Steel Piles in Integral Abutment Bridges

2006:291 CIV
MASTER’S THESIS
Low-cycle Fatigue of
Steel Piles in Integral
Abutment Bridges
ROBERT HÄLLMARK
MASTER OF SCIENCE PROGRAMME

Civil and Mining Engineering
Luleå University of Technology

Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Division of Structural Engineering
2006:291 CIV • ISSN: 1402 - 1617 • ISRN: LTU - EX - - 06/291 - - SE

“The only good joint is no joint”
Henry Derthick, former Engineer of Structures at Tennessee Department of Transportation.
Preface i
Preface
After five years of university studies it is finally time to cross the finishing line. It has been a
long and winding road, but nevertheless it has been a pleasant journey. Five years ago, I
started my studies towards a degree in business administration. But somewhere along the road
I found an interesting path, and I could not resist the temptation to find out where that path
would take me. So I made a turn, leaving annual reports, accounts, and key ratios behind me.
And I have never regretted that choice. I found a more interesting area and became interested
in such weird stuffs like concrete, steel, and bridges. So, this journey ends in a master degree
in civil engineering, instead of economics. The master’s thesis is the final document of this
journey, but there are still several other journeys to be made and areas to be explored, and you
just never know what path your life is going to take.
This report has been initiated by Ramböll Sverige AB as a part of a SBUF-project about
integral abutment bridges. This project is carried out together with LTU, NCC and Ramböll.
I would like to thank the people who made this work come true.
First, I would like to thank Professor Peter Collin for introducing me to the world of
composite bridges and integral abutments, and for giving me the opportunity to perform this
thesis in cooperation with Ramböll Sverige AB. His help, guidance, and support throughout
the work have been very valuable to me.
I would also like to thank Hans Pétursson, at Ramböll, who has answered a lot of questions
and helped me to understand the problems and possibilities of integral abutment bridges.
A special thank to Kjell Eriksson at LTU, for his advices and expertise concerning fatigue.
Thanks to Professor Bernt Johansson, who has listened to my problems and thoughts, and
given me advices.
Many thanks to all of the people I have met on the bridge construction sites when I have been
working for NCC Constructions. You have not been involved in this work directly, but you
gave me a lot of experiences and I learned a lot about bridges together with you.
Finally, big thanks to my family and friends for their support, help and belief in me. Some of
you have listened to my thoughts and problems concerning this thesis, during the endless of
hours that we have spent out in the ski tracks. You might not have noticed it, but you have
been working for me as a sounding board all the time. And I would say that you have done a
great job, maybe without knowing it.
Luleå, September 2006
Robert Hällmark
Low-cycle Fatigue of Steel Piles in Integral Abutment Bridges

ii Preface

Abstract iii
Abstract
Besides the safety aspects, the economy is the single most important factor when bridges are
designed. Lowering the life cycle cost of bridges means that less tax-money would be spent,
and that should be in the interest of the general public. Today, bridges in Sweden are
generally designed with movable joints and bearings. Leaking joints are a major reason to
corrosion problems, and it would be preferable if bridges were designed without these.
Integral abutment bridges are bridges without any movable joints. The superstructures are
rigidly connected to the abutments, which generally are supported by a single row of flexible
piles. The largest benefits of integral abutment bridges are the lower construction- and
maintenance costs.
Movable joints and bearings are used in order to handle the expansion and contraction of the
superstructure due to temperature changes. If these components are not used, then additional
forces will be transferred to the abutments. Therefore, abutments in integral bridges will be
laterally displaced as the temperature changes. The top of the piles will also be displaced and
forces as well as moments will be induced in the piles. Pile stresses can locally exceed the
yield strength of the pile material and plastic hinges can be developed. The development of
plastic hinges in steel piles is allowed in the design of integral bridges in some states in the
USA. The Swedish National Road Administration seems to be more hesitant about allowing
pile stresses above the yield strength. And there seems to be a concern about whether or not
there could be problems with fatigue involving plastic deformations, low-cycle fatigue. The
aim of this thesis is to answer if, how and when low-cycle fatigue failures might happen in
piles supporting integral abutment bridges.
First of all, a literature review has been done in order to get a better understanding of the
problem and to gain knowledge about the research areas that are involved in this report.
Integral bridges have been studied in general and especially their thermal behaviour. Other
areas that have been studied are piles, fatigue, effective bridge temperature, traffic loads, and
the Monte Carlo method.
In order to simulate pile strains in integral abutment bridges, a temperature simulation model
and a traffic simulation model were created. One example bridge, Leduån Bridge, has been
used in the calculations throughout the report. It is a single span composite road bridge with a
span length of 40 m. A couple of input parameters have been varied in order to find out in
which amount they influence the pile fatigue. Some of the varied parameters are the lateral
soil stiffness, pile cross-section, the location of the bridge (different climates), and the length
of the bridge.
The temperature model is based on shade air temperature measurements during 30 years at
five locations in Sweden. These temperatures are transformed into Effective Bridge
Temperatures (EBT) in order to simulate the lateral displacements of the abutments. The
seasonal temperature changes will give an annual strain cycle in the piles, and there will also
be daily temperature variations giving smaller strain cycles. Variations in the vertical
temperature gradient in the superstructure are also taken into consideration, since these will
give rotations of the top of the piles as well as small lateral displacements.

iv Abstract
The traffic model is based on vehicle gross weights from BWIM measurements performed by
the Swedish National Road Administration. Two traffic models have been used. The first one
is based on the traffic intensity and gross weights at the road E22, and the other one is based
on measurements from National Road 67.
The traffic load model has been combined with the temperature model, and Monte Carlo
simulations of pile strains have been performed. The simulation results can be presented as
pile strain spectra, involving cycles with periods from seconds up to years. A load spectrum
during the designed lifetime of the bridge, 120 years, would involve more than 50 million
strain cycles. These cycles have to be identified and counted in order to perform cumulative
fatigue calculations. A method called the Rain-flow method has been used to identify the
cycles, count them and sort them.
The results from the calculations in this report indicate that low-cycle fatigue failures are not
expected in piles supporting integral abutment bridges, at least up to a bridge length of 100 m.
The calculation model is rather conservative and it is possible that even longer bridges can be
constructed without problems with low-cycle fatigue. The importance of lowering the lateral
soil stiffness can also be studied in the results. This fact has been noted in several other
studies as well. It is also noted that some pile cross-sections seem to be more suitable than
others for integral abutment bridges.

