UNI

T-1

Dev
elopmentengi
neer
ing 

Dev
elopmentEngi
neer
ing

Devel
opmentEngineering 
isanemer gi
ngfi
eldthatbri
ngstogethercommunit
ies,
busi
nesses,students,facul
ty,non-gover
nmentalor gani
zat
ions (NGOs)
,and
gover
nments,aswel lasfor-andnon-prof
itor
ganizati
ons,wit
ht heint
ent
ionof
worki
ngcoll
aborati
velytosol
veglobalchal
l
enges.

I
tis,bydesi
gn,amul
ti
disci
pli
nar
yfi
eldt
hatbr
idgesengi
neer
ing and soci
al
sci
encessuchaseconomi
cs,publ
i
cheal
th,andgenderst
udi
esandpl
acest
hem
al
ongsi
debusi
nessandent
repr
eneur
shi
pforsoci
etalbenef
it
.Int
hispi
ece,we’
l
l
di
vei
ntowher
ethenewf
iel
dofdev
elopmentengi
neer
ingcamef
rom,wher
eit
’s
headed,andt
hechal
l
engesi
t’
sfaci
ngal
ongt
heway
.Dev
elopmentengi
neer
ing
hast
hepot
ent
ialt
oaddr
essmassi
vel
ycompl
exchal
l
engesourwor
ldgr
appl
es
wi
tht
oday
,andbyunder
standi
ngi
tshi
stor
yandt
raj
ect
ory
,weexami
nehow
dev
elopmentengi
neer
ingcancont
ri
but
etosoci
alchange.

Thehi
stor
ythatpav
edt
hewayf
ort
heemer
genceofdev
elopmentengi
neer
ing,
aswel
last
hedr
iver
sbehi
ndi
tandt
hecor
etensi
onsi
tcur
rent
lywr
est
leswi
th,
wi
l
lal
lbeexpl
oredher
efr
om ourper
spect
ive:t
wocur
rentPhD st
udent
sin
t
he 
Dev
elopmentEngi
neer
ing 
progr
am atUC Ber
kel
ey.We hav
e seen t
he
academi
csi
deofdev
elopmentengi
neer
ingwi
thi
ntheuni
ver
sit
yset
ti
ngaswel
l
ast
heent
repr
eneur
ialsi
de,
aper
spect
ivebot
hofushav
egai
nedt
hroughr
unni
ng
t
echnol
ogy
-basedv
ent
uresi
nheal
thcar
e.

Whatdev
elopmentengi
neer
ingi
sandhowi
t’
sdi
ff
erent

Al
so known as “
humani
tar
ian engi
neer
ing”
,“engi
neer
ing f
or change”
,or
“
engi
neer
ingf
ori
mpact
”,dev
elopmentengi
neer
ingi
saf
iel
dofr
esear
chand
pr
act
ice t
hat combi
nes t
he pr
inci
ples of engi
neer
ing wi
th economi
cs,
ent
repr
eneur
shi
p, desi
gn, busi
ness, and pol
i
cy—among ot
her
s—t
o cr
eat
e
t
echnol
ogi
cali
nter
vent
ions i
n accor
dance wi
tht
he needs and want
s of
i
ndi
vi
dual
sli
vi
ngi
ncompl
ex,l
ow-
resour
ceset
ti
ngs.Whi
l
emostmayassoci
ate
t
hese set
ti
ngs wi
th“
dev
elopi
ng” or “
thi
rd wor
ld” count
ri
es,dev
elopment
engi
neer
ingequi
pspr
act
it
ioner
stowor
konsoci
alpr
obl
emswher
evert
heyexi
st,
whet
hert
hati
sCal
i
for
niaorBangl
adesh.Av
ari
etyoft
echnol
ogi
eshav
ebeen
cr
eat
edf
ordi
ver
secont
ext
s,suchas 
modul
argr
eenhouses 
forusei
nKeny
a,a
dev
icef
or 
cer
vicalcancerscr
eeni
ngeducat
ion 
i
nGhana,anda 
fi
lt
ert
oremov
e
ar
seni
cfr
om gr
oundwat
er 
i
ntheUni
tedSt
ates.

Dev
elopmentengi
neer
ingi
sn’
tent
ir
elynew.Engi
neer
shav
elongbeenengagedi
n
publ
i
cser
vice.Thef
ir
stcanonoft
he 
CodeofEt
hicsf
orEngi
neer
s st
atest
hat
“
engi
neer
sshal
lhol
dpar
amountt
hesaf
ety
,heal
th,andwel
far
eoft
hepubl
i
c.”
Dev
elopmentengi
neer
ingai
mst
obui
l
dont
hepr
ofessi
on’
sser
vice-
ori
ent
edr
oot
s
byi
ntegr
ati
ng bot
h soci
aland t
echni
calconsi
der
ati
onsi
nto desi
gn wor
kto
ensur
ethatpr
oposedsol
uti
onssust
aini
ntendedbenef
it
sov
ert
ime.I
nthi
sspi
ri
t,
dev
elopmentengi
neer
ing i
nter
vent
ionsmayt
ake t
he f
orm ofsol
uti
onst
hat
addr
esssy
stemi
cpr
obl
ems.
 Onesy
stemi
cpr
obl
em addr
essedbydev
elopment
engi
neer
sist
hel
ackofcont
ext
ualconsi
der
ati
on.Forexampl
e,medi
caldev
ices
donat
edt
odev
elopi
ngcount
ri
esof
tenf
ailbecauset
heequi
pmentdoesnot
mat
chcommuni
tyneed,
 
nosy
stem f
ormai
ntenanceexi
sts,ort
he 
usermanual
becomesl
ost
.Onepot
ent
ialdev
elopmentengi
neer
ing pr
ojectwoul
d ai
m t
o
cr
eat
emedi
caldev
icessui
tabl
eforusei
nadev
elopi
ngcount
ry,t
aki
ngi
nto
account
 r
elev
ant f
act
ors 
such as r
equi
red dur
abi
l
ity
, power suppl
y, and
av
ail
abi
l
ityofspar
epar
ts.

Hi
stor
ical
l
y,engi
neer
ingt
rai
ningi
sof
tendeepl
ytechni e.
cal( g.
,lear
ningf
lui
d
mechani
cs,t
her
mody
nami
cs,andadv
ancedcal
cul
us)andpl
acesl
essemphasi
s
on communi
cat
ion and cont
ext
ualunder
standi
ng.Thi
s posi
ti
on i
s gener
all
y
r
einf
orcedbyengi
neer
ingpr
ogr
amsandf
acul
tyt
hatcal
ltheabi
l
ityt
owr
it
eor
gi
ve a pr
esent
ati
on a “
sof
t”ski
l
l.Howev
er,engi
neer
s ar
e wel
l
-equi
pped t
o
exami
ne pr
obl
ems hol
i
sti
cal
l
y—t
radi
ti
onal
l
y;t
hey l
ear
n t
o si
mul
taneousl
y
under
standt
hedet
ail
sofasi
tuat
ionaswel
last
hebr
oaderpr
obl
em cont
ext
.But
i
npr
act
ice,t
hisof
tenmani
fest
sasunder
standi
ng,f
orexampl
e,how t
hef
low
r
atesi
nawast
ewat
ert
reat
mentsy
stem r
elat
etot
otalsedi
mentr
emov
al,
andnot
how at
elemedi
ci
nesy
stem canchangenat
ionalheal
thpol
i
cy.Engi
neer
ingwas
cr
eat
edasanappl
i
edsci
ence;
dev
elopmentengi
neer
ingt
akesi
tonest
epf
urt
her
bybr
oadeni
ngt
hepot
ent
ialappl
i
cat
ionsofengi
neer
ingt
oaddr
essr
eal
-wor
ld,
pov
ert
y-dr
ivenchal
l
enges.

Dev
elopmentengi
neer
inghi
ngesont
heunder
standi
ngt
hatcr
eat
ingsust
ainabl
e
sy
stemsar
oundat
echnol
ogi
cali
nter
vent
ionr
equi
resmor
ethanj
ustengi
neer
ing
pr
owess—i
trequi
resknowl
edgeofaspect
sli
kel
ocaleconomi
csandbusi
nesst
o
under
standf
inanci
alv
iabi
l
ityaswel
las 
ethnogr
aphy
 (i
.e.
,sy
stemat
icst
udyof
peopl
eandt
hei
rbehav
ior
sandcul
tur
e)andi
nter
viewi
ngpr
act
icest
ounder
stand
t
he communi
ty.Whi
l
ethe t
radi
ti
onalf
ocus on “
har
d”ski
l
ls 
is changi
ng 
as
engi
neer
ingpr
ogr
amsev
olv
e,emphasi
zi
ngt
heneedf
orst
udent
stodev
elop
communi
cat
ion and ent
repr
eneur
ialcompet
enci
es i
s cor
eto dev
elopment
engi
neer
ing.

Tobecl
ear
,thi
sisnotabel
i
eft
hatengi
neer
sshoul
dbeexpect
edt
obeexper
tsi
n
et
hnogr
aphy
,geogr
aphy
,economi
cs,andengi
neer
ing.I
nst
ead,t
hehopei
sthat
engi
neer
s wi
l
lbecome abl
etot
ransl
ate concept
s acr
oss di
sci
pli
nes and
under
standt
her
ear
emany“
unknown”unknowns,orf
act
orsnoty
etconsi
der
ed
t
hatmustbeuncov
eredi
fat
echnol
ogi
cali
nter
vent
ioni
stobesuccessf
ull
y
i
mpl
ement
edov
ert
ime.

Whydev
elopmentengi
neer
ingi
snecessar
y

Today
’scompl
ex,
global
i
zedwor
ldi
sfi
l
ledwi
thpr
obl
emst
hatar
emessywi
thno
cl
earsol
uti
ons.Pr
obl
emssuchassecur
ingaccesst
ofoodi
naner
aofcl
i
mat
e
change,pr
ovi
dinguni
ver
salhousi
ngami
dstr
api
dur
bani
zat
ion,anddet
ermi
ning
way
stopr
ovi
deconsumer
swi
thl
ow-
car
bonener
gysour
cesal
lrequi
rei
nnov
ati
ve
t
hinki
ngandact
ioni
fpr
ogr
essi
stobemade.As 
PaulPol
ak—al
eaderi
nthe
soci
alent
repr
eneur
shi
pmov
ement
—st
ates,
over90per
centoft
hewor
ld’
sdesi
gn
ef
for
tsar
eai
medat10per
centoft
hepopul
ati
on.Thepeopl
ewhoneedgame-
changi
ngsol
uti
onsar
enotengagedi
nthei
nnov
ati
onpr
ocesswhi
l
e,att
hesame
t
ime,si
gni
fi
cantr
esour
cesar
ebei
ngspenton 
sol
vi
ngt
hewr
ongpr
obl
ems,or
mor
epr
eci
sel
y,dev
elopi
ngpr
oduct
sandpr
ocessest
hatmakemoneybutonl
y
i
mpr
ovet
hewor
ldf
orasmal
lnumberofpeopl
e.

Unl
i
keanengi
neer
inghomewor
ksetwher
eal
lthenecessar
yinf
ormat
ioncanbe
f
oundi
nat
ext
book,
“wi
cked”pr
obl
emsar
ethoset
hatar
eil
l
-def
inedandcompl
ex.
“
Wicked”pr
obl
emsar
eindet
ermi
nat
eandt
her
ear
en’
trul
esf
orhowt
ogener
ate
andi
mpl
ementsol
uti
onst
othem.Sol
vi
ng“
wicked”pr
obl
emsr
equi
resi
nti
mat
e
knowl
edgeoft
hepr
obl
em cont
ext
,apoi
ntt
hati
stooof
tenov
erl
ookedand
causes i
nit
iat
ives t
hat ai
m t
oimpl
ement t
echnol
ogy wi
thi
n dev
elopment
pr
oject
s t
ofai
l.I
fwe,asagl
obalsoci
ety
,ar
egoi
ngt
ogai
ntr
act
iononsol
vi
ng
compel
l
ing and i
mmedi
ate pr
obl
ems wi
th compl
ex soci
etaland ecol
ogi
cal
di
mensi
ons,weneedpr
ogr
amsl
i
kedev
elopmentengi
neer
ingt
otr
aint
henext
gener
ati
onofengi
neer
stobecomecr
it
icalt
hinker
sanddoer
s.Wi
thoutsuf
fi
cient
t
rai
ning,st
udent
sandpr
act
it
ioner
swi
thgoodi
ntent
ionsr
unt
her
iskoff
ail
i
ngt
o
achi
evet
hei
rgoal
sor
,wor
se,
doi
ng 
mor
ehar
mthangood.

Consi
der
,for exampl
e,a wel
l
-funded and publ
i
cly opt
imi
sti
cvent
uret
o
i
nst
all
 
“Pl
ayPumps”
 i
nSout
her
nAf
ri
cat
oat
temptt
osol
vet
her
egi
onalwat
er
cr
isi
s.ThePl
ayPumpconnect
samer
ry-
go-
roundcont
rapt
iont
oawat
erpump
t
hatal
l
owspl
ayi
ngchi
l
drent
opoweradev
icet
oext
ractandst
oregr
oundwat
er.
Howev
er,af
teral
lthe hy
pe and t
ens ofmi
l
li
ons ofdol
l
arsf
undr
aised,t
he
Pl
ayPumpi
nst
all
ati
onsi
nMozambi
queandSout
hAf
ri
cawer
esooni
noper
abl
e.
Yeti
n or
dert
o meet
 donordemands and l
iv
e up t
othe mar
ket
ing hy
pe,
Pl
ayPumpswer
einst
all
edi
nthousandsofl
ocat
ions,r
epl
aci
ngt
het
radi
ti
onal
wat
erpumpsal
readyt
her
e,ef
fect
ivel
ytr
ansf
ormi
ngPl
ayPumpsi
ntoanotonl
ya
f
ail
edv
ent
ure,butal
soonet
hatbecame 
usel
essandexpl
oit
ati
ve 
byf
orci
ng
chi
l
drent
okeept
urni
ngt
hemer
ry-
go-
roundnonst
opi
nor
dert
opumpoutenough
wat
ert
omeetv
il
lagedemand.

I
nst
eadofsol
vi
ngadi
rewat
ercr
isi
s,Pl
ayPumpsact
ual
l
ycont
ri
but
edt
owat
er
i
nequi
ti
esi
nSout
her
nAf
ri
cabyr
epl
aci
ngt
hewor
kabl
etr
adi
ti
onalwat
erpumps
wi
thanexci
ti
ng,butul
ti
mat
elydeepl
yfl
awed,wat
erpumpdesi
gn.Pl
ayPumps
succi
nct
lyi
l
lust
rat
ethatgl
obali
ssues don’
tcome wi
th qui
ck f
ixes and
t
hat
 engi
neer
scan’
tjustcasual
lyst
epi
ntohel
p wi
thacommuni
ty’
sneeds.
I
nst
ead,gl
obaldev
elopmentr
equi
resar
igor
ousappr
oachf
orwhi
cht
echni
cal
l
y
t
rai
nedengi
neer
sneedt
ohav
eabet
terunder
standi
ngofpr
obl
em cont
ext
s,
ei
thert
hroughcol
l
abor
ati
onoramor
eroundededucat
ion.

I
nthi
svei
n,dev
elopmentengi
neer
ing can add si
gni
fi
cantv
alue t
o gl
obal
dev
elopmentbypr
ovi
dingaspacef
ordi
ver
separ
ti
eswi
tht
hesamegoalt
o
connect
,fi
ndcol
l
abor
ati
onoppor
tuni
ti
es,andshar
ebestpr
act
icesaswel
las
mi
stakesandf
ail
ures.Al
thoughmanypr
act
it
ioner
smaybewor
kingont
hesame
t
ypesofpr
oject
sindi
ff
erentset
ti
ngs—orwor
kingondi
ff
erentpr
oject
sint
he
sameset
ti
ng—t
heyar
en’
tal
way
stal
ki
ngt
ooneanot
her
.Thi
scommuni
cat
ion
br
eakdownr
esul
tsi
nmi
stakesf
requent
lybei
ngr
epeat
edandr
edundancyof
ef
for
ts.Dev
elopmentengi
neer
ing,howev
er,bui
l
dsamor
ecohesi
vecommuni
ty
bybr
ingi
ngf
acul
tyf
rom di
ff
erentdi
sci
pli e.
nes( g.
,busi
nessandengi
neer
ing)
t
oget
hert
oco-
teachcor
edev
elopmentcour
sesandbyr
equi
ri
ngengi
neer
sto
l
ear
naboutpubl
i
cheal
thandeconomi
cs.Connect
ionamongpeer
shappens
t
hrough 
dedi
cat
edconf
erences,an 
open-
accessj
our
nal
,andacademi
ccent
ers
such as 
the Bl
um Cent
er,whi
ch ser
ve as hubs f
ormeet
-ups,cl
asses,and
conv
ersat
ions.

Wher
edev
elopmentengi
neer
ingst
art
ed

The r
oot
s ofdev
elopmentengi
neer
ing can be t
raced back t
othe t
ime of
col
oni
ali
sm and i
mper
ial
i
sm.The er
a pr
ecedi
ng Wor
ld WarI
Isaw West
ern
power
sint
hewor
ldoccupy
ingandexpl
oit
ingnon-
West
erncount
ri
eswi
thl
ess
economi
cpower
.Int
he1940st
heUni
tedSt
atesi
nst
it
utedt
heMar
shal
lPl
ant
o
pr
ovi
demat
eri
alai
dforWest
ernEur
opeannat
ionsaf
fect
edbyt
hedest
ruct
ion
wr
oughti
nthewar
,whi
chr
epr
esent
edt
hef
ir
sti
nst
anceoft
heUSgi
vi
ngai
d
i
nter
nat
ional
l
y.Pr
esi
dentHar
ryTr
uman’
s 
inaugur
aladdr
ess 
i
n1949out
li
neda
pl
ant
o“embar
konabol
dnewpr
ogr
am f
ormaki
ngt
hebenef
it
sofoursci
ent
if
ic
adv
ancesandi
ndust
ri
alpr
ogr
essav
ail
abl
efort
hei
mpr
ovementandgr
owt
hof
under
dev
elopedar
eas,
”whi
chdev
elopmentcr
it
icGust
avoEst
evar
egar
dsast
he
i
nvent
ionofdev
elopment
.

Wi
tht
hebel
i
eft
hatunder
dev
eloped nat
ionsneeded t
o be 
“moder
nized”
, 
the
1960s saw a per
iod ofWest
ern nat
ions gi
vi
ng t
echnol
ogi
es t
ofor
mer
ly
col
oni
zednon-
West
ernnat
ions,assumi
ngsucht
echnol
ogyt
ransf
erwoul
dyi
eld
f
astsuccess.Af
terf
ail
i
ng t
o see pr
ogr
ess i
nthe way ofeconomi
c or
t
echnol
ogi
cal“
dev
elopment
”int
he moder
niz
ati
on er
a,t
he 1970s saw an
al
ter
nat
iveappr
oacht
oai
d.Ther
iseof“
appr
opr
iat
e”t
echnol
ogycoi
nci
dedwi
th
t
hegr
owi
ngr
ecogni
ti
ont
hatf
ort
echnol
ogyt
obeaccept
ed,i
tneededt
obe
desi
gnedf
ort
hei
ntendedusecont
ext
.Si
mpl
ytr
ansf
err
ingat
echnol
ogydesi
gned
f
orWest
ernnat
ionst
oadev
elopi
ngcount
rywoul
dnoty
iel
ddesi
redpr
ogr
ess.
Thi
snewappr
oach,whi
chemphasi
zedt
hei
mpor
tanceofi
ntegr
ati
ngcont
ext
ual
consi
der
ati
ons i
n dev
elopment
,was f
ormal
i
zed at t
he f
ir
st Desi
gn f
or
Dev
elopmentcongr
essi
n1979.Thecongr
essi
tsel
f,host
edbyt
heI
nter
nat
ional
Counci
lofSoci
eti
esofI
ndust
ri
alDesi
gn(
ICSI
D)andt
heUni
tedNat
ionsI
ndust
ri
al
Dev
elopmentOr
gani
zat
ion(
UNI
DO)
,repr
esent
edacr
uci
almomenti
nrecogni
zi
ng
desi
gn—acl
osecousi
ntoengi
neer
ing—asat
ool
forgl
obal
dev
elopment
,usef
uli
n
cr
eat
ingpr
oduct
sandser
vicest
omeetsoci
alneeds.Thecongr
essal
so 
signed
t
heAhmedabadDecl
arat
ion,
for
mal
izi
nganew“
desi
gnf
ordev
elopment
”fi
eld.

I
nthe 1980s and 1990s,as desi
gn and engi
neer
ing became i
ncr
easi
ngl
y
empl
oyedi
nsoci
all
yconsci
ousset
ti
ngs,t
het
echboom connect
edt
hewor
ldon
anunpr
ecedent
edscal
e.Howev
er,
theseconnect
ionscr
eat
eda 
“spi
ky”(
unequal
)
wor
ld 
i
nwhi
cht
heur
banandweal
thyr
egi
onsr
api
dlyout
pacedt
her
uraland
poor
erar
eas i
n economi
c dev
elopment
,innov
ati
on,and gener
alwel
l
-bei
ng.
Dur
ing t
he same t
ime,bot
hthose wor
king i
n dev
elopmentand i
ntended
benef
ici
ari
esbecamedi
sil
l
usi
onedbyt
hepowerofmul
ti
lat
erali
nst
it
uti
ons(
lar
ge
or
gani
zat
ionsf
undedbymul
ti
plenat
ions)l
i
ket
heWor
ldBankandI
nter
nat
ional
Monet
aryFund(
IMF)t
opr
omot
eint
ernat
ionaldev
elopmentand,consequent
ly,
t
hatal
l
owedengi
neer
sanddesi
gner
stoi
mbuesmal
l
-scal
eandl
ocal
i
zedpr
oject
s
wi
tht
hei
rtechni
cal
exper
ti
se.

At
tempt
ing t
o gai
n back t
he gener
all
ylost t
rust of l
arge mul
ti
nat
ional
or
gani
zat
ions,i
nSept
ember2000,t
heUni
tedNat
ionssuggest
edei
ghtgoal
s“t
o
r
ever
set
hegr
indi
ngpov
ert
y,hunger
,anddi
seaseaf
fect
ingbi
l
li
onsofpeopl
e”:
t
he 
Mil
lenni
um Dev
elopmentGoal
s (
MDGs)
.These ser
ved as a cat
aly
stt
o
f
urt
herencour
aget
hei
nvol
vementofengi
neer
sanddesi
gner
sinaddr
essi
ng
gl
obalchal
l
engesbyengagi
ngi
nsmal
l
er,mor
elocal
i
zedpr
oject
s.Mor
eand
mor
efundi
ngoppor
tuni
ti
esbegant
oar
isef
ordev
elopment
-or
ient
edpr
oject
sin
t
hewakeoft
hegr
owi
ng i
nter
nat
ionalcommi
tmentt
otheMDGs,and what
emer
gedwasanecosy
stem t
hatpr
ovi
dedsuppor
ttov
ent
ures,pr
oject
s,and
pr
ogr
amsatt
hei
nter
sect
ionofengi
neer
ingandi
mpact
.
Thecoal
esci
ngofamov
ement

Atuni
ver
sit
ies,st
udent
s and f
acul
ty began t
orecogni
ze a mul
ti
-f
acet
ed
oppor
tuni
ty.Eachsemest
eranewcr
opofst
udent
senr
oll
swi
tht
imeandener
gy
t
owor
konaspect
sofi
mpor
tantandi
mpact
fulpr
obl
emsasopposedt
o,f
or
exampl
e,spendi
ngt
imer
edesi
gni
ngpar
tofacarengi
ne.Pr
oject
-basedcl
asses
t
hat st
art
ed as “
crazy i
deas” by mot
ivat
ed f
acul
ty member
s at
 var
ious
uni
ver
sit
ies 
wer
eacknowl
edgedasbei
ngabl
etopr
ovi
despeci
fi
coppor
tuni
ti
es
f
orst
udent
stoappl
ytheknowl
edget
heywer
elear
ningi
ntechni
calcl
asses
t
owar
dthecausest
hatt
heMDGsf
ocusedon.

I
tdoesn’
ttakel
ongf
ort
hest
udent
stobehooked.Formanyengi
neer
sint
rai
ning,
t
hei
mpactofpar
ti
ci
pat
ingi
napr
oject
-basedcl
assf
ocusedonpr
obl
emsf
aced
byr
ealpeopl
eredef
inedt
hepossi
bil
i
tyof
 whatengi
neer
ingcoul
dencompass.
Foruni
ver
sit
ies,pr
oject
-based engi
neer
ing and desi
gn cl
asses pr
ovi
de t
he
t
rai
ningst
udent
sneedt
obecome 
nextgener
ati
onofengi
neer
s whowoul
dwor
k
t
oaddr
esst
hesei
mpor
tantsoci
ali
ssues.Suppor
tforcl
assesandpr
oject
sfr
om
f
undi
ngi
nst
it
uti
onssuchas 
Vent
ureWel
l,t
heNat
ionalSci
enceFoundat
ion,and
t
heUni
tedSt
atesEnv
ironment
alPr
otect
ionAgencyhel
pedt
oexpandenr
oll
ment
,
t
ransf
orm cl
assesi
n pr
ogr
ams 
andcent
ers,
 
andf
urt
hercat
aly
zei
mpact
.

Amaj
ordr
awoft
hesepr
ogr
amsamongst
udent
sist
heabi
l
ityt
oengagewi
thl
i
ke
-
mindedpeer
stheyot
her
wisewoul
dn’
thav
ewor
kedwi
thandt
oconnectwi
th
peopl
ewhoseexper
ienceoft
hewor
ldi
svast
lydi
ff
erentf
rom t
hei
rown.Per
haps,
howev
er,t
he bi
ggest appealt
o st
udent
s of t
hese pr
ogr
ams,
 
par
ti
cul
arl
y
Mi
ll
enni
alsandGen-
Xer
s,i
sthebel
i
eft
hatone’
sef
for
tsar
ecr
eat
ingr
eal
,needed
i
mpact
.Asonest
udentf
rom 
PennSt
ate’
sHumani
tar
ianEngi
neer
ingandSoci
al
Ent
repr
eneur
shi
p pr
ogr
am 
not
ed,“
Many t
imes Ihav
e want
ed t
o make a
di
ff
erence,
butIhav
enev
erknownhow.NowIhav
etheabi
l
ityt
ochangel
i
vesi
na
r
ealpar
toft
hewor
ld.
”Whi
l
ethi
sismot
ivat
ingf
ormanyst
udent
s,i
thashada
pr
ofound 
inf
luence 
on 
femal
est
udent
sinpar
ti
cul
ar,whoar
e ov
err
epr
esent
ed 
i
n
dev
elopmentengi
neer
ingpr
ogr
ams.Thehopef
orpr
ogr
amsl
i
keour
sist
hatt
hey
wi
l
lhel
ptot
ransf
ormi
ndi
vi
dual
s’desi
ret
o hel
pout
 i
ntoanact
ualabi
l
ityt
omake
asust
ainabl
edi
ff
erencei
nthel
i
vesoft
hei
ntendedbenef
ici
ari
es.

Ofcour
se,uni
ver
sit
iesar
enotdoi
ngt
hisal
one.Anent
ir
esubsetoft
hebr
oader
dev
elopmentecosy
stem shar
est
hecr
edi
tfort
hecr
eat
ionandgr
owt
hoft
he
dev
elopmentengi
neer
ingf
iel
d.Ther
ear
e mul
ti
plet
ypesofor
gani
zat
ions 
thatar
e
f
usi
ngt
echnol
ogywi
thot
herdi
sci
pli
nest
o cr
eat
epr
oduct
s, 
prov
idef
inanci
al
ser
vices,and 
accel
erat
e heal
thi
nnov
ati
on,
 
incl
udi
ng f
or-
prof
itv
ent
ures,non-
pr
ofi
t or
gani
zat
ions, f
oundat
ions, gov
ernment agenci
es, and mul
ti
lat
eral
or
gani
zat
ions.Fundi
ngagenci
esar
eal
sopl
ayi
ngakeyr
olei
npr
ovi
dingsuppor
t
f
or 
impact
-or
ient
ed 
ent
repr
eneur
s andv
ent
uresatbot
h ear
ly 
and 
middl
est
ages.
Akeyf
underoft
hedev
elopmentengi
neer
ingf
iel
dwast
heUni
tedSt
atesAgency
f
or I
nter
nat
ionalDev
elopment (
USAI
D),whose 
Higher Educat
ion Sol
uti
ons
Net
wor
k pr
ovi
ded si
gni
fi
cant r
esour
ces t
o gr
ow l
abs at sev
en uni
ver
sit
y
campuses wor
king t
o ev
aluat
e and st
rengt
hen r
eal
-wor
ldi
nnov
ati
ons f
or
dev
elopment
.
 Thef
utur
eofdev
elopmentengi
neer
ing

Thr
oughouti
ts pr
oli
fer
ati
on,t
he dev
elopmentengi
neer
ing f
iel
d has seen
successesi
ncl
udi
ngagr
owi
ngnumberofacademi
cpr
ogr
ams,i
ncr
easedbuy
-i
n
f
rom f
undi
ngsour
ces,
andagr
owi
ngbaseofpr
act
it
ioner
s.Howev
er,
ther
eisst
il
l
mucht
obedoneast
hef
iel
dmat
uresandshapest
hebr
oaderdev
elopment
agenda.Gr
owi
ngpai
nsar
ecommoni
nanynew f
iel
dormov
ement
,butr
ather
t
han i
gnor
ing t
hem,i
t’
simpor
tantt
hatt
hey
’re cal
l
ed outi
n or
dert
o spur
t
hought
fulconv
ersat
ionsandspar
kact
iont
omov
ethef
iel
dfor
war
d.Someof
t
he cent
ralchal
l
enges f
aci
ng dev
elopment engi
neer
ing cur
rent
lyi
ncl
ude
bal
anci
ngacademi
cincent
iveswi
thr
eal
-wor
ldi
mpact
,fi
tt
ingcommuni
ty-
dri
ven
wor
kint
oinst
it
uti
on-
dri
venpr
ogr
ams,andbl
endi
ngt
echno-
cent
ri
candhuman-
cent
ri
cappr
oaches.
Fi
rst
,al
ackofal
i
gnmentof
tenexi
stsbet
weenacademi
cincent
ivesandt
he
f
act
orst
hatdr
iver
eal
-wor
ldi
mpact
.Att
hef
acul
tyl
evel
,thi
sisseeni
nthe
publ
i
cat
ionsy
stem andt
enur
ecommi
tt
ees.AsVi
rgi
niaTechpr
ofessorMar
c
Edwar
dsr
ecent
lywr
otei
n Envi
ronment
alEngi
neer
ing Sci
ence,“
Thegoalof
measur
ing sci
ent
if
icpr
oduct
ivi
tyhasgi
ven r
ise t
o quant
it
ati
ve per
for
mance
met
ri
cs,i
ncl
udi
ng publ
i
cat
ion count
,ci
tat
ions,combi
ned ci
tat
ion-
publ
i
cat
ion
count
s.Quant
it
ati
vemet
ri
csar
eschol
ar-
cent
ri
candr
ewar
dout
put
,whi
chi
snot
necessar
il
ythesameasachi
evi
ngagoalofsoci
all
yrel
evantandi
mpact
ful
r
esear
chout
comes.
”Fewi
ncent
ivesexi
stf
orf
acul
tyt
ospendt
heext
raef
for
tto
engagewi
thcommuni
ti
esandmai
ntai
ndi
ver
separ
tner
shi
psandr
elat
ionshi
ps.

