b) A plane curve is symmetric about the x-axis if and only if replacing y by −y in its equation
produces an equivalent equation.
(c) A plane curve is symmetric about the origin if and only if replacing both x by –x and y by −y in
its equation produces an equivalent equation.
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Polynomials:
A function P( x) is of the form
P( x)  an x n  an 1 x n 1  an  2 x n  2    a2 x 2  a1 x  a0
is called a polynomial, where n is a nonnegative integer and the numbers an , an 1 , an  2 , …, a2 , a1 , a0
are constants called the coefficients of the polynomial. The domain of any polynomial is (, ) . If the
leading coefficient an  0 , then the degree of the polynomial is n . For example, the function
P( x)  3x5  x 4  2 x 2  23 x  9
is a polynomial of degree 5.
A polynomial of degree 1 is of the form P( x)  ax  b , a  0 and so it is a linear function. A polynomial
of degree 2 is of the form P( x)  ax 2  bx  c , a  0 and is called a quadratic function. Its graph is always
a parabola obtained by shifting the parabola y  ax 2 . The parabola opens upward if a  0 and downward
if a  0 (See the following Figure).

A polynomial of degree 3 is of the form P( x)  ax3  bx 2  cx  d , a  0 and is called a cubic function.

The following Figure shows the graph of a cubic function in part (a) and graphs of polynomials of degrees
4 and 5 in parts (b) and (c). Polynomials of degree 4 and 5 are described as quartic, and quintic function
respectively.
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Rational Functions:

A function that can be expressed as a ratio of two polynomials is called a rational function. If P( x) and
Q( x) are polynomials, then the domain of the rational function
P( x)
f ( x) 
Q( x)
consists of all values of x such that Q( x)  0 . For example, the domain of the rational function
x2 1
y
x2  2 x  3
consists of all values of x, except x  1 and x  3 . The following is the graph of the above rational
function:

The graph of the two rational functions are as follows:

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Notes:
i) The graphs of rational functions have discontinuities at the points where the denominator is zero.
ii) Rational functions may have numbers at which they are not defined. Near such points, many
rational functions have graphs that closely approximate a vertical line, called a vertical
asymptote.
iii) The graphs of many rational functions eventually get closer and closer to some horizontal line,
called a horizontal asymptote, as one traverses the curve in either the positive or negative
direction.

Power Functions: The Family y  x n :

A function of the form f ( x)  x a , where a is constant, is called a power function. We consider several
cases.
Case (i): a  n , where n is a positive integer:
The graphs of the curves y  x n for n  1, 2, 3, 4 , and 5 are shown in the following Figure. The first graph
is the line through the origin with slope, and the second is a parabola that opens up and has its vertex at
the origin.

For n  2 the shape of the curve y  x n depends on whether n is even or odd:

 For even values of n , the functions y  x n are even, so their graphs are symmetric about the y-
axis. The graphs is similar to the parabola y  x 2 , and each graph passes through the points (−1,
1), (0, 0), and (1, 1). As n increases, the graphs become flatter over the interval 1  x  1 and
steeper over the intervals x  1 and x  1 .
 For odd values of n, the functions y  x n are odd, so their graphs are symmetric about the origin.
The graphs is similar to that of the curve y  x3 , and each graph passes through the points (−1,
−1), (0, 0), and (1, 1). As n increases, the graphs become flatter over the interval 1  x  1 and
steeper over the intervals x  1 and x  1 .
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Case (ii): a  n , where n is a positive integer:

If a is a negative integer, say a   n , then the power functions f ( x)  x a have the form f ( x)  x  n  1/ x n . The
following figures shows the graphs of y  1 / x and y  1 / x 2 . The graph of y  1 / x is called an equilateral
hyperbola .

For n  2 the shape of the curve y  1 / x n depends on whether n is even or odd:

 For even values of n , the functions y  1/ x n are even, so their graphs are symmetric about the y-
axis. The graphs is similar to the parabola y  1 / x 2 , and each graph passes through the points (−1,
1), and (1, 1). As n increases, the graphs become steeper over the interval 1  x  0 and 0  x  1
and flatter over the intervals x  1 and x  1 .
 For odd values of n, the functions y  1 / x n are odd, so their graphs are symmetric about the
origin. The graphs is similar to that of the curve y  1 / x , and each graph passes through the
points (1, 1), and (−1, −1). As n increases, the graphs become steeper over the interval 1  x  0
and 0  x  1 and flatter over the intervals x  1 and x  1 .
 For both even and odd values of n the graph y  1 / x n has a break at the origin, called a
discontinuity, which occurs because division by zero is undefined.
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Case (iii): a  1 / n , where n is a positive integer (power functions with non-integer exponents):
If a  1/ n , where n is a positive integer, then the power functions f ( x)  x a have the form f ( x)  x1/ n  n x . The
following figures shows the graphs of y  x and y  3 x .