Sammanfattning v
Sammanfattning (Summary in Swedish)

Med säkerhetsaspekterna undantagna är kostnaden i regel den enskilt viktigaste faktorn vid
projekteringen av en bro. En sänkning av livscykelkostnaden borde ligga i varje individs
intresse, då det skulle innebära att skattepengar skulle kunna användas till andra saker än att
underhålla och reparera broar. De flesta broar som idag byggs i Sverige är konventionella
broar med rörelsefogar och lager. Läckande rörelsefogar är den enskilt största orsaken till
problem med rostangrepp. En bro utan rörelsefogar och lager vore att föredra ur ekonomisk
synvinkel, då dessa förknippas med höga kostnader såväl vid installationen som vid underhåll,
reparation och utbyte av dem. En typ av broar utan rörelsefogar och lager kallas för broar med
integrerade landfästen. Dessa broars överbyggnader är fast förankrade i landfästena, genom
att brobalkarna och farbanan gjuts in i landfästenas övre del. I allmänhet bärs landfästena upp
av en enkel rad med pålar med relativt lågt böjmotstånd. Den största fördelen med broar med
integrerade landfästen är de lägre bygg- och underhållskostnader som de medför.
Rörelsefogar och lager används i konventionella broar för att hantera variationer i
överbyggnadens längd, på grund av varierande temperatur. Om broar byggs utan dessa två
komponenter innebär det att extra tvångskrafter kommer att verka på landfästena och deras
pålar. Landfästena hos broar med integrerade landfästen kommer därför att utsättas för
horisontella förskjutningar då temperaturen i överbyggnaden varierar. Påltopparna som är
ingjutna i landfästena kommer också att förskjutas till följd av landfästenas rörelse, samt
påverkas av såväl moment som skjuvkrafter. Spänningarna i pålarna kan lokalt överskrida
flytgränsen och flytleder kan uppstå. I vissa delstater i USA konstruerar man broar där
flytleder i pålarna tillåts i bruksgränstillstånd. Vägverket i Sverige verkar vara mer tveksamt
inställda till att tillåta flytleder i bruksgränstillstånd. Ett av orosmomenten är huruvida låg-
cyklisk utmattning kan komma att bli ett problem om flytleder tillåts. Syftet med denna
rapport är att försöka svara på frågorna om, hur och när låg-cykliska utmattningsbrott kan
komma att inträffa i pålar i integrerade landfästen.
Examensarbetet inleddes med en litteraturstudie för att få en djupare inblick i de aktuella

frågeställningarna, samt för att inhämta kunskap från de olika forskningsområden som berör
detta examensarbete. Broar med integrerade landfästen har studerats i allmänhet och i
synnerhet deras temperaturrörelser. Vidare så har även följande områden omfattats av studien:
pålar, utmattning, effektiv brotemperatur, trafiklaster samt Monte Carlo metoden.
En temperaturmodell samt en trafiklastmodell har tagits fram för att kunna simulera de
töjningar som pålarna i integrerade landfästen kan komma att utsättas för. Alla beräkningar i
denna rapport är gjorda med en bro som utgångspunkt. Den bro som använts vid
beräkningarna är en 40 m lång vägbro över Leduån utanför Nordmaling. Bron är en tvåfilig
samverkansbro med en fri brobredd på 5 m. För att kunna studera hur olika faktorer påverkar
utmattningen har en rad parametrar varierats, bland annat följande: den horisontella
jordstyvheten, pålarnas tvärsnitt, klimatets påverkan (olika placeringsorter) samt längden på
bron.

vi Sammanfattning
Temperaturmodellen som använts i denna rapport är baserad på trettio års mätningar av

lufttemperaturen på fem platser runt om i Sverige. Lufttemperaturerna omräknas till effektiv
brotemperatur (EBT) för att kunna utföra en simulering av de horisontella förskjutningarna av
landfästena. De årliga temperaturvariationerna kommer att ge upphov till en årlig
töjningscykel i pålarna. De dagliga temperaturvariationerna kommer också att bidra med
töjningscykler men med lägre amplituder. Hänsyn har också tagits till att den vertikala
temperaturgradienten i överbyggnaden varierar, eftersom dessa variationer kommer ge
upphov till rotationer av påltopparna såväl som små horisontella förskjutningar av desamma.
Trafiklastmodellen är baserad på verkliga fordons bruttovikter som uppmätts av Vägverket

med BWIM-teknik. Två olika trafiklastmodeller har använts i denna rapport. Den ena är
baserad på bruttovikter och trafikintensiteter uppmätta på väg E22 och den andra på
mätningar från Riksväg 67.
Trafikmodellen har länkats samman med temperaturmodellen och en Monte Carlo simulering
av pålarnas töjning har utförts. Resultatet av simuleringarna kan åskådliggöras som ett
lastspektra innehållande cykler med perioder från sekunder upp till år. Ett lastspektrum under
brons tekniska livslängd, 120 år, skulle innehålla mer än 50 miljoner töjningscykler. Dessa
cykler måste kunna identifieras, grupperas och summeras för att en kumulativ utmattnings-
beräkning skall kunna utföras. En metod vid namn ”Rainflow”-metoden har använts för att
kunna identifiera cyklerna och sammanställa dem.
Resultatet från beräkningarna i denna rapport tyder på att utmattningsbrott av låg-cyklisk

karaktär ej kommer att ske, åtminstone inte så länge som brons längd ej överskrider 100 m.
Beräkningsmodellen är ganska konservativ och det är fullt möjligt att även längre broar kan
byggas utan några som helst problem med låg-cyklisk utmattning. Vidare kan det från
resultaten utläsas att den horisontella jordstyvheten har väldigt stort inflytande på töjningarna,
vilket även noterats i flertalet andra studier. Det förefaller också som så att en del påltvärsnitt
är mer lämpade än andra för användning i integrerade landfästen.

Contents vii
Contents
Preface ......................................................................................................................................... i
Abstract .....................................................................................................................................iii
Sammanfattning (Summary in Swedish).................................................................................... v
Contents....................................................................................................................................vii
List of Figures ........................................................................................................................... xi
List of Tables............................................................................................................................ xv
Nomenclature .........................................................................................................................xvii
PART 1
1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 1
1.1 Background ............................................................................................................................ 1
1.2 Aims and Scope ..................................................................................................................... 2
1.3 Structure of the Thesis ........................................................................................................... 2
2 Integral Bridges .................................................................................................................. 5
2.1 Definition of Integral Bridges ................................................................................................ 5
2.2 Types of Integral Bridges....................................................................................................... 7
2.3 Why Integral Bridges? ........................................................................................................... 7
2.3.1 Advantages .................................................................................................................... 8
2.3.2 Disadvantages................................................................................................................ 8
3 International Experiences of Integral Bridges ..................................................................... 9
3.1 USA........................................................................................................................................ 9
3.2 UK........................................................................................................................................ 10
3.3 Australia............................................................................................................................... 10
3.4 Japan .................................................................................................................................... 11
3.5 Sweden................................................................................................................................. 12
4 Piles................................................................................................................................... 15
4.1 Pile Materials and Cross-sections ........................................................................................ 15
4.1.1 Steel Piles .................................................................................................................... 15
4.1.2 Reinforced Concrete Piles ........................................................................................... 16
4.1.3 Steel Pipes Filled with Concrete ................................................................................. 16
4.1.4 Fibre Composite Piles ................................................................................................. 17
4.2 Pile Orientation .................................................................................................................... 17
4.3 Pile-Abutment-Girder Interaction ........................................................................................ 19
4.3.1 Rigid Joints.................................................................................................................. 19
4.3.2 Hinged Joints............................................................................................................... 20
4.4 Simplified Pile Design ......................................................................................................... 22
4.4.1 Massachusetts’ Way of Designing Piles ..................................................................... 22
4.4.2 The Abendroth – Greimann Approach........................................................................ 23
5 Bridge Temperature.......................................................................................................... 25
5.1 Factors Affecting Thermal Movements ............................................................................... 25
5.1.1 Weather Conditions..................................................................................................... 25
5.1.2 Thermal Properties of Superstructures ........................................................................ 26
5.2 Thermal Distribution............................................................................................................ 27
5.3 Effective Bridge Temperature Calculations......................................................................... 28
5.4 Design Codes for Thermal Actions...................................................................................... 29
5.4.1 Eurocode...................................................................................................................... 29
5.4.2 Swedish Bridge Code – BRO2004.............................................................................. 31

viii Contents
5.5 Long Term and Short Term Temperature Changes ............................................................. 32