Fur
ther
mor
e,f
acul
tyar
ecompar
edagai
nstpeer
swhomayhav
ebeenpubl
i
shi
ng
mor
e whi
l
e an i
mpact
-or
ient
ed f
acul
ty memberwas doi
ng t
he ext
ra wor
k
necessar
ytocr
eat
echange,i
ncl
udi
ngengagi
ngwi
thpol
i
cymaker
sandot
her
st
akehol
der
s.Suchasy
stem doesnotpr
omot
ethepur
sui
tofsoci
all
yrel
evant
r
esear
ch.

Forst
udent
s,t
hedi
sconnectbet
weenacademi
aandr
eal
-wor
ldi
mpact
smani
fest
whenexami
ningwhatqual
i
fiesas“
wor
thy
”resear
ch.Of
ten,
dev
elopmentwor
kis
per
cei
vedasl
essr
igor
ouscompar
edt
oot
herf
ormsoft
echni
calwor
k.Thi
scan
t
ransl
atet
ost
udent
str
eat
ingdev
elopmentengi
neer
ingasanext
rat
hingt
hey
’re
doi
ngr
athert
hant
hemai
nobj
ect
iveoft
hei
rst
udi
es.Fur
ther
,thet
radi
ti
onalgoal
ofgr
aduat
eresear
chi
stobecomeanexper
tinanar
rowf
iel
d,whi
l
edev
elopment
pr
act
ice,ont
heot
herhand,r
equi
resawor
kingknowl
edgeofabr
oadr
angeof
f
iel
ds i
ncl
udi
ng pol
i
tics,economi
cs,and psy
chol
ogy i
n addi
ti
on t
o deepl
y
t
echni
cal
engi
neer
ingt
opi
cs.

Si
mil
art
othe “
publ
i
sh orper
ish”cr
isi
s,a second chal
l
enge i
sthatmany
academi
csar
eencour
agedt
oengagewi
thot
her
sint
ernal
l
y,wi
thl
i
ttl
eincent
ive
t
ofor
m meani
ngf
ulpar
tner
shi
pswi
thor
gani
zat
ionsunaf
fi
li
atedwi
thauni
ver
sit
y.
Thepat
hofl
eastr
esi
stancei
nacademi
aisof
tent
otur
ninwar
d,t
oengagewi
th
ot
her
sofasi
mil
arl
yacademi
cmi
nd,
andt
oav
oidbr
ingi
ngt
hehi
ghl
yabst
ractand
t
heor
eti
cal
conv
ersat
ionsdownt
oal
evel
ofact
ionabl
epr
ogr
ess.

Theot
hersi
deoft
hischal
l
engei
stheamountoft
imei
ttakest
o dev
elop
meani
ngf
ulpar
tner
shi
ps,under
standt
hef
ullext
entofasi
tuat
ion,t
esti
deas,
r
evi
se,andi
mpl
ementsol
uti
ons.Thel
onggest
ati
onper
iodofcommuni
ty-
dri
ven
dev
elopmentpr
oject
scanbeatoddswi
tht
hei
ntensel
yconcent
rat
eduni
ver
sit
y
set
ti
ngi
nwhi
cht
hesepr
ogr
amsexi
st.St
udent
str
adi
ti
onal
l
yspendonl
yfour
y
ear
sint
hei
runder
graduat
eeducat
ionandl
esst
hansi
xyear
sint
hei
rgr
aduat
e
educat
ionand,wi
tht
heev
er-
presentdemandsofr
igor
oushi
ghereducat
ion,
st
udent
sar
enotencour
agedt
opr
ior
it
izet
heneedsoft
hecommuni
ti
est
hey
wor
kwi
thabov
ethei
rownneedst
obui
l
dar
esume,
graduat
e,andf
indaj
ob.

Fi
nal
l
y,dev
elopmentengi
neer
ingai
mst
olev
eraget
echni
calr
esour
cesandr
igor
t
osol
vegl
obalpr
obl
ems,
yetl
acksaf
ormalpr
ocessf
orunder
standi
ngt
hescope
ofi
mpor
tantgl
obalpr
obl
ems.St
udent
sandf
acul
tybenef
itf
rom educat
ionand
r
esour
ces,butmayl
ackdi
rectexper
iencewi
tht
hepr
obl
emst
heyar
esol
vi
ng.I
n
or
der f
or t
he pr
ivi
l
eged and of
ten i
nsul
ated dev
elopment engi
neer
ing
pr
act
it
ioner
stowor
konaddr
essi
ngpr
obl
emsaf
fect
ingt
hewor
ld’
simpov
eri
shed
anddi
senf
ranchi
sedpeopl
e,t
heyhav
etol
ookbey
ondt
hei
rownl
i
vedexper
ience.

Ant
hropol
ogy
,et
hnogr
aphy
,and,mostr
ecent
ly,human-
cent
ereddesi
gnpr
ovi
de
r
igor
ous f
ramewor
ks t
o under
stand and empat
hize wi
th peopl
e who hav
e
compl
etel
ydi
ff
erentex
per
iencesandper
spect
ives.I
nor
derf
ordev
elopment
engi
neer
stoef
fect
ivel
ysol
vesoci
alpr
obl
ems,t
heyf
ir
stmustunder
standt
he
compl
i
cat
edf
acet
sandhumanf
acest
hatchar
act
eri
zet
hem.Thef
ocuscannot
sol
elybeoncr
eat
ingr
esour
ce-
eff
ici
ent
,cost
-ef
fect
ivet
echnol
ogi
es;i
tmustbe,
f
ir
standf
oremost
,onunder
standi
ng 
thepeopl
e,sy
stemsofpower
,andpol
it
ical
env
ironment
ssur
roundi
nggl
obali
ssues.Wi
thoutconsi
der
ingt
hepol
i
ticaland
hi
stor
icalcont
ext
sinwhi
cht
heyar
ewor
king,
dev
elopmentengi
neer
srunt
her
isk
ofr
epeat
ingt
hedamagedonet
oimpov
eri
shedcommuni
ti
esbycol
oni
al,
imper
ial
,
andneol
i
ber
alpol
i
ciesandappr
oaches.

UNI
T-2

Wor
ldPov
ert
yandDev
elopment
Wethi
nksometi
mesthatpover
tyisonl
ybei
nghungry
,nakedandhomel
ess.The
pov
ert
yofbei
ngunwanted,unl
ovedanduncar
edforist
hegreat
estpov
erty
.We
must st
art i
n our own homes t o remedy thi
s kind of pov er
ty.
St
.Mot
herTer
esaofKol
kat
a
Pov
ert
yist
hewor
stf
orm ofv
iol
ence.

Mahat
maGandhi

Thewor
ldisv
erydi
ff
erentnow.Formanholdsinhi
smor
tal
handst
hepowert
o
abol
i
shall
for
msofhumanpov ert
y,andal
lfor
msofhumanli
fe.

JohnF.Kennedy

Hei
snowr
isi
ngf
rom af
fl
uencet
opov
ert
y.

Mar
kTwai
n

Wherej
usti
cei
sdenied,wherepovert
yisenforced,
whereignoranceprevai
ls,
and
wher
eanyoneclassismadet ofeel
thatsociet
yisanorganizedconspir
acyto
oppr
ess,
robanddegradethem,neit
herpersonsnorpr
opertywi l
lbesafe.

Fr
eder
ickDougl
ass

It
hankf
atef
orhav
ingmademebor
npoor
.Pov
ert
ytaughtmethetruevalueof
t
hegi
ftsuseful
tolif
e.

Anat
oleFr
ance

Ther
eal
tragedyoft
hepoori
sthepov
ert
yoft
hei
raspi
rat
ions.

Adam Smi
th

Walkami
lei
nmyshoes..
.SeewhatIsee,
HearwhatIhear,
FeelwhatIf
eel
..
.
Thenmay
beyou’
l
lunder
standWhyIdowhatIdo.
..t
il
lthendon’
tjudgeme.

Unknown

Whati spov ert

y?Doesi tonl yr ef
ert ohavingal ow income,onet hatl eadst o
dif
fi
cultl iv
ing conditi
ons?How doespov ertyr elat
et o human dev elopment ?
Shouldf eaturesusedi nt hemeasur ementofhumandev elopmentincl udenot
onlyi ncome,but al so heal th and educat ion? Wher e are pov erty and
underdev el
opmentmostpr evalentint heworld?Canourecosy stemssust ai
nably
supportwor l
d-widesoci all
y -
inclusivehumandev elopmentandwel lbeing?Can
thewor ldmeett hechal l
engeofsust ai
nabledev elopmenti nthepr esenceof
population,resourceutil
ization, andpol l
uti
onincreases?Whatar ethefeat ur
esof
cult
ure,andchal lengesofwor kingincr oss-
culturalsetti
ngs?Whyi sitimpor tant
tobegl oballycompet ent?
Wor
ldPov
ert
yandDev
elopment

Whati stheengineer’
srolei nsust ai
nabledevelopment?Whatchallengedoy ou
wantt ot akeon?Whatar et echnologiesthatcanbeusedt opromot ehuman
development?Usinganal yt
icalappr oaches,canwel ear
nwhati tisli
keforvery
l
ow- i
ncomepeopl etomanagef i
nancestosur v
iveandav oi
drisk?Canwel earn
aboutt hedynamicsofr esourceuse,andhowdev el
opmentandpopul ati
onsize
i
ncreasesi mpactsust
ainabler esourceuti
li
zati
on?

Wor
ldPov
ert
yandDev
elopment

Somet hi
nkofpov ert
yast hesituati
onwher ebasi chumanneedsar enotbei ng
met .Whatar e“ needs”?Ther eisawhol ear r
ayofhumanneeds,wi t
hanear l
y
quant i
fication gi ven int he 1940s by Masl ow i n( Maslow,1943) as:1.
Phy si
ol ogical;2.Safety;3.Lov e/belonging;4.Est eem;and5.Sel f-
actuali
zati
on.
Masl owor deredt heneedssucht hatthemostbasi conei sli
stedf ir
st,andsoon.
Phy si
ol ogicalneedsi ncludeai r
, water,food,clothing,andshel t
er.Saf etyi
ncludes
secur i
tyf rom war ,crimi nalviolence,f amil
yv i
olence,andchi ldabuse.Some
woul di ncludeeconomi candheal t
hsecur i
ty( protecti
onagai nstai lmentsand
diseases) .Lov e/bel
ongi ng includes friendship,i nti
macy ,fami l
y,et c.Esteem
i
ncludest heneedt ober espected,accept ed,valuedbyot hers,status,recognit
ion,
fame,pr estige,andat tention.Italsoi ncl
udest heneedf orself -
respect.Self-
actualizationneedsi ncludet heneedt or eal
izeone’ sownpot enti
al.Somet imes,
oneneedemer geswhent heonebef oreitisfull
ysat i
sfied.

Therear e,howev er,cr iti

cismst oMasl ow’sv iew asi tisnotgener al
lycul t
ur all
y
sensitiv
e,i s not pr operly set int he cont ext of specifi
c societ i
es ( e.g.,
i
ndividuali
st i
corcol lect i
vi
stsoci eti
es),andi snotwel comingtot heindi v
idual ’
s
ownr anking oft heirneeds.Fori nstance,t herear esomepeopl ewho r ank
entertai
nment ,spiri
tual ,orculturalevents( e.g.,weddi ngsorfuner al
s)v eryhi gh
andindeedwi llsacrificesomebasi cphy siol
ogi calneedsf orthese.Suchv i
ews
aretober espect ed,ofcour se.Whatr i
ghtdoesonehumanhav etosaywhat
anotherhumanneeds?Ofcour se, i
faper soni snotmeet i
ngsomeneedsandt his
adverselyaf fectssomeoneel se( e.g.
,achi l
d)t hatcanbeapr oblem.Al so,if
someonehasasev erement alill
nessandcannott akecareofthemsel ves, t
hati s
al
soanot hermat ter.Toy amadi scussesanumberofaspect sofMasl ow’swor k
i
nt hecont extofdev elopmenti n( Toyama, 2015) .

Pov
ert
yinI
ndi
a
Because 
Indi
a i
soneoft
he 
fast
est-
growingeconomi
es i
ntheworl
d,pov
ert
yhas
beenonadecl i
nei
nthi
scountry
,wi t
hcloseto44I ndi
ansescapi
ngext
reme
pov ertyeverymi nut e,aspert he Wor ldPov ertyClock.Indiahasbeenabl etol
i
fta
signifi
cantper cent ageofi t
spopul ationoutof  
pov ert
y,butmanyst illliv
einit.
Indiahad73mi ll
ionpeopl elivi
ngi n ext r
emepov erty 
whichmakesup5. 5%ofit
s
totalpopulat i
on,accor dingtot heBr ookingsr eport.InMay2012, t
heWor l
dBank
reviewedandpr oposedr ev
isionst ot heirpov ertycalculat
ionmethodol ogyand
[1]
pur chasing powerpar i
tybasi sf ormeasur i
ng pov ertywor l
dwi
de.  Itwas a
mi nimal 3. 6% i n t er ms of per cent age. As of 2016,t he incidence of
mul ti
dimensi onalpov ertyhasal mosthal vedbet ween2005–06and2015–16,
decl i
ningfrom 54. 7per centto33. 8per cent.
 

Accordi
ng to Uni
ted Nat
ions Devel
opmentProgramme Admi
nist
rat
orAchi
m
Stei
ner,
Indi
ali
fted271mill
ionpeopleoutofpov
ert
yinj
usta10-
yearti
meperi
od
fr
om 2005/06to2015/16.

TheWor l
dBankhasbeenr evi
singi
tsdef i
nit
ionandbenchmar kst omeasur e
povert
ysi nce1990,wi t
ha$2perdayi ncomeonpur chasi
ngpowerpar i
tybasis
ast hedef ini
ti
oni nusef rom 2005 to 2013. 
Somesemi -economi cand non-
economi cindiceshav ealsobeenpr oposedt omeasur epov er
tyi nI ndia.For
example,inor dertodetermineifapersonispoorornot ,theMul ti
-dimensi onal
PovertyIndexpl acesa33%wei ghtonthenumberofy earst hatper sonspenti n
schoolorengagedi neducati
onanda6. 25%wei ghtonthef i
nanci alconditionof
thatperson.
Thedi ff
erentdefini
ti
onsandunder l
yi
ngsmal lsamplesur veysusedt odetermine
povertyinI ndi
ahav er esul
tedinwi delyv aryi
ngest i
mat esofpov er
tyfrom the
1950st o2010s.I n2012, t
heIndiangov ernmentst at
edthat22%ofi tspopulati
on
i
sbel owi t
sof f
ici
al 
povertyli
mit.
 Basedon2005' sPPPsI nternat
ionalCompar i
son
Program, i
n2011,t heWor l
dBankest i
mat edthat23.6%ofI ndianpopulati
on,or
about276 mi lli
on people,li
ved below $1. 25 perdayon pur chasing power
pari
ty. 
Accor di
ngt otheUni tedNat ion'
s Mill
ennium Dev elopmentGoal s (
MDG)
programme,270mi l
li
onpeopl eoutof1. 2bi l
li
onIndians,roughlyequalto21. 9%
ofIndia'
spopul ati
on,l
ivedbelowt hepov ert
yli
neof$1. 25i n2011-2012.
From t helate19thcenturythrought heear l
y20thcentur
y ,underBri
ti
shcolonial
rul
e,pov ertyi nI
ndiaintensi
fied,peakingi nthe1920s. Faminesanddi seases
kil
ledmi lli
onseacht ime. Aft
erI ndiagai nedit
sindependencei n1947,mass
deat hsfr
om f ami
neswer eprev ented.Since1991,r
apideconomi cgrowthhasled
to ashar preducti
oni next r
emepov ertyinIndi
a. 
Howev er,thoseabovet he
pov ert
ylineli
veafragi
leeconomi cli
fe.
As per the met
hodology of the 
Suresh Tendulkar 
Committee report
,t he
popul
ati
on bel
ow the povert
yl i
ne i
nI ndia was 354 mil
li
on (29.6% oft he
popul
ati
on)i
n2009-2010andwas269mi ll
ion(21.9%ofthepopulat
ion)in2011-
2012.
 I
n2014,the 
Rangarajan 
Committeesaidt hatthepopulati
onbel ow the
povert
yl i
newas454mi ll
ion(38.2%oft hepopul at i
on)i
n2009- 2010andwas363
mill
ion (29.5% oft he population)i n 2011-2012.Deut sche Bank Resear ch
esti
mat edthatt herearenearly300mi l
li
onpeopl ewhoar eint hemiddleclass. If
thesepr evi
oust rendscont i
nue,I ndi
a'sshar eofwor ldGDP wi llsignif
icant l
y
i
ncreasef r
om 7. 3%i n2016t o8. 5%by2020.  
In2012,ar ound170mi l
li
onpeopl e,
or12.4%ofI ndia'
spopul at
ion,l
iv edinpoverty( defi
nedas$1. 90(Rs123.5)),an
i
mpr ovementf rom 29.8%ofI ndia'spopulat
ioni n2009.Intheirpaper,economi sts
SandhyaKr i
shnanandNeer ajHat ekarconcludet hat600mi ll
ionpeople,ormor e
thanhalfofIndia'spopulati
on,bel ongtothemi ddleclass.
The Asi
anDev elopmentBank  esti
matesI ndia'
spopul ationt obeat1. 28bi l
li
on
withanav eragegr owthrateof1. 3% from 2010- 2015.I n2014,49.9% oft he
populat
ionaged15y ear
sandabov ewer eempl oyed.Howev er
,21.9% oft he
populat
ion stillli
ves below t he nati
onalpov ertyl ine.
 The 
World Pov ert
y
Clock 
showsr eal-
ti
mepov ert
yt r
endsinIndia, whicharebasedont helatestdata,
oftheWor l
dBank, amongot hers.Asperr ecentest imates,thecountr
yiswel lon
i
tswayofendi ngextr
emepov ertybymeet i
ngi t
ssust ai
nabl edevel
opmentgoal s
by2030.

Def
ini
ti
onofPov
ert
y
Economi
cmeasur
es
Therear esev eraldefiniti
onsofpov erty,and schol arsdisagr eeast o which
defi
niti
on i s appropriatef orI ndia. 
Inside I ndia,bot hi ncome- based pov ert
y
defi
niti
onandconsumpt i
on- basedpov ertyst atisti
csar einuse. 
Out si
deI ndia,
the
Wor l
dBankandi nsti
tutionsoft heUni tedNat i
onsuseabr oaderdef i
nit
ionto
compar epov er t
yamongnat i
ons,i ncludingI ndi a,basedonpur chasingpower
pari
ty( PPP),aswel lasnomi nalrelativebasi s. 
Eachst ateinIndi ahasi tsown
povertythresholdt odeter minehowmanypeopl ear ebelowitspov ertyl
ineandt o
ref
lectr egi
onaleconomi ccondi t
ions.Thesedi fferencesindef i
nit
ionsy iel
da
complexandconf li
cti
ngpi ctureaboutpov ertyi nIndia,bothinternal
lyandwhen
compar edt ootherdev elopingcount ri
esoft hewor l
d.
Accor di
ngt otheWor ldBank,I ndiaaccount edforthewor ld'
sl argestnumberof
poorpeopl ein2012usi ngrev i
sedmet hodologyt omeasur epov erty,refl
ecti
ngi t
s
massi vepopulation.Howev er,i
nt er
msofper centage,itscoredf airl
ylowert han
othercount r
iesholdingl ar
gepoorpopul ati
ons. 
InJuly2018, Wor l
dPov ert
yClock,
aVi enna-basedt hi
nkt ank,r eport
edt hatami nimal5. 3%or70. 6mi ll
ionIndians
l
ivedi next r
emepov ertycompar edto44% or87mi ll
ionNi gerians.Till2019,
NigeriaandCongosur passedI ndiaint er
msoft otalpopulationear ningbel ow
$1.9aday .AlthoughI ndiaisexpect edt omeett heUni t
edNat i
ons' Sustai
nable
Devel
opmentGoal
s onext
remepovert
yi nduet
ime,av er
ylar
geshareofit
s
popul
ati
onli
vesonl
essthan$3.
2aday ,put
ti
ngI
ndi
a'seconomysaf
elyi
ntot
he
cat
egoryofl
owermi
ddlei
ncomeeconomies.
Aswi t
hmanycount ri
es, 
povertywashi stori
cal
lydefi
nedandest i
mat edi nIndia
usingasust enancef oodstandar d.Thismet hodol
ogyhasbeenr evi
sed.I ndia'
s
currentof fi
cialpov ertyr at
esar e based on it
sPl anning Commi ssion'sdat a
derivedfrom so- cal
ledTendul karmet hodology.
 I
tdefinespov er
tynoti nt ermsof
annuali ncome,buti nt ermsofconsumpt i
onorspendi ngperi ndivi
dualov era
certainper i
odf orabasketofessent i
algoods.Fur t
hermor e,thismet hodol ogy
setsdi f
ferentpov er
t yli
nesforruraland urbanareas.Since2007, Indiahasseti t
s
offi
cialthresholdat  
₹ 26aday( $0.43)inr ur
alareasandabout  ₹ 
32perday
($0.53)inur banar eas. 
Whilet hesenumber sarelowert hant heWor ldBank' s
$1.25 perday  income- based def i
niti
on,the defini
tion i
s simi lart o China's
US$0. 65perdayof fi
cialpovertyli
nei n2008.
TheWor ldBank'sinternationalpov ertyl i
nedef i
nitionisbasedonpur chasing
powerpar it
ybasis,at$1.25perday . Thi sdefinit
ioni smot i
vatedbyt hefactthat
thepriceofthesamegoodsandser v icescandi ffersigni
fi
cant l
ywhenconv erted
i
ntol ocalcurr
enciesaroundt hewor ld.Ar ealist
icdef ini
ti
onandcompar i
sonof
povertymustconsi dert hese diff
er ences i n cost s ofliving,ormustbe on
purchasingpowerpar i
ty( PPP)basi s.Ont hisbasi s,currencyf l
uct
uati
onsand
nominalnumber sbecomel essimpor tant
,t hedef init
ionisbasedont hel ocal
costsofabasketofessent ialgoodsandser vi
cest hatpeopl ecanpurchase.By
Wor l
dBank' s2014PPPdef ini
ti
on,Indi a'spov ert
yr ateissignifi
cantl
ylowerthan
previ
ouslybeli
eved.
Mi
xed,
semi
-economi
candnon-
economi
cmeasur
es
Aswi t
heconomi cmeasur es,ther earemanymi xedornon- economicmeasur es
ofpov er
tyandexper tscont estwhi chonei smostappr opri
ateforI ndia.For
example,DandekarandRat hi n1971suggest edameasur eofpov ertyratethat
[43]
wasbasedonnumberofcal oriesconsumed.   In2011, Alki
reetal.suggesteda
povert
yratemeasur eso-
call
edMul ti
-di
mensional Povert
yIndex( MPI),whichonly
putsa6. 25% weighttoasset sownedbyaper sonandpl aces33% wei ghton
[
5]
educati
onandnumberofy earsspenti nschool .  Thesenon-economi cmeasur es
remaincont r
over
sialandcont estedasameasur eofpov ert
yr at
eofanynat i
on,
i
ncludi
ngI ndi
a

Compar
isonwi
thal
ter
nat
eint
ernat
ional
def
ini
ti
ons
Indi
adeter
minesitshousehol
dpov er
tyli
nebysummi ngupt heindiv
idualper
capit
apover
tyli
nesofthehousehol
dmember s.Thispract
iceissi
milartomany
devel
opi
ngcountri
es,butdi
ff
erentf
rom devel
opedcountri
essuchast heUnited
Stat
eswhoadj ust
st hei
rpovertyl
ineonani ncr
ementalbasisperadditi
onal
househol dmember .Forexampl e,int heUni tedStat es,t hepov ert
yl i
nef ora
househol dwithjustonememberwassetat$11, 670pery earfor2014,whi l
eit
wassetat$23, 850pery earfora4- memberhousehol d( or$5963perper sonf or
thelargerhousehol d).
 Ther ati
onalef ort hedif
fer
encesar isef r
om theeconomi c
real
it
iesofeachcount ry.InIndia,househol dsmayi ncludesur vi
vi
nggr andparents,
parents,andchi l
dren.Theyt ypicall
ydonoti ncuranyorsi gnifi
cantrentexpenses
everymont hpar ti
cularl
yi nruralIndia,unl i
kehousingi nmost lyurbandev el
oped
economi es.The costoff ood and ot heressentials ar e shared withint he
househol dbyi t
smember sinbot hcases.Howev er,al argerpor t
ionofamont hly
expenditure goest of ood i n poorhousehol dsin dev eloping countri
es, 
whi l
e
housing,conv eyance,andot heressent ialscostsignificantlymor eindev el
oped
economi es.
Fori t
scurrentpov er t
yratemeasurement s,Indiacalculat
estwobenchmar ks.The
fi
rstincludesabasketofgoods,i ncl
udingf oodi temsbutexcl udingtheimplied
valueofhome, valueofanymeansofconv eyanceort heeconomi cvalueofother
essent i
als created,gr own orused wi thouta f i
nancialtransacti
on,by t he
member sofahousehol d.Thesecondpov er t
ylinebenchmar kaddsr entval
ueof
residenceaswel last hecostofconv ey ance,butnot hi
ng else,tothef i
rst
benchmar k. Thispr acti
ceissimi
lartothoseusedi ndev el
opedcount r
iesfornon-
cashi ncomeequi valentsandapov er
tyli
nebasi s.
I
ndi a's proposed but not y et adopt ed of f
ici
al pov er
ty l ine, in 2014,
was  ₹972 (
US$14)amont hinr uralareasor  ₹1,
407 (
US$20)amont hinci ti
es.
Thecur rentpov er
tyli
nei s$14permont h( $0.46perday )i
nr uralar easand$17
permont h($0.
56perday )i
nur banareas. Indi
a'snati
onwideav eragepov ert
yli
ne
di
f fersfr
om eachst ate'
spov ertyl
ine.Forexampl e,i
n2011- 2012, Puducherry 
had
i
tshi ghestpov ert
ylineof  
₹1,301 
(US$18)amont hinr ur
aland  1,309 (
US$18)a
mont h in urban ar eas, while 
Odisha had t he lowest pov er tyt hreshol
ds
of ₹695 (
US$9.70)amont hf orruraland  ₹861 (
US$12)amont hf orit
sur ban
areas.
Pov
ert
ypr
eval
enceandest
imat
es
The19t hcent uryandear ly20t hcenturysaw i ncreasingpov ertyinIndi adur i
ng
thecolonialera. Overthi
sper i
od,thecolonialgov ernmentde- industr
ializedI ndia
byreducinggar mentsandot herfi
nishedpr oductsmanuf act
uredbyar tisansi n
I
ndia.Instead,t heyimpor t
edt hesepr oductsf rom Br it
ain'sexpandingi ndustry
duet ot hemanyi ndustr
ialinnovati
onsoft he19t hcent ur
y.Additional ly
,the
governmentsi mul t
aneouslyencour agedtheconv ersi
onofmor elandi ntof arms
andmor eagr icult
uralexportsf r
om I ndi
a. 
East ernr egionsofI ndi
aal ongt he
Ganges river pl ai
ns, such as t hose now known as east er n 
Uttar
Pradesh,
 Bi har
, 
Jharkhand and WestBengal ,
 wer ededi catedtopr oducingpoppy
and opium.These i t
ems wer ethen expor ted to sout heastand eastAsi a,
part
icul
ar l
yChi na.TheEastI ndiaCompanyi nit
ial
lyhel danexcl usiv
emonopol y
overt heseexpor ts,andt hecol onialBr i
tishi nst i
tutionsl aterdidsoaswel l
. 
The
economi cimpor tanceoft hisshi ftf rom i ndust ryt o agr icult
urei nIndi awas
l
arge;  by1850,itcr eatednear l
y1, 000squar eki l
omet r
esofpoppyf armsI ndia's
ferti
leGangespl ai ns.Thi sconsequent l
yl edt ot woopi um war si nAsi a,wi th
the secondopi um war  foughtbet ween1856and1860.Af terChinaagr eedt obea
partoft heopium t rade, t
hecol onialgov er nmentdedi catedmor el andexcl usively
topoppy .
 Theopium agr i
cul tureinI ndiar osef rom 1850t hrough1900, whenov er
500, 000acr esoft hemostf erti
l
eGangesbasi nf armswer edev otedt opoppy
cultivati
on. 
Additi
onal l
y,opi um pr ocessi ngf act oriesownedbycol oni
alof fi
cials
wer eexpandedi n  Benares  and  Patna, andshi ppi ngexpandedf r
om Bengalt othe
portsofEastAsi asuchasHongKong, all underexcl usi
vemonopol yoft heBr i
ti
sh.
Byt heear l
y20t hcent ur y,3outof4I ndianswer eempl oyedi nagr icul
ture,
fami neswer ecommon,and f ood consumpt ionpercapi tadecl i
ned in ev ery
decade.  I
nLondon,t helate19t hcent uryBr it
ishpar li
amentdebat edt her epeated
i
nci denceoff aminesi nI ndi a,andt hei mpov erishmentofI ndiansduet ot his
diversionofagr icul t
urel andf rom gr owi ngf oodst aplest ogr owi ngpoppyf or
opium expor tunderor dersoft hecol oni al Bri
tishempi re.
Povert
ywasi ntenseduri
ngcolonialer
aIndi
a.Numer ousfaminesandepi
demics
ki
ll
edmi l
l
ionsofpeopl eeach 
Upperimageisf r
om 1876-1879faminei
nSout
hof
Bri
ti
shIndiathatstar
vedandki l
l
edov er6mil
lionpeople,whi
leloweri
magei
sof
chi
ldwhost arv
edt odeathdur
ingtheBengalfamineof1943.