Since every real number has a real cube root, the domain of the function f ( x)  3 x is (, ) , and hence the
graph of y  3 x extends over the entire x-axis. In contrast, the graph of y  x extends only over the interval
[0, ) because x is imaginary for negative x. The graphs of y  x and y   x form the upper and lower
halves of the parabola x  y 2 (figure below). In general, the graph of y  n x extends over the entire x-axis if n is
odd, but extends only over the interval [0, ) if n is even.
Power functions can have other fractional exponents. For example y  x 2/3 , whose graph is as follows:

Inverse Proportions:
A variable y is said to be inversely proportional to a variable x if there is a positive constant k, called the
constant of proportionality, such that
k
y …(1)
x
Since k is assumed to be positive, the graph of (1) has the same shape as y  1 / x but is compressed or
stretched in the y-direction. Also, it should be evident from (1) that doubling x multiplies y by 1/ 2 ,
tripling x multiplies y by 1/ 3 , and so forth. Equation (1) can be expressed as xy  k , which tells us that
the product of inversely proportional variables is a positive constant. This is a useful form for identifying
inverse proportionality in experimental data.
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Algebraic Functions:
A function is called an algebraic function if it can be constructed from polynomials using finitely many
algebraic operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and root extraction). Any rational
function is automatically an algebraic function. The following are some examples of algebraic functions
and its graphs:
f ( x)  x 2  4 , f ( x)  3 3 x (2  x) , f ( x)  x 2/3 ( x  2) 2

The graphs of algebraic functions vary widely, so it is difficult to make general statements about them.

Exponential and Logarithmic Functions:

The Family of Exponential Functions:
A function of the form f ( x)  b x , where b  0 , is called an exponential function with base b. Some
examples are
x
1
f ( x)  2 x , f ( x)    , f ( x)   x
2
Note that an exponential function has a constant base and variable exponent. The following Figure
illustrates that the graph of y  b x has one of three general forms, depending on the value of b. The graph
of y  b x has the following properties:
 The graph passes through (0, 1) because b0  1 .
 If b  1 , the value of b x increases as x increases. As you traverse the graph of y  b x from left to
right, the values of b x increase indefinitely. If you traverse the graph from right to left, the values
of b x decrease toward zero but never reach zero. Thus, the x-axis is a horizontal asymptote of the
graph of b x .
 If 0 < b < 1, the value of b x decreases as x increases. As you traverse the graph of y  b x from
left to right, the values of b x decrease toward zero but never reach zero. Thus, the x-axis is a
horizontal asymptote of the graph of b x . If you traverse the graph from right to left, the values of
b x increase indefinitely.
 If b = 1, then the value of b x is constant.
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Example-11 Sketch the graph of the function f ( x)  1  2 x and find its domain and range.
Solution
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The Natural Exponential Function:

The function f ( x)  e x is called the natural exponential function. Where e, is a certain irrational number
whose value to six decimal places is e  2.718282 . The graph of the function is follows:

Logarithmic Functions:
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Even functions: A function y  f ( x) is said to be an even function if f ( x)  f ( x) for all x  D f .

For example, each of the following is an even function: y

(i) If f ( x)  x 2 then f ( x)  ( x)2  x 2  f ( x) . y = |x|

x
(ii) If f ( x)  cos x , then f ( x)  cos( x)  cos x  f ( x) .

(iii) If f ( x)  x , then f ( x)   x  x  f ( x) .

The graph of this even function (modulus function) is shown in the above figure:

 Note : The above graph is symmetrical about y-axis.

Odd functions: A function y  f ( x) is said to be an odd function if if f ( x)   f ( x) for all x  D f .

For example, each of the following is an odd function: y

(x, y)
(i) If f ( x)  x3 then f ( x)  ( x)3   x3   f ( x) .
x x
(x, y)
(ii) If f ( x)  sin x , then f ( x)  sin( x)   sin x   f ( x) .
y
Graph of the odd function y = x is shown in the above graph:

 Note: The above graph is symmetrical about origin.

Properties of odd and even functions:

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1 x 
Example-12 Show that the functions (i) f ( x)  log( x3  1  x 6 ) (ii) f ( x)  log   are odd functions.
 1 x 
Solution Try yourself.