5.5.1 Estimating Thermal Displacements............................................................................. 33
5.6 Thermal Effects on Piles ...................................................................................................... 34
5.7 Simplified Structural Analysis of Thermal Movements ...................................................... 36
5.8 Measuring Bridge Average Temperature............................................................................. 37
5.9 Available Temperature Measurements ................................................................................ 38
5.9.1 Measurement Equipment............................................................................................. 38
5.9.2 Sources of Errors......................................................................................................... 39
6 Low-cycle Fatigue ............................................................................................................. 41
6.1 Low-cycle Fatigue Prediction .............................................................................................. 42
6.1.1 General Strain Life Equation....................................................................................... 42
6.1.2 Coffin-Manson’s Universal Slope Equation ............................................................... 43
6.1.3 Extrapolated ∆ε-Nf Curves .......................................................................................... 43
6.2 Predicting the Level of Cumulative Fatigue ........................................................................ 45
6.2.1 Simplified Cumulative Damage Model....................................................................... 46
6.2.2 Cumulative Damage Model Based on Measurements................................................. 47
6.3 Comments ............................................................................................................................ 48
7 Traffic Loads .................................................................................................................... 49
7.1 Traffic Fatigue Load According to BRO2004 ..................................................................... 49
7.2 Measured Traffic Loads ....................................................................................................... 50
7.2.1 WIM ............................................................................................................................ 50
7.2.2 BWIM ......................................................................................................................... 51
8 Monte Carlo Simulation .................................................................................................... 53
8.1 Introduction and History ...................................................................................................... 53
8.2 Why a Simulation?............................................................................................................... 53
8.3 The Method.......................................................................................................................... 53
8.3.1 Central Limit Theorem................................................................................................ 54
8.3.2 Random Variables ....................................................................................................... 54
8.3.3 Limitations .................................................................................................................. 55
8.4 Structure of Monte Carlo Simulations ................................................................................. 55
8.4.1 Random Input Values.................................................................................................. 55
8.4.2 Random Number Generation....................................................................................... 56
8.4.3 System Model.............................................................................................................. 56
8.4.4 Recording the Results.................................................................................................. 56
PART 2
9 Example Bridge - Leduån Bridge.............................................................................................. 61
10 Temperature Models .................................................................................................................. 65
10.1 Seasonal Temperature Changes ........................................................................................... 65
10.1.1 Mathematical Model of Seasonal Temperature Changes............................................ 66
10.2 Daily Temperature Changes................................................................................................. 68
10.2.1 Model 1 ....................................................................................................................... 68
10.2.2 Model 2 ....................................................................................................................... 69
10.2.3 Statistical Model.......................................................................................................... 72
10.3 Temperature Gradient .......................................................................................................... 72
10.4 Effective Bridge Temperature Models................................................................................. 73
10.4.1 EBT – According to Oesterle and Volz....................................................................... 73
10.4.2 EBT – According to Eurocode .................................................................................... 73
10.5 Comments ............................................................................................................................ 74

Contents ix
11 Temperature Simulations .................................................................................................. 75

11.1 Daily Temperatures.............................................................................................................. 75
11.2 Temperature Differences Between Deck and Girders ......................................................... 77
11.3 Thermal Movements ............................................................................................................ 79
12 Soil Calculations................................................................................................................ 81
12.1 Lateral Soil Stiffness Parameter – kh ................................................................................... 81
12.2 Equivalent Uniform Lateral Soil Stiffness Parameter - keh .................................................. 83
12.3 Calculations of Equivalent Cantilever Length ..................................................................... 85
13 Loads and Rotations.......................................................................................................... 89
13.1 Permanent Loads.................................................................................................................. 90
13.1.1 Girders......................................................................................................................... 90
13.1.2 Deck ............................................................................................................................ 90
13.1.3 Pavement ..................................................................................................................... 90
13.1.4 Crash Barriers.............................................................................................................. 90
13.1.5 Concrete Shrinkage ..................................................................................................... 91
13.1.6 Summary of Permanent Loads .................................................................................... 91
13.1.7 Rotations due to Permanent Loads.............................................................................. 92
13.2 Variable Loads ..................................................................................................................... 93
13.2.1 Thermal Loads............................................................................................................. 93
13.2.2 Traffic Loads ............................................................................................................... 96
13.2.3 Backfill Soil Pressure .................................................................................................. 99
13.3 Summary of Forces, Movements and Rotations ................................................................ 101
14 Maximum Strain Calculations ........................................................................................ 103
14.1 Maximum Positive Lateral Movement - Summertime....................................................... 105
14.2 Maximum Negative Lateral Movement - Wintertime ....................................................... 106
14.3 Discussion About the Strain Calculations.......................................................................... 107
14.3.1 Pipe Piles ................................................................................................................... 107
14.3.2 H-piles ....................................................................................................................... 108
14.3.3 Higher Traffic Fatigue Load...................................................................................... 108
14.4 Not Included Parameters.................................................................................................... 110
14.4.1 Moments Caused by Dead Load from the Abutments .............................................. 110
15 Fatigue Simulation Model ............................................................................................... 111
15.1 Traffic Load Model............................................................................................................ 111
15.1.1 Truck Weight Models................................................................................................ 111
15.1.2 Vehicle Classification ............................................................................................... 113
15.1.3 Queue weight............................................................................................................. 116
15.1.4 Summary of the Traffic Load Models....................................................................... 118
15.2 Fatigue Calculations........................................................................................................... 119
15.2.1 Definition of Different Strain Cycles ........................................................................ 120
15.2.2 Counting Cycles ........................................................................................................ 122
16 Fatigue Simulation Results .............................................................................................. 125
16.1 Different Soil Models ........................................................................................................ 125
16.1.1 Original Soil Model................................................................................................... 125
16.1.2 Alternative Soil Model .............................................................................................. 126
16.2 Longer Bridges................................................................................................................... 126
16.3 Different Locations ............................................................................................................ 127
16.4 Alternative Pile Cross-section............................................................................................ 127
17 Conclusion and Discussion .............................................................................................. 129
17.1 Possible Sources of Errors ................................................................................................. 130
17.2 Future Work ....................................................................................................................... 131
References ............................................................................................................................... 133

x Contents
Appendixes
Appendix A – Non-linear Temperature Differences in Different Types of Superstructures ........... 139
Appendix B – Equivalent Cantilever Length................................................................................... 141
Appendix C – Rankine’s Theory of Earth Pressure......................................................................... 145
Appendix D – Ductility Criterion .................................................................................................... 147
Appendix E – Isothermal Maps over Sweden ................................................................................. 149
Appendix F – Calculations of the Gravity Induced Moments - Mw ................................................ 151
Appendix G – Input Data to Temperature Models........................................................................... 153
Appendix H – Temperature Models for Different Locations........................................................... 155
Appendix I – Graphical Results from Temperature Simulations ................................................... 157
Appendix J – Cross-section Calculations ....................................................................................... 159
Appendix K – Vehicle Classification System – Metor 2000 ........................................................... 161
Appendix L – Input Data for Monte Carlo Simulations .................................................................. 163
Appendix M – Relationship Between Allowable Gross Weight and Axel Distances ...................... 169
Appendix N – Maximum Integral Bridge Length in 30 States in the USA ..................................... 171