These col onial pol i

cies mov ed unempl oyed ar ti
sans i nt
o f arming, and
transf or
medI ndiai ntoar egioni ncr easingl yabundanti nland,unski l
ledlabour ,
andl ow pr oductivity.Thi sconsequent lymadeI ndiascar ceinski lledlabour ,
capi talandknowl edge.  Onani nf lationadj usted1973r upeebasi s,t heav erage
i
ncomeofanI ndianagr ari
anl abour erwasRs.7. 20pery earin1885,agai nstan
i
nf lationadj ustedpov ertylineofRs.23. 90pery ear.Thus,notonl ywast he
av eragei ncomebel ow t hepov er tyl i
ne,butt hei ntensit
yofpov ert
ywasal so
sev ere.Thei ntensi t
yofpov ertyi ncr easedf rom 1885t o1921,bef orebei ng
rev ersed.Howev er,theabsol ut epov ertyrat escont inuedtobev er
yhi ghthr ough
the1930s.  Thecol onialpol i
ciesont axat i
onandi tsr ecognit
ionofl andowner ship
claimsof  
zami ndar s 
and  mansabdar s,orMughaler anobi li
ty,madeami norityof
fami liesweal thy.Addi ti
onally ,t hese pol iciesweakened t he abili
tyofpoor er
peasant st ocommandl andandcr edi t.Ther esultingr i
singlandl essnessand
stagnantr ealwagesi ntensifi
edpov er t
y .
Sust
ainabl
edev
elopment
Is t he or
ganizi
ng pr inciple f
or meeti
ng human dev el
opment  
goals whil
e
simultaneousl
y  
sustai
ning theabil
i
tyofnaturalsy stemstopr ovi
dethenatural
resources and 
ecosy stem serv
ices based upon whi
ch
the 
economy  and soci
ety depend.Thedesi
redr esultisastat
eofsoci et
ywhere
l
ivi
ngconditi
onsandr esourcesar eusedtocont inuet omeethumanneeds
wit
houtundermi
ningtheint
egrit
yandstabil
i
tyofthenat uralsy
stem.Sust
ainable
devel
opmentcanbedefinedasdev el
opmentthatmeet stheneedsofthepresent
wit
houtcompromisi
ngtheabili
tyoffut
uregenerat
ionstomeett hei
rownneeds.
Whi l
et hemoder nconceptofsust ainabl edev elopmenti sderivedmost lyf rom t he
1987  BrundtlandRepor t,
iti salsor ootedinear li
eri deasabout  sust ainabl ef or est
management  and t went ieth-cent uryenv i
ronment alconcer ns.As t he concept
developed,i thasshi f
tedt owar dsf ocusmor eon  economi cdev elopment ,
 soci al
development  andenv ironment alpr otecti
onf orf uturegener at i
ons.I thasbeen
suggest edt hat" theterm' sustainabi lit
y'shoul dbev iewedashumani ty'
st arget
goalofhuman- ecosy stem equi l
ibrium,whi l
e' sust ainabledev elopment 'ref erst o
thehol i
sti
cappr oach  andt empor alpr ocessest hatl eadust ot heendpoi ntof
sustainabili
ty". Moder n economi es ar e endeav oring t or econci le ambi tious
economi c dev el
opment and obligat i
ons of pr eser ving  nat ur al
resour ces 
and  ecosy stems,ast het woar eusual lyseenasofconf l
ictingnat ur e.
Instead ofhol di ng climat e change commi tment s and ot hersust ainabi lity
measur esasar emedyt oeconomi cdev elopment ,turni
ngandl everagi ngt hem
i
nt o mar ketoppor tuniti
es wi lldo gr eatergood.  The economi c dev elopment
broughtbysuch or gani zed pr inciplesand pr act i
cesi n an  economy  
iscal led
ManagedSust ainableDev elopment( MSD) .
The conceptofsust ai
nabl e dev elopmenthas been,and st il
lis,subj ectt o
crit
icism,i ncluding t he quest ion ofwhati st o be sust ained in sust ainable
devel opment .Ithasbeenar guedt hatthereisnosucht hingasasust ainabl euse
of a  non-renewabler esour ce,si nce any posi ti
ver ate of expl oit
at i
on wi l
l
event uall
yleadt otheex haust i
onofear th'
sfinitestock; 
thi
sper spectiver ender s
the Industri
alRev olution asawhol eunsustainable. 
Ithasal sobeenar guedt hat
the meani ng of t he concept has oppor tunist
ical
ly been st retched f rom
'
conser v
ationmanagement 'to'economi cdev elopment '
,andt hattheBr undt l
and
Repor tpromot ednot hingbutabusi nessasusual str
ategyforwor l
ddev elopment ,
withanambi guousandi nsubst antialconceptat tachedasapubl i
cr elati
ons
slogan.
Sustainabili
tycanbedef inedast hepr acticeofmai ntainingwor l
dpr ocessesof
productivit
yi ndefi
nitely
—nat uralorhuman- made—byr eplacingr esourcesused
withr esourcesofequalorgr eaterv al
ue wi t
houtdegr ading orendanger i
ng
naturalbi otic systems. Sustainable dev elopmentt i
es t ogetherconcer nf or
the 
car r
yingcapaci ty of
 naturalsy stems  withthesoci al,poli
tical,andeconomi c
chall
engesf acedbyhumani t
y. 
Sust ainabili
tyScience i
st hest udyoft heconcept s
ofsust ai
nabl edev elopmentandenv ironment alscience.Ther eisanaddi t
ional
focusont hepr esentgener ati
ons'r esponsibil
it
yt or egener ate,mai ntai
nand
i
mpr ov eplanetaryresour cesforusebyf uturegenerations.
Cul
tur
eandGl
obal
Compet
ence

Peopleassumet hatbecausemysonshav egrownupi namulti

li
ngualand
multi
cul
turalhometheyar enaturall
ycultur
all
ycompetent
.Theyassumethat
becausemysonshav etravel
edwi t
husar oundtheU.S.andtoahalf-
dozen
for
eigncountr
iest
hatt
heyar enatural
lygl
oball
ycompet
ent.

Thatmaybeparti
all
ytr
ue,butmyr eti
cencecomesfrom theuseoft heseterms.
Whatdotheymean?Nearlyev er
yschoolint
heUnit
edSt ates,
andfrom whatI ’
ve
seenalmostever
yschoolar oundthewor l
d,wantsgraduatestoemer gewi th
cul
tur
alandgl
obalcompetence.Agai
n,whatdotheymean?I sther
eadi ff
erence?

Iwor kedformor ethant woy earsasCEO oft he Part

nershipf or21stCent ur
y
Learning,focusing in my t enure on i mbuing our Fr amewor k wi t
h new
thi
nking ar
oundglobalcompet ence.Wedr ewouri nspi
rati
onf rom theworkbeing
done i n Nor th Caroli
na at t he 
Department of Publ ic I nstr
uct
ion, VIF
(now Parti
cipat
e) 
andt he 
globalcompet enceframewor k 
dev elopedbyt he Asi
a
SocietyandCCSSO.

Wet ookal ong,hardlookatt heOrgani

zati
onforEconomicCooperat
ionand
Development(OECD) 
framework,whi
chservesastheconceptmapforthe2018
assessmentofglobalcompet
encethatisnowpartoft
hePISAbatt
ery
.

Let’
sjumponesemant i
churdle(t
hemeaningoft heword“competence”)befor
e
wegetstart
ed.Accor di
ngt
ot he 
OECD,“competenceisnotmerelyaspecif
icski
ll
butisacombi nati
onofknowl edge,ski
ll
s,atti
tudesandv al
uessuccessfull
y
appli
ed tof ace-
to-f
ace,vir
tualor mediated encounter
s.” Devel
opmentof
competenceisalif
elongpr
ocess.

The f
ollowi
ng globalcompet
enci
es compr
ise OECD’
s 
fourdomai
ns.Gl
obal
l
y
competenti
ndi
viduals:

 Canexami nelocal,
globalandintercult
uralissues
 Un derstandandappr eci
atedif
ferentperspect i
vesandworldvi
ews
 Interactsuccessf ul
lyandrespectfull
ywi thothers
 Ta keresponsi bl
eact i
ontowardsust ainabil
ityandcoll
ect
ivewell-
bei
ng.
Therear
emi nordiffer
ences,mostlysemant i
c, amongt hevari
ousfr
amewor ksso
thi
sdefi
nit
ionwi l
l serv
easourdef aultunderstandingofglobalcompetence.
 Cultur
alcompetenceisanothermatterandi t
’snotonlytheeducat
ionsectort
hat
hasanabi di
nginter
est.I
fyoudigintothet opicyou’
l
lfindthatmanyofthemost
popularusecasescomef rom thefederalgovernmentandf ocusonthe medi
cal
fi
eld.

The NationalEducation Associ

ati
on (NEA)shi ft
st he conver
sati
on tot he
cl
assroom withits 
Diver
sit
yToolkit
:CulturalCompet encef orEducat
ors.I
nt he
NEA’sdefini
ti
on,cult
ural
lycompetentt
eachi ngincorporat
es“ awar
enessofone’s
ownculturali
denti
tywhil
ehav i
ngtheabil
itytounder standgroupdif
fer
encesthat
makeeachcl assr
oom andev eneachstudent ,
unique.”

TheNEAcul
tur
alcompetencef
rameworki
sdrivenbyaski
l
lsett
hatteacher
scan
devel
opf
ort
hepurposeofimpr
ovingst
udentsuccessi
ndi
ver
seclassr
ooms:

 Val ui
ng Di versity. 
Accept i
ng and r espect ing di ff
er ences—di f
ferent
culturalbackgr oundsandcust oms,di fferentway sofcommuni cating
anddi fferentt r
aditionsandv alues.
 Be i
ngCul turall
ySel f
-Awar e. Culture–t hesum t otalofani ndivi
dual ’
s
exper i
ences,knowl edge,ski ll
s,bel i
efs,v aluesandi nterest– shapes
educat ors’senseofwhot heyar eandwher et heyf i
ti ntheirfami ly,
school ,communi t
yandsoci ety .
 Dy nami csofDi fference. Knowi ngwhatcangowr ongi ncr oss-cult
ur al
communi cati
onandhowt or espondt ot hesesi tuati
ons.
 Kn owl edge ofSt udents’Cul ture.
 Educat ors musthav e some base
knowl edgeoft heirstudent s’cul t
uresot hatstudentbehav iorscanbe
under stoodi nthei rpropercul turalcontext.
Inst
ituti
onal izi
ng Cul turalKnowl edge and Adapt i
ng t o Di versi
ty. 
Culturally
compet enteducat orsandt hei nsti
tutionst heywor ki n,cant akeast epf ur
therby
i
nstit
ut i
onal i
zingcul turalknowl edgesot heycanadaptt odi v ersit
yandbet t
er
servediver sepopul ati
ons.
Exami net het woconst ructs:Isonesubor di
natet ot heot her?Subsumedbyt he
other?Canschool seasei niti
ati
vef at
igueandsemant icconf usionbyf ocusingon
eit
herglobal compet enceorcul t
uralcompet ence?

Thedi f
fer
ence,itseems,i samat teroff ocus.Globalcompet encepr epares
student
sandt eacher
stol ookoutwardt othewor l
dforinspi
rati
onandgui dance
andt obri
ngthoseunderstandi
ngsbackt otheclassr
oom orwor kplace.Cultural
competencepreparesteachers(mainly)andstudentstolookinwar dtowar dthe
cl
assroom orwor kpl
aceandi denti
fy ,underst
and,communi cat
eandcel ebrate
t
radi
ti
ons,
val
uesandpr
act
icest
hatcanenr
icht
heexper
iencesofal
l
.

Schoolsneedthem bot h,butacl earexplanati

onf orteachers,studentsand
parent
swouldbehel pf
ul.Therecentfocuson socio-
emotionallear
ning 
muddies
communicati
onaswel l,soaschoolordi stri
ctwoul ddowel ltopr ovi
deoni t
s
websit
eaprimerthatstatesanoff
ici
alposit
ionont hesei
mpor tantconstr
ucts.

TheEngi
neer
’sRol
e

TheNati
onalResearchCounci
lrecentl
yrecognizedtheneedf orimprovementin
bot
hengineeri
ngdesignandengi neer
ingdesigneducat i
on.Althoughthereare
numer
ousar t
icl
esonengineer
ingdesign,wewi l
lconcentr
ateont heinter
act
ion
bet
weenengineersandsoci
ety
.

Oneoft hef ir
stsour cesofconf usi on,par ti
cularl
yamongt hosewhoar enot
engi neersorsci enti
sts,i
st hedi stinct ionbet weensci enceandengi neer i
ng.The
pri
mar yr ole ofsci ence ist o dev el op knowl edge and under st anding oft he
phy sicaluni v
er se.AspointedoutbyDav is 
andot her s,ani mpor tantdi stinct i
onis
thatt hispur suitofknowl edge( sci ence)mayoccurl argelywi thoutr egardt o
soci etalneed( ort osocietali mplicat ions) .Thedi recti
onofsci ent i
fi
cr esearch
hasbeendescr ibedbysomeascur i
osi ty-basedr esear chwhi chi snotnecessar il
y
dri
v enbyt hev aluesofsoci ety.Soci etalv alues( andr esul ti
ngpr iorit
ies)donot
necessar il
ydef inethebounds,di rectionorscopeofsci ent if
iccur iosity. 
*  
Thisis
notacr it
icism ofsci ence,forsuchi st henat ureof" i
nqui ring."Fur thermor e,i
tis
oftennotpossi bletodetermi nerel evanceofapar t
icularf ieldofsci entifi
ci nquir
y
tot hef utureneedsofsoci ety. 
* Givent hiscuriosity-dri
v enpr ocess,t hebaseof
scient i
fi
cknowl edgeaboutt hephy sicaluni v
ersemayber epr esent ed byan
amoebae- likest ruct
ureunev eni ni tsext entint hev ariousdi recti
onswi thcur r
ent
scient i
fi
cr esear cheffort
sact ingtoext endi tscov erage( fig.1) .
Theut i
lizat
ionofsci entificknowl edgeov ert imeest ablishest hatsomeoft he
knowl edgei si mmedi at
el yr elevantt osoci etalneedswhi leot herpar tsar el ess
i
mmedi atel
yr elev ant( soci etymaynev err ealizet her elevanceofapar ti
cular
scientif
ici nquiry ).Whi let he congr uence of soci etalneed wi t
h sci entifi
c
knowl edge i smuch mor e compl ext han indi cated int hi
sar t
icle,itmaybe
represent edfort hepur poseoft hisdi scussi onbyaVenndi agram asseeni n
fi
gur e2.Theaut hor smai ntaint hati tist hi
sov erlapofsci enti
ficknowl edgewi th
societalneed,mor especi fically
,t heappl i
cat i
onofsci ent i
fi
cknowl edget ot he
needsofsoci et y,t hati st hedomai nofengi neering( interal i
a)( seebel ow) .
Clearly,t he ext entofhuman ent erpr i
se i s much mor e compl ex t han i s
represent edher e.I f,forexampl e,i tisi nthei nterestofsoci etytoi ncreaseour
storeofsci entifi
cknowl edge, thenengi neersandsci enti
st swhopl ytheirtradei n
thef rontier
sofsci entif
icr esear char ebot hser vingsoci etalneed.Nev ertheless,
ourcont enti
oni st hatt hecent r
alf ocusoft heengi neer i
ngpr ofessioni st he
applicationofsci ent ifi
cknowl edget omeetsoci etalneeds.
Thisanal ogycanbeext endedbysuper imposingt hedi st
incti
onoft hecr eativ
e
versust heanal yt
icalaspectoft hehumanent erpri
se.Wecanr epresentt hi
s
aspectoft hehumani ntellectbyanot herVenndi agram showni nf i
gur e3.As
i
ndicated i nthedi agram,onemaypur suecr eativeef f
ortswithouti nvolv
ing
analyti
calskill
s,andonemayappl yanal yti
calskill
swi thoutenter
ingthedomai n
ofcr eati
v i
ty.Forexampl e,as engi neers applycommer cialsoftwaret ot he
sol
ut i
on ofan engi neering pr obl
em,t he applicati
on ofanal yti
calski l
ls,per
se,
 * mayi nvol
veli
ttleornocr eati
vit
y.

Onemaysuperi
mposethesetwoVennDiagr
amsanduset
her
esul
ti
ngdi
agr
ams
t
oexamineengi
neer
ingenter
pri
seasshowninf
igur
e4.
Consider
ing the i
nter
sect
ion of sci
enti
fi
c knowl
edge wi
th soci
etalneed
(desi
gnatedasthedomainofengi
neeri
ng)
,theaut
hor
swil
ldi
scusst
hreesect
ors,
shownasA, B,andC.

SectorA r epresentst he int

ersect
ion ofpur ely analyti
caltal
ents wi t
ht he
engi
neeringdomai n.Thi smaybeusedt orepr esentengineeri
ngsci ence,an
abi
li
tytomodelcompl exsy st
emsandpr edi
ctt heirresponsetov ari
ousi nputs
undervariousconditi
ons. *
 Thi
ssegmentofengi neer i
nghas, ofcourse,beent he
subj
ectofi nt
ensedev elopmentov erthelasthal fcent ur
yandhasbenef i
tted
mostdirectlyf
rom theav ai
labi
l
ityoffastdi
git
alcomput er
s.

SectorC,t heint
ersecti
onofourcr eat
ivecapaci t
ywi t
ht heengineeringdomain,
canbev i
ewedasr epresentingt hosesuddeni ntui
ti
veleapsoftenr esponsi
blefor
revolut
ionaryadvancesint echnologycalled"signif
icantnovel
ty"bySpi er
 aswell
ast hoseaspectsofengi neer i
ng,notyetf ul
l
ysuppor t
edbyengi neeri
ngscience,
thatremainmor eartthansci ence.

Thet hir
dsect or,B( t
hei ntersecti
onofknowl edgeandneedwi thbot hcr eati
ve
andanal yt
icalcapabili
ty)canbeusedt or epr
esentengi neer
ingdesignandmuch
"r
ealwor l
d"pr oblem sol ving.Thi s sectori ncl
udes activi
ti
es ranging f r
om
developinginnovativeproduct sandpr ocesses,t ocreati
ngani nnov at
ivebr i
dge
design,todev el
opinganewcont r
olprocessf orpetrochemicalproduction.This
vi
sionofengi neeri
ngdesi gnast hequadr i
laterali
ntersecti
onr epresentedby
SectionBi sconsistentwi t
hst atementsexpressedbyPahlandBei tz,Dixon,and
Penny .

Currentappr oachestoteachingusedi nengi neeri

ngschoolshav ebeendesigned
mor ef ordev el
oping analyt
icalski l
ls(Sect orA)t han creati
ve ski
ll
s.The
Accreditati
on Boar d f or Engi neer
ing and Technol ogy ( ABET) identi
fi
es
engineeringas" t
hatprofessioni nwhichknowl edgeoft hemat hematicaland
naturalsciences gained byst udy,experience,and pr act
ice is appl
i
ed with
j
udgmentt odev elopway stout ili
ze,economi call
y,t
hemat erial
sandf orcesof
nature"f
ort hebenefitofmanki nd" 
(emphasi sadded) .ABETf urtherrecognizes
that"asignifi
cantmeasur eofanengi neeri
ngeducat i
oni sthedegr eetowhi chi t
haspr eparedt hegr aduatet opur sueapr oduct i
veengi neeri
ngcar eerthati s
characteri
zed by cont i
nued pr of
essionalgr owth".One can concl ude that
analyti
calskill
sar eessent i
altoolsf orengineer s,
 *
 butar enotsuf fi
cientfora
compl ete engineeri
ng educat ion.An educat ion thatonl y uses classroom
problemsi n whi ch allvari
ablesar eaccur atelyknown and onl yonecor rect
answerexi stsnotonl ymisrepresentsthesituat i
onsengi neersencounterint heir
j
obs, butalsodoesl i
ttletostimulatecreati
vity.At r
endt owar dusingopen-ended
problemsi ntheengineer i
ngclassroom isaheal thystepi nthedirecti
onofmor e
compl eteandrelevantengineeringeducation.

Thisfour-
circlerepr esentati
onofhumanendeav or(fig.4)alsooffersausef ul
perspect
ivef orot herent erpr
ises.Sector1,theintersecti
onofanal yt
icalski
ll
s
wit
hsoci etalneedsout sidet heboundsofsci enti
ficknowl edgemi ghtincl
ude
economicsandphi losophywhi l
esector3mayencompasst heart
s.Sector2may
beused t or epresentt hosesoci et
alneedsout si
det heboundsofsci enti
fi
c
knowledget hatr equiredbot hanal yt
icalandcreativ
eski ll
s,perhapsincludi
ng
publi
cpolicy,businessadmi ni
strat
ion,andmusic.

Thev i
ewofengi neeri
ngpresentedint hi
spaperdiffersfrom thevi
ewof" method"
presentedbyKoen,andt henot ionof" signi
fi
cantnov elt
y"presentedbySpi er
.
Spierargues,"
Thereisapr oductthatresul
t sf
rom theactivi
tyofanengi neer
"and
i
nterpretstheterm" product"broadly(wepr esumet oincludeprocesses).Our
emphasi s,however,i
snotont hepr oduct,buttheengi neer'
sinteracti
onwi th
societ
y .

UNI
T-3

Soci
alJust
ice

Tr
eatot
her
sasy
ouwoul
dli
ket
hem t
otr
eaty
ou./Donott
reatot
her
sinway
s
y
ouwoul
dnotwantt
obet
reat
ed.
TheGol
den/Si
lv
erRul
es

Humanri
ghtsarenotonl
yviol
atedbyterr
orism,repr
ession,
orassassi
nat
ion,
but
al
sobyunfai
reconomicst
ruct
uresthatcreatehugeinequal
it
ies.

PopeFr
anci
s

Genderequali
tyismor
ethanagoalini
tsel
f.I
tisaprecondi
ti
onformeet
ingthe
chal
lengeofreduci
ngpover
ty,
promoti
ngsustai
nabl
edev el
opment,
andbuil
ding
goodgov er
nance.
Ko_Annan

Youmustbet
hechangey
ouwi
sht
oseei
nthewor
ld.
Mahat
maGhandi

Il
ooktoadaywhenpeopl
ewi
l
lnotbej
udgedbyt
hecol
oroft
hei
rski
n,butbyt
he
cont
entoft
hei
rchar
act
er.

Mar
ti
nLut
herKi
ng,
Jr.

Thetheor
yofcommuni
sm maybesummedupi
nonesent
ence:
Abol
i
shall
pri
vat
eproper
ty.
Kar
lMar
x

Butifyou'
reaskingmyopinion,Iwoul
dar guethatasocial
just
iceapproach
shouldbecentralt
omedicineandut i
l
izedtobecentraltopubl
icheal
th.This
coul
dbev erysimple:
thewel l
shouldtakecareofthesick.
PaulFarmer

Theessenceofsust
ainabl
edev
elopmenti
npr
act
icei
sscient
if
ical
l
yandmor
all
y
basedprobl
em sol
vi
ng.
Je_r
eySachsin

Soci alJusti
ceandEngi neeri
ng
Soci al"canbedefinedas“oforr elat
ingt osociet
yoritsorganizati
on"and
j
ust ice"canbedef inedas“ justbehav i
orort r
eatment :aconcer nf orjust
ice,
peace,and genui ne respectf orpeopl e"or“ the qualit
y ofbei ng fai
rand
reasonabl e"
(NewOxf ordAmer icanDictionary
).Socialj
ustice"canbedef i
nedas:
standar dsfor,
andav i
ewonhowt opromot e,humandi gnity,
right
s,ful
fi
ll
mentf or
allofhumani ty"(
myowndef initi
on,providedforpedagogical r
easons).
Not e,howev er,t
hatdef i
ningsoci aljusticei
naconci se,inclusi
ve,andgener al
mannersot hatitisaccept abletoallpeopl eisimpossible(otherswouldi nsiston
i
ncludingwor dslikefair
ness,f r
eedom,humancapabi li
ty,humandev elopment,
humanwel fare,et
c.)andsomer eli
gionsmayf eelthattheterm soci
aljustice"isa
dist
orti
onofwhatt heyaret alki
ngabouti ndiscussi ngwhatot hersconsidert obe
thecentralissuesi nsocialjustice( e.
g.,God(s),spiri
tual
ity,andlove).Ther eis
simplytoogr eatofadi v
er sit
yofwel l-
thought-outandopposi ngopinionsont he
subjectt
ohav eabroadly-
agr eed-upondef ini
ti
on.

Socialj
ust i
cehasbeenaubi quitousandcr ucialissuet hroughoutt hehistoryof
humanki nd,andseemst obeofev er-
increasingi mpor tanceduet ogl obali
zation.
Takingideasf rom socialjusti
ceint opr acticeviabusi ness,institutions,economi c
syst
ems,orpol it
icalsy stemshas,ont heonehand,r esul ted inwi despread
malnourishment ,manyhumanr ightsabuses,war s,state-sponsor edmur derof
tensofmi l
li
ons,and genoci de,buton t he otherhand i n some cases has
promotedhumanr i
ghts,allev
iatedmuchsuf feri
ng,andpr omot edpeace.Soci al
j
usticeist ypical
lyani mpor t
antpar tofar el
igion,andt hef i
eldsofbusi ness,
soci
alwor k,economi cs,andpol iti
calsci ence( tonameaf ew) ;also,itserv esas
thebasisf orpartsofmanypol i
ticalsy stems( e.g.,viatheir“ partypl atf
orm" )and
government s,alongwi t
ht heUni tedNat ionsv iat heir“Uni v
er salDecl arationof
HumanRi ghts"andef fortsinpeace- keeping, development ,etc.

WhySoci
alJust
icei
nEngi
neer
ingf
orSust
ainabl
eDev
elopment
?

Socialj ust i
cei sagoal ,const raint,andi nt
egralcomponentoft hepr ocessof
sustainabl edev elopment .Thoughunusualf oranengi neeringbook,t her ear ea
numberofr easonst oembedat reatmentofr eli
giousandsecul arper spect ives
onsoci aljusticei nt ohumani t
ar i
anengi neeri
ng.Thesei nclude:
1.Soci alj ust icepr ov i
desmot i
vationandr ationalef orr eligious,secul ar ,
andpr of essi onal engi neers:
Engi neer sar emot i
vatedt owor konhumani tari
anpr oject sf orav ar i
etyof
reasons i ncl udi ng compassi on,sy mpathy,“ wanting t o do somet hi
ng t o
change t he wor ldf or the bet ter,
" oppor t
uniti
es t ol earn( e.g.,about
i
nt ernat i
onalengi neering),and busi ness oppor tuniti
es t o make pr ofi
t s.
Anot hersi gnificantmot ivatorf orsomei stheirreli
giont hatmaycal lt hem t o,
fori nstance,hel pl ow- i
ncome peopl e;thisi s one r eason why r el
igi
ous
per spect i
v esonsoci al j
usticear ecov ered.
Yet ,therear emanypeopl ei nthewor ldthatdonotneedGodorr eli
gi ont odo
good wor ks.Si mi larr ationale and mot i
vati
on f ornon- reli
gious ( secular )
engi neer scanbef oundi nsecul arperspectivesonsoci al justi
ce.Fori nstance,
thel argelysecul art opicofengi neer i
nget hicswi llbecov ered.I twi l
lbe
expl ainedhow engi neer i
nget hi csaddr essessomesoci alj usticei ssues,but
i
gnor es ot her s.Engi neers mot i
vated t o behav e as pr ofessi onal s pay
signi fi
cantat tent iont ocompet ence, conduct,andser vice, andt her ebyat t
end
tosoci aljust i
cei ssues.
2.Socialj usti
cedef i
nesengineer i
ngchal l
engesandgoal si nfullcompl exit
y:
Socialjusticenotonlyhighli
ghtswhatgoal stof ocuson( e.g.,human
di
gni t
y,humanr i
ghts,humanwel far e,andhumanwel l
-being),butal sot he
my r
iadi nfluencesont hese.Ithelpsspeci fythef ull“context"forani ssuet o
beaddr essed.Humansar ehighlyinterconnect edwi thinav ill
age, communi ty,
country,and wor ld vi
a,f or inst ance,r el
at i
onships,wor k,economi cs,
(i
nternational)t r
ade,politi
cs,and war .Each oft hese deepl yi nfluences
i
ndividualhuman wel f
are.Soci alj ustice explains these i nterconnect ions,
di
scusses how t heyaffecthumans,and pr ovides strategies to pr omot e
j
ustice( e.g.,vi
ademocr acy)usingt hei nterconnect i
ons.Hence,soci alj usti
ce
defi
nesav erybroadandul ti
mat egoalf orengineer i
ng,thegoalofpr omot i
ng
gl
obal justiceandhumanf ulf
il
lment .

3.Soci
alj
ust
icef
orscr
uti
nizi
ngt
hedev
elopmentanddesi
gnpr
ocesses:

Soci alj
usti
cepr ov i
desawayf oranengi neertoscr ut
inizeaspeci f
icappr oach
to pr omoting justice.Fori nstance,i nt his book t here arear ange of
“dev el
opmentst rat
egi es".Doeseachoft heseadher et opr i
nci
plesofsoci al
j
ust i
ce?Forexampl e,isthereany t
hingwr ongwi thdirectaid(chari
ty)?Ist here
any t
hingwr ongwi t
ht he“ prof
iti
ngof fthepoor "approach?Next ,socialjustice
demands t hatwe t ake an appr opriately broad v i
ew oft he traditional
engineeringdesi gnpr ocessandconst raintstoensur ethattheyar ejust.For
i
nst ance,ensuringengi neersaregettingcommuni t
yinput sandinvolvementi n
thedesi gnpr ocess( “
par t
ici
patorydev elopment "and“ part
ici
patorydesi gn") ,
env i
ronment alconcer ns,andcul t
uralinf l
uences.Al lthesear econsi deredi n
traditi
onalengineer ing,butof tenindividualengi neersar enoti nvol
v edi nal l
thesepi ecesoft hepr ocess( e.g.,consumerneeds/ desir
esand sol ution
qualityassessment smaybedonebynon- engineers).

4.Soci
alj
ust
icei
sani
mpor
tantl
essoni
ncul
tur
aldi
ff
erences:

Sev eralreligiousper spectiv

esonsoci aljusti
cear ecov ered.A numberof
dif
ferenceswi l
lari
sei nt heseper spectives,indeed,thewhol eappr oachto
formulatingt heperspect i
vesisquitedi f
ferent.Reli
gion(orthelackofit)isan
i
mpor tantpar tofcult
ure;hence, l
earningadi versit
yofper spect
ivesonsoci al
j
ustice (broadl y,whatpeopl et hink ofas a \ fai
rsy stem")pr ovi
des an
i
mpor tantlessoni nculturaldif
fer
ences.Fori nstance,i
fyouar ewor ki
ng ina
predomi natelyMusl im count ry,youmustknow atl eastsomet hing about
I
slam.I fy ou wor ki n Latin Amer i
ca y ou mustknow somet hi
ng about
Christ
ianity/Cat hol
i
cism.

5.Soci
alj
usti
cef
orscr
uti
nizi
ngappr
oachesi
ntheengi
neer
ing
Ent
erpr
ise:
 “Engineeri
ng ent erpr
ise" is basical
ly anywher
e an engi neer works
(entr
epreneur,industry,gov ernment,etc.
).Soci
aljustice teaches the
practi
cingengineerhowt osetgoalsfor
,andgoabout,engineeri
nginorder
topr omotejusti
ce.Soci alj
usti
cecanhelpanswert
hefoll
owi ngquesti
ons:
Whichi ssuesshoul dbef ocusedonwhenper f
ormingengineeringforthe
l
ow- i
ncome, weak, anddev el
opingcommuniti
es.

6.Engineers,technol ogy ,andhelpinghumani ty:

Engineer sof t
env i
ewt hemselvesas“ servi
ngt hepubl i
c,"andi ndeedal lof
humani ty( Mar ti
nandSchi nzinger,2005) .Engi neersof t
enf eelt hatt he
technologies t hat t hey create can sol ve al lt he wor l
d's pr oblems
(unreasonabl y so,i n my opi ni
on,and occasi onall
yt ot he poi ntof
technologicalar rogance) .Wev iewour selv
esaspeopl eofact ion,probl em
solvers,and“ creat or s"(i
nventors)oftechnol ogy ,whocanchanget hewor l
d
aswef indit.Soci alj usti
cedemandst hatwet akeourcl aimsser iously,and
makechangesi nt hepr operdi r
ection.I nengi neeringet hi
cs,ar equi red
subjecti nUSengi neer i
nguni ver
siti
es,i tist aughtt hatengineer sshoul d
“holdpar amountt hesaf ety,health,andwel far
eoft hepubl ic"(Nat ional
SocietyofPr ofessi onalEngineer sCodeofEt hics)(Mar t
inandSchi nzinger ,
2005) .Soci aljust icedemandst hatwel i
v eup t othisst atement ,and
perhapsdemandst hatwest r
engt hen.