Contents xi
List of Figures
Figure 2:1 Illustration of how an integral abutment can be constructed. .......................................................................................5
Figure 2:2 Types of Integral Abutments, defined by the UK Highway Agency (2003). ...............................................................6
Figure 2:3 A fully integral abutment to the left, and a semi integral abutment to the right. ..........................................................7
Figure 3:1 Gilles Street bridge in Ballarat, Australia (Connal 2004)...........................................................................................10
Figure 3:2 Nishihama Bridge (Nakamura et al. 2002).................................................................................................................11
Figure 3:3 The Nishihama Bridge, side view drawing to the left and abutment view drawing to the right.................................11
Figure 3:4 Bridge over Fjällån. ...................................................................................................................................................12
Figure 3:5 Bridge over Hökviksån. .............................................................................................................................................13
Figure 3:6 View of the bridge over the Leduån River. ................................................................................................................13
Figure 4:1 Illustration of different pile cross-sections. ................................................................................................................17
Figure 4:2 Schematic illustration of an abutment with H-piles oriented for weak axis bending, seen from above. ....................18
Figure 4:3 Pile orientations in the USA, according to Maruri and Petro (2005)..........................................................................18
Figure 4:4 Illustrations of two different techniques of designing the pile-abutment-girder connection for steel bridges with
integral abutments (Yannotti et al. 2005). ...................................................................................................................19
Figure 4:5 Abutment with hinged-piles (Connal 2004)...............................................................................................................20
Figure 4:6 Illustration of the pin connection used in Gilles Street Bridge...................................................................................20
Figure 4:7 Original hinge to the left and modified hinge to the right, redraw from Weakley (2005) and Arsoy (2000). ............21
Figure 5:1 Movements of the abutments caused by temperature variations (Arsoy 1999). .........................................................25
Figure 5:2 Illustration of how different factors influencing the temperature distribution in a bridge superstructure. ................27
Figure 5:3 The non-linear temperature and its components according to ENV 1991-2-5 (Soukhov 2000).................................27
Figure 5:4 Correlation between max/min shade air temperature and max/min EBT. ..................................................................30
Figure 5:5 Comparison between theoretical and measured movements (Frosch et al. 2005). .....................................................33
Figure 5:6 Measured pile curvatures (Huang et al. 2004)............................................................................................................35
Figure 5:7 Pile strain in integral bridges as a function of time (Dicleli and Albhaisi 2004)........................................................35
Figure 5:8 Free body diagram for an end span of an integral bridge. ..........................................................................................37
Figure 6:1 Illustration of low-cycle fatigue failure in a steel H-pile (Huang et al. 2004). ...........................................................41
Figure 6:2 Strain-life curves showing the total-, elastic-, and plastic strain components (ASM Handbook 1996)......................42
Figure 6:3 Illustration of Coffin-Manson’s fatigue model...........................................................................................................43
Figure 6:4 Extrapolated ∆ε-Nf curve from BSK99 in comparison with Coffin-Manson’s equation............................................44
Figure 6:5 Illustration of the loading and unloading of the piles that cause small strain cycles ..................................................45
Figure 7:1 Illustration of the fatigue load according to the Swedish Bridge Code (Vägverket 2004). ........................................50
Figure 7:2 BWIM strain gauges mounted at a concrete bridge, picture from Vägverket (2003).................................................51
Figure 8:1 Illustration of distributions for discrete and continuous variables..............................................................................55
Figure 8:2 Monte Carlo simulation scheme, after Marek et al. (2003). .......................................................................................56
Figure 9:1 View of the bridge over the Leduån River. ................................................................................................................61
Figure 9:2 Cross-section view of the superstructure....................................................................................................................61
Figure 9:3 Drawing of the bridge girders, seen from above. .......................................................................................................62
Figure 9:4 Cross-section of the upper part of the pile, surrounded by a steel pipe. .....................................................................62
Figure 9:5 Abutment view drawing.............................................................................................................................................64
Figure 9:6 Drawing of pile locations, seen from above...............................................................................................................64
Figure 10:1 Map of Sweden, showing the locations where the temperature has been studied. ...................................................65

xii Contents
Figure 10:2 Seasonal temperature changes in Stockholm during a period of five years..............................................................65
Figure 10:3 Mathematical mean temperature model for Kiruna, compared with historical data.................................................66
Figure 10:4 Seasonal variations in daily max temperature in Kiruna, modelled by a sinus curve and a polynomial regression
line...........................................................................................................................................................................67
Figure 10:5 Example of a result from temperature Model 1........................................................................................................69
Figure 10:6 Illustration of how daily temperatures could be added to the seasonal temperature curve by using different
probability distributions...........................................................................................................................................70
Figure 10:7 Illustration of a simulation result of the annual variations in daily max and min temperature to the left, and the
simulated temperature curve to the right..................................................................................................................71
Figure 10:8 Illustration of the normal distribution function. .......................................................................................................71
Figure 11:1 Results from a simulation of daily maximum temperature in Kiruna , during a period of 100 years. ......................76
Figure 11:2 Log-normal distributions used to simulate negative respectively positive temperature differences.........................78
Figure 11:3 Graphical result of a simulation of varying temperature gradient during four month. .............................................78
Figure 11:4 Varying bridge length, during 3 years, of a composite bridge with a single span of 40.0 m, located in Kiruna. .....79
Figure 12:1 Illustration of soil conditions below the abutments..................................................................................................81
Figure 12:2 Diagrams over the varying soil stiffness parameter (kh) and the equivalent uniform soil stiffness parameter (keh) .83
Figure 12:3 Diagrams over the varying soil stiffness parameter (kh) and the equivalent uniform soil stiffness parameter (keh),
for the alternative soil model. ..................................................................................................................................84
Figure 12:4 Relationships between le/lc and lu/lc for a pile in uniform soil, developed by Abendroth and Greimann (1989)......86
Figure 13:1 Illustration of the relationship between lateral movements and abutment rotations.................................................89
Figure 13:2 Illustrations of dead loads from the superstructure. .................................................................................................92
Figure 13:3 Illustration of the vertical temperature differences...................................................................................................94
Figure 13:4 Illustration of the fatigue load according to BRO2004. ...........................................................................................96
Figure 13:5 Eccentric load is replaced by a force and moment acting at the symmetric axis......................................................97
Figure 13:6 Distributions of normal forces in the piles due to eccentric loads............................................................................97
Figure 13:7 Illustration of backfill soil pressure..........................................................................................................................99
Figure 14:1 Pile strains are studied at the points P1 and P2........................................................................................................103
Figure 14:2 Illustration of stress-strain relationship for two possible situations, elastic perfectly plastic material. ..................103
Figure 14:3 Definition of positive strain direction. ...................................................................................................................104
Figure 14:4 Illustration of stress-strain relationship, elastic perfectly plastic material..............................................................107
Figure 14:5 Illustrations of the higher loads that have been assumed. ......................................................................................108
Figure 14:6 Illustration of the Leduån Bridge abutment............................................................................................................110
Figure 15:1 Truck gross weight distribution at E22 – Strängnäs...............................................................................................112
Figure 15:2 Truck gross weight distribution at National Road 67 – Tillberga. .........................................................................113
Figure 15:3 Vehicle gross weight distribution in Group 2 and 3, redraw from Getachew (2003). ............................................114
Figure 15:4 Vehicle load model for vehicle Type 1. .................................................................................................................115
Figure 15:8 Queue weight distribution in a 250 m long queue, redraw from Getachew (2003)................................................117
Figure 15:9 Simulation result from the queue weight model used in this report, containing 50 000 values..............................117
Figure 15:10 Schematic illustration of the traffic load models..................................................................................................118
Figure 15:11 Total strain variation during three years, traffic loads excluded. .........................................................................120

Contents xiii
Figure 15:12 Yearly strain cycle caused by seasonal temperature variations............................................................................121

Figure 15:13 Daily strain cycles caused by daily temperature variations and temperature gradients. .......................................121
Figure 15:14 Strain cycles due to traffic loads, during three hours. ..........................................................................................121
Figure 15:15 Illustration of how daily strain ranges are modelled. ...........................................................................................122
Figure 15:16 Definition of cycles in the rain-flow method, after ASM Handbook. ..................................................................123
Figure 15:17 Illustration of the cycle counting technique in the rain-flow method, after ASM Handbook (1996). ..................124
Figure 15:18 (a) Amplitude distribution of temperature induced strain cycles. (b) 3D-model of the distribution of both
amplitudes and mean values for temperature induced strain cycles.......................................................................124

xiv Contents

Contents xv
List of Tables
Table 3:1 Maximum length limits for integral abutment bridges (Dicleli and Albhaisi 2004). .................................................. 9
Table 5:1 Characteristic values of linear temperature differences (Soukhov 2000). ................................................................ 30
Table 5:2 Reduction factors and functions for thermal actions on bridges............................................................................... 31
Table 5:3 Bridge design temperatures according to Swedish Bridge Code, BRO2004............................................................. 31
Table 9:1 Steel girder dimensions. ........................................................................................................................................... 62
Table 9:2 Pile dimensions and properties, RR170x10 from Ruukki......................................................................................... 63
Table 9:3 Alternative pile dimensions and properties, HEM120.............................................................................................. 63
Table 10:1 Positive and negative temperature gradients (characteristic values)....................................................................... 72
Table 11:1 Characteristic temperatures, which statistically occur one time in 50 years. .......................................................... 75
Table 11:2 Standard deviations of daily max and min temperature models. ............................................................................ 76
Table 11:3 Comparisons between simulated and statistical mean values of daily temperature variations [°C]........................ 77
Table 11:4 Simulated temperature differences compared with temperature differences from ENV1991-2-5. ......................... 78
Table 12:1 Soil conditions below the abutments. ..................................................................................................................... 81
Table 12:2 Results from calculations of keh, original soil model.............................................................................................. 84
Table 12:3 Results from calculations of keh, alternative soil model. ........................................................................................ 84
Table 12:4 Calculated embedded length le and equivalent cantilever length Lequ, for the original soil model. ........................ 86
Table 12:5 Calculated embedded length le and equivalent cantilever length Lequ, for the alternative soil model. .................... 86
Table 12:6 Embedded length le and equivalent cantilever length Lequ, original soil model and alternative pile....................... 87
Table 12:7 Embedded length le and equivalent cantilever length Lequ, alternative soil model and alternative pile. ................. 87
Table 13:1 Steel girder weights, lengths and dead loads. ......................................................................................................... 90
Table 13:2 Normal forces in a single pile due to the dead loads. ............................................................................................. 92
Table 13:3 Rotations caused by dead loads and concrete shrinkage......................................................................................... 93
Table 14:1 Pile strains due to the higher traffic load, original soil model. ............................................................................. 109
Table 14:2 Pile strains due to the higher traffic load, alternative soil model.......................................................................... 109
Table 15:1 Results from AADT measurements, performed with a Metor system. ................................................................. 112
Table 15:2 Allowable gross weights according to the Swedish Traffic Regulation, Trafikförordningen (1998). .................. 114
Table 15:3 Allowable loads according to the Swedish Traffic Regulation, Trafikförordningen (1998)................................. 114
Table 16:1 Cumulative fatigue different traffic models, according to extrapolated ε-Nf curves, orig. soil model. ................ 125
Table 16:2 Cumulative fatigue for different traffic models, according to extrapolated ε-Nf curves, orig. soil model. ........... 125
Table 16:3 Cumulative fatigue for different traffic models, according to extrapolated ε-Nf curves, alt. soil model. ............. 126
Table 16:5 Cumulative fatigue for varying bridge length, according to extrapolated ε-Nf curves, orig. soil model............... 126
Table 16:6 Cumulative fatigue for varying bridge length, according to extrapolated ε-Nf curves, alt. soil model................. 127
Table 16:7 Cumulative fatigue at different locations, according to extrapolated ε-Nf curves, alt. soil model. ....................... 127

xvi Contents

Nomenclature xvii
Nomenclature
Greek letters
α Thermal coefficient of a material [°C-1]