Rel
igi
ousPer
spect
ives
Thesi xper spect ivesconsi der edher ear e,i nalphabet i
calor der :Buddhi st,
Cat hol ic,Conf uci an,Hi ndu,I slami c,and Jewi sh.I n each case,onl ya
relativel ybr ieft reat menti spr ov i
ded.
Buddhi st:
Buddhi sm i s a nont hei sticr eligion l ar gelybased on t he t eachings of
Siddhar thaGuat ama,whoi scal ledt he“ Buddha"( t
heawakenedoneor
enlight enedt eacher ).Her e,i deasr elatedt osoci aljusti
cei nBuddhi sm ar e
discussedbyusi ngt het reat ment sin( Fen, 2012; Emmanuel ,2012) .
Soci al Or derandConcer nf orOt her sBuddhi sm viewst hesoci al
orderashi er archi cal,andi nt hef ol l
owi ngt op-tobot tom or der:pr iestlyclass,
war r
ior/nobl ecl ass,peasantcl ass,andser v antcl ass.Thi sor deri sv iewedas
“eternal,unchangeabl e, andsacr ed"( Fen, 2012) .
Thissoci alor derdev elopedi nt ot hecast esy st em andt hebel iefthatpeopl ear e
borni ntot hei rcl ass.Buddhi sm doesnotbel iev etherei samor alcomponentt o
class;anycl asscanhav egoodorbadpeopl e.Acent ralideai nBuddhi sm i s
karmawhi chmeans” act"andi ti sbel iev edt hatweshoul dengagei npositive
actst hatwi llt henpr oducegoodr esul tsi nt hisl if
e.Kar mai st houghtt ocondi ti
on
howwest ar ti nl ife,ourphy sicalandment alchar acteristi
cs,soci alposi ti
on,and
l
uck.I fy ouar ebor nwi thacongeni talcondi tionorbadsoci alci rcumst ances,itis
feltthatt hisi st her esul tofact ionsi napastl if
etime.But ,thef uturecanbe
changedbyposi tiv eact ions, whi chr esulti nbei ngr ebornasphy sicallyat t
racti
v e,
bei
ngi
naf
iscal
l
ysecur
efami
l
y,andwi
thf
eat
urest
hatr
esul
tinagoodf
utur
e.

Suf
fer
ingandI
nter
connect
edness

Buddhasaid“ Iteachonl ydukkhaandt hecessat ionofdukkha"anddukkhai s

normal
lytranslatedas“ suffer
ing,
"buti tincludesmor ethanjustphysi
ologi
cal
andpsychologicalaspect s,suchascr avi
ngwor l
dlypl
easuresoratt
achmentt o
changi
ngt hi
ngs.Buddha' st eachingonsuf feri
ngi ssummar i
zedinhis“ Four
NobleTrut
hs"(Emmanuel ,2012):
1.Thetr
uthoft heexistenceofsuf f
ering.
2.Thetr
uthoft heoriginofsuf feri
ng.
3.Thetr
uthoft hecessat ionofsuf fer
ing.
4.Thetr
uthoft hepat hleadingt othecessationofsuffer
ing.

The f our thi s known as t he “ Nobl e Eight f

old Pat h"and has t he f oll
owi ng
guideli
nest oendi ngsuf f
ering:“pr omot et hev ir
tuesofRi ghtVi ew,RightThought ,
RightSpeech,Ri ghtAct ion,Ri ghtLi veli
hood,Ri ghtEf f
or t
,RightMi ndf ulness,and
RightConcent ration"(Emmanuel ,2012) .
InBuddhi sm,i ti sthoughtt hatt her eisat y peofi nterdependenceofsuf feri
ngby
i
ndi vi
dual s;hence,endi ngi ndividualsuf f
eringf orev enoneper sonhel psot her s.
Buddhi stssayt hatwemustbemi ndfullyawar eofhowwear econnect edt ot he
sufferi
ngofot her s,thatt hissuf fer i
ngcannotbesepar atedfrom howwel i
v e,or
theinstitutionsi noper ati
oni nasoci ety.I
ndeed, (Emmanuel ,2012):
Oncewegr aspt het ruthofempt iness( suny ata),weseet hatourper sonal
sufferi
ngexi stsi nterdependent lywi t
ht hesuf f eri
ngofot her s.Thus,whenwe
wor ktot ransf ormt hecondi ti
onst hatgi ver i
setosuf f
er i
ng,eitherinour selvesor
i
nsoci et y,ourwor kcont ri
but estot heli
ber ati
onofal lbeings.InBuddhi stt hought ,
thisrealizationi st hebasi sf ortruecompassi on.
Indeed,“ Buddhi sm si mpl yist hecompassi onat er esponset osuf feringi nt he
wor l
d"( Emmanuel ,2012) .Also,Buddhi stst eacht hatwisdom onl yhasv aluei nso
farasi tbenef i
tsot hers.

Cat
hol
ic

TheCat holi
cChur ch'sst anceon soci aljust i
cei sgi ven via“ Catholicsoci al
teaching,"alsocalledi t
s“ socialdoctrine,"whi chhasi tsor i
ginsi nthet eachi
ngs
ofJesusandt hebible.Cathol i
csocialt eachinghasbeenupdat edthroughoutt he
mor et han 2000 y earhi story oft he Cat holic Church tor efl
ectchangi ng
circumst ances( e.
g.,wor kercondi ti
onsr esultingf r
om t heindust r
ialrevoluti
on,
the r i
se ofi nformation technol ogy,t he knowl edge economy ,the impactof
biotechnol ogy, globaliz
ation, and gr owi ng concer n ov er env ir
onment al
degr adation).Thet eachingi sbasedont hedi gnit
yoft hehumanper sonand
humanr i
ghts,i
scent eredar oundasetofcor epr i
ncipl
es( e.
g.,thecommongood
and sol idari
ty)
,and t he appl icati
on oft hese t of amily,wor k,economi clife,
pol i
ti
calcommuni ty,i
nternationalcommuni t
y ,safeguardi
ngt heenv ironment ,
and
promot ionofpeace.
Her e,i nt hei nt erestofbr ev i
ty ,t hewhol eofCat hol icsoci alt eachi ngi snot
cov ered, onl y par ts r elev ant t o engi neer ing, sci ence, t echnol ogy , and
dev elopment( e. g.,bibl i
calf oundat i
ons,somei ssuesr elatedt of ami li
es,some
aspect sofl ov e,andspi r i
tualdi mensi ons,ar el argel yi gnor edev ent hought his
runst her i
skofdi stor ti
ngt het eachi ngsi ncei tisbestunder stoodi ni t
suni ty).
Thet reatmentbel owoft heCat hol icsoci alt eachi ngf ollowst hedev elopmenti n
(Compendi um, 2005)wher et hei nter estedr eadercanobt aint hef ull det ai
lsoft he
teachi ng; allquot esi nt hissect ionwer etakenf rom t hi ssour ce.
Di gni tyoft heHumanPer sonandHumanRi ght sI nev erymanandwomant her e
i
st he l iving i mage ofGod;hence,ev eryper son has an i ncompar abl e and
i
nal i
enabl e di gni ty,and al lhumans hav e equaldi gni ty and v alue.Thi si s
regar dlessofr ace, nat i
on, sex ,origin, disabi li
ties, cultur e,orcl ass.Soci eti
esmust
respectt hedi gni tyofal lhumanper sons.Fori nst ance,no humani st o be
mani pulatedcont r
ar yt ot hedev elopmentoft hati ndi vidual.
Indeed,onl yr ecogni tionofhumandi gnitycanmakepossi blet hecommonand
per sonal gr owt hofev eryone.I tisonl ypossi bl et osaf eguar dandpr omot ehuman
digni tyift hisi sdoneasacommuni ty,byt hewhol eofhumani t
y.Al lofCat hol i
c
soci alteachi ngi sbasedont hedi gnityofal l humanper sons.
Recogni tionoft hedi gnit yofal lhumanbei ngsl eadst ohumanr i
ght s.Human
right sar et obedef endedbot hbyi ndi vidual sandsoci etyasawhol e;lackof
pr otect ion f orhuman r ight si sat ype off ail
ur et or ecogni ze t hem.The
i
dent i
fcat i
onandpr ocl amat ionofhumanr ight si sani mpor tantat temptt omeet
thedemandsofhumandi gni ty.Fori nst ance,PopeJohnPaulI Isai dt hatt he
Uni tedNat ionsUni ver sal Decl arat ionofHumanRi ght s( December ,1948)
i
s“ at rue mi lestone on t he pat h of humani ty'
s mor alpr ogr ess."Some
“basi c"ri
ght sincl ude( otherr ight sar el i
stedi nt hesect ionsbel ow) :
1.Ri ghtt ol if
e,
2.Ri ghtt ol ivei nauni tedf ami l
y ,
3.Ri ghtt odev elopone' si nt el
ligenceandf reedom i nseeki ngandknowi ngt he
trut h,
4.Ri ghtt oshar ei nt hewor kwhi chmakeswi seuseoft heEar th'smat erial
resour ces,
5.Ri ghtt oder ivef rom t hatwor kt hemeanst osuppor tonesel fandone' s
dependent s,
6.Ri ghtt of reel yest ablishaf ami lyandhav eandt or earchi l
dr en, and
7.Ri ghtt or eligiousf r
eedom.
Dut i
esar ei next ricabl yl inkedt or ight s,dut i
esbyt hei ndividual swhohav et he
right s,anddut i
esofot her st or ecogni zet her i
ght sofot her s.Cat hol i
csoci al
teachi ng, howev er, hasconsi stent l
ydemandedt hatt hef or t
unat erenouncesome
oft hei rr i
ght ssoast opl acet heirgoodsmor egener ousl yatt heser v i
cet oot her s.
Inspi teofr ight s,wear eal lanswer ablet ot he“ commongood"( mor eont he
def ini t
ionoft hecommongoodi sgi venbel ow) .
Humanr i
ght shav eexpandedt oi ncl udet her ight sofpeopl esandnat i
ons.
Whati st ruef ori ndi vidual si sal sot ruef orpeopl es.Ther ightsofnat ionsar e
“humanr ights"att hel ev elofcommuni t yl i
fe.Hence,anat ionhasar i
ghtt o
exi stence,ar i
ghtt oi tsownl anguageandcul ture,ar i
ghtt oi tssov er eignt y
,a
ri
ghttoshapei tsl
i
feaccor di
ngt oitsownt radi
ti
ons(excludi
ngev eryabuseof
humanr ightsandoppr essionofmi nori
ti
es),andar i
ghtt oprov
ideappr opr
iate
education f oritsyoung.Unf or
tunatel
y,thepr ocl
amation ofhuman r ightsi s
contr
adi ctedbymanyexi sti
ngviolat
ionsofhumanr i
ghts:warsandv iolenceof
every kind;genoci des and mass depor t
ati
ons;forms ofsl averyi ncluding
tr
affi
ckingi nhumanbei ngs,chil
dsol di
ers,andexploit
ationofwor kers;ill
egal
drugtrafficking;
andprostit
uti
on.

Fundament
alVal
uesofSoci
alLi
fe:

Ther elationshi pbet weent hepr i

nciplescov eredabov e,andv alues,i soneof
recipr ocityi nt hatsoci alv aluesar eanappr eciat ionoft hemor algoodt hatt he
princi plesf ost er.Soci alv aluesar ei nher enti nt hedi gni tyoft hehumanper son
andsuppor thumandev elopment .
Thesoci al val uesar et rut h, f
reedom, just i
ce, andl ov e:
1.Tr ut h:Al lmenandwomenhav eadut yt ost ri
v ef ort het ruth, respect
i
t,andr esponsi blywi tnessi t
.Weneedext ensiveeducat ional effor tst o
suppor tt hesear chf ort ruth.
2.Fr eedom:Fr eedom i sasi gnt hatal lhumanswer ecr eat edi nt hei mageofGod,
andal lhav eequaldi gni ty.“ Freedom onl yt rulyexi stswher er eci procalbonds,
gov er nedbyt r
ut handj ust ice, l
inkpeopl et ooneanot her .
"
Freedom i spr oper lyr espect edwhenev eryhumani sper mi tt
edt of ulf
ill
themsel ves;“ toseekt het ruthandpr ofesshi sr el igious,cul tur alandpol itical
i
deas; "t oexpr esshi sorheropi nions; tochoosehi sorherst at eofl if
e; andt ot he
great estext entpossi ble,hi sorherl ineofwor k;t o pur suei nit
iativesofan
economi c,soci al,orpol iticalnat ure.Ther ear el i
mi tst of reedom i mposedbyt he
commongood.
3.Just ice: Just i
cei s“ theconst antandf i
rm wi lltogi v et hei rduet oGod
andnei ghbor ."Just icei nmanyf ormsmustber espect ed: commut ati
ve( a
vir
tue t hatr egul atest her ight sofonei ndi v
idualand anot her '
s),di stri
but iv
e
(soci allyjustal locat ionofgoods) ,andl egal .Soci aljust icei swor ldwi dei nscope,
and concer ns t he soci al,pol iti
cal,and economi c aspect s,and especi ally
struct uralpr obl emsandt heirsol utions.Gl obalsoci alj usticepr omot espeace.
Just icei nal lf or msi spar ti
cular lyimpor tantt odayashumandi gni tyandr ights
aret hr eat ened“ byt hewi despr eadt endencyt omakeexcl usiv euseofcr iteriaof
uti
lityandowner ship. "
4.Lov e: Lov ei st he“ hi ghestanduni versal criterionoft hewhol eofsoci al
ethics. "Lov epr omot est ruth, fr
eedom, andj ustice.“ Humanr elat i
onshi ps
cannotbegov er nedsol el ybyt hemeasur eofj ust ice" ,theyal sor equi re
l
ov e.“ Nol egi slat i
on, nosy stem ofr ulesornegot iationwi l
l eversucceed
i
nper suadi ngmenandpeopl est ol i
vei nuni ty,
br ot her hoodandpeace; nol ineof
reasoni ngwi llev erbeabl et osur passt heappealofl ov e."Hel pingone' snei ghbor
(whi chi ncl udesasoci ety )isanactofl ov eandmer cy .
Appl
icat
ionAr
eas

Theappl i
cati
onoft heabov epr i
nciplest ofami l
y,wor k,economi cl i
fe,pol i
ti
cal
communi ty,i
nternational communi t
y ,envi
ronment ,andpeacear econsi dered.
Fami l
y:Thef ami lymakesauni queandi r
replaceabl econt r
ibut
iont ot hegoodof
society.Familydoesnotexi stforsoci etyortheSt ate,butviceversa.Chi ldr
enar e
ofteneducat edaboutsoci alrelati
onshi psf i
rsti naf amily.Familiesshoul dhel p
protectchildr
en'sdi gnityandr i
ght s.Unf ort
unat ely,alargenumberoft hechi l
dren
l
iveunderunf avorablecondi t
ionsf ortheirint egraldev el
opment( e.g.,lackof
healthcar e,i
nadequat ef oodandwat ersuppl y,inadequateshel ter,andl ackof
educationaloppor t
unit i
es).Itisev eryone'
sr esponsibili
tyt ohelpr emedysuch
problems.Fori nst ance,i tisi mpor t
antt hata“ familywage"bepr ov i
ded in
compensat i
onf orwor k,onesuf fi
cientt omai ntainaf ami l
yandal l
owt hefami l
y
tolivedecently.Suchawageshoul dal l
owf orsav ingst opermittheacqui si
ti
onof
propertytoguar anteef reedom.

HumanWor k:Wor ki st obehonor edandappr eciat ed.Jesuswasamanofwor k.

Wor khel psmeett hecondi t
ionsf oradecentl if
eandi npr incipleshoul dbean
effectivei nst r
umentagai nstpov er
ty .Wor kshoul dnot ,howev er ,bei dolized;i tis
nott heul timat egoal .Wor ki sf ormenandwomen, notmenandwomenf orwor k.
Humansshoul dnotbeensl av edbywor k.Wor kof teni nv olvesact sofcr eat i
on.
Nooneshoul dfeelt heyhav ear ightnott owor k( i.
e., allhav eadut yt owor k)and
toliveatt heexpenseofot her s( butr ecal lthatwear eal lcal l
edt ocont ri
but et o
thecommongoodonl yaccor dingt oour“ possi bili
ties" )
.Thecal ltowor kisduet o
theneedt opr ovidef orour selv es,butal sot obeabl et ohel pournei ghbor s( i
.e.,
helpachi ev ethecommongood) .Yet ,“restf rom wor k
i
sar ight .
"“ Thecour seofhi stor yismar kedbyt hepr of oundt ransf or mat i
onand
theexhi larat i
ngconquest sofwor k,butal sobyt heexpl oitationofsomany
wor kersandanof fenset ot hei rdi gnity ."Wor kershav edi gni tyandar ightt o
proper ty.
Cooper ationi si mpor t
antamongt hesoci alcl asses,t her ightsoft heweakand
poormustbe pr otect ed,and t he obl igat ionsofwor ker sand empl oyer sbe
recogni zed.
Ther ightofwor ker st of orm associ at i
onsmustbeuphel d( e.g., unions,
cooper at i
v es, r
ural banks, insur ancegr oups, andassi stanceor gani zations) .
Humanwor ki ssuper iort oal lot herf act orsr elatedt opr oduct i
v i
ty,inpar ticular,
“capital"(mat eri
al meansofpr oduct ionandf inanci al resour cesf orpr oduct ion) .
“Laborhasani ntrinsicpr iorityov ercapi tal."But :“Capi talcannotst andwi thout
l
abor ,norl aborwi t
houtcapi tal."Theor i
gi noft heconf lictbet weencapi taland
l
aborwasf oundi nt hatwor ker sputt hei rpower satt hedi sposalofent repr eneur s
who,t rying t o maxi mi zepr ofits,t ried t o gi vet hel owestpossi blewagest o
wor kers.New aspect soft hispr oblem ar iset odayi nt hepr esenceofsci ent ifi
c
andt echnol ogicalpr ogr ess, andgl obal i
zat ionofmar ket s( whi chcanbeasour ce
ofdev elopment ),leadi ngt ot heexpl oitat i
onofwor ker sv iamechani smsi nt he
economyandanunconst rainedquestf orpr oduct i
v i
ty.
Excessi vedemandsofwor kcanl eadt odest abi l
izat i
onoff ami lyl i
fe( tr
av eling
greatdi st ancest owor k, wor kingt woj obs, phy sical andpsy chol ogi cal fat igueal l
reducet i
mededi cat edt of ami ly).“Ther elat ionshi pbet weenl aborcancapi tal
alsof indsexpr essi onwhenwor ker spar ti
ci pat einowner shi p, management , and
prof its."
“Priv ateandpubl icpr oper t
y ,aswel l ast hev ar i
ousmechani smsoft heeconomi c
syst em, mustbeor ient edt oaneconomyofser vicet omanki ndsot hatt hey
cont r i
but et oput tingi nt oef f
ectt hepr incipl eoft heuni v ersal dest i
nat i
onof
goods( incl udi ngmoder n“ goods"suchast echnol ogi esandknowl edge) .New
technol ogi escanmakesi gni ficantcont ribut ionst osoci al pr ogr ess; howev er,if
theyr emai nconcent ratedi nweal thiercount ries, orasmal l numberofpower ful
groups, ther ei sther iskt hatt heycanbecomesour cesofunempl oy mentanda
causef orani ncreasi nggapbet weendev el opedandunder dev elopedar eas( e.g.,
count ries) .
“Wor ki saf undament alr ight ."Wor ki snecessar y .Iti sneededt of or m and
mai nt ai naf ami l
y ,tohav ear ightt opr oper ty,andt ocont ribut et ot hecommon
good.Unempl oy menti sasoci aldi sast er ,especi allywi thr egar dt oy ounger
gener at ions.Wor k must be made av ailablet o al lcapabl e peopl e.“Full
empl oy ment "i samandat or yobj ect i
v ef orev eryeconomi csy st em t hati s
orient ed t owar d j ust ice and t he common good. “ The hi gh l ev el of
unempl oy ment ,t he pr esence of obsol ete educat ionalsy stems and of
per sist entdi ffcult i
esi ngai ningaccesst opr of essi onalf or mat ionandt hej ob
mar ketr epr esent ,especi allyf ormanyy oungpeopl e,ahugeobst acl eont he
roadt ohumanandpr ofessi onaldev elopment ."“ I
ngener al ,t hisi st hedr ama
thatst r i
kesnotonl yy oungpeopl e,butal sowomen,l essspeci alizedwor kers,
theper sonswi t
hdi sabi lit
ies,i mmi grant s,ex- conv icts,t hei lliter at e,al lt hose
whof acegr eat erdi f fi
cul ti
esi nt heat temptt of indt hei rpl acei nt hewor l
dof
empl oy ment .
"I npar ticul ar:“ Thef emi ni negeni usi sneededi nal lexpr essi onsi n
thel ifeofsoci ety, ther ef oret hepr esenceofwomeni nt hewor kpl acemustal so
beguar ant eed. "“Theper sistenceofmanyf or msofdi scr imi nat i
onof f ensi v eto
thedi gni t yandv ocat ionofwomeni nt hear eaofwor ki sduet oal ongser i
esof
condi tioni ng t hat penal izes women,who hav e seen ' thei r pr er ogat i
ves
mi srepr esent ed' andt hemsel ves' relegat edt ot hemar ginsofsoci et y' andev en
reduced t o ser vi
t ude. "Ther ei sanur gentneed t or ecogni zet her ight sof
wor ki ngwoment oaspect sofpay ,insur ance, andsoci al secur ity.
Stay ingempl oy edi ncr easi ngl ydependsonone' spr of essi onal capabi l
ities.
Educat ionalsy stemsshoul dnoti gnor ehumanort echnol ogi calf or mat ion, whi ch
areneededt of ulfilljobr esponsi bi l
ities.TheSt ateandci v i
lsoci et yhav ear olein
promot ing t he r ightt o wor k( e.g. ,v ia pol i
ci es)i n a count ry .I nt er nat i
onal
cooper at ioni sneededt of ost erj obcr eat i
onar oundt hewor ld.
Chi l
dl abori nsomef or msi sat ypeofv iol ence.Howev er ,incer taincount ri
es, the
cont r i
but ionmadebychi ldl abort of ami lyi ncomeandt henat ionaleconomyi s
i
ndi spensi ble, andsomet ypesofpar t -
timewor kpr ov ebenef i
ci al fort hechi ld.
Yet ,t heChur chcondemnst hei ncr easei n“ theexpl oitat ionofchi ldr eni nt he
wor kpl acei ncondi tionsofv er i
tabl esl av er y."“Immi gr ationcanbear esour cef or
dev el opmentr athert hananobst acl et oi t."Ther ear egr av ei nequal iti
esbet ween
ri
chandpoorcount r
iesandhenceani ncr easi ngnumberofi mmi gr ant sseeki nga
betterl
ife.Mostof t
en, suchi mmigrant
sarenotat hreatt
owell
-beingofthehost
country,butf i
l
lsectorsoft hejobmar kett
hatothersareunwil
l
ingt ofi
ll
.Forei
gn
workersshoul dnotbeexpl oited;t
heyareenti
tl
edtot hesameri
ghtsasnat i
onals.
Immi gr
ant saret ober eceivedashumanswi t
hdigni t
yandhelpedt obecomea
partofsoci et
y.
Wor ker
shav edigni
tyandt heirri
ghtsmustberespected;t
hesei
nclude:

1. Ri ghtt oaj ustwage;

2. Ri ghtt or est ;
3. Ri ghtt oawor kingenv ironmentandt omanuf actur i
ngpr ocesseswhi ch
arenothar mf ultot hewor ker 'sphy sical heal t
hort ot hei rmor alintegr i
ty;
4.Ri ghtt hatone' s per sonal i
t yi nt he wor kplace shoul d be saf eguar ded
wi t
houtsuf feringanyaf rontt oone' sconsci enceorper sonal dignity;
5. Ri ghtt oappr opr iatesubsi diest hatar enecessar yf ort hesubsi stenceof
unempl oy edwor ker sandt hei rf ami l
ies;
6. Ri ghtt oapensi onandt oi nsur ancef orol dage,si ckness,andi ncaseof
wor k-relatedacci dent s;
7. Ri ghtt osoci al secur ityconnect edwi thmat ernity;
8. Ri ghtt oassembl eandf or m associ ations; and
9. Ri ghtt ost ri
ke( wheni tcannotbeav oided,orwheni tisnecessar yt o
obt ainapr opor ti
onalbenef it,buti tshoul dal way sbepeacef ul{i
ti smor ally
unaccept abl ewheni ti nv olv esv iolence,i snotdi rect l
yl inkedt owor king
condi ti
ons, orwheni ti scont rar yt ot hecommongood) .
Suchr i
ght sar eof tenv iol ated.\ I
tof tenhappenst hatwor kcondi t
ionsf ormen,
women,andchi ldren,especi allyi ndev elopi ngcount ries,ar esoi nhumanet hat
theyar eanof fenset ot hei rdi gni tyandcompr omi set heirheal th."Aj ustwagei s
themosti mpor tantmeansf orachi ev ingj ust icei nwor kplacer elations.Howev er,
the“ agreementbet weent heempl oy eeandempl oyerwi thr egar dt ot heamount
ofpayt ober ecei vedi snotsuf ficientf ort heagr eed- uponsal aryt oqual ifyasa
“j
ustwage, "becauseaj ustwage' mustnotbebel owt hel evelofsubsi stence' of
thewor ker :nat uralj usticepr ecedesandi sabov et hef reedom oft hecont r
act .
"
Thef undament alr oleofl aboruni onst odef endv i
tali nter estsofwor kersi s
recogni zed.Uni onsshoul dpur suet hecommongoodandar eaposi tivef orcef or
solidarity.Uni onsshoul dpr omot et hest ruggl ef orsoci aljust ice.Rel ationsi nthe
wor kplace must ,howev er ,be gov er ned by cooper ati
on.Uni ons hav et he
responsi bili
tyt ot ryt oi nf luencet hepol i
ticalar ena,maki ngi tawar eofl abor
problemsandhel pingi tt owor ksot hatwor kerr ight sar er espect ed.Uni onsar e
todaypr esent edwi thnew chal lengest owi dent hei rpr omot ionofsol i
dar i
tyt o
i
ncl ude:wor ker swi thnon- standar dorl imi ted-timecont r
act s;empl oy eeswhose
j
obs ar et hreat ened by busi ness mer ger st hatoccurwi th ev er -i
ncreasing
frequency ,ev en att he i nter nat ionall ev el;t hose who do nothav eaj ob;
i
mmi grant s;seasonalwor ker s;andt hosewhohav ebeendi smi ssedf rom t heir
j
obduet oaneedf orre-t raining.
Global i
zat i
oni schangi ngt heor gani zat i
onofwor k.Indust rial plant scan
bel ocat edf arf rom l ocat ionswher est rategi esar edeci ded( sot her ei sagr eat
distance t oi mpl i
cat i
ons ofdeci sions)and f r
om mar ket s wher e goods ar e
consumed.
Speedofcommuni cationsandeaseofwor ld-wi detranspor tofmat erials
aresuppor t
ingt his.“ Globalizationofsaf eguar ds,mi nimum essent i
alr i
ght s,and
equityi snecessar y."Onei mpor t
antf eatureoft henew or ganizati
onofwor kis
thef ragment ationoft hepr oductioncy cl
ebr oughtaboutbyef fortst oobt ai
n
greateref ficiency and pr ofits( partialmanuf acture ofpr oducts atdi stant
l
ocat ions) .Thi sr equi r
esanew sy stem f ort hedef enseofwor k.New soci al
protect i
onsar eneededi naneconomybasedonsuchf ragment edwor k,serv i
ces,
andt echnol ogi calinnov ati
ons.Thedecent r
alizat i
onofpr oduct ionof tenassi gns
tosmal lercompani est askspr evi
ousl ycent r
alizedi nl argerpr oductionsi tesand
thisgi vesnew v i
talit
yandener gytosmal landmedi um- si
zedbusi nesses;such
businesses,al ongwi thar ti
sansandi ndependentwor k,mayhel pmaket hewor k
exper i
encemor ehuman.Howev er,thesesect or shav ehadanumberofcasesof
unjustt reatment ,poorpay ,anduncer tainwor k.I ndev elopingcount r
iest her ehas
beenanexpansi onof“ informal "and“ hidden"economi cact iviti
es.
Thiscanr epr esentapr omisi ngsignofeconomi cgrowt handdev elopment ,but
ethicalandl egalpr oblemsar i
se(e.g.,terri
blewor kcondi tions,lackofr ulest o
safeguar dwor kerdi gnity,andl ow incomes) .Ov eral
l,thegl obali
zationofwor k
call
sf orgl obaldev elopmentofsol i
dar i
ty.“Economi candsoci alimbal ancesi n
thewor ldofwor kmustbeaddr essedbyr estor ingaj usthi erarchyofv aluesand
placinghumandi gnityofwor kersbef oreallelse. "

Economi
cLi
fe:

“Economi cact ivi

tyandmat erialpr ogressmustbepl acedatt heser viceofmen
andsoci et y.
"Thepr oductionofgoodsshoul dbemadeef f
icient; howev er,i
tisnot
accept abletoachi eveeconomi cgr owt hatt heexpenseofhumans,popul at i
ons,
orsoci algr oups,condemni ngt hem t oindigence.“ Ev eryonehast her i
ghtt o
parti
cipat eineconomi cli
feandt hedut ytocont r
ibute,eachaccor di
ngt ohisown
capacity,t othepr ogressofhi scount ryandt ot hatoft heent i
r ehumanf ami l
y."
Businessowner sandmanager sshoul dstruct urewor ksoast opr omot efami ly.
Adut yi nsol idarityandj ust i
cei st hateachper soncont ributet otheeconomi c
developmentofev eryotherper son.Theobj ectiveofaneconomyt odev elop
wealthi smor all
ycor rectifiti sdi r
ect edtoal lhumans' dev elopmenti nsol idarit
y
i
nasoci ety.Nev erbef orehast her oleofbusi nessbeensodeci si
v ef orhuman
developmenti nsol idari
ty.
“Everyonehasar i
ghtt oeconomi ci nit
iati
ve."“ TheSt atehast hemor alobligat i
on
toenf orcest rictlimitati
onsonl yi ncasesofi ncompat ibil
itybet weent hepur suit
ofcommongoodandt het y peofeconomi cact ivi
typr oposedort hewayi tis
undertaken. "Ani mpor t
antdi mensi onofbusi nessesi stheircapaci t
yt oser vet he
commongoodt hrought hepr oduct ionofusef ulgoodsandser vi
ces.Whi lei tis
j
ustifi
edt hatbusi nessesear npr ofit,iti
sunaccept ablet hatbusi nessnotser ve
societyorpr ot ectt hedi gnityofi tswor ker s.I tshoul dber ecognizedt hata
business can be a communi ty of sol i
dar i
ty. Usur y( loaning money at
unreasonabl er ates)asabusi nessi st obecondemned.
Thef reemar ketcanguar anteeef fectiveresul tsi nthepr oduct ionofgoodsand
serv ices.I thaspr ov ent opr ov idesust ainedeconomi cdev elopmentf orlongt i
me
per i
ods.Themar ketenabl esbet teruseofr esour cesandf aci li
tat esexchangeof
product s.“ At rulycompet i
tiv emar keti sanef f ect i
v ei nst r umentf orat t aining
i
mpor tantobj ect ivesofj ust ice: moder at i
ngt heexcessi v epr of i
ts
ofi ndi v i
dualbusi nesses,r espondi ngt oconsumer s'demands,br i
ngi ngabouta
mor eef ficientuseandconser vat i
onofr esour ces,r ewar dingent repreneur shi p
and i nnov ati
on,maki ng i nfor mat ionav ailabl eso t hati ti sr eal l
ypossi bl et o
compar eandpur chasepr oduct si nanat mospher eofheal t
hycompet i
tion. "The
freemar ketmustbej udgedbasedonwhati tseekst oaccompl i
shandont he
valuesi ttransmi tst oasoci ety .Indi vidualpr of iti snott hesol eobj ective;soci al
usef ul nessi soff undament ali mpor tance.“ Whent hef reemar ketcar r
iesoutt he
i
mpor tantf unct ionsl i
st edment i
onedabov ei tbecomesaser vicet ot hecommon
goodandt oi ntegr alhumandev elopment ."Whi let hei mpor tanceofmar ket si s
clear ,t heymustber oot edi net hicalobj ect ives.Themar kethasl i
mi tsi ni ts
prov eni nabi li
tyt osat i
sf yi mpor tanthumanneeds,whi ch“ requi regoodst hat' by
theirnat urear enotandcannotbemer ecommodi ties, 'goodst hatcannotbe
boughtandsol daccor dingt ot her uleoft he' exchangeofequi valent s'andt he
l
ogi cofcont ract s."“ Freedom i nt heeconomi csect or ,howev er ,mustber egul ated
byappr opr i
at el egalnor mssot hati twi l
lbepl acedatt heser vi
ceofi nt egr al
human f reedom. "Act ions oft he St ate and publ i
c aut hor i
ties mustr espect
subsi diarityandcr eat econdi tionst hatpr omot et hef reeexer ciseofeconomi c
activ i
t y;al so,t heymustbei nspi redbysol idar ityandputi nt opl acel i
mi t son
aut onomy oft he par ties t o def end t hose who ar e weaker .The St ate's
i
nv ol vementmustbenei theri nv asi venorabsent ,butappr opr iatet osoci ety '
s
needs.Thebasi cr esponsi bi li
tyoft heSt atei st osetupanappr opr i
atej ur idical
framewor kt or egul ateeconomi caf fairs( e.g. ,tosaf eguar dt heweakf rom t he
power ful,topr omot et heobser vat i
onoff airandt ranspar entr ul es,ort oputt he
princi pleofr edist ri
but ioni nt oef fect ,t oencour agebusi nesst opr omot et he
commongoodbyt ry i
ngt oi nv olveal lcitizensi nt heact ivitiesofpr oduct ion) .Tax
revenue and publ i
c spendi ng shoul d be di rect ed t owar ds dev elopmentand
solidar ity( e.g.,t o pr ot ectt heweakest ).“ Publ icspendi ng i sdi rect ed t ot he
commongoodwhencer tainf undament alpr inci plesar eobser ved:t hepay ment
oft axesaspar toft hedut yofsol i
dar ity;ar easonabl eandf airappl icat i
onof
taxes;and pr eci sion and i ntegr ityi n admi nist er i
ng and di stribut i
ng publ ic
resour ces. "Forr edi stribut ionofr esour ces,publ i
cspendi ngmust“ obser v et he
princi plesofsol idar ity,equal it
y ,andmaki nguseoft alent s."
“Pur chasi ngpowermustbeusedi nt hecont extoft hemor al demandsof
j
ust iceandsol idar i
ty ,andi nt hatofpr eci sesoci alr esponsi bi l
ities."Thedut yof
char itydemandst hatwegi vef rom ourabundance, andsomet i
mesf rom our
needs,t opr ov i
deessent ialsf ort hepoor .Consumer scanessent iallydirectt he
behav iorofpr oducer st hr ought heiri ndi v i
dualandcol lect ivepr ef erencesf or
product st akingi ntoaccountnotonl ypr iceandqual i
ty, butal so“ t
hepr esenceof
cor rectwor kingcondi tionsi nt hecompanyaswel last hel ev elofpr otect ionof
thenat ural env i
r onment ."
Global ization of economi c and f inanci alsect orsi s an on- goi ng r eal i
t y
.
“Global izationgi vesr iset onewhopeswhi leatt hesamet imei tposest roubl ing
quest ions. "Ithast hepot entialt opr ovidebenef i
tst oal lofhumani ty.Howev er,
therear egr owi ngt r
endsofi ncr easi ngi nequal i
tybot hbet weendev elopedand
dev elopi ng count ries and wi thini ndust r
ialized count ri
es.Gr owi ng economi c
weal thi saccompani edbyani ncr easei nr elativepov er ty.Wemustl ookf ornew
oppor t uniti
esf ort her edistri
but ionofweal tht obenef i
tt heunder privi
legedt hat
hav ebeenexcl udedormar ginal i
zedi nsoci al andeconomi cpr ogress.
Weneedagl obal izati
oni nsol idarit
y ,wi thoutmar gi nalization.“ Technol ogical
progr ess i tselfr i
sks bei ng unf airlydi stri
but ed among count ries."To expl oit
techni calknowl edge a soci ety needs enough knowl edgeabl e ci ti
zens and
suf f
icientf i
nanci alr esour ces,somet hingadev elopingcount rymaynothav e.
Internat ional t rade can pr omot e dev elopment , cr eat e new empl oyment
oppor t uniti
es,andpr ovi
deusef ulr esour ces.Ther ear epr oblems,howev er,with
i
nt ernat ionalt rade,of tenst emmi ngf rom pr otectionistpol iciest hatdi scri
mi nate
agai nstpr oduct s comi ng f rom poorcount ries and hence hi ndergr owt h of
i
ndust rialact i
v i
tyi n, andt hetransf eroft echnol ogy ,t
ot hosecount ries.“Freedom
oft radei sf aironl ywheni ti si naccor dwi tht hedemandsofj ustice."The
wideni nggapbet weenr ichandpoorcount ri
esdemandst hatet hicalcr it
eriaform
thebasi sf ori nternat i
onaleconomi cr el
at i
ons:“t hepur suitoft hecommongood
and t he uni versaldest inati
on ofgoods;equi tyi nt rade r elationships;and
attentiont ot her ight sandneedsoft hepoori npol iciesconcer ningt r
adeand
i
nt ernat ionalcooper ati
on. "Ot her wiset her i
chnat ionsgetr i
cherandt hepoor
nat i
onsst ayf or ev erpoor .

Politi
calCommuni t
y :
“Thehumanper soni st hef oundat ionandpur poseofpol i
ti
call i
fe."Pol i
tical
communi ty mustr ecogni ze and r especthuman di gni ty by def endi ng and
promot inghumanr ight s.Itmustpr omot ethecommongoodbyseeki ngt ocr eat e
ahumanenv i
ronment“ thatof fersci ti
zenst hepossi bi l
ityoft rulyexer cisingt hei r
human r i
ght s and off ulfil
li
ng compl etelyt heircor respondi ng dut i
es. "“ The
polit
icalcommuni tyi sr esponsi blef orr egulat i
ngi tsr elationswi thci vilsoci ety
accor di
ng t o the pr i
nci ple of subsi diari
ty .
" Vol unt eer or ganizations and
cooper ati
ve endeav or s i n the pr i
vate-social sect or r epresent t he most
appropr i
ateway stodev elopt hesoci aldimensi onoft hehumanper son.
Theexi stenceofapubl i
caut hor it
yi sneededt opr omot et hecommongood,y et
polit
icalauthor i
ti
esmustnotusur pfreeact ivi
tyofi ndi vidual s,butdi sciplineand
ori
enti ndividualsf reedoms( whi l
er espect i
ngt heiri ndependence)t owar dst he
commongood.Pol iticalaut horiti
esar eonl yl
egi timat ei ft heyseekt hecommon
good.Pol it
icalaut hor it
iesmustbegui dedbymor allaw, andr espectandpr omot e
essent i
alhumanandmor alvalues.Tot hisend,pol iticalaut hor i
ti
esmustenact
j
ustl aws.Ci ti
zens hav ear ightofconsci entious obj ect i
on i fpr ecept s ar e
“contrarytot hedemandsoft hemor alorder ,t ot hef undament alr ightsof
personsort ot het eachi ngsoft heGospel ."Ref usalt of ollowanunj ustl awi sa
mor aldutyandhumanr ight .Civ i
llawmustr ecogni zet hisr i
ghtandnotpenal ize
i
tsuse.“ Armedr esist ancet ooppr essionbypol iti
calaut hor i
tyi snotl egi ti
mat e,
unlessal lt
hef oll
owi ngcondi t
ionsar emet :"
1.Ther eiscer t
ain, grav e, andpr olongedv i
olationoff undament alhumanr ights;
2.All
othermeansofr edresshavebeenexhausted;
3.Suchresi
stancewil
l notprov
okeworsedisorders;
4.Therei
swel l
-f
oundedhopeofsuccess; and
5.I
tisimpossibl
etoreasonablyfor
eseeanybet t
ersolut
ion.

Thedanger sofr ecour set ov i

ol encemakei tpr eferabl ei nanycaset hatpassi ve
resist ancebepr acticed, sincei tismor econf ormabl et omor alpr i
nciplesandhas
nol esspr ospect sf orsuccess.Topr otectt hecommongood, publ i
caut hor i
tyhas
ther i
ghtanddut y“ toi nf l
ictpuni shment saccor dingt ot heser i
ousnessoft he
cri
mescommi tted. "Puni shmentser vest odef endpubl i
cor derandsaf et yof
per sonsandi sani nst r
umentofcor rect i
onf ort heof fender .“Ther egul ati
on
agai nstt heuseoft or ture,ev eni nt hecaseofser iouscr i
mes,mustbest ri
ctly
obser ved."Not hingcanj ust if
yt heuseoft orture.The“ gr owingpubl i
copposi ti
on
tot hedeat hpenal t
y "isasi gnofhope.Yet ,“presumi ngt hef ul
lascer tainmentof
thei dent it
yandr esponsi bilit
yoft hegui l
typar ty ,
"t het raditionalCat hol i
csoci al
teachi ngdoesnotexcl udet heuseoft hedeat hpenal ty“ whent hisi st heonl y
pract icablewayt odef endt hel i
v esofhumanbei ngsef f
ect i
velyagai nstt he
aggr essor ."“ Bl
oodl essmet hodsofdet errenceandpuni shmentar epr eferredas
'
theybet tercor r
espondt ot heconcr etecondi t
ionsoft hecommongoodandar e
mor ei nconf or
mi tyt ot hedi gni tyoft hehumanper son."Thei ncr easingnumber
ofcount ri
eswhoar eabol ishingt hedeat hpenal t
yshowst hatcasewher et he
deat hpenal t
ymustbeused“ ar ev eryr are,ifnotpr acticallynon- existent .
"“ The
Chur chv aluest hedemocr at i
csy stem inasmuchasi tensur est hepar ti
cipat i
onof
cit
izensi nmaki ngpol iti
calchoi ces,guar ant eest ot hegov ernedt hepossi bil
ity
bot h ofel ecti
ng and hol ding account abl et hose who gov ernt hem,and of
replaci ngt hem t hroughpeacef ulmeanswhenappr opr iate.
"At r
uedemocr acy
respect st he di gni ty oft he human per son,r espect s human r i
ght s,has a
commi tmentt ot hecommongoodas“ t hepur poseandgui dingcr it
erionf or
politicallife."Cor rupt ioni npol iticsbet raysmor alpr inciplesandnor msofsoci al
j
ust ice.Pol it
icalpar tiesshoul df ost erpar t
icipat i
on( e.g.,v iat hef reef l
ow of
i
nf ormat ion,i ncludi ngv iat hemedi a)andor ientaspi rati
onst owar dt hecommon
good.

I
nter
nat
ionalCommuni
ty:

Thereisaneedt of orallpeopleint hewor ldt opr omotethe“ uni

versal
"common
good,thatis,thecommongoodf oral lofhumani t
y.“Thecoexi st
enceamong
nati
onsisbasedont hesamev aluest hatshoul dgui derelat
ionsamonghuman
bei
ngs:t r
uth,justi
ce,act i
vesol idar i
tyandf reedom. "Therei saneedf oran
i
nternati
onalagreementon“ theright sofnat i
ons, "onethatdealswi t
hquest i
ons
ofjusti
ceandf reedom.Mor allaw t hatgov ernshumansshoul dalsogov er
n
nati
ons'relat
ionswi t
heachot her.Fori nstance,j usti
ceshoul dnotbesought
thr
oughwar( e.
g.,theChar t
eroft heUni tedNat ionsbansr ecoursetof orceand
thr
eats oft he use off orce).“ The Uni ted Nat i
ons 'has made a not abl
e
contri
buti
ont ot hepr omotionofr espectf orhumandi gni
ty,thef reedom of
peopl esandt her equi r
ement sofdev elopment ,thuspr epar ingt hecul turaland
i
nstitut ionalsoi lf orbui l
di ngpeace. '
"Ther ei saneedt oest ablish“ someuni v ersal
publicaut hor ityacknowl edgedassuchbyal landendowedwi thef fect i
v epower
tosaf eguar d,ont hebehal fofal l,secur i
ty,r egar df orj ust ice,andr espectf or
ri
ghts. "I nternat ionalpol iticalaut hor i
tymustseekt heuni ver salcommongood,
andr espectt hepr inci pl
eofsubsi di ari
ty.
Global izationdemandsi nt ernat i
onalpol i
t i
calact i
onwi t
ht hegoal sofpeaceand
development ,andseeki ngt heuni v ersal commongood.
Challenges t o dev el opmentr equi rei nternat ionalcooper at ion and r esol ute
determi nat i
onsi nceev er ynat ionhasr i
ghtt odev elopmentbasedon:“uni tyof
ori
ginandashar eddest inyoft hehumanf ami ly;equal itybet weenev eryper son
andbet weenev er ycommuni t
ybasedonhumandi gnity; theuni v ersaldest inat ion
ofgoodsoft heear t
h; t
henot ionofdev elopmenti ni tsent irety ;andt hecent rality
ofthehumanper sonandsol idarity .
"“Ther i
ghtt odev el opmentmustbet aken
i
ntoaccountwhenconsi der ingquest ionsr elatedt ot hedebtcr i
sisofmanypoor
count ries."Dev el opmenti sof tenai dedbyf ai
raccesst oi nter nat i
onalmar ket s.
“Amongt hecausest hatgr eatlycont ribut et ounder dev elopmentandpov er ty,in
additiont ot hei mpossi bilityofaccedi ngt ot hei nternat ionalmar ket ,ment ion
mustbemadeofi l
l
iteracy ,lackoff oodsecur ity,theabsenceofst ruct uresand
servi
ces,i nadequat emeasur esf orguar anteei ngbasi cheal thcar e,t hel ackof
safedr inkingwat erandsani tation,cor r
upt ion,i nst abil
it yofi nst i
tutionsandof
poli
ticall i
fei tself."“ Thespi ritofi nternat ionalcooper ationr equi rest hat ,bey ond
thest rictmar ketment ality, thereshoul dbeanawar enessoft hedut yt osol idar ity,
j
usticeanduni versal char ity."
Pover tyofbi l
li
onsofpeopl ei nthewor ldsi gni f
icant lychal lengesourconsci ences,
and“posesadr amat icpr oblem ofj ust i
ce. "Theuni v ersaldest inationofgoods,
andpr ef erentialopt ionf orandl ov eoft hepoor ,demandt hatal lhumanswor kt o
end pov ertyi nt he wor ld.I nt his wor k,t he pr inci pl
e ofsol idaritymustbe
accompani ed bysubsi diar ity t
o cr eat easpi ritofi nitiativei ndev el opi ng
count ries( thepoorshoul dnotbev i
ewedasapr obl em,butas“peopl ewhocan
becomet hepr i
nci plebui lder sofanewandmor ehumanf ut uref orev eryone" ).

Saf
eguar
dingt
heEnv
ironment
:

Wi t
ht hehel pofscienceandt echnology ,humanshav eext endedt hei
rmast ery
overal mostal lofnat ure.Throughsci enceandt echnology ,humansar eco-
creatorswi thGod.But ,ashumans'capabi l
ityhasext endedt heygai nmor e
responsi bil
ity.Biot
echnologyandgenet icsof fergreatpr omi sef orpr oducing
mor eadv ancedandv i
gor ousst r
ainsofpl ants( e.
g.,tohel pef fici
encyoff ood
product i
on)andadv ancedmedi cines.But ,scienceandt echnol ogyshoul dserve
humani ty,r espectmenandwomen,andhav eanat tit
udeofr espectf orother
creatures.Thi s cr
eates concer ns wi t
h,f ori nst
ance,i ndiscriminate genet i
c
mani pulation,andunscr upulousdev elopmentofnewf ormsofpl antandani mal
l
ife.Ther ei sgraveconcer nabouti nterferencei necosy stemsandl ong-t
erm
i
mpactonf uturegenerati
ons.Pr oblemswi tht heenv i
ronmenthav eari
senf rom
humans'at t emptatuncondi tionaldomi nionov ercr eationand“ i
ll-
consi der ed"
expl oi t
at i
onofr esour ces.
Basi cal ly,“t heenv ironmentasa' resour ce'r i
skst hreat eningt heenv i
ronmentas
'
home. ”Ot herl ivingcr eat uresar enotabov et hedi gnityoft hehumanper son.
Yet ,cr eat uresar egi f t
st obenur tured, saf eguar ded, andr espect ed.Humanshav e
ar esponsi bi l
ityf or“ thepr eser vationofasoundandheal thyenv i
ronmentf oral l
."
“Car ef ort heenv ironmentr epr esent sachal lengef oral lofhumani t
y .Itisa
mat t erofacommonanduni versaldut y ,t hatofr espect ingacommongood,
dest inedf oral l,bypr ev ent i
ngany onef rom usi ng' wi thimpuni tyt hedi fferent
categor iesofbei ngs,whet herl i
v i
ngori nani mat eani mals,pl ant s,t henat ur al
element ssi mpl yasonewi shes,accor dingt oone' sowneconomi cneeds. "The
env ironment alv alue of bi odi versi ty must be r esponsi bly and adequat el y
prot ect edsi nce“ itconst i
tut esanext raor di naryr ichnessf oral lofhumani ty."
Responsi bi l
it yf ort heenv ironmenti ncl udescur rentneedsandt heneedsof
futur egener ations.I nt ernat ionall awsneeddev elopment ,andment aliti
esand
l
ifest y l
esneedt ochange( e.g. ,“tobr eakt hel ogicofmer econsumpt i
on" ).When
scient i
ficdat aonheal t handenv i
ronment alimpactar escar ceornotav ailable,i t
maybeappr opr iat et ouset he“ pr ecaut ionar ypr i
ncipl e"t odev elopgui del i
nest o
managet hesi tuat iont hathasuncer taint y.
“Progr ams ofeconomi c dev elopmentmustcar eful l
yconsi der' the need t o
respectt hei ntegr it
yandcy clesofnat ur e' becausenat uralr esour cesar el i
mi ted
andsomear enotr enewabl e. "Today '
sexpl oitationi sser i
ousl yaf fect i
ngr esour ce
avai l
abi lityf ornowandt hef ut ure.Rel ationsbet weenhumanact ivi
tyandcl imat e
changemustbemoni toredatal ll ev els.Thecl imat emustbepr ot ectedandal l
consumer s and i ndust ri
al act ivities “ must dev elop a gr eat er sense of
responsi bili
t yf ort hei rbehav ior."Topr ot ectt heenv i
ronment ,maxi mi zat ionof
prof i
t scannotbet heonl yobj ect i
v e;t heenv ironmenti snotoneoft hose“ goods"
thati ssaf eguar dedbymar ketf or ces.Par ti
cul arat tent i
onneedst obepai dt o
ener gysour ces.Non- renewabl eener gysour cesshoul dbeatt heser viceofal l
humani ty, butt her ei saneedt oi dent ifynewsour cesofener gy .
Biotechnol ogy '
s i mpact on agr icul ture, ani mal f arming, medi cine, and
env ironment alpr otect ioni sbot hasour ceofhopeandconcer nt hati sact i
vel y
debat edt oday .Bi ot echnol ogydev elopmentmustbedonef ort hecommongood.
Whi lehumani nt erv ent i
oni nnat ur ei saccept able(“ nat urei snotasacr edor
diviner eal ity ")
,butmustbedoner esponsi bl y.Nat ur ei sagi ftt ot hehuman
communi ty,ent rust edt ot hei ntelligenceandmor alr esponsi bili
tyofmenand
women. "Damagi ngt heenv i
r onmentandl ivingbei ngsdeser v escondemnat ion,
butact ionst oi mpr ov et hesear epr aisewor thy .Modi ficati
onswi thwi de- spread
andl ong- ter mi mpactdeser veser iousconsi deration.I tisnott hebenef i
tsof
biotechnol ogy t hat wi ll al one sol v e t he pr obl ems of pov erty and
under dev el opment .
Iti si mpor tantt hatnecessar y sci ent ific and t echnol ogi calaut onomy be
establ i
shedi ndev el opi ngcount riest opr omot e“exchangeofsci ent i
ficand
techni calknowl edge and t ransf eroft echnol ogies t o dev elopi ng count ri
es. "
Solidar i
tymeanst hatdev el opi ngcount ri
esshoul dpr omot et radepol i
ciest hat
aref avor abl et ot heircount r i
es and t he “ exchange oft echnol ogyt hatcan
i
mpr ov et hecondi t
ionsoft heirf oodsuppl yandheal th."Dev el
opingcount ri
es
needani ncreasei nresear chi nvestment ,
especiall
yasi tfocusesont hei
rneeds.
Theenv i
ronment alcrisi
sandpov ert
yar eint
erconnectedbutcanbeaddr essedby
theprinci pleoft heuni v ersaldest i
nationofgoods( whichwoul d,forexampl e,
i
mpl yt hatt her eisahumanr ightto cleanwat er)
.Theenv ir
onment alcrisi
s
especiallyaf fectsthepoorv ia,forexampl e,erosionordeser t
if
icati
on,l i
vi
ngi n
poll
utedsubur bsofl argeci t
ies,or“l ivi
nginmake- shiftresidencesori nhuge
compl exes of cr umbl ing and unsaf e houses ( slums,bi donvill
es,bar r
ios,
favel
as) ."Often,i ndev elopingcount r
ies,“hungerandpov er
tymakei tv ir
tuall
y
i
mpossi bletoav oidani ntenseandexcessi veexpl oi
tationoft heenv i
ronment ."
“Thecl osel inkt hatexi stsbet weent hedev elopmentoft hepoor estcount r
ies,
demogr aphi c changes and a sust ai
nable use oft he env i
ronmentmustnot
becomeapr et extforpol i
ti
calandeconomi cchoicest hatareatv ariancewi ththe
digni
tyoft hehumanper son. "“Thereiswi de-spreadagr eementt hatapopul ati
on
poli
cyi sonl yonepar tofanov eralldev el
opmentst rat
egy ."

Promot ionofPeace:
Peacei sav alueandauni v ersalduty;i
tisnotj usttheabsenceofwar .Peace
requi resanor derbasedonj usti
ceandchar i
ty.Peacei st hreatenedwhen
menandwomenar enotgi v
enwhatt heyar edueashumans,whenhuman
digni t
yi snotr espected, whendef enseandpr omot ionofhumanr i
ghtsisnot
achi ev ed,andwhensoci et yi snotseeki ngt hecommongood.“Anot her
namef orpeacei sdev elopment .
"PopePaulVIsai d“ i
fyouwantpeacewor k
forjust i
ce. "Peacei sthef ruitoflove; j
usti
cedoesawaywi tht heobst aclest o
peace,butt rue and l asting peace r esults onl yf r
om lov e.Ev eryone i s
responsi bl eforpr omot ingpeace.
“Violencei snev erapr operr esponse."Wari st hef ai
lur
eofpeace.The
Cat hol i
csoci alt eachingcondemnst he“ savager yofwar ,
"cannoti magi ne
how i nanat omi cer at hatwarcoul dbeani nstrumentofj ustice,consi ders
wart obea“ scour ge"thati snev er“anappr opriatewayt oresol veprobl ems
thatar isebet weennat ions,"“i san“unnecessar ymassacr e,"andv i
ewswar
as“t hef ail
ureofal lt
ruehumani sm"anda“def eatforhumani ty."
“A warofaggr essioni si ntrinsi
call
yi mmor al."But ,aStatet hathasbeen
attackedasar i
ghtanddut yt odefendi t
selfev enwi tharms.“ Tobel i
cit,the
useoff or cemustcor respondt ocertai
nst ri
ctcondi ti
ons:

1.Thedamagei nfl
ictedbyt heaggressoronthenat
ionorcommunityof
nati
onsmustbel asting,grave,
andcertai
n;
2.Al lothermeansofput t
inganendt oitmusthavebeenshownt o be
i
mpr acti
calorineffecti
ve;
3.Theremustbeser iouspr ospect
sofsuccess;
4.Theuseofar msmustnotpr oduceevil
sanddisor
dersgrav
erthanthe
evi
ltobeel i
minated."
Thesear ethet r
aditi
onalel ement sofwhathasbeencal l
edthe“justwar"
doctri
ne.
Theev aluat ionoft hesecondi tionsi st her esponsi bilit
yoft hoser esponsi ble
fort hecommongood.Thepossessi onofwarpot ent ialdoesnotj ust ifyt he
useoff or ce, andi fwarbr eaksoutal lisnotf airbet weenwar r
ingpar ties.
TheUni tedNat ionsgener allypr ohibi t
st heuseoff or cebet weenSt ates,
excepti nt he cases ofl egiti
mat e def ense and measur es t aken byt he
Secur it
yCounci lini tsr esponsi bili
tyf ormai nt ai ningpeace.Ther i
ghtt osel f
-
defensemustr espect“ thet raditionall i
mi tsofnecessi tyandpr opor tional ity.
"
Hence,“ engagi ngi napr ev entivewarwi thoutcl earpr ooft hatanat tacki s
i
mmi nentcannotf ail tor aiseser i
ousmor al andj uridical quest ions. "
Maki ngcont ributionst odef enseofacount ryi sanaut hent iccont ribut iont o
peace.Peopl eser vingi nar medf or cesar ecal ledt odef endgood,t rut h,and
j
ust icei nt hewor ld.I nt hi sr egar d,t her ei sani ncr easi ngnumberofmi litary
personnelser vingmul tinat i
onalf orces“ onhumani tar i
anorpeace- keepi ng
missi onspr omot edbyt heUni tedNat ions. "Member soft hear medf or cesar e
obligedt or esistor der st o“ perpet ratecr imesagai nstt hel awofnat i
onsand
the uni v ersalpr incipl es of t hisl aw. "“ Mi litary per sonnelr emai nf ul l
y
responsi bl ef ort heact st heycommi tinv iolat ionoft her i
ght sofi ndi v idual s
and peopl es, or of t he nor ms of i nter nat ional humani t
ar ian l aw. "
Consci ent ious obj ect orst o mi litary ser vice shoul d be open t oi nst ead
accept ingot herf or msofcommuni tyser vice.
Rightofl egi timat edef ensei sassoci atedwi tht hedut yt opr ot ecti nnocent .
Thev i
ct i
msunabl et odef endt hemsel ves.I nmoder nconf l
icts, of tenwi thi na
State,“ the pr ecept s of i nternat i
onalhumani tarian l aw mustbe f ul l
y
respect ed. "
Theci v
ilianpopul at i
onshoul dbepr ot ect edf r om t heef fectsofwar .Ther ei s
aneedf oranew “consensusonhumani tar ianpr inci plesandt or ei nf or ce
theirf oundat iont opr ev entt her ecur renceofat roci tiesandabuse. "Ref ugees
are warv ictims whose di gnity and human r ight s mustbe pr ot ect ed.
“Attempt st oel i
mi nat eent irenat ional ,et hni c,r eligiousorl i
ngui sticgr oups
arecr imesagai nstGodandhumani tyi tself,andt hoser esponsi blef orsuch
cri
mesmustanswerf ort hem bef or ej ust ice. "Ev enconsi der i
ngnat ional
sov er ei
gnt y,thei nt ernat ionalcommuni ty“ hasamor alobl i
gat i
ont oi nt er vene
onbehal foft hosegr oupswhosesur vivali st hr eat enedorwhosebasi c
humanr ight sar eser iousl yv iolated. "TheChur chsuppor t
st heI nt er nat ional
Crimi nalCour tt hati sr esponsi blef orpuni shi ng t hose r esponsi blef or
particul arlyser iousact ssuchasgenoci de,cr imesagai nsthumani ty ,war
cri
mes,andcr i
mesofaggr ession.Sanct i
onsmustbeadopt edwi thcl ear
object i
vesandper iodi cal l
yr ev i
ewedbyt hei nt ernat ionalcommuni tyf ort heir
effect ivenessandi mpactont heci v i
lianpopul at i
on.
“Sanct i
onsmustnev erbeusedf ort hedi rectpuni shmentofanent ir
e
popul ation."I tisnotaccept ablet hatanent i
repopul at ion, especi allyi tsmost
vulner abl e member s,suf ferdue t o sanct ions.“ Economi c sanct ions i n
particul arar eani nst rumentt obeusedwi thgr eatdi scer nmentandmustbe
subj ect edt ost rictl egalandet hicalcr i
ter i
a.Aneconomi cembar gomustbe
ofl imi teddur ationandcannotbej ustifiedwhent her esul tingef fect sar e
i
ndi scr i
mi nat e."
Cat hol icsoci aldoct ri
nepr oposesagoalof“ gener al, balancedandcont rol l
ed
disar mament ."Thepr incipleofsuf fici
encyi ndi cat est hateachSt ateshoul d
onlypossesst hemeansf orl egi ti
mat edef ense.Excessi vest ockpi li
ngor
i
ndi scr imi nat e t radi ng i n ar ms “ cannot be mor al l
y j ust ified. " The
accumul at ionofar msf ordet errencepr esent sst rongmor alr eser vations,
andanar msr acedoesnotensur epeace,andi ndeedi ti ncreasest her iskof
war .Nucl eardet errenceshoul dber eplacedbymul til
at eralnegot iationsf or
disar mament .Weaponsofmassdest r
uct i
on( bi ol ogi cal ,chemi cal ,ornucl ear)
creat eanenor mousr esponsi bili
tyont hepar toft hei rowner ssi nceanyact
ofwarai medati ndi scrimi natedest ruct ionci ties, ar eas, andpopul ations, isa
terri
bl e cr ime.“ Itmer its unequi v ocaland unhesi tating condemnat i
on. "
“Disar mamentmusti ncludet hebanni ngofweaponst hati nf l
ictexcessi v ely
traumat ici njur yort hatst ri
kei ndi scr i
mi nat ely .Thi si ncl udesant i-per sonnel
l
andmi nes( sincet heycont i
nuet oi nf l
icti njur yl ongaf t
erhost ilit
ieshav e
ended) .Weneedt ocont rolthepr oduct ion, sal e, impor tationandexpor tat i
on
ofsmal lar msandl ightweapons, “ar mament st hatf acilitatemanyout breaks
ofv iol encet ooccur .
"“Theuseofchi ldrenandadol escent sassol diersi n
’
armedconf lictsEmustbecondemned. "I tisan“ int ol erabl ecr i
me. "
Ter rorism i soneoft hemostbr utal formsofv iol encet raumat izingt he
i
nt ernat ionalcommuni t
yt oday ;i tsows hat r ed,deat h,and an ur ge f or
revengeandr epr isal .
"Compl etelyi nnocentpeopl ehav ebeent hev ictimsof
terror i
sm.
Ter rorism doesnotr espectt radit
ionalr ulesofconf l
ict,f orinst ancet hrough
i
nt ernat ionalhumani tari
anl aw.Ter ror i
sm i st obecondemnedi nt hemost
absol ut et er ms.I tshowscompl etecont emptf orhumanl i
feandcannev erbe
j
ust ified,si ncet hehumanper soni sal way sanendandnev erameans. "
Ter rorism st rikesathumandi gnityandi sanof fenset ohumani ty;hence,
therei sar ightt odef endonesel ff rom t er ror ism.Howev er,t hest r
uggl e
agai nstt er ror ism mustr especthumanr ight sandl aw.Thef ightagai nst
terror i
sm mustnotj ustbev iar epr essi v eandpuni t i
veoper ations,butt he
causesoft er ror i
sm mustbecl earlyunder st ood( e.g. ,abuseofhumanr ight s
andi njust icesov eral ongt i
meper iod) .“ Itisapr of anat ionandabl asphemy
to decl are onesel fa t error i
sti n God' s name. "Ter ror i
sts who di e whi le
commi ttingt hei ract sar enot“ mar t
y r
s"( “whi chi st hewi tnessofaper son
whogi vest hemsel vesupt odeat hr athert handenyGodandhi sl ov e").“ No
reli
gi onmayt ol erat et errorism andmuchl esspr eachi t.
"I ndeed,r eli
gi ons
shoul d cooper atet or emov et he causes oft er rorism and pr omot e
fri
endshi psbet weenal lpeopl es.
Final l
y ,t rue peace “ is made possi ble onl yt hr ough f or giv eness and
reconci l
iat i
on. "For givenessf orv i
ol enceandsuf f eringduet ohost ilit
iesi s
very di fficul t,butpossi ble.“ Just i
ce and t r ut hr epr esentt he concr et e
requi sites f orr econci li
at i
on."Respectf ort he r i
ghtt o peace mustbe
promot edt oencour ager eplacementofst ruct ur esofpowerwi thst ruct ures
ofcooper at ionai medatachi ev i
ngt hecommongood.
Secul
arPer
spect
ives

Threesecularperspect
ivesar
econsidered:Rawlsianjusti
ce, Sen'
sideaof
j
usticeanddev el
opmentasf r
eedom, andengineeringethics( wher
ea
cri
ti
queofcur r
entapproachestoteachingengineeringethicsisgiv
enpera
socialj
ust
iceperspecti
ve).