β Constant [-]
∆abut Lateral abutment displacement [m]
∆ε Strain range [-]
∆Lb Changes in bridge length [m]
∆TE Non-linear temperature distribution [°C]
∆TM Linearly varying temperature component [°C]
∆TN Uniform temperature component [°C]
∆T solar Uniform temperature change from direct solar radiation [°C]
ε Strain [-]
εa Stain amplitude [-]
εcs Final concrete shrinkage [-]
εf Elongation at fracture [-]
ε’f Fatigue ductility coefficient [-]
εy Yield strain [-]
φ Soil friction angle [°]
γ Unit weight of a material [N/m3]
ϕ Load factor [-]
µ Mean value
θ Rotation angle [-]
θi Coefficient of inelastic rotation capacity [-]
σ Standard deviation
σ Stress [N/m2]
σu Ultimate tensile strength [N/m2]
σ’f Fatigue strength coefficient [N/m2]
ψ Reduction factor [-]
∅ Pile diameter [m]
xviii Nomenclature
Roman upper case letters
A Area [m2]
B Width of the abutment backwall [m]
C Detail fatigue category factor [N/m2]
E Young’s modulus, the modulus of elasticity [N/m2]
F Lateral force [N]
H Abutment height [m]
I Moment of inertia [m4]
ILT Long term moment of inertia [m4]
IST Short term moment of inertia [m4]
Ka Active soil pressure coefficient [-]
Kp Passive soil pressure coefficient [-]
L Length [m]
Lb Bridge Length [m]
Lequ Equivalent cantilever length [m]
M Constant [-]
M Moment [Nm]
N Normal force [N]
Nf Number of cycles until failure [-]
P Axial force [N]
R Resulting normal force on abutment [N]
T Temperature [°C]
T0 Datum temperature [°C]
T1 Solar incremental temperature [°C]
Td Daily temperature [°C]
TE Non-linear temperature distribution [°C]
TK Characteristic temperature [°C]
TM Linearly varying temperature component [°C]
TN Effective bridge temperature (EBT) [°C]
Ts Seasonal daily average temperature [°C]
W Bending stiffness [m3]
W Vehicle gross weight [ton]

Nomenclature xix
Roman lower case letters
b Fatigue strength exponent [-]

c Cohesion, or Fatigue ductility exponent [-]
cuk Undrained shear strength in cohesive soils [N/m2]
d Pile width [m]
keh Equivalent uniform lateral soil stiffness parameter [N/m2]
kh Lateral soil stiffness parameter [N/m2]
lc Critical pile length [m]
le Embedded length of Lequ [m]
lu Not embedded pile length [m]
m Constant [-]
n Number of cycles, number of segments, number of piles [-]
nh Coefficient of subgrade reaction [N/m3]
p Soil pressure [N/m2]
pact Active soil pressure [N/m2]
ppass Passive soil pressure [N/m2]
q Uniformly distributed load [N/m]
qk Limit soil pressure [N/m2]
t Pile material thickness [m]
td Time measured in days [days]
to Constant [-]
z Soil depth [m]

xx Nomenclature
Abbreviations
AADT Annual Average Daily Traffic

AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
BWIM Bridge Weigh in Motion
CLT Central Limit Theorem
DOT Department of Transportation
EBT Effective Bridge Temperature
FEM Finite Element Method
FRP Fibre Reinforced Polymers
LCC Life Cycle Cost
MC Monte Carlo
PDF Probability Density Function
PMF Probability Mass Function
SMHI Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute
WIM Weigh in Motion

PART 1
Introduction and Literature Review

Introduction 1
1 Introduction
1.1 Background
There are several different factors that have to be taken into account when a bridge is
designed. The most important factor is of course the safety aspect. The bridge must be
designed to withstand all type of loads that is applied, traffic loads as well as wind and
weather. Besides the safety aspects, the economical aspect is often the second most important.
The cost of a bridge should be calculated as a life cycle cost, which takes into consideration
all costs from construction costs to repair and maintenance costs. The costs of maintaining
bridges are quite high and the society uses a lot of tax-money to keep the bridges in good
conditions.
Conventional bridges are in general built with expansion joints and bearings. Expansion joints
as well as bearings are weak points in a bridge structure. Leaking expansion joints are the
most common reason for corrosion problems in bridges. These joints need to be maintained,
repaired and also often replaced several times through the service lifetime of a bridge. If
bridges were built without any expansion joints it would be possible to reduce the
maintenance costs. This report is focused on bridges without any movable joints, integral
abutment bridges.
Integral abutment bridges have other benefits besides lower maintenance costs. The
foundations work can be simplified, implying lower construction costs. No expansion joints
means no bump when a car enter or leave a bridge, the riding quality will be improved as well
as the noise level for the travellers.
In the USA they have been constructing integral bridges during more than half a century. The
maximum length of integral bridges has been increasing, and some states allows composite
bridges up to a length of almost 200 m. Integral bridges with concrete superstructures are
allowed to be even longer, a 358 m long integral bridge with a concrete superstructure has
been constructed in Tennessee.
Today’s problem, seen from a Swedish perspective, is that a conventional elastic analysis fails
to explain how integral abutment bridges work. The Swedish National Road Administration is
far more conservative, than the USA, concerning integral abutment bridges. This leads to a
long and expensive design process where the National Road Administration determines the
limits on a case to case basis. A development of general codes, rules or guidelines for integral
bridges would simplify the design process.
Low-cycle fatigue has not been experienced as a problem in the USA. However, piles in
integral abutment bridges are sometimes designed to experience stresses above the pile yield
strength, and plastic hinges are allowed to develop. If the cyclic loads that act on the piles, for
instance due to lateral temperature movements, are giving reversible strains exceeding the
yield strain. Then low-cycle fatigue could be a possible failure mode.

2 Introduction
1.2 Aims and Scope
The first aim of this report is to perform a literature review of integral bridges in general and
especially low-cycle fatigue of piles in integral abutment bridges. The literature study is
focused on the following areas: integral abutment piles, temperature movements, low-cycle
fatigue, traffic loads, and the Monte Carlo method. These areas are chosen since certain
knowledge in these fields is believed to be necessary in order to perform the second aim.
The second and primary aim is to investigate if, how and when low-cycle fatigue failure will
be a possible failure mode for piles carrying integral abutment bridges. The varying pile
strains, as a result of thermal movements, traffic loads, etc, are simulated by a Monte Carlo
simulation, in order to achieve a strain-time sequence during the bridge service lifetime. The
strain sequence is evaluated and the fatigue life is predicted.
Some delimitations of the problem are established. The study is limited to integral abutment
bridges with stub abutments, deflections of the abutments are not considered. Thermal
movements are studied in a Swedish climate. One example bridge is studied, and several
parameters are varied in order to investigate their influences. The studied bridge is a
composite bridge, no concrete bridges are studied. The soil-pile interaction model is chosen to
make it possible to perform calculations without any external computer program. The
analysed pile cross-sections are dimensioned and chosen by the bridge designer, and the only
failure mode studied in this report is fatigue failure.
1.3 Structure of the Thesis
The first part of this report contains a literature review of integral bridges in general, and
especially the thermal behaviour of the bridge structure and the low-cycle fatigue of the
abutment piles. The Monte Carlo simulation method is also studied. The second part contains
calculations of cumulative pile fatigue in an integral abutment bridge over the Leduån stream.
A Monte Carlo simulation of the pile fatigue is presented.
Part 1
Chapter 2 - Integral Bridges

The concept of integral abutment bridges is defined, and typical integral bridges are
described. Benefits and drawbacks of integral bridges are summarised.
Chapter 3 - International Experiences of Integral Bridges

Different countries views of integral bridges and their design, advantages, limitations, etc. are
presented and a couple of bridges are shown as examples.
Chapter 4 - Piles
Piles supporting integral abutment bridges are described in this chapter. Different pile
materials and cross-sections are described and compared. The importance of pile orientations
is also discussed, and some simplified pile design models are presented.

Introduction 3
Chapter 5 - Bridge Temperature

The effect of varying bridge temperatures in integral abutment bridges is discussed and
factors that influencing bridge temperatures are described. The concept of Effective Bridge
Temperature (EBT) is presented and temperature movements’ effects on the piles are
described. How bridge design codes deals with thermal actions is also reviewed, and a
simplified structural analysis of thermal movements is presented.
Chapter 6 - Low-cycle Fatigue

Low-cycle fatigue is described and some methods of predicting the fatigue lifetime are briefly
discussed. The concept of cumulative fatigue damage is also presented.
Chapter 7 - Traffic Loads

Traffic fatigue loads given in bridge design codes are presented. Measurements of real loads
are discussed as an alternative to the values given in codes. The traffic load measurement
techniques WIM and BWIM are briefly described and discussed.
Chapter 8 - Monte Carlo Simulation

This chapter is a review of the Monte Carlo simulation method. The purpose and benefits of a
simulation is presented and the theories behind the method are summarised.
Part 2
Chapter 9 - Example Bridge - Leduån Bridge

Presentation of the Leduån Bridge, which has been used in the calculations throughout the
report. Type of bridge, materials, dimensions, geometry, etc. is presented.
Chapter 10 - Temperature Models

If a pile strain simulation shall be performed, daily and seasonal temperature variations have
to be modelled in one way or another. In this chapter a couple of proposals to temperature
models are given. Their benefits and drawbacks are discussed and one model is chosen for the
temperature simulation.
Chapter 11 - Temperature Simulations

The Monte Carlo simulation models for daily temperature variations and vertical temperature
differences are presented. The simulated temperatures are compared to real measurement and
differences are discussed.
Chapter 12 - Soil Calculations

Soil calculations are performed according to a simplified soil model proposed by Abendroth
and Greimann. The equivalent uniform lateral soil stiffness parameter is calculated for two
different soil models. This parameter is later used to calculate the equivalent cantilever length.
Chapter 13 - Loads and Rotations

This chapter presents the loads that are assumed to act on the bridge. Permanent loads are
calculated as well as variable loads. Forces, rotations and movements which occur as a result
of the loads are calculated and summarised.

4 Introduction
Chapter 14 - Maximum Strain Calculations

The maximum pile strains are calculated in this chapter, in order to find out how large strain
variations that can be expected in the simulation of pile strains. The results of these
calculations and the probability of a low-cycle fatigue failure are discussed.
Chapter 15 - Fatigue Simulation Model

The fatigue simulation model is presented and the traffic load model that is used in the
simulation is described. The fatigue life calculation model is discussed, and different types of
strain cycles are defined. Cycle-counting techniques are also discussed, and the Rain-flow
method is presented.
Chapter 16 - Fatigue Simulation Results

The results from the strain simulations and the fatigue calculations are presented.
Chapter 17 - Conclusion and Discussion

This chapter concludes this report. The conclusion from the fatigue calculations are presented
and discussed. Possible sources of errors are discussed and some further research proposals
are given.

Integral Bridges 5
2 Integral Bridges
Conventional bridges are in general designed with expansion joints and bearings. These
components are weak points in a bridge structure, and associated with large maintenance
costs. A bridge without these weak points would be preferable. This thesis is focused on
bridges without movable joints, integral abutment bridges.
2.1 Definition of Integral Bridges

Integral bridges are bridges without expansion joints between the abutment and the
superstructure. Integral bridges have instead their continuous decks and girders integrated into
the abutments. Rigid joints between the different structural members of an integral bridge can
be constructed as shown in Figure 2:1.
4b. The upper part of the
abutment wall is cast.
1. Vertical piles are driven into the ground, generally
in a straight single row. 4a. The bridge deck
2. The lower part of the abutment wall is cast. The slab is cast.
upper part of the piles can either be surrounded by
a pilecap or only by the abutment wall. 5. Girders are
3. The bridge girders are mounted and anchored at the embedded in
top of the lower part of the abutment wall. the abutment.
3. The girders
4. The concrete deck slab and the top of the abutment are mounted.
walls are cast. The walls are cast in the same stage
as the end stage of the bridge slab.
5. The end parts of the bridge girders will then be 2. The lower part of
surrounded by concrete. This gives a rigid frame the abutment wall
structure, which will act as one structural unit. 1. Piles are driven. is cast.
Figure 2:1 Illustration of how an integral abutment can be constructed.
There are a couple of different names of this type of bridge in the literature. Integral abutment
bridges, jointless bridges, continuous bridges and rigid frame bridges are sometimes used
instead of integral bridges.
This type of bridge can be constructed as single or multiple span bridges. Each abutment is
normally supported by a single row of vertical flexible piles, which creates an interaction
between the abutments and the soil. In general, there are no longitudinal battered piles in an
integral abutment bridge. The horizontal flexibility in the vertical piles makes it possible for
the abutments to move when the length of the bridge changes as a result of variations in
temperature.
There is no world wide definition of the term integral bridge. In the USA it usually refers to
bridges with stub abutments which are connected to the superstructure without any joints. The
abutments are generally supported by a single row of flexible piles. The Highways Agency in
the UK has a similar definition of the term, but they are not only using it for bridges with
piled stub-abutments (UK Highways Agency 2003). Figure 2:2 is an illustration from UK
Highways Agency’s design manual for integral bridges. It shows which types of integral
constructions they have made their manual for.

6 Integral Bridges
(c)
(a) (b)
(d) (e) (f)
(a) & (b) Frame abutments

(c) Embedded abutment
(d) Bank pad abutment
(e) & (f) End screen abutments
Figure 2:2 Types of Integral Abutments, defined by the UK Highway Agency (2003).
A bridge shall support all dead and live loading that are relevant in the specific case. If an
integral bridge is designed, instead of a non-integral, additional strains and stresses are created
in the bridge elements. These are a result of thermal movements of the bridge, and creep and
shrinkage of the concrete. The length of the bridge will be increasing and decreasing when the
temperature is changing. When the length of the bridge is changing, forces and movements
will be induced in the abutments and the piles, which will deflect and rotate. The piles, which
are supporting the abutments, will be subjected to shear forces as well as bending moments
(Arsoy 1999). It is necessary to estimate the forces that are induced in the abutment and the
piles. The movements of the abutments will cause an increasing or decreasing soil pressure in
the backfill, the interaction between soil and abutment walls must also be considered.
(Abendroth and Greimann 2005)
Variations in bridge temperature appear both daily and seasonally and will lead to cyclic
loading of the piles. The piles will deflect under the loading and there might be plastic
deformations. The piles could then be subjected to low-cycle fatigue, and this may result in a
reduction of the bridge service lifetime. (Dicleli and Albhaisi 2004)
The trend in the USA has been towards longer and longer integral bridges. In view of the fact
that thermal movement is a function of the bridge length, there will be larger and larger
movements and forces as well. During the design phase, it is necessary to be able to estimate
the forces that are acting on the piles in a proper way. To be able to make a good estimation,
there is a need of information about the thermal behaviour of the abutment-backfill system
and the soil-pile system. One of the factors that are determining the maximum length of
integral bridges is the ability of the piles to take lateral movements. It is necessary to keep the
piles stresses low, in order to build longer integral bridges. (Arsoy 2000, Dicleli and Albhaisi
2004)