Fundament alI deas

Rawl s'sv iewssoci etyasa“ fairsy stem ofsoci alcooper at ionov ert imef rom
onegener ationt ot henext ."Ci ti
zensi nsuchasoci et yar ef r
eeandequal .
Soci et yi s“ wel l-order ed"i nt he sense t hati tisr egul ated bya “ publ i
c
concept i
on"ofj ust ice.The f eat ur es ofsoci alcooper at i
on i ncl ude t he
foll
owi ng:
1.Soci alcooper ationi sgui dedbypubl iclyr ecogni zed( andaccept ed)r ules
andpr ocedur es.
2.Ter ms ofcooper ation ar e“ fair"i nt he sense t hateach par ti
cipant
reasonabl yaccept s( orshoul daccept )t hem i fever yoneel seaccept st hem.
Sucht ermsi nv olver eci proci tyormut uality:i fyoudoy ourpar t,y ouar et o
benef itinawayt hati spubl i
cl yagr eedupon.
3.Thenot ionofcooper at ioni ncl udest hei deat hateachpar ticipanthas
“rationaladv ant age"orgood( i.e.,whati tist hatt hosecooper atingseekt o
achi ev ef ort hei rowngood) .
“Princi plesofj ust ice"( mor eont hisbel ow)speci fyf airt ermsofsoci al
cooper ati
on.Suchpr inci plesi ndicat et her ight sanddut iesf orkeypol iti
cal
and soci ali nst i
tut i
ons,r egul atet he di vision of benef itsf rom soci al
cooper ati
on, andassi gnt henecessar y“ burdens"t osust aini t.
A“ wel l-
order ed soci ety "( a“ consi der ablei dealizat i
on" )i s one i n whi ch
“soci et yisef fect ivelyr egul at edbyapubl i
cconcept ionofj ustice,"andhas
thef ol lowingt hr eef eat ures:
1.Ev er yoneaccept s,andknowsev ery oneel seaccept s,t hesamepol iti
cal
concept i
onofj ust i
ce.
2.Thebasi cst ruct ur eofsoci etyi sknownandunder stoodt omeett he
princi plesofj ust ice.
3.Ci tizens “ under st and and appl yt he publ iclyr ecogni zed pr i
nci ples of
j
ust ice"andl argel y“ actaccor dingl yast hei rposi tioni nsoci ety ,wi thi ts
dut i
esandobl igat i
ons, requi res. "
Givent hatt her ewi llbe“ r easonabl epl uralism"( av ar ietyofpeopl ewi th
differentv i
ews) ,iti si mpossi blef orawel l
-or deredsoci etyt ohav eal lits
member sagr eeonacompr ehensi v edoct rine( ar eli
gi ousone) .Yet ,iti s
possi bl ei n a democr acy f orci tizens t o hol d di ffer entcompr ehensi ve
doct rinesandt her et oex i
stagr eementonpol i
ticalconcept i
onsofj ust i
ce.
The“ basi cst ruct ure"ofsoci etyi showkeypol iti
calandsoci alor gani zat i
ons
fi
tt oget heri nt oasy stem ofsoci alcooper ation,andhow t heyassi gnbasi c
ri
ght sanddut i
es,andr egul at et hedi visionofadv ant agest hatar isesf rom
cooper ati
on.
Thenot i
onofj ust i
ceasf airnessr egul atest hebasi cst ruct ure,butdoesnot
appl yt o( ori nt ernal lyr egul ate)i nst itutionsorassoci at ionsi nsoci ety( e.g.,
fi
rms, laboruni ons, chur ches, uni ver sities, andf ami lies) .“Just i
ceasf airness
i
s a pol iti
cal ,notgener al,concept i
on ofj ustice. "I ts pr imar yt ar geti s
domest icj ust ice.Quest ionsofl ocalj ust ice( pri
nci pl esappl yingdi rect lyt o
i
nst it
ut ionsandassoci ations)orgl obalj ust ice( e.g. ,i nv ol
v i
ngi nter nat i
onal
l
aw)needt obesepar atelyconsi der ed; howev er ,t
osomeext entRawl sst arts
from domest icj ust i
ceandwor kst owar dl ocalandgl obalj ust i
ce( butt hisi s
i
nhi sot herwor ksandi snotcov eredher e) .
Howshal l the“ fai rterms"ofsoci al cooper at ioni nasoci etytobear rivedat ?
Heconsi der sr eligiousormor alor der s, butr ej ectst heseduet ot hepr esence
ofr easonabl epl uralism andhi sv i
ew t hatpeopl ecannotagr eeonamor al
aut hor ity( e.g. ,sacr edt exts,t r
adi tions,orr el i
gions) .Rawl ssay sf airt er ms
shoul d be based on an agr eementbyt he member s engaged i n soci al
cooper at ion.Suchanagr eementmustoccurundercer taincondi t
ionst obea
validar gumentf rom apol iti
caljust iceper spect i
ve.Ci tizensmustbesi tuat ed
i
nt hisagr eementi nf air, free,andequalcondi ti
ons( e. g. ,sot hatnonehasan
unf airbar gai ningadv ant ageov eranot herandt hreat soff or ce,coer cion,
decept ion, andf raudar enotal l
owed) .Just iceasf airnessext endst henot ion
ofaf ai ragr eementt ot hebasi cst ruct ure.Akeydi fficul t
yi st o“ speci fya
poi ntofv iew f rom whi chaf airagr eementbet weenf reeandequalper sons
canber eached;butt hispoi ntofv iew mustber emov edf rom andnot
dist ortedbyt hepar ticul arf eatur esandci r cumst ancesoft heexi stingbasi c
struct ur e. "The“ or i
ginalposi t
ion, "wi thaf eat ureoft he“ veilofi gnor ance"
giv est hi spoi ntofv i
ew.
Int heor iginal posi ti
ont hef ol
lowi nghol d:
1.Par ties( citizen' sr epr esent atives)“ arenotal lowedt oknow t hesoci al
posi t
ionsort hepar ticul arcompr ehensi vedoct rinesoft heper sonst hey
repr esent ."
2.Par ties do notknow per sons'r ace,et hnici ty,sex,ort heir“ nat ive
endowment s"( degr eesofi ntelli
gence,phy si calst rengt h,et c.,al lwi thint he
nor mal range) .
These t wo st ipul ati
ons ar et he par ti
es'v ei lofi gnor ance.“ To per sons
accor di ngt ot hei rt hreatadv ant age"( duet ot heirpol i
t i
calpower ,weal th,or
nat ive endowment s) i s not t he basi sf or pol it
icalj ust i
ce.Hi st or i
cal
adv ant agesandacci dent s“ shoul dnotaf fectanagr eementonpr i
nci plest hat
aret or egul at et hebasi cst ruct ure. "Theor iginalposi ti
oni deai susedt o
ext endt henot ionofaf airagr eementt o“ anagr eementonpr inci plesof
pol iti
calj ust icef ort hebasi cst ruct ure. "Theposi t
ionassumesf reeandequal
peopl et hatar ei nformed and r ational ;hence,agr eement smadebyt he
par tiesar ef ai r.Theagr eementi nt heor i
gi nalposi ti
onspeci fiesf airt ermsof
soci alcooper at i
onbet weenci tizens( thisi swhyRawl scal lsi t“just i
ceas
fairness" ).Theagr eementi shy pot het ical“ si nceweaskwhatt hepar ties( as
descr ibed)coul d,orwoul d,agr eet o,notwhatt heyhav eagr eedt o,"and
nonhi st or i
cal :“ si ncewedonotsupposet heagr eementhasev er,ori ndeed
ev ercoul dact ual lybeent eredi nto.And, ev eni fitcoul d, thatwoul dmakeno
differ ence. "The agr eementr epr esent s“ f aircondi t i
ons underwhi ch t he
repr esent ativ esofci tizens, ar et oagr eet ot hef airt er msofcooper at i
on, "and
i
tr epr esent saccept abl er est rictionsont her easonsont hebasi sofwhi ch
par ti
es,si tuat ed i nf aircondi tions,may pr oper ly putf or war d cer tain
princi plesofpol i
t i
calj ust iceandr ej
ectot hers. "Per sonsengagedi nsoci al
cooper ationhav e“ thet womor al power s:"
1.Thecapaci tyf orasenseofj ust ice:Thecapaci tyt ounder stand, appl y,and
actf r
om ( notj usti naccor dancewi th)“ thepr inci plesofpol it
icalj ust icet hat
speci fyt hef airt er msofsoci al cooper at i
on. "
2.Thecapaci tyf oraconcept i
onofgood:Thecapaci tyt ohav e,rev i
se,and
rational l
ypur sue a concept i
on ofgood ( ends and ai ms t hatspeci f ya
per son' si deaofwhati sofv al uei nhumanl i
fe, or ,sai danot herway ,“whati s
regar dedasaf ullywor thwhi l
el ife").El ement soft hisconcept ionar eof ten
setbycompr ehensi ver eligi ous,phi losophi cal ,ormor aldoct rineswhi ch
orderandexpl ai nendsandai ms.
Just iceasf airnessv iewsci tizensas“ free"i nt woway s:
1.Ci tizensv iewt hemsel v esandot her sashav ingaconcept ionofgood( ev en
i
ft heychangei tov ert ime) .
2.Ci t i
zens “ regar dt hemsel v es as sel f-authent i
cat i
ng sour ces ofv ali
d
claims. "Theyv iewt hemsel v esasent itledt omakecl aimsoni nstitut i
onst o
adv ancet hei ri deaofgood( ift hei rideaf al l
swi t hin“ ther angeper mi tt
edby
thepubl icconcept i
onofj ust ice" ).
Apol itical concept i
onofj ust icehast hr eef eat ures:
1.Iti samor alconcept i
onf ort hebasi cst ruct ureofademocr aticsoci ety( it
doesnotdi rect lyappl yt oassoci ationsandgr oupsi nsoci ety).
2.I ti s notassumed t hatt he mor alconcept ion i s based on a si ngle
compr ehensi ve doct rine.I ti sa“ r easonabl e concept ion f ort he basi c
struct ur eal oneandi tspr inci plesexpr essaf ami l
yofpol i
ticalv al uest hat
char act er i
st ical lyappl ytot hatst ruct ur e."
3.I ti sf or mul at ed t ot he gr eat estext entpossi ble\ solelyi nt erms of
fundament ali deasf ami l
iarf rom, ori mpl icitin, thepubl icpol it
icalcul tureofa
democr aticsoci et y.
"Thepol iticalconcept ionofj ust ice“ est abl i
shesashar ed
basi sf orci tizenst oj ustifyt ooneanot hert hei rpol i
ticalj udgment s:each
cooper ates, pol iti
cal lyandsoci al l
y ,wi tht her estont ermsal lcanendor seas
j
ust ."Thi si st hemeani ngof“ pol i
tical just i
fication. "
Itisnotexpect edt hatal lwi llagr eeonal lpol i
tical quest i
ons, buti tis
expect edt hatdi sagr eement scanbenar rowed, par ti
cul ar l
yt ogetagr eement
onconst it
ut ional essent ials:
1.Pr inci ples t hatspeci fyt he gener alst ruct ur e oft he gov ernmentand
politicalpr ocesses( legisl atur e,execut iv e,andj udi ciary ,alongwi thl i
mi tsof
maj or ityr ule) .
2.Equalbasi cr ight sandl iber tiest hatmustber espect ed( e.g.,byl egislat i
ve
maj or ities)suchasv ot i
ngr ight s,r ightt opar ticipat ei nt hepol iti
calpr ocess,
freedom oft hought ,f r
eedom ofassoci ation,l i
ber tyofconsci ence,and
prot ect ionsoft her uleofl aw.
“Just ice as f airness hopes t o put asi de l ong- standi ng r eli
gi ous and
philosophi cal cont r
ov ersi es and t o av oid r elying on any par t
icular
compr ehensi vev iew. "I tseeks“ apubl icbasi sofj ust i
ficat i
ont hatal lci tizens
as r easonabl e and r at i
onal can endor se f r
om wi thin t hei r own
compr ehensi vedoct ri
nes. "Rawl scal lst hisan“ over lappi ngconsensus"of
reasonabl edoct rines( seebel ow al so) .Ci t
izenshav eacapaci tyf orr eason
andasenseofj ust i
ce.Ourj udgment smaydi f
ferf rom ot her s,orev en
conf lictwi theachot her .Howcanwegetconsi stencyofj udgment swi thout
an i mposed pol iticalaut hor ity? Just ice as f airness v iews al lr at i
onal
j
udgment sasi nt rinsi callyr easonabl e.Forasi nglei ndiv i
dual ,whent hey
consi derapol iti
cal concept ionofj usticeandbr ingt hei rjudgment s
i
nl inewi thi t(wi tht hef ewestpossi blechanges) ,thent hati ndi viduali ssai d
tobei n“ nar rowr ef l
ect i
v eequi li
br ium"( “narrow"i nt hesenset hatwe“ looked
foraconcept ionofj ust icet hatcal ledf ort hef ewestr evisionst oachi ev e
consi st ency ,andnei theral ter nat i
v econcept ionsofj usticenort hef orceof
thev ar i
ousar gument sf ort hoseconcept ionshav ebeent akeni nt oaccount "
byt hei ndi v i
dual ).Forani ndi vidual ,a“ wi der ef lect iveequi l
i
br ium"i sachi ev ed
viaacar ef ulconsi der ationof“ alternat iveconcept i
onsofj ust iceandt he
forceofv ar iousar gument sf ort hem. "Supposeeachmemberi nasoci ety
hasachi ev edwi der ef lectiv eequi l
i
br ium;t hi sr esul tsi nsoci ety-wi de( full
)
“refl
ect i
v eequi libr i
um"si nceal lagr eeont hesamepol it
icalconcept ionof
j
ust ice.
Consi derademocr acywi thaper manentf eat ur eofr easonabl epl ur alism.
Givenpl ural ism, andt hef actt hatt her ewi llbeav ariet yofdi fferentdoct rines,
therei s no doct rine t hatev er yone can agr ee t o and hence set tl
et he
quest ionsofpol i
tical j
ust ice.Thepol itical concept i
onofj usticecan, howev er
,
beest abl ishedv iaa“ reasonabl eov erlappi ngconsensus. "Rawl sf eel st hat
thisi st he“ mostr easonabl ebasi sofpol iti
calandsoci aluni tyav ailabl et o
citi
zensofademocr at icsoci et y."Ci t
izensagr eewi tht wodi st i
nctv iews:( i
)a
politicalconcept ionofj ust ice;and( ii)t hatt her ear eopposi ngdoct r i
nes
(rel
igi ous,phi l
osophi cal ,andmor al)i nsoci et y.A per sistentadher encet o
onlyonecompr ehensi v edoct ri
necanonl ybemai ntainedbyoppr essi vest ate
power( viacr i
mes,br utality,andcr uel ty).A pol iti
calconcept ionofj ust ice
must be endor sed by “ widel y di ffer ent and ev en i rreconci l
abl e
compr ehensi vedoct rines"ort her egimecannotendur e
orbesecur e.
Itmustbeacknowl edgedt hatr easonabl edi sagr eementcanoccurandar ise
from:
1.“Theev idenceempi ri
calandsci ent i
ficbear i
ngonacasemaybeconi ct ing
andcompl ex, andt hushar dt oassessandev aluat e."
2.Ev eni ft her ei sagr eementonwhatneedst obeconsi der ed,t her emaybe
diff
er entv iewsonhowt heseshoul dbewei ght ed.
3.Thev aguenessofconcept sl eadst oi ndet er minacysowemustr elyon
j
udgment sandi nt er pret ationswi thinsomer ange.
4.Di ffer entper sonshav edi ff
er entexper iencesandt hiscausesadi v ergence
ofjudgment s.
5.Of ten,t her ear edi f ferentnor mat iveconsi der ationsoneachsi deofan
argumentt hatmakeanov erall assessmentdi ffcul t
.
Rawl srecognizesthatanumberofdoct ri
nesare“i
ncompat i
blewit
hthe
valuesofdemocr acy.
"Thepol
i
ticalconcepti
onofjust
icedoesnotoutwei
gh
rel
igious,phi
l
osophical
,ormor
alv al
uest houghi
tmaypossi bl
yconfi
ctwi
th
these.

Uni
t-
4
Dev
elopmentSt
rat
egi
es

Soci
ety
,Technol
ogi
calChange,
andDev
elopment

Theobj ect
ivei
stoprovideabroadhist
ori
calandsoci
ety
-lev
elperspect
iveon
technologytoori
enttheengineeri
nthei
rapproachtocreat
ingtechnol
ogical
soluti
onsfordevel
opment .

Technol
ogi
calChangeandSoci
ety

Good and bad t hings come f r

om t echnol ogy .Good t hings include t he
reduct ionofhumant oil,theabi l
itytocur edi seases,t of eedmanypeopl e,to
fi
lterwat er,andmanyot her s.Badt hi
ngsf rom t echnol ogyi ncl
udepol lution
andt het hreatofnucl earanni hil
ation.Of ten, howev er,peopl ehav eaposi t
ive
viewoft echnol ogy,ingener al(Vol t
i,2006) .In( Vol ti
,2006) ,theaut horsay s
“Technol ogiesar edev elopedandappl iedsot hatwecandot hi ngsnot
other wisepossi ble,orsot hatwecandot hem cheaper ,f aster,andeasi er"
andt hisdr i
vest heposi tivev i
ewswehav eoft echnol ogy.
Vol t
igoesont osayt hat“ thedev el
opment ,pr oduct ion,andempl oy mentof
par t
icular technol ogies r equi r
es a gr oup ef fort" and hence r equires
organi zati
on.Hesay st hat“ whent echnol ogyi sseenasacombi nat i
onof
dev i
ces, skil
l
s, andor gani zat ionalstructures, itbecomesnat uraltot hinkofi t
asasy st
em. "Then, hedef inest echnol ogyas“ asy stem thatusesknowl edge
andor ganizati
ont opr oduceobj ect sandt echni quesf ort heat t
ainmentof
speci fi
c goal s"( Vol ti,2006) .Somet imes,a key i ssue i n humani tar ian
engi neer i
ngi swhet hert he“ or gani zat ion" i
spr esenti nadev elopi ngcount ry
to suppor ta t echnol ogy ( e. g.,a suppl y chai n,orf oroper ation and
mai ntenance) .Ift he pr operor gani zat i
on i s notpr esent ,t hen a soci et y
gener allycannotr eapt hebenef itsoft echnol ogy .
Technol ogybot hr espondst oneeds“ pull,
"duet odemand)andcr eat es
needs( “pul l,"duet odemand)andcr eat esneeds( “push" ).Cor respondi ngt o
theset wocases,ar et hest atement s“ necessi tyi st hemot herofi nv ent ion"
andt hel ess- oftenmadest atement“ inv entioni st hemot herofnecessi ty."
Somet imes, howev er ,technol ogi esar ecr eat edf orf unori ntel l
ect ualpur sui t.
The pr ocess oft echnol ogy cr eat ion i s dy nami caland cumul ative as
technol ogi esbui ldononeanot her .Technol ogi calpr ogr essi sof tenl i
nkedt o
humanpr ogr ess,and“ technol ogi caladv ancehasbeent hegr eat estsi ngl e
sour ce ofeconomi c gr owt h"( Vol ti,2006) .I ndeed,t echnol ogy pl ay sa
promi nentr olei nt hest udyofeconomi cgr owt h( Acemogl u, 2009) .Acent ral
assumpt ioni nhumani tar ianengi neer ingi sof tent hatbyhel pi ngpr ov ide
basi ccr uci alt echnol ogi es( e. g.,onesi mpact ingheal thandeducat ion) ,ther e
will alsobesubsequenteconomi cgr owt h.
Diffusi onoft echnol ogi es( Roger s, 2003)dr ivest echnol ogi caladv ancev i
aan
“i
nf usi onofi deas,t ool s,andmat er ialsf rom ot herpl aces,coupl edwi than
abilityt ouset hem"( Vol ti,2006) .Theendoft hatsent encei si mpor tant .
Transf eroft echnol ogycanbeusel essi fpeopl eont her ecei vi
ngenddonot
knowhowt ooper ateandmai ntaint het echnol ogy( thiswi llbeani ssuet hat
arisessev eralt imesi n.Of ten,f ort echnol ogyt ransf er ,technol ogi eshav et o
beadapt edt ot hel ocalsi tuat ionandt hisi sal soacent ralt hemeof( e. g.,in
theemphasi sonunder standi ngcont extandi nt hest udyofappr opr iate
technol ogy .
Technol ogi calchangeof tenal terssoci alar rangement s, i
nt hesenset hati sa
“subv ersiv e pr ocess"t hatl eads t o“ the modi f
icat ion ordest r uction of
est abl i
shedsoci alr oles,r elat ionshi ps,andv alues"( Vol t
i,2006) .Somev i
ew
thisasoneoft hecost soft echnol ogi calchange,ot her swoul dv iew i tasa
benef it. Technol ogi cal change l eads t o al tered “ power r elat ions,
redi stribut i
on of weal th and i ncome, and an al t
er at ion of human
rel
at i
onshi ps"( Vol ti,2006) .Forexampl e,consi dert hemov i
e,“ TheWat erof
Ay ol ye"andt heef fectoft hepumpt echnol ogyont her oleofwomeni nt he
communi ty.Or ,consi dert he ef fect sofi nfor mat ion and communi cat ion
technol ogyonaccessofi nf or mat ionaboutmar ketpr ices( orski ppi ngov er
the“ mi ddl eman" ),inf or mat i
onaboutt heoper ationofagov ernment ,ort he
openi ngoft hei nf or mat ionont hei nt er nett oschool chi l
dr en.Somet i
mes, the
effect soft echnol ogyonpeopl e,communi t
ies,andsoci etyi sgoodand
somet i
mes i ti st ragi c.Besi des t he exampl es gi ven abov e,somet i
mes
technol ogi escanel i
mi nat ej obs( e.g.,duet oaut omat ion)andbeamaj or
cont ri
but ort o unempl oy ment ,t her eby causi ng si gni ficantadv erse and
i
mmedi at ei mpact sonpeopl e'sl iv eli
hoods.Ther ehav ebeenmov ement s
agai nstt echnol ogi calchange, suchasbyt heLuddi tes( “machi ne- smasher s" )
andmor er ecentr elat edact iv i
ties( Vol ti
,2006) .Soci ali ssuesmayi mpact
technol ogi calchange,butt echnol ogyi sal sousedt ot ryt oi mpr ov ecer tain
typesofsoci alpr obl ems( e.g.,ov ercomebaddr iv erbehav i
or ),andwhi let he
technol ogymaynotgetatt her ootcause, itmaypr ov idesomemi t i
gat i
onof
sy mpt oms.“ Technol ogyi sahuman cr eat ion,and becausehumansar e
soci al creat ur es, technol ogi cal changei snecessar il
yasoci al pr ocess"( Vol t
i,
2006) ).Thesol ei nv ent or ,act i
ngcompl et elyal one,i sr are.Technol ogi cal
changet ypical ly
occur sbymanypeopl emaki ngsmal lchanges,of t ent opastt echnol ogi es.
Themanysmal lchangesaccumul at ei nt ol ar gegai ns,f orexampl e,f or
product iv i
ty of( Rivol i,2009)f orone case) .Resear ch,f ori nst ance i n
engi neer i
ng,can be v iewed as t he basi s oft echnol ogi calchange,as
fundament alt ot echnol ogi calpr ogr ess,butmuch r esear ch does not
i
mmedi at elyr esul ti nusabl epr oduct s.Ty pi cal l
y ,pr ogr essi sbui l
tov ert ime
from r esear chadv ancest hati dent ifynewpr incipl esonhowt echnol ogycan
wor k.Somet imes, resear chi ssl owt ogett r ansl at edi nt ot echnol ogi esduet o
“belat eddemand"( e.g. ,taki ngt imef orpeopl et of i
gur eouthowt her esear ch
i
deasar eusef ulandwant edbypeopl e) .Compet i
t i
onamongpeopl ecr eat ing
technol ogi es,whi chi mpr ov est echnol ogies,i spr omot edbyensur ingpr ivate
returns t oi nnov at ors“ Wher eas sci ence i s di rect ed att he di scov eryof
knowl edgef ori tsownsake, technol ogydev el opsandempl oy sknowl edgei n
ordert ogetsomet hingdone"( Vol ti,2006) ) .Inr elat ingsci encet ot echnol ogy ,
histor yhasshownt hatagr eatdealoft echnol ogi caladv ancedoesnotr ely
onsubst ant ial input sf rom sci ence( Vol ti,2006)( Vol t i
, 2006) :
Theul timat equest ion asked ofsci ent ificknowl edgei s“ Isi tt r
ue? "For
technol ogi calknowl edge,t hekeyi ssuei s“ Wi l
li twor k? "Sci encei sof ten
usedt ot ryt ol at erexpl ai nwhyt echnol ogi eswor k.Ofcour se,somet i
mes
newsci ent ificknowl edgei sneeded( andused)t odev elopnewt echnol ogi es.
Technol ogi es of ten dr ive sci ent ific adv ance ( e. g. ,sensi ng t echnol ogi es
cruci alf orexper i
ment almeasur ement s,l iket hemi cr oscope) .Somewoul d
arguet hatsci encei sonl yv aluabl ei nsof arasi tpr oducest echnol ogy ,whi l
e
other swoul dst rongl yr ejectt hisnot ion,andv al uet hesci encedonesol ely
based on t he pur sui tofknowl edge and t ruth.Br oadl y ,sci ence and
technol ogyshar emanyf eat uressuchasv al ues,ar at ionalt houghtpr ocess,
theuseofmat hemat ics,asenseofopt i
mi sm wi thr espectt opr ogr ess,and
char act er i
st ics i n t hat t hey ar e bot h based on gat her ing
knowl edge/ i
nf or mat ion and pr ogr essi ng v iai ncr ement aland cumul ative
adv ancement s.Asst at edi n( Vol ti,2006) ,I saacNewt onsai dhecoul dsee
furtherbecausehest oodont heshoul dersofgi ant s.
of( Vol ti,2006) : Abov eal l,sci encei spr edicat edont hebel ieft hatt hewor l
di s
knowabl e, whi let echnol ogyi sani mat edbyaconv ict i
ont hati twi l
lal way sbe
possi bl et odosomet hi ngbet ter .
“A gr eatdealofsci ent ifici nf or mat ion f inds i ts wayi nt ot echnol ogi cal
pract icet hr ought heeducat ionofengi neer s"( Vol ti,2006) ,andbui ldi
ngon
thequot ebyAmar tyaSen( Sen,1975) ,iti sengi neer swhousesci encet o
creat et echnol ogi est opr omot edev elopment .Iti st her esponsi bili
tyoft he
professi onalhumani t arian engi neert o know t he r elev antsci ence,when
needed,and use i tto solve pr
acticaldev
elopmentpr obl
ems.Howev er
,
humanitar
ian engineeri
ng as a fiel
d has as strong need f
oradvanced
resear
chthatseekst oaddressext r
emelychall
engingprobl
emsthatcould
havesigni
ficanti
mpactaf t
ersomenumberofy ears.

I
mpactofTechnol
ogyonDev
elopment

I
nt hepast ,andev ent oday,thedev elopmentpar adigm hasi nvolvedt he
transf
eroft echnologi
cali nnovations f rom aid agenci es totheirclients
(Rogers, 2003).
Exampl esoft hisabound i nthel i
terature,in ai
d agencypr ograms,and
humani tari
anengi neeringpr oj
ects.Somet i
mes,exper ts,ai dagencies,and
gov er
nment sar eexci tedaboutt hel at
estt echnologies( e.g.
,infor
mat ion
technology )
,butindivi
dualsinat arget edcommuni t
ymi ghtnotev enhavet he
mostbasi cneedsmet( Easter
ly,2014)andhenceot hert echnol
ogiescoul d
be much mor e appropriat
e( e.g.,wat erf i
lt
rati
on t echnology orpump
technology )
.ConsiderEast erl
y'
sst atement ,
(Easter
ly,2014) :

The t op down l eader s and exper tsi nt echnol ogydo nothav e enough
knowl edgeori ncent i
vest ogeti tr ightf ort her eal i
tyofwhati shappeni ngat
thebot tom.
Mor eover ,Toy amasay s( p.xv , (Toy ama, 2015) ):Ev eni nawor ldofabundant
technology ,therei snosoci al changewi thoutchangei npeopl e.
Easterlyr aisest hei ssueofwhet herdev el opmentwi tht echnol ogyoccur sv ia
“consciousdi r
ect ionv ersusspont aneoussol utions"( Easter l
y,2014) ).
Peopl ear ei nnov at orswhot ryt osol v et heirpr obl emsv i
at rialander r
or.
Innovations ar e notl i
ke t ypicalgoods;t hey ar ei deas,i nt he case of
technology“ how t odoi t"( ar eci peorsetofi nst ructions) ,andcanspr ead,
perhapswi thoutcost si nt r
ansact ions.I ft herear emor epeopl et r
yingt o
i
nnov ate,t hepr obabi l
ityofsuccessgoesup,andi tcanal sobemor el ikely
thatthei deawi llspr eadacr osst hegr oupf aster( e.g.,duet ocl oserl ivi
ng
quarters).East erlysay st hat“ Thepr edict i
onoft hissi mpl est oryi sthatt he
mor e-popul ouspar tsoft hewor l
dwi llatanymomenthav ebet tertechnol ogy
thanl ess- popul ouspar t
s.Themor epopul ouspar tswi llal sohav emor e
technologi cali nnov ati
ont hanl ess- popul ouspar ts"( Easterly,2014) ;her e,he
i
snott alkingaboutnat i
on- states, butr egi onsorcont i
nent s.Essent i
all
y, with
a sizabl e popul at i
on ofi nnov ator s,i nnov ati
on i s mor el ikely,spr eading
progresses, theni nnov ati
onoccur sonpast
i
nnov ations,cr eat inga“ technol ogi calv irtuousci rcle".Int hisconnect i
on,
Easterlysay si nr elationt o1500AD:Weconf i
rmedt hattechnol ogyin1500
predictst echnol ogy( andt huspercapi tai ncome)t oday .Inf act,78per centof
theincomedi ff
er encet odaybet weenEur opeandsub- Sahar anAf r
icacanbe
explainedbyt echnol ogyt hatwasal r eadyi npl aceby1500.
East er l
y al so hi ghl ight st hatWest er ni deas oft he i ndi vidualpr omot ed
i
nnov at i
on,i npar ti
cul ar ,t hei deaofchal lengi ngaut hor ityandget t
ingpr i
v ate
returnsoni nnov ations,andt hisi sal sodi scussedi n( Acemogl u,2009) .I na
conf or mi stsoci et y,toomanypeopl et ryt hesamet hi ngst osol v epr obl ems,
wher easi nani ndi vidual isticsoci etypeopl et ryt hingsont heirown;t his
raisest hechancesofcr eat inganew i nnov at i
onast henmor edi ffer ent
thingsar et ried.
Soci etalf reedomsposi tivel yi mpactt echnol ogicali nnov ation.East erlyuses
thisi dea t o expl ain whyt he Westpul led ahead oft he Eastaf tert he
Enl i
ght enment .Bei ng al lowed t o keep t he r ewar ds f oran i nnov at ion
encour agespeopl et ot r yt oi nnov ateandt hisal sodi ffer entiatedt heWest
from t heEast .East erlysay s“ Si ncei deasar enonr ival( i.
e. ,theywi llbeused
byev er yoneel se) ,t hesoci alr et ur n( ret urnt oev er yoneel se)t oy ourcomi ng
upwi thapr oduct i
v ei deai sal othi ghert hany ourpr ivat er eturnt oy our sel f.
Thi smeanst hati ncent ivesf ori nnov at ionar einadequat e".
One wayt o addr ess t hisi sv i
a pat ent sf ort echnol ogyand i nt ellect ual
proper tyr ight s.East erlyal soci teswor kbyPaulRomeri n( Romer ,1990)t hat
say st hatso l ong ast her et ur nst ot hei nv ent orar egener ousbutnot
excessi ve, innov at ionwi ll occurandgr ow ( East erly,2014) .
Ther ei sal sot her elev anti deaof“ cr eat ivedest ruct ion"bySchumpet er .For
this,t hei nv ent ori ssai dt ohav eaj umponev ery oneel sei nt echnol ogy
commer cial izat ionandmaybeabl et omai ntaint hel eadv i
asecr ecyf or
somet i
meper iodi ft hisi sal l
owed( thisi sal sodi scussedi n( Acemogl u,
2009) ).Ofcour se,“ dest ruct i
on"oft hei nv ent or'sl eadcanr esultf rom:( i)
“rever seengi neer i
ng"ofexi st ingpr oduct s,( ii
)bymodi fyingt hei nv ent or '
s
i
dea( toav oi dpat enti nfringement ),or( ii
i)per hapsev eni mpr ov i
ngt hei dea
orf i
ndi nganewmar ket .
Indeed,i n( Acemogl uandRobi nson,2012)t her ei sal engt hydi scussi onon
ther ol eofgener alf or msofcr eat ivedest ruct i
ont hroughouthi storyandhow
allowi ngdi ffer entf ormsofcr eat ivedest ruct ioni si mpor t
antf oreconomi c
growt h.( Acemogl uandRobi nson, 2012)t heaut hor ssay :
Technol ogi cali nnov at ion makes human soci eties pr osper ous,butal so
i
nv olv est her epl acementoft heol dwi tht henew,andt hedest r
uct ionoft he
economi cpr ivilegesandpol itical powerofcer tainpeopl e.
Forsust ainedeconomi cgr owt hweneednewt echnol ogi es, newway s
ofdoi ngt hings, andmor eof tent hannott heywi llcomef rom newcomer s...
Ani nst itut i
on( e.g. ,monar chyordi ctat or )mayst opcr eat ivedest ructioni f
theywi llbe a l oserdue t o a new t echnol ogyorwayofdoi ng t hings.
Economi cdev el opmentnat ural lyowsf rom al lowi ngnewt echnol ogi est obe
creat edandt or eplaceol dones,andl ikewi sei sgener allyhi nder edwhen
creat i
v edest r uct ioni snotal lowed( Acemogl uandRobi nson, 2012) .Cr eat ive
dest ruct ionf oronecl assoft echnol ogi es,t hosef orappar elmanuf act ur e,is
discussed, st art i
ngon, in( Riv oli, 2009) .
Technol ogyspr eadsi nmanyway s( Roger s,2003) ,suchasv i
at rade,set ting
upmanuf act ur ingsi tesati nter nat i
onall ocat i
ons,andcopy i
ngt echnol ogi es
(such“ i
mi tat ion"i seasi erf orapopul at ioni fi thasar i
chert echnol ogi cal
history );howev er,akeycauseoft echnol ogyspr eadr ecogni zest hatmov ing
peopl emov et echnol ogy( Vol ti
,2006) .Thehi stor yofpeopl eiswhatmat t ers
(i
.e.,ancest ry ).Inpar t i
cular,East er lysay st hata“ peopl e-basedmeasur eof
technol ogi calher i
tagef r
om 1500dr astical l
yout per formst hepl ace- based
measur ei npr edi ctingt oday 'st echnol ogyandi ncome" ,( East er l
y,2014) ).
Mor eov er, themanneri nwhi cht echnol ogi esspr eadmat t
er st odev elopment
(Acemogl u,2009) .Thedi ffusi onoft echnol ogi cali nnov ations“ of tenwi dens
thesoci oeconomi cgapbet weent hehi gher -andl ower -soci oeconomi cst at us
segment s” ,( Roger s,2003) )aspower ,weal t h, andi nf or mat ioni si nt hehands
oft heweal thywhocant hengai nt hebenef itsoft echnol ogi cali nnov at ion.
Thisi sonev ersionofwhatToy amacal lst he“ law ofampl ificat i
on"of
technol ogy ,whi ch,ashepoi ntsout ,isnotanewi dea,( Toy ama,2015) ),but
heemphasi zesi tsmanyi mpl icationsi nt heat temptt ouset echnol ogyt o
promot esoci alchange,especi all
yf ort hecaseofdi git
alandi nfor mat ion
technol ogy .Thi sl aw i sadi r ectconsequenceoft hecommondef initi
onof
technol ogyi nt hePr ef ace:
“at oolt hat ext ends human capabi li
ty ."I ft hose i nt he t op of t he
soci oeconomi c
classar egi vent echnol ogy ,theycandomor ewi thi tt hant hoseatt hebot tom
andt her esul ti st hewi deni ngoft hesoci oeconomi cgap.Putanot herway ,if
peopl edonothav ebasi ccapabi lities( usi ngSen' sdef initionofcapabi lities
as i n( Sen,2000,2011) ),oroppor tuni t
ies,t hey cannotdo much wi th
technol ogy .Yet ,ifpeopl ehav esomecapabi l
ities,t echnol ogycanampl ify
these( e.g.,f ordi gitall ear ning) .Toy amasay st hat“ Technol ogyampl ifies
preexi st i
ngdi fferencesi nweal thandachi ev ement "( Toy ama,2015) ).Thi s
placesToy ama' sf ocusdi rect lyandpr i
mar ilyonpeopl e,andheemphasi zes
peopl e' sf undament al roleinsoci al change, ev eni ft echnol ogyi si nv olved.
Ther ei sal so t hei ssueoft her at eoft echnol ogi caladv ancer elated t o
“cultur allag"wher e“ habi ts,t hought s,v al
ues,andsoci alar rangement sof t en
failtochangeatt hesamespeedast echnol ogi cal innov ation"( Vol ti,2006) ).
Somet i
mes,t echnol ogydi ffusi oni ssl owedbyat t i
t udesofnon- accept ance
ofani mpor tedt echnol ogy ,ev eni fi tcanbeadapt edt ol ocalcondi ti
ons( e. g.,
i
ft her ei st he“ not-inv ented her e,"NI H,sy ndr ome/ at t
it
ude)( Vol ti,2006) .
(Acemogl u,2009)wher epol iti
calandot herbar rier s( e.g.,cont rolbyel i
tes)
hashi nder edt echnol ogyspr ead.Yet ,ther ei st he“ conv ergencet heor y "that
say st hat“ Al thought hewor ld'snat ionshav edi f
f erenthi st ori
esandcul tur al
orient ations, conv ergencet heor yar guest hatt heyar ebecomi ngmor esi mi l
ar
tooneanot her( thati s,theyar econv erging)ast heymakeuseoft hesame
technol ogi es” ,(Vol ti
,2006) ).

Dev
elopmentEconomi
sts'
Per
spect
ives

(
i)hisexampl esofhow speci
fi
clow-i
ncomepeopl
eandcommuni ti
eslead
t
heirli
ves;(i
i
)t hehi
stor
yofeconomicdevel
opmentoverthel
ast200years
t
hattri
est oexplai
natahighlevelwhysomecount
riest
odayareri
chwhi l
e
other sar el ow- income;( i
ii)t hei mpr essi v ewor khehasdonet ohel pspeci fic
count ri
es( e. g.,hel pBol iv i
awi thhy per inat i
on,hel pPol andt r ansi tionf r om a
commandeconomyundercommuni sm t oamar ket-economy ,et c.) ;and( iv)
dat aj ust i
fy ingt her at ional eandout comesofhi sappr oaches.Besi des,hi s
histor y ofadv ising ot hercount ries i s somewhataut obi ogr aphi cal .The
i
nt erest ed r eaderwi llhav et o see( Sachs,2006)t of ul l
yappr eci at et he
rational ebehi ndhi sar gument s; quot esi nt hissect i
onar ef rom t hatbook.
Sachs bel iev es t hatr ich count ries do notcont ribute enough t ot he
dev elopmentofl ow- i
ncomecount riesi nt hewayofdi rectai dordebtr elief
(e.g., hesi t est hesi zeoft heUSmi li
tar ybudgetandt hatonl yonet hi rtiethof
thatamounti sspendbyt heUS onf orei gnai d).Hef eel st hatwi tht he
precondi t
ionsofi nf rast ruct ur e,incl udi ngr oads,power ,andpor ts,al ongwi th
heal thandeducat ion,mar ket scant akeov erandbepower f
ulf orcesf or
dev elopment .Wi thoutpr econdi t
ions,mar ket si gnor el ow- i
ncomepeopl eand
l
eav et hem t o suf f er.He f eelst hat gov er nment s need t o pr ov i
de
i
nf rast ruct ure, per hapswi thf or eignai dwhenneeded, andbet teri nt er nat ional
“rulesoft hegame"( e. g., tradepol icies) .
Sachsbr eakspov er tyi ntot hr eet ypes:ext reme( orabsol ut e)pov erty( e. g.
,
l
esst han$1/ dayPPP,ar ound1bi lli
onpeopl e)wher esur vivali si nquest ion,
moder atepov erty( e.g. ,bet ween$1- $2/ dayPPP,ar ound1. 6bi llionpeopl e)
wher ebasi cneedsar ebar elymet , andr elativepov er ty( peopl ewi thi ncomes
l
esst hansomeper cent ageoft hei rnat ion' sav eragei ncome)wher el ackof
educat ionalandheal thcar eoppor tuni tieshur tt heirsoci almobi lity.Sachs
say st hatt hehar destpar tofdev elopmenti s“ get t
ingaf irstf oot hol dont he
l
adder "( t
hel adderofeconomi cdev elopment ,wi tht het opoft hel adder
repr esent ingeconomi cwel lbei ng) .Hesay st hatt heext remel yl ow- i
ncome
peopl ear est uckast heycannotgetupt oev ent hef irstr ungoft hel adder
(i
.e.,t heyar ei na“ pov ert yt r ap"{foradi scussi ononot hert rapsseet he
sect iononBaner jeeandDuo' swor kbel owandt heAnnot atedBi bliogr aphyat
theendoft hechapt erper( Col l
ier,2008) ;f oranal yticalst udi esofpov erty
traps) .Hef eel st hati ti sourgener at ion' sr esponsi bilitytohel pt hem geton
thef i
rstr ung.Tohi m,“ theendofpov er ty"meansget tingt heext remel yl ow
i
ncomepeopl eont ot hel addert oendext remepov er tyby2025,andget ti
ng
themoder at elyl ow- incomepeopl ecl imbi ngupt hel adder .Int hisconnect i
on
hesi test heUNMi l
lenni um Dev elopmentGoal st hatwer esett obemeti n
2015.Hi sbasi cst ancei st hatext remepov ertyhasnotbeenendedsi nce
requi redl ar gei nv est ment shav enotbeenmadet obr eakt het rap;pastl ow
l
ev elsofai d, atbest , hav eonl yhel pedr educesuf fering.
Sachsf eel shi sf ormalt rainingwasnotupt ot het ask,andhencesay st hatt he
fi
eldofeconomi csneedst or eev aluat ehowi teducat eseconomi st ssot hatthey
are mor e ef fect ive at dev el opment wor k.I n par ti
cul ar ,he ar gues t hat
dev elopmenteconomi csneedst obemor el i
kecl i
ni calmedi cine.Hef eel st hat
dev elopmentpr obl emsshoul dbeappr oachedasamedi caldoct orappr oaches
thehumanbody .Fi rst ,cl iniciansr ecogni zet hedeepcompl exi t
yoft hepr oblem,
thev alueofspl ittingt hesy st em i nt opi eces( respi rator y,ci rculat or y ),t hemany
i
nt eract ionsbet weensubsy st ems,t hatt her ecanbecascadi ng f ailur es,and
relationshi psbet weenf ail
ur es.Second,t hecompl exitydemandsa“ di f
f er ential
diagnosi s"( asy stemat i
cpr ocedur et oi dent i
fysomet hingwhent her ear emany
alternat i
v espr esent{ itisapr ocessofel imi nation,oratl eastr educi ngt he
probabi l
ity ofcandi dat e condi t i
ons t oal ow l eveli tcan be consi der ed a
“hypot het ico-deduct i
vemet hod").Thi rd,“allmedi cinei sf ami lymedi cine"sonot
onlymustt hei ndividualbeunder stood, butal sot heirsoci alset t
ing( e.g., fami l
y);
tot hedev el
opmenteconomi stt hismeanst haty oumustunder standcont ext
(e.g.,v i
ll
age,ci ty,andcount ry).Four th,“moni t
or i
ngandev al uat i
onar eessent ial"
tot reatment .Tot hedev elopmenteconomi st,thismeanst hati fyoui mpl ementa
solut i
on,t heny ouhav et omoni torwhet heri tissucceedi ng( perhapsr equi ring
mor et est s,re-diagnosi s,anddi ff
erentt reatment ),andassessi t ssuccess.You
star twi t
hy ourbesthy pothesi s,thenst ayf iexibleasnewi nfor mat i
oni sgat her ed.
Out comesneedt obemeasur edandusedt ochangeappr oaches.Fi ft h,“ the
dev elopmentcommuni t
yl ackst her equisiteet hicalandpr of essi onalst andar ds;"
hei snotsay i
ngt hatdev elopmentpr actit
ioner sar ecor rupt ,buthei ssay ingt he
donott akeonwor kwi tht he“ senseofr esponsi bil
ity"thati sr equi r
ed( notl iket he
medi cal clini
cian) .
(Sachs,2006) )pr ovidesa“ checkl i
st"ofi ssuest o consi deri n dev elopi ng a
different ialdi agnosi sf ordev elopmentt hati ncludest hef oll
owi ng i ssues:( i)
pov er t
yt rap, (i
i)economi cpol icyf r
amewor k,(iii
)fiscalf ramewor kandf iscalt rap
(publ icspendi ngonheal th,educat i
on, andi nfrastructure) ,(iv)phy sical geogr aphy ,
(v)gov ernancepat ternsandf ail
ures, (vi
)cul t
ur albar r
iers, and( v i
i)geopol i
t i
cs.He
l
istsmanyat tr
ibutesofeachoft hesesev enpoi nts,al lofwhi chneedt obe
eval uated.Thecl i
nicaleconomi stmustcar efullyconsi dereachoft hesei ssues
bef orear r i
v i
ngatadi fferent ialdiagnosi s

Economi
cAdv
ancementandDecl
ine

Sachs say st her e aref ourmai n way st o achi eve economi c gr owt h( often
occur ri
ng si mul taneously )as measur ed by gr oss domest i
c product( GDP) :
“sav i
ng and capi tal accumul ati
on, i ncr easing speci ali
zation and t rade,
technologi caladv ance( andar esult
ingr i
sei nout putf oragi v
enamountof
i
nput s),andgr eat ernat uralresourcesperper son( andar esulti
ngi ncreasei nt he
l
ev elofout putperper son) ."Correspondingl y,hesay sthatt herearesev eralway s
economi cdecl inecanoccur :lackofsav ing( duet onot hingbei ngl eftov erafter
meet ingneedst osurvive),absenceoft rade( ev eni fal ow- i
ncomeper soncan
tradei tmaybebl ockedduet oal ackofr oads,v iolence,monet arychaos,and
pricecont rolsandt hi
st henl eadstoat endencyofl ow- i
ncomepeopl enott o
“speciali
ze"i n whatt heyar e good atand pr ofi
tablyt rade based on t hat)
,
technologi calr ev ersal(e.g.,duet oadeat hoft heol destchi ldduet oAI DS,t he
youngerchi l
drenhav et ot akeov erfarming,butwi thoutt het echnicalknow- how
togetgoody ield),naturalr esourcedecl ine( e.g.,duet osoi ldepletion,wi thout
affordablef ertilizer,f
army i
eldsgodown) , adv ersepr oductivityshock( e.g.,duet o
nat ur
aldi sast er sordi seaset hatmayel imi natehousehol di ncomef oray ear)
,
andpopul at i
ongr owth( e.g.,whenv iainher i
tancesonsspl i
taf arm si zeinhal f
butt henhav emuchmor edi fficultysur v
ivingonsuchasmal l far m) .
Tr aditional ly,t he r eason gi ven why count ries ar el ow- income i s cor rupt
gov er nment s and “ r etrograde cul tur es"t hati mpede economi c dev elopment .
Sachssay s,howev er ,thati tismuchmor ecompl i
cat edt hant hatandhi ghl ights
eightf act or scausi ngeconomi cst agnat i
onordecl inef oracount ry:
1.Thepov er t
yt r ap: Ext remepov er tycanmakei timpossi blet ogetoutof
pov er ty, hencecausi ngat rap.Forexampl e, l
ow- incomer ural v ill
agesl ack“ tr ucks,
pav edr oads,gener at ors,andi r
rigat ionchannel s.Theyal sol ack“ humancapi tal
"
duet ohunger ,di sease,andi ll
iter acy .Nat ur alcapi talhasbeendepl et edsi nce
treeshav ebeencutdownandsoi lnut r i
ent sdepl et ed.
Sav ingsar eneededt oov er comet hesepr obl ems,butext r
emel yl ow- income
peopl edonothav eext raincomet osav e.Thepoi ntaboutbei ngt rappedcan
beespeci al l
yacut ei nsomecount riesi nAf rica.I nt hisconnect ion,Sachs
discussesr elat ionsbet weenmal ar i
a,HI V/ AIDS,andpov er ty.Heexpl ains
howl ocal condi tionsandpov ertypr omot et hespr eadoft hesedi seases( e. g.,
climat e,speci esofmosqui toes,l ackofaccesst opr ev entionmet hodsand
treatment s, andl ackofaccesst oeducat ion) , andhowt hesedi seasescause
pov er ty( cr eat ionofor phans,i mpactonwor k,absent eeism i neducat ion,
etc.).Howcanext remel ylow- incomepeopl ebr eakoutof
suchacy cl ewi thoutout sideassi st ance?
2.Phy sicalgeogr aphy :But ,whyar esomecount riest rappedandot her sar e
not ?Nat ur al resour cesi nacount ryhav eabi gi nf l
uence( e.g. ,fer ti
lef arml and,
ampl er ainf all,nav igabl er i
v ers,coast l
i
neandnat uralpor tsf ort rade) .The
l
owest -income count r
ies t odayhav e hi gh t ranspor tcost s due t o bei ng
l
andl ocked,bei ng i nt hemount ains,hav ing no nav igabl er i
v ersorgood
coast l
ines,ornat uralhar bor s.Or ,t heyhav eapoorcl imat ei nt hatt heyar e
arid and hav epr ol onged dr ought s.I nt het r opi cst her ear emuch mor e
fav orabl e condi t i
ons f ordi seases l ike mal ar i
a,dengue f ev er,and many
other s.Mal ar iaseemst obeamaj orf actorcont ribut ingt ol ackofeconomi c
dev elopmenti nAf rica.Sachssay s,howev er ,t hatal lt hesepr obl emscanbe
ov ercome and hence we shoul d av oi d t he not i
on of “ geogr aphi c
det ermi nism. "
3.Gov er nment alf i
scalt r
ap:Thegov ernmentofal ow- incomecount rymay
l
ackt her esour cest opayf ort hei nf rast ruct ur et hateconomi cgr owt hi s
basedon.Theycannotaf fordpubl icgoodsandser vicesl ikeheal thcar e,
roads,powergr ids,por ts,et c.Why ?Theyhav eani mpov erishedpopul at i
on
so t hey cannotr aise enough t axes,t hey may be “ inept ,cor rupt ,or
i
ncapaci tat ed"andhenceunabl et ocol l
ectt ax es,ort hegov ernmentmay
alreadybecar ryingal argedebtl oadt hatt heyneedt o“ ser vice"( thisi scal l
ed
“debtov er hang" ).
4.Gov er nancef ai lur es:Toachi ev eeconomi cgr owt h,t hegov ernmentmust
beor ient edt owar ddev elopment .I tmusti nv esti nt her ightpr oject s,sett he
ri
ghtenv ironmentf orpr i
v atei nv est ment s,notdemand br ibes and si de
pay ment s, mustmai nt ainpeaceandsaf ety ,andpr otectpr i
v atepr oper t
y .
Whent heycannotdot heset hings, “statef ai lure"canoccur( e. g., via
war s, rev ol ut ion, coups, andanar chy ).
5.Cul tur albar rier s:Cul tur alorr el i
gi ousnor msmayobst ructwomenand
hencet ryt odev elopwi thoutt hef ullhel pofhal fi tspopul at ion.Deny ing
womeneducat ioncr eat esmanypr obl ems,i ncludingt hei rl ackofeconomi c
product ivit
yf or t hei rf ami ly,i ncr eased f ami ly si ze and chi l
d- rear ing
responsi bili
t i
es.Si mi larbar ri
er sar esomet imessetupf orr el i
giousoret hnic
mi nor ities ( e.g.,cul turaldi visions i n Lat in Amer ica bet ween i ndigenous,
mest izos, andt hoseofdi rectSpani shdescent ).
6.Geopol iti
cs:Ther e ar et rade bar r i
er s er ected ( by r ich and power ful
count ries)t hati mpedeal ow- incomecount r y
'sdev el opment .Somet imes
economi c sanct ions ar e used agai nst l ow- i
ncome count r
ies, ones
supposedl yai medatanaut hor i
tar ianl eader ,butwhi chmai nlyadv er sel y
affectt hepopul at ion.
7.Lackoft echnol ogi cali nnov ation:I nv ent or sinal ow- incomecount rymay
dev elopi nnov ativ eappr oachesf orl ocalneeds, buthowdot heyr ecov ert hei r
i
nv est menti nr esear chanddev elopment( theirgov er nmenti snotl ikel yt o
suppor tt hem) ?Sal esi nt hel ocalmar ketar el i
kelyt obel ow.Thi sleadst oa
l
ar gedi fferencebet weent heabi l
itiesofr ichandl ow- incomecount riest o
i
nnov at e.I nar ichcount ry, innov ationi ncr easest hesi zeoft hemar ket ,whi ch
i
nt urn encour ages mor ei nnov ation.Sachs say st hat“ the t op t went y
count riesi npat ent ing,al lhi gh- i
ncomecount ri
es,accountf or98% ofal l
pat ent s."Sachsdoes, howev er ,seeoppor tuni t
iesf ori nnov ation
forl ow- incomecount ri
es:( i)v iadi ffusi onoft echnol ogyv iai mpor tat ionof
technol ogy( e.g.,cel lphonesandcomput ers)butt her ear epr oblemswi th
thissi ncet echnol ogi esar eof tendesi gnedf ort heenv ironment alcondi t i
ons
i
nr i
chcount r
iesandcannotber eliabl yusedi nt ropical , ar i
d, ormount ainous
regionswher et hel ow- incomepeopl el iv e;and( ii
)f or eigni nv estor sof ten
bringt echnol ogyandmet hodswi tht hem t hatt henar eusedi nt hel ow-
i
ncomecount ryand“ spillov er"int ot hei rwayofdoi ngt hi ngs.
8.Demogr aphi ct r ap:Hal ft hewor ldi sataf er ti
li
tyr ateof“ repl acement "and
ast heGDPofacount ryi ncr easesi ti swel lknownt hatt ot alf erti
lityr ate
decr eases.Low- incomecount ri
est y pical l
yhav eaf er til
ityr ateoff i
veormor e,
sot hatt hei rpopul at ionwi lldoubl eeachgener ation.Sachssay st hatwi th
l
ar ge f ami l
ysi ze,l ess i si nvest ed i n each chi l
d' s nut ri
tion,heal th,and
educat ion( e.g.,t heymayonl ybeabl et osendonesont oschool ).Thi s
resul tsi nmanyi mpov erishedchi ldr enwhogr ow upt obei mpov er ished
adul ts,whoi nt ur nhav emanychi l
dr en.Thi scr eat esst ressesonf arm si ze,
andenv ironment al resour ces, thatf ur t
herpr omot epov er t y.
Mor eov er ,f ami lysi zei sdr ivenbyt heneedt ohav eenoughboy st hatwi l
l
sur vivesot hatt heycansuppor tt hepar ent si nol dage.
But ,despi tet hepov er t
yt rapsofv ar ioussor ts,somel ow- incomecount ries
hav e achi eved economi c gr owt h. Sachs say s t he most i mpor tant
det ermi nat eoft hei rsuccesswasf oodpr oduct i
vityt hatal l
owedt hem t o
breakoutoft heirpr obl ems.
Ov eral l
,Sachssay st hatbebi ggestpr obl em i showt oov ercomet hepov er ty
trap, thati s, t
oget“ thei rf ootont hel adderofdev elopment ,"andhesay st hat
ri
chcount riesshoul dhel pt hem getaf ootont hel adder ,af terwhi ch“ the
t
remendousdy
nami
sm ofsel
f-
sust
aini
ngeconomi
cgr
owt
hcanoccur
."

Sol
uti
onsf
orEndi
ngPov
ert
y

Basedonhi sownwor kar oundt hewor ld,andi npar ti

cul ari nAf rica( e. g.
,
Keny a) ,al ongwi tht heUNMi llenni um Pr oject ,Sachsi dent ifieswhathecal ls
“thebi gf iv edev elopmenti nterv ent ions: "
1.Agr icul tural :Fer til
izer s,f allows,gr eenmanur esandcov ercr ops,smal l
scal ei rri
gat ion,andbet terseedswoul di ncr easey ieldsandendchr oni c
hunger .St or agef aciliti
eswoul dhel pf armer sgetbet termar ketpr ices.
2.Basi cheal th:Ast affedv il
lagecl inic( e.g.,f orev er yf ivet housandpeopl e)
thatwoul dal sopr ov idebednet s,medi cines,HI V/ AI DSmedi cines( e.g.,low-
costBact ri
mt ot reatAI DS- i
nducedi nf ectionsandant iretrov i
ralt her apyf or
l
at est ageAI DS) ,andr epr oduct i
v eheal thser v ices.
3.Educat ion:Meal sf orchi ldr en atschool ,v ocat i
onalt raining ( e.g.,f or
farmi ng) ,comput erliter acy ,i
nf rast ruct uremai nt enance( e. g., electrical wi r
ing,
gener at oruse,wat erhar v est i
ng,andbor ewel ls),car pent ry ,et c.Tr ainingi n
hy giene,HI V/ AI DS,mal ar iacont rol ,comput erandmobi lephoneuse,and
other sar ei mpor tant .
4.Power ,t ranspor t,andcommuni cat ions:El ect ricityv iaapowerl i
net ot he
grid,orv iaof f-gr i
dmet hods( dieselgener at or s,bi cy cles,sol ar,et c.),ar e
neededt opowerl i
ght s( towor korst udyaf terdar k), per hapsacomput erf or
av il
lage school ,wat erpumps,powerf ormi lli
ng gr ain,r efriger ation,
const ruct ion,char gingofbat teries,et c.Av illaget ruckwoul dbeusef ulf or
del i
v ering goods t ot he v il
lage,t aki ng goods t o mar ket ,ori n case of
emer gencyt odel i
verpeopl et oadi stanthospi tal .Hav ingatl eastonecel l
phonenear by( ifi tcangetasi gnal )i susef ulf oremer genci es,mar ket
i
nf or mat ion( sot heycansel lthei rgoodsatt hebestpr ice) ,andt oconnect
them wi t
ht heout sidewor ld.
5.Wat erandsani t
at ion:Suf fci entsuppl yofcl eanwat eraf fect sheal t
hand
signi ficant lyr educest het oilf orwomenandchi l
dr ent of indandcar rywat er.
Spr ings, bor ewel l
s, andr ainwat erhar vestingcanal l beusef ul, ascoul dapi pe
toanear byl ar ge- scal est or aget ank.Pr opersani tat ioni si mpor tantsot hatat
l
eastt hei mmedi ateenv ironmenti snotpol lut edsot hatheal t
hpr oblems
arise ( ofcour se,concer ns f ort he l argersur roundi ng env ironmentar e
i
mpor tantt oo) .
Af teri dent i
fy ingt hesesol ut i
ons, Sachsdoesacostanal ysisanddet ermi nes
that$70/ per soni st hecostofappl yingal lt hesest rategi es.Hef eel st hat
ext remel yl ow- incomecommuni ti
escannotr aisesuchcapi tal ;hence, hecal ls
foragl obalnet wor kofr ichcount ries,donor s,andl ow- incomecommuni ti
es
towor kt oget hert osol vet hepr oblem ofext remepov erty .Sachssay sl ow-
i
ncomepeopl ear er eadyt oacti ndi vidual l
yandcol lect ivel y, arehar d-wor king,
prepar edt ost ruggl et ogetahead, hav ear eal ist i
ci deaaboutt heircondi t
ions
andhowt oi mpr ov et hem,t heydonotacceptf at e,andar er eadyt ogov er n
themsel vessot hathel pi snotpocket edbyani ndi vidualbutusedf ort he
whol ecommuni ty .Ther ichwor ldi sconcer nedaboutwhet hermoneywi l
l
real
l
yr eachl ow-
incomepeopl eandr eal
l
yendpov er
tyrathert
hanbeingpart
ofan endl ess provisi
on forbasic needs.Sachs callsfor f i
nanci
ng
simult
aneouswi thaccountabili
ty.Hedoesananalysistoshowthattheonl
y
wayt obr eakoutofapov er t
ytrapisviainv
estmentsbasedondonor sto
i
ncreaset hecapitaloflow-
incomepeopletoenabl
et hem tobr
eakthetr
ap.

Gl
obalCompactt
oEndPov
ert
y

Sachssay st hatt oendgl obalpov er tyby2025r equi resa“ globalcompact "

betweenr i
chandl ow- incomecount rieswi t
hr esponsi bili
ti
esonbot hsi des:
1.Low- incomecount r i
esmustbeser i
ousaboutendi ngpov ertyanddev ot emor e
oft heirr esour cest ot hisobj ecti
v et hant owar ,cor rupt i
on, andpol iti
cal inf i
ght ing.
Low- incomecount ri
esof t
engot hrought hemot i
onsofr eform butact uallydo
l
ittl
e.Low- income count ries do not“ hav e a guar anteed r i
ght "t or ecei v e
dev elopmentassi stancef rom r ichcount ri
es;“ theyonl yhav et hatr ighti ft hey
themsel v es car ryt hrough on t hei r commi tment st o good gov er nance. "
Gov er nment sofl ow- incomecount riest hatdonotwantt o,orar enotabl et o,
makeacommi tment( withapl anofact ionandademonst ratedwi lltocar ryi tout
i
na“ t
ranspar entand honestmanner ")“ need notappl y"f orai df rom r ich
count riesast heirr esponsi bili
ti
esar et henl imi t
ed.
2.Ri chcount riesmustendt heirf r equentmor albutempt yst atement sabout
endi ngpov ertyandr eallyf ollowt hr oughonpr omi sest ohel pmor e.Ai dagenci es
oftenf ocusonpr oject satasy mbol i
cr athert hannat ionall ev eli nor dert o
capt ureheadl ines.Sachssay sthatt hemai npr obl em i snott hatpoor lygov erned
count riesgett oomuchhel p,butt hatwel l-
gov er nedcount r
iesgetf art ool i
tt le
help.
Sachsov er vi
ewst heMi ll
enni um Dev elopmentGoal s-
BasedPov ertyReduct i
on
Strategy( i
nv olvingdi f f
er entialdiagnosi s,invest mentpl anni ng,financi alpl anni ng,
donorpl anni ng,andpubl icmanagementpl anni ng) ,andt henout l
inesf ourgl obal
policyi ssuesf orpov er t
yr educt ion.Fi rst,pert he“ debtcr i
sis"hef eel st hatdebt s
forhi ghly -i
ndebt edl ow- incomecount riesshoul dbecancel led.
Second, low- i
ncomecount riesneedt ot radewi thr ichcount ri
est ospureconomi c
growt h;howev er,tradebar ri
ersi mpl ement edbyr i
chcount ri
eshi nderexpor t s
from l ow- i
ncomecount r i
es.Hehi ghl i
ght s,howev ert hati nthef ightov er“ trade
notai d"i ssue,whatl ow- i
ncomecount riesr eal l
yneedi s“ aidpl ust rade"si nce
tradeal onewi llnotal lowt hem t obr eakoutoft hei rpov ert
yt rap.Gai nsi npov er ty
reduct ionf rom t rade( i
.e.,t hemar ket )hav emai nlybenef it
edr ichandmi ddl e-
i
ncomecount ries,nott hel owest -incomecount riesorr egions( e.g.,remot el ow-
i
ncomev il
lagesi nAf ri
ca) .Tr adel iber alizationi nagr icult
ur eis,howev er ,wi llnot
clear l
ypr ov i
debenef itst ol ow- i
ncomepeopl e;itmayhel pf armer si nl ow- i
ncome
count ries,butcoul ddr iv eupf oodpr icesf ort hel argerconsumerpopul ation.
Sachsf eelsi ti smostl ikelyt omai nl yhel pt hel ar gef oodexpor tersl iket heUS,
Canada,
Argent
ina,
Brazi
l
,andAust
ral
i
a.

Gl
obalHeal
thPer
spect
ive

Globalheal thf ocuses on publ i

c heal th atan i nternati
onalscal e,and not
i
ndividualheal thcare( e.g.,bydoct orsornur ses)
.Her e,an up-closev i
ew is
providedfirst.Then,wor ld-
lev
elst at
isti
csandi ni
ti
ativesar ediscussed.Thisis
fol
lowedbyanov ervi
ew oft hekeyi ssuesofheal thdet ermi
nants( i
ncl
uding
socialdet erminant s)
,t he socioecologicalmodel ,env ironmentalhealth( e.
g.,
water ,sanitat
ion,and i ndoorai rpolluti
on),and t echnol ogyforheal t
h.The
i
nclusionofaheal thperspectiveisdrivenbyt heimpor tanceofheal thinhuman
development .

Gl
obalHeal
thUpCl
ose

Av i
deof rom t heUni t
edNat ionsDev elopmentPr ogram t hatshowsacl ose-
up
vi
ewoft hecompl exissuessur roundingheal t
hi stheYouTube
BeyondScar city:Power , Pover t
y,andt heGl obal WaterCr i
sis
fr
om Dec.12, 2008.Thi sv i
deoshowsupcl oset hecompl exinterconnections
betweenwat er,sanitati
on,heal th,andeducat i
oni nKi bera,Nairobi,Kenya.In
part
icular,thev ideoshows:
_Poorsani tat i
onpol luteswat er,i
ncludingdr inkingwat er
.
_Cont ami nat edwat erresul t
si nhealthpr oblems.
_Healthpr obl emsadv erselyaf fectsschool attendance.
Healthpr obl emsal soresul tinlowerwor kpr oduct ivi
tythatcanaf fectincome.
Lowerschoolat t
endancecan( i
)af f
ectl earni ngabouthy giene,whi chcan
causeheal thpr oblems,or( ii
)leadt oal ackofunder standingabouthowt o
fi
xcausesofheal thpr oblems( e.
g.,poorsani tati
on).Thei ssuesofwat er,
sanit
ation,heal th,andeducat i
onar et i
ght l
ycoupl ed,wher eeachoneaf f
ects
al
ltheot her s.Ahol isti
cappr oachi sneededt oaddr esssi t
uationsliket hi
s
one;heal thi s,howev er,att hehear toft hemat ter.Anothercl ose-upv i
ewof
healt
hchal lengesi sprov idedbyt he“ PBSRxf orSur vi
val"series.

Heal
thI
nit
iat
ivesandSt
ati
sti
cs:AVi
ewFr
om aDi
stance

TheWor l
dHeal thOrgani zat ion( WHO)hasawi der angeofst ati
sticson
heal
th( under“ Data"and f orspeci fi
cl ocations,under“ Count r
ies")and
addressesawi derangeof“ healthtopics,
"includingdr i
nkingwat er,foodand
nutr
iti
on,sani t
ati
on,indoorai rpolluti
on,and ot hers,al lofwhi ch hav e
rel
evanttechnologi
calsol utions.Ofcour se,manyoft heirothert opicshav e
rel
evantt echnol
ogiest hatcanassi st,suchasdi agnost i
cequi pmentand
medicines.Thesearecov er edundert hehealtht opi
c“ Technol ogy,Heal t
h."
The healtht opi
cof“ Pov er t
y "discusseshow ( i
)l ow-income peopl e are
exposedt omor epersonalandenv ironmentalheal thrisks,ar elesswel l
-
nouri
shed,andhav elessi nfor mationon,andaccesst o,healthcare;and( ii
)
bad heal thr educes theirsav i
ngs,af fectst heirabi l
i
tyt ol earn and be
productive,reduces t heirqual i
ty ofl if
e,and t herefor
e per petuates or
i
ncreasest heirpov er
ty.WHOpr ovi
desusef ulr esourcesunder“ Publicati
ons,"
i
ncluding“ TheWor l
dHeal thRepor t"and“ WorldHeal t
hStati
sti
cs."Also, WHO
hasawi derangeof“ Pr ogrammes"andpr oj
ect sonmanyoft heheal thtopics.
TheWor ldBankhasst ati
sticsonwor l
d-wideheal thconditi
ons.The
Centersf orDi seaseCont rolandPr ev
ent i
on( normal l
ycall
edt he“ CDC" )has
si
gnifi
canti nfor mati
onont heUScase,andongl obalhealt
h.Si milarl
y,the
OECD has r elated i
nfor mat i
on.Ofcour se,t he UN has i nformat ion and
i
niti
ati
v es,theFoodandAgr i
cult
ureOr ganization( FAO),ortheWor l
dFood
Program ( WFP) .

Ri
char
dSkol
nik:Gl
obalHeal
th

Richar d Skol nikhaswor ked f orov er35 y ear sineducat ion,heal t

h,and
dev el
opment .He has been a l ectureron gl obalheal th att he Geor ge
Washi ngt onUni v ersit
yand Yal eUni ver si
ty .Hehasdi rect ed av ari
etyof
progr amsr elatedt ogl obalheal t
handser vedatt heWor ldBankast he
Directorf orHeal thandEducat i
onf orSout hAsi a.Hehasdoneot herwor kfor
theWor ldBank,andal sof ort heUN.Hewr otethebook( Skol ni k,2012) ,
whi chmostoft hi ssect ioni sbasedon.
Globalheal thi si mpor t antt oev er yoneasdi seasescanspr eadacr ossany
boundar ies i n ourhi ghl yi nt er connect ed gl obali
zed sy st em.I ti s also
i
mpor tantduet ot hesoci aljust icedi mensi on,asi tisunaccept abl et ohav e
such ext ensi vesuf fering duet o poorheal thi nt hewor ld.Mor eov er
,as
ment ioned abov e,poorheal th adv er sely af f
ects economi c and soci al
dev el
opment ,andcr eatesgl obalsecur ityissues.TheWHOConst itut i
onsay s
Heal t
hi sast ateofcompl etephy sical,ment alandsoci alwel l
-bei ngandnot
mer elyt heabsenceofdi seaseori nf i
rmi ty.
Int hi
ssect ion,t hef ocusi sonheal t
hofpopul ati
onsar oundt hewor ld,not
theheal thofi ndi viduals( i.
e.,global publ icheal t
h).
Heal t
haf fectseconomi cdev elopment ,andeconomi cdev elopmentaf f
ects
heal t
h.Theheal thandeducat ionofpar entsaf fecttheheal thandeducat ion
of t hei r chi ldren. Heal t
h af f ects cogni ti
v e dev elopment and school
perfor mance, al
ongwi thear ningspot ent i
al.Att hesamet ime, educat i
oncan
help pr ev ent i llness. Cost s f or heal thcar e can be hi gh, i ncluding
transpor tat i
ont oaheal t hcaref aci l
ity,andcausepeopl et of alli ntopov erty,
ormaket hei rfinanci alcondi tionwor se.“ Heal thi
erpeopl ecanwor khar der,
wor kmor ehour s,andwor kov eral ongerl i
feti
met hancant hosewhoar e
l
essheal thy"( Skol ni
k, 2012) .Duet ot his, healthcanhav easi gni ficanti mpact
onpov erty.Nut riti
oni sakeyf act ori nheal th;howev er, i
tisnotcov eredher e
(seeChapt er8of( Skol nik, 2012) ).

Det
ermi
nant
sofHeal
th
Skol niksay st hatt hekeydet ermi nant sofheal thar ei nFi gure2- 1, of
(Skol nik,2012) ),f orani ndiv i
dual ,thei rgenet icmake- up,sex,andage,and
theheal t
hofani ndividual isi nfluencedbyal lthef ollowi ngf act or s:
_Heal thychi lddev elopment .
_Heal thybehav iorandcopi ngski ll
s.
_Accesst oheal thser vices.
_Phy sical env ironment ,includi ngwat er,sani tation, andai rpol l
ut ion.
_Soci alenv ironment ,incl udi ng soci oeconomi c st atus,educat ion,soci al
capit al,cultur e, andgendernor ms.
_Empl oy mentandwor kingcondi ti
ons.
The phy sical env i
ronment wi ll be di scussed bel ow. For t he soci al
env i
ronment ,t he“ socialdet ermi nant sofheal th,"accor dingt ot heWHO,ar e
definedasf ol l
ows:
Thesoci al det er mi nantsofheal thar et hecondi tionsi nwhi chpeopl e
arebor n, grow, li
v e,wor kandage.Theseci rcumst ancesar eshaped
byt hedi stribut ionofmoney , powerandr esour cesatgl obal ,nat ional
andl ocal lev els.Thesoci aldet ermi nant sofheal thar emost lyr esponsi ble
forheal thinequi ties{theunf airandav oidabl edi fferences
i
nheal t
hst at usseenwi thinandbet weencount ri
es.
WHO Commi ssi on on Soci alDet ermi nant s of Heal th,Fi nalRepor t Healt
h
i
nequi tiesar et heav oidabl edi fferencesi nheal thbet weengr oupsofpeopl ei
na
count ryorbet weencount ri
es.Thel owest -i
ncomepeopl ehav et hewor stheal t
h
accor dingt ot heWHO.“ Lesswel l-
offpeopl e,wi thlesssoci alandpol it
icalpower ,
willgener al l
yenj oyl essgoodheal th,poor erheal thser vices,andl essf inancial
fai
rnessandpr ot ectioni nt hef inanci ngofheal thser vicest hant hosewhoar e
betterof f"( Skol nik,2012) .Peopl einl ess-wel l-offgr oupst ypicali ncludewomen,
i
ndi genous peopl e,et hic mi nor it
ies,r eli
gi ous mi nor i
t i
es,l ow- income peopl e,
peopl el i
vingi nr ur alareas, peopl ewor kingi nt hei nformalsect or, peopl ewi t
hout
mucheducat i
on,andpeopl ewi thl ow amount sofsoci alcapi tal( networ kof
rel
at ionshi pswi thot hers).
Soci oecol ogi cal Model Human behav iors af fect heal th. The ecol ogical
perspect iveconsi der schar act eristicst hati nuencebehav iorsr elat i
ngt oheal th,
andi spi ctur edi nFi gure3. 1.

Thedi agram showschar acter

isti
csrelevanttoeachl ev el
,fr
om t heindividualto
publicpolicy,thataf fectbehav i
orthatpromot esordegr adesheal th.Thekey
pointisthatsoci alcontextmat tersi
nmanyway sintermsoft heinfluencesonan
i
ndividual'
sbehav iorsthatleadt ogoodheal th.Mor eover,i
temphasi zeshuman
behav i
orandi t
sconnect iontohealth( e.
g.,i
tisnotj usthealt
ht echnologyt hat
mat t
ers,itisheal t
hybehav ior
sandbehav i
orst hatpromot eone' shealth).This
socioecologicalmodelhasbeenappl iedinanumberofset ti
ngstoheal th-rel
ated
i
ssues( e.
g.,byt heCDC) .I
thel pstocr eateani nt
egratedholisticprogr am to
addressheal thissues.
Env ironment al Heal t
h:AirPol lution, Sani tation, andWat erEnv i
ronment al
heal thf ocusesonhowt henat ur al andbui ltenv i
ronmentaf f ect sheal th.
Env ironment al heal thandenv i
ronment al prot ect i
onar ei ntimat elyconnect ed.
Apol lutedenv i
ronmentcanadv er selyaf fectheal th, andoner easont o
prot ectt heenv i
r onmenti st oav oidadv erseheal thi mpact s.I nt hi
ssect ion,
wewi l
l focusoni ndoorai rpol l
ut ion, sanitat ion, andwat er .
IndoorAi rPol l
ut ion:Coal ,cow dung,wood,l oggi ngwast e,andcr opwast e
areusedasf uel sf orcooki ngandheat i
ngbyabouthal ft hepeopl ei nt he
wor ld( WHO) .Thesecancr eat esi gni fi
canti ndoorpol lut i
on.Fori nst ance,
cooki ngi sof tendonewi thopenst ov eswi t houtv entilationt otheout side.
Smokef r
om bur ningbi omasscancauseconj unct i
vitis,upperr espi ratory
i
r r
itation,andacut erespiratoryi nfectionandt hecar bonmonoxi der eleased
cancausepoi soni ng.
Ot her gases and smoke can cause “ car di ov ascul ar di sease,chr onic
obst ruct ivepul monar ydi sease,adv erser epr oduct iveout comes,andcancer "
(Skol nik, 2012) .
Effect sofout doorai rpol lutiononheal th;howev er,f ormor edet ails,of
(Skol nik,2012) .I mpr oved cooki ng met hods,l owerpol lut i
ng f uels,bet t
er
vent il
at i
on,bet termai ntenance,andkeepi ngchi ldrenawayf rom acooki ng
areacanhel p.Al so,bettereducat i
onont hepr obl emsofi ndoorai rpol lution
coul dhel p.I thasbeendet er mi ned,howev er,t hatt hemostcost -
ef fective
wayt or educei ndoorai rpol lutioni st opr omot et heuseofbet terst ov esand
fuelsSkol nik,2012) )
.Tocomeupwi thbet t
erappr oaches, itisr ecommended
thatwomenhel passessneedsanddesi gns, atl eastf orsomear eas( Skol nik,
2012) .
Sani tation,Wat er,and Hy giene:Pr oper di sposalof human wast ei s
associ atedwi th“ reductionsi ndi arrhealdi sease,i ntest inalpar asi tes,and
trachoma"( Skol ni k,2012)andi mpr operdi sposalcancont ami natewat erand
foodsour ces, andl eadt ot hespr eadofpar asi ticwor ms.Sol ut i
onsf orbet t
er
sani tation( e.g.,t oil
ets)ar edi scussedonpp.148- 149of( Skol nik,2012) .
Ther ear epr eval entwat er -r
elat edi nfect i
ons,especi allyi nl ow- i
ncomear eas,
i
ncl uding
(i
)wat erborne,wher eapat hogeni sini
ngestedwater ;
(i
i)wat er-
washed( orwat erscarce),t
hati sperson- t
o-persontransmission
duet ol ackofwat ert hatresul t
s
i
npoorhy giene;
(i
ii)wat er-
based, wher etherei str
ansmissi
onf rom anaquat ic
host( e.g.,_sh)
;and
(i
v )wat er-
relat
edi nsectv ector,wheretr
ansmissioni sdue
tobi ti
ngi nsectst hatbreedi nwat er(
e.g.
,mosqui toes).Soluti
onsforbetter
wat ersuppl y(e.g.,bor ehol es,dug wells,and r ainwatercol l
ecti
on)ar e
discussed( Skolnik,2012) ,andcanhel pwi t
ht hesei ssues,andr educeor
el
imi nat ethedemandsonwomenand chi ldrenf orcar ryi
ng waterfrom
distantsites.

Technol
ogyf
orGl
obalHeal
th

Technologi esf orwat erf i

ltr
ation,sani tat ion,andcookst ov es,canhav ea
broadandsi gnificanti mpact( seet hel astsect ion).Technol ogiessuchas
vaccinesanddr ugshav ehadasi gnificanti mpactongl obalheal th,ashas
theimpr ovementofmedi caldev ices.Somedesi r abl
echar acter i
sticsofsuch
technologies, quot ed( Skolnik,2012)ar e:
1. Di agnost ics: Affordable;speci f i
candsensi t
ive;providequi ckand
easy -tointer pretresults;easyt ost oreandt r
anspor t;heatst able.
2.Vacci nes: Af fordable;safeandef fect i
ve;r
equi refewdoses; conferli
fe
-l
ongi mmuni ty;
easyt ot ranspor tandst ore;heatst able.
3.Dr ugs: Affor dable;safeandef f ectiv e;noteasyf orpat hogenst o
becomer esi stantto; r
equi resmal l dosesov eral i
mi tedper i
od; easyto
storeandt ranspor t;heatst able.
4. Del iverydev ices:Affordabl e;saf eandef f
ect i
ve;noti nv asive;easyt o
transpor tandst ore;heatst abl e.
Wor ki
ngal ongt hesel ines,scienceandt echnol ogycanhel paddr essthe
highestbur densofdi seasei nlow-andmi ddle-i
ncomecount ri
es.

I
nter
nat
ionalEducat
ionPer
spect
ive

TheHumanDev el
opmentI ndexwasdi scussedandi tisusedasoneoft he
mai nway st omeasur ehumandev elopmentatt hecount r
ylevel.
TheHDIhasasoneofi tscomponent seducati
onal att
ainment.Thisisa
strongi ndicat oroftheimpor tantrol
et hateducati
onhasi nhuman
dev elopment ,andthekeyr easonwhyher ewewi l
ldiscussinmor edet ail
i
nt ernational educat i
on.
Indeed, itiswel lknownt hatincreasedl ev
elsofeducat i
ongener al
lyleadt o
higherav erageear nings,hel
pchi l
drenescapepov er
ty(Harber,2014),and
i
mpr ovedheal th(e.g.,
viabetterhygieneordiseaseav oidance).Education
hasacent r
al r
oleindev elopment ,andi sconnectedtomanyaspect sof
dev elopment.
Int hi
ssection,therewi llbeaspeci alfocusonSTEM educationatt he
i
nt ernati
onallevel,andt hiswi l
lsett hecontextwhereitwil
lbeexpl ai
nedhow
humani t
ari
anengi neeringcanpl ayani mpor t
antrol
einint
ernationalcr
oss-
culturalSTEM educat i
on.Her e,webegi nbyprovidi
nganoverviewofsome
historyandmaj orint ernationaleducat i
onact i
vi
ti
es.

Inter
nat
ionalEducationUpCl ose
Therear
emanyv ideosavail
ableshowi
ngupcl
osev
ari
ouseducat
ional
set
ti
ngs
aroundtheworld.The(3:24)YouTubevi
deo

Mor
eTeacher
s,Mor
eLear
ningi
nCamer
oon

from May27,2014discussesprobl
emsofteacherpay
,ot
herf
inanceissues,
teacherdevel
opment,andclasssi
ze,andi
sbytheGlobal
Part
nershi
pf or
Education.
The(3:
00)YouTubev i
deo

I
ndi
a'
sPoorGoToSchool
UnderaBr
idge

fr
om Sept
.13,2013,showsonewayamani shel
pingwitheducati
oninIndia.
I
tprovi
desstat
ist
icsandexpl
ainseducat
ional
condit
ionsinIndi
a.The(2:56)
YouTubevi
deo

UNI
CEFUSA:
Bil
i
ngual
Educat
ioni
nGuat
emal
a

fr
om March25,
2014discussest
hebenef
it
sofbi
l
ingual
indi
genous-
Spani
sh
educat
ioni
nGuatemal
a

Educati
onInit
iat
ivesandStati
sti
cs:AVi
ewfr
om aDist
ance
Therearemanyeducat i
onini
ti
ati
vesar
oundt
heworl
d,andi
npar
ti
cul
ar,
signi
fi
cantacti
vesinSTEM educat
ion.

Jomt
ein/
DakarandEducat
ionf
orAl
l

Ani mpor t
antjunctureint hehi stor
yofeducat ionfordev elopmentwast he
1990Jomt ei
nConf erenceandt he
Wor ldDecl arati
ononEducat i
onf orAll
(EFA)
thatencompassedgoal si ncludi
ngear l
ychi ldhooddev el
opment ,uni versal
accesst oandcompl eti
onofpr i
maryeducat i
onbyt hey ear2000,i mpr oved
l
earningachievement ,improv edadultli
teracy,af ocusonbasi cski l
lsneeded
bychildrenandadul ts,andi ncreasedacqui si
tionbyal lofknowl edge,ski ll
s,
andv aluesforbetterlivi
ngandsust ainabledev elopmentof( Ansell,2005)).
TheEFAsuppor tedlocall
y-driveneducationtoaccountf or“cultur
e,language,
experi
ence,andgender "incommuni t
ies( Maclureetal .,
2012) .Alongt hese
l
ines,i mpor t
ant i ni
ti
ati
ves hi ghl
ighted ar e by t he Bangl adesh Rur al
Adv ancementCommi t
tee(BRAC)andEscuel aNuevacommuni tyschoolsi n
Colombi a.I nteresti
ngly,“t
hroughoutmostoft he post-Jomt ei
n decade,
externalassi stance generall
yaccount ed forlesst han 2 per centoft he
educat i
onalbudget sofreci
pientcount r
ies"perUNESCOi nformat i
on.Itisno
wondert hatgrassr oot
sef f
ortsarepopul aramongsome.
Next ,therewer et heDakarFr amewor kf orActionandt heUN Mi ll
ennium
Dev elopmentGoal s.TheDakarf r
amewor kpromot edt he“ t
ransformative"
fr
amewor k(seebel ow)mor et hanEFA,asdi dtheMi l
l
ennium Dev elopment
Goal s,butinanar r
owerway .Inparticular
,sixEFAgoal swer eadopt edint he
Dakarf ramewor kthatyoucanseebycl ickinghereandar e(quot edfrom that
websi t
e):

Goal1:Expandi ngandi mpr ovingcompr ehensiveear lychi ldhoodcar eand

educat i
on,especi all
yf orthemostdi sadvant agedandv ulner ablechildren.
Goal2:Al lchildren,par ti
cularlygi rls,childreni ndi ffcul tcircumst ancesand
those belonging t o et hnic mi nor iti
es hav e access t of ree,qual it
y and
compul soryprimar yeducat i
onby2015.
Goal3:Ensur i
ngt hatt helear ningneedsofal lyoungpeopl eandadul t
sar e
mett hrough equi table access t o appr opr i
atel ear ning and l ife skill
s
programmes.
Goal4:Achi ev i
nga50percenti mpr ovementi nl ev elsofadul tli
teracyby
2015,especi al
lyf orwomen,andequi t
abl eaccesst obasi candcont i
nuing
educat i
onforal ladul t
s.
Goal5:El i
minat i
nggenderdi spar i
tiesinpr i
mar yandsecondar yeducat i
onby
2005,andachi ev i
nggenderequal ityineducat i
onby2015,wi thaf ocuson
ensuringgirl
s'f ullandequalaccesst oandachi ev ementi nbasi ceducat i
on
ofgoodqual ity.
Goal6:I mprovingev eryaspectoft hequal i
tyofeducat ion, andensur i
ngt heir
excell
ence so t hatr ecogni sed and measur ablel ear ning out comes ar e
achievedbyal l
,especi allyinl iteracy ,numer acyandessent i
allif
eski ll
sI n
someappr oachest odev el
opment ,therei sanemphasi sont heeducat i
onof
gir
lsandwomen( seemor eont hisbel ow) ,per hapsbasedont heoldpr overb
“wheny oueducat eaman,y oueducat eani ndividual ;wheny oueducat ea
woman,y ou educat eaf ami ly"( Ansel l
,2005) .Ther ei sa mov ementt o
i
ncrease awar eness of env ironment al degr adat ion and sust ainable
development .

Inf
ormationandSt ati
sticsonI nternationalEducat i
on
Detai
ledstati
sti
csont hest atusofeducat i
onar oundt hewor ldareprovi
ded
bytheWor l
dBank.Addi t
ional i
nf ormat i
oncanbeobt ainedfrom UNICEF,
UNESCO, andthe
UNGl obal Educat i
onFi rstI
niti
ative
whichhasal istofpr i
oriti
es( sev eralineachoft hreecat egori
es,“Everychi
ldin
school,
"“Quali
tyoflearning,"and“ Gl obalci
tizenship"),andmanygoodr esour
ces,
 Gl
obal
Champai
gnf
orEducat
ion
The
Uni
tedNat
ionsConv
ent
ionont
heRi
ght
soft
heChi
l
d
andt
he1948
UNDecl
arat
iononHumanRi
ght
s,

assertt
hatal
lpeopl
ehav
ear
ightt
oeducat
ion,
especi
all
ytol
owerl
evel
sof
educati
onandatnocost
.

InternationalMat hematics, Sci ence, andTechnologyEducat i

on
Det ail
edst atisti
csoneducat ioni nt hesedomai nsarepr ovi
dedbyt heWor l
dBank.
Fori nstance,t heyhav edet ailedi nformat iononmanycount ri
esf or,fori
nstance,
enrollmentl ev elsi nengineer i
ng( terti
ar y
,womenandt otal)andsci ence(tert
iar
y,
womenandt otal),andt her ei st he“ Trendsi
nI nt
ernationalMat hematicsand
ScienceSt udy ."
UNESCOhasar angeofact i
v i
tiesi nsci enceandtechnologyeducat i
on,suchas
ScienceandTechnol ogyEducati
onatUNESCO
and
UNESCO“ Toolkits"f orSci enceandTechnol ogyEducat ion
thatmaybeusef ulforsomecl assroom- basedl
earni
ng.
Informat ionandCommuni cationTechnol
ogyi nEducat i
onatUNESCO
and
UNESCOI nst.forI nfor mat i
onTechnologi
esi neducat ion
Ther eisani niti
ativebyTheNewYor kAcademyofSci encescal l
edt he
Global STEM

Soci
alBusi
nessPer
spect
ives

Here,
theperspecti
vesfrom t
wobooks, onebyPrahal
ad(Prahal
ad,2010)
,and
theot
herbyPolakandWar wick(PolakandWarwick,
2013)areovervi
ewed.
Alsoi
ncludedaresomei deasfrom anearl
i
erbookbyPolakcall
ed“Outof
Pover
ty"(Pol
ak,2009).

C.
K.Pr
ahal
ad:Er
adi
cat
ingPov
ert
yThr
oughPr
of-
it
s

Socialbusinessf ocusesonhav ingposi tivesoci ali

mpactandmaki ngapr ofi
t
atthesamet ime( “doubl ebot tom l ine")
.Whenconsi deringgener all
ysmal l
er
businessesandt heneedf orinnov ati
onpeopl emaycal lthis“social
entrepreneurshi
p. "Her e,onlypar toft hi
sf i
eldi scovered:thepor ti
onthatis
mor efocusedonsel lingt echnol ogi esast hisismostr elevanttoengi neeri
ng
(t
houghmanysoci albusinesses, could,ofcour se,benefitfrom technologi
es
i
nt heirsoluti
ons-f orexampl ei nmi crof
inanceasment i
onedabov e).
Coimbat oreKr i
shnar aoPr ahalad,bor ninI ndia,wasapr ofessorofbusi ness
attheUni v er
sit
yofMi chigan( heuses“ C.K."inhisbookpubl icati
ons).This
sectionisbasedonhi sbook( Prahal ad,2010)( andquotesi nthissectionare
fr
om t hatbook) .Pr ahal adf eel st hatlow- i
ncomepeopl eneedt obecome
“active,i nf ormed,andi nv olvedcust omer s"andt hatpov er tyer adicationcan
occurf rom “ co-creat ing"( t
hati s,low- i
ncomepeopl e,r icherbusi nesspeopl e,
and/ orl ow incomeandr i
cherbusi nesspeopl etoget her )amar ketcent ered
ont heneedsofl ow- incomepeopl e( creat ingnew busi nessmodel sand
mar ket s,notusi ngexi sti
ngones) .Headv ocat es“ incl usi vecapi t
alism"t o
i
nv olv et he 5 bi l
lion peopl e att he bot t
om oft he py rami d( BOP)as
under ser ved consumer s and mar kets( BillGat es cal lst his“ cr eative
capi talism" ).Hev i
ewspeopl eatt heBOPasdeser v ingr espectasi ndi vidual
consumer s,and v i
a co- cr eat i
on v i
ews t hese consumer s as “ equal l
y
i
mpor tantj ointpr obl em sol vers. "Hesay st hatBOPconsumer s“ getpr oduct s
andser v i
cesatanaf for dabl epr i
ce, butmor ei mpor tant ,theygetr ecogni ti
on,
respect ,andf airt r
eat ment .
"Hecl aimshi spr i
vate-sect orappr oachwi l
lbui l
d
self-est eem andent repr eneur ialdr ive,giv ev oicet ol ow- incomepeopl e,wi ll
forceust ounder standt hel ow- incomepeopl e'sneeds, andwi llst opusf rom
maki ngassumpt ionsabouthow l ow- i
ncomepeopl ef eel .Heacknowl edges
thatnotal lacceptt hei deaofusi nghi sappr oach,anddoesnotf eelt hatt he
privat esect orcansol veal lthepr oblems, butsay si tcanbr ing“ techni caland
fi
nanci alr esour ces,t he di sciplines ofor ganizat ion,account abili
ty ,and
entrepr eneur ialdr i
v et obearont hepr oblems. "Hef eel st hatt heBOPmi cro
consumer sandmi cropr oducer sar easi gni fi
cantmar ketandar ean“ engi ne
ofinnov ation,v i
tality,andgr owt h."Hesay st hegoali st obui l
dcapaci tyf or
peopl et oescapepov er tyv iaasel f-
sust ainingmar ket -
basedappr oach.He
cit
est hecel lphoneasanexampl eofasuccessf ulpr oductf orl ow-income
peopl e( e.g.,i n Bangl adesh)t hati s qui ckly spr eadi ng t hroughoutt he
dev elopi ngwor l
d.Thecel lphonei snotonl yusedf orcommuni cati
ons( e.g.,
fi
ndi ng outdi stantmar ketpr ices)butal so comput ing,ent ertainment ,
remi ttances,del i
v eryoff i
nanci alser vices( mi crol oansandsav i
ngs) ,and
heal thcar e.Thecel lphoneexampl eshowst hatl ow- incomepeopl eaccept
andef f ectivelydeal wi thr elativelysophi sticatedt echnol ogy .
Compani essel l
ingt hesephoneshav emadesi gni ficantpr ofitsandhav e
shownt hatt herei sr ealmar ketatt heBOP.Hepr ov idesal istofcompani es
whohav esuccessf ullysol dt ol ow- i
ncomepeopl ef orar angeofpr oduct s
andser vices, andaskswhyt hisappr oachi snotusedmor e.