Integral Bridges 7
2.2 Types of Integral Bridges
The simplest form of an integral bridge is a portal frame structure, but there are also several
quite complicated forms of integral bridges as well. Several different types of abutments and
other technical solutions have been used in integral bridges through the history. This report is
focused on integral bridges with “fully” integral abutments. Figure 2:3 shows a fully integral
abutment to the left, and a semi integral abutment to the right.
Figure 2:3 A fully integral abutment to the left, and a semi integral abutment to the right.
A fully integral abutment transfers all movements, moments and forces through a rigid joint
between the superstructure and the abutment. A semi integral abutment is only restraining
translations but not rotations between the superstructure and the abutments.
2.3 Why Integral Bridges?
When a bridge is designed it is important to calculate the life cycle cost (LCC), in order to
find out which alternative that is most economical in the long term. Expansion joints and
expansion bearings are two factors that are influencing the LCC. There are a lot of costs
connected to these two components. They are expensive to buy and install in the first time,
and then they need to be maintained, repaired and often also replaced. Leaking expansion
joints and seals are in fact the most common reason for corrosion problems in bridges
(Mistry 2005). Water from the road, containing dirt and salt, can leak through the joints and
then attack the bridge girders, bearings and the reinforced concrete. The expansion joints are
also heavily loaded by axle loads from vehicles that cross the bridge, and snowplow damages
are not rare.
Many of the most expensive maintenance activities are connected to problems with the
expansion joints. Therefore, it would be preferable if a bridge could be built without any
movable joint. Henry Derthick, former Engineer of Structures at Tennessee Department of
Transportation, declared in the sixties that “The only good joint is no joint” (Burdette et al.
2005). This philosophy has later been adopted by other states and countries as well.

8 Integral Bridges
2.3.1 Advantages
Construction costs: It is often more economical to construct integral abutment bridges

instead of bridges with joints and bearings. The construction time can
often be reduced, since fewer piles are needed and no battered piles,
and the time consuming installation of expansion joints and bearings
are eliminated.
Maintenance costs: Leaking expansion joints is one of the most common reasons to
corrosion problems. Expansion joints and bearings need to be
maintained, repaired and replaced. Integral bridges have no expansion
joints or bearings and are therefore less expensive to maintain.
Modification costs: It is easier and cheaper to modify an integral bridge, for instance
widening.
Riding quality: No expansion joints, means no bump when a vehicle enter or leave a
bridge. This gives a smoother ride for the passengers and the noise
level is reduced.
Earthquake resistance: The most common cause of damage to a bridge due to seismic events
is loss of girder support. That problem is eliminated in an integral
bridge construction.
2.3.2 Disadvantages
High pile stresses: High stresses can occur in the abutment piles and plastic hinges can
be developed. If plastic rotations occur there can be problems with
low-cycle fatigue.
Limitations: There is a limited range of applications for integral abutment bridges.

An increasing length gives increasing movements of the abutments.
This relation causes a maximum length for integral bridges. The skew
angle of the bridge abutment is also limited.
Lack of knowledge: There is a lack of knowledge about several parts of the bridge
construction. The knowledge about the soil-abutment interaction and
the pile-soil interaction are two areas that need to be investigated.
No general codes: There are no general codes, rules or guidelines available in many
countries. In the USA they have been constructing integral bridges
during more than half a century, but they still do not have any general
guidelines.

International Experiences 9
of Integral Bridges
3 International Experiences of Integral Bridges

3.1 USA
A study made in the USA by Greimann et al. (1984), shows that 29 of 52 states design
agencies permits the design and construction of integral bridges. But there were only two
states that calculated the pile stresses due to the lateral thermal movements. Most of the
remaining states neglected these stresses, while a few states demanded some construction
details that should reduce these stresses. One example of how pile stresses could be reduced is
to drive the piles into pre-drilled oversized holes, which are backfilled with loose sand.
(Abendroth and Greimann 2005)
Since the study made in the early eighties, several states have adopt integral abutment bridges
as an alternative when the conditions allow such a structure. Mistry (2005) establishes that
there are now at least 40 states that are constructing some form of jointless bridges. The trend
seems to be moving towards integral abutment bridges, but most of the bridges are still
constructed with expansion joints. In 2004, The Federal Highway Administration conducted a
survey of integral abutment and jointless bridges. This survey indicates that the number of
integral bridges have increased by more than 200% during the last ten years (Maruri and Petro
2005). Many states have nowadays declared that integral bridges shall be considered as the
first choice when a new bridge is designed or an old bridge is replaced (Conboy and Stoothoff
2005, Yannotti et al. 2005).
Integral bridges have been constructed successfully for decades, although there are no
common rules of how the design and construction shall be performed. The design and analysis
of integral abutment bridges have mostly relied on previous experiences from the same type
of structure. (Maruri and Petro 2005)
Dicleli and Albhaisi (2004) have summarised the maximum length of integral bridges that
different departments of transportations allows, see Table 3:1. A longer list of maximum
bridge lengths is presented in Appendix N. There are some exceptions to the maximum length
limits. For instance, a 358 m long integral bridge made of concrete has been constructed in
Tennessee in 1997, although the upper limit is set to 244 m. These upper limits shall not be
treated as the “truth” of how long an integral bridge can be. The limits are often based on
experiences from previous constructed bridges. Dicleli and Albhaisi (2004) have, like other
researchers, developed methods for calculating the maximum length of integral bridges. Their
method is mainly dependent on which type of piles that are used and how large temperature
variations that are expected.
Table 3:1 Maximum length limits for integral abutment bridges (Dicleli and Albhaisi 2004).
Maximum length
Department of Transportation
Composite bridges [m] Concrete bridges [m]
Colorado 195 240
Illinois 95 125
New Jersey 140 140
Ontario, Canada 100 100
Tennessee 152 244
Washington 91 107

10 International Experiences
of Integral Bridges
3.2 UK
The UK Highways Agency has some recommendation of when an integral bridge shall be
considered. The following sentences are taken from their Design Manual for Roads and
Bridges, volume 1 section 3 part 7.
“Continuous structures have proved to be more durable than structures
with simply supported decks.”
“In principle, bridges with lengths not exceeding 60 m and skews not
exceeding 30° shall in addition be designed as integral bridges, with
abutments connected directly to the bridge deck without movement
joints for expansion or contraction of the deck.”
The design manual is also addressing that these sentences are valid for bridges of steel,
concrete and composite structures. With the requirement that the cyclic movements, that are
induced by temperature variations, do not exceed ± 20 mm for each abutment. Piles in
integral abutments are not allowed to be inclined if the abutments move laterally, and piles
shall be designed to withstand both axial and lateral forces. (UK Highways Agency 2003)
3.3 Australia
Integral bridges are not so common in Australia, and there are no national guidelines for the
design of them. It is up to the Australian engineers to use their engineering knowledge in the
best way. This is generally done by using the experiences that other countries have had. USA
and UK are the two countries whose methods often are used as references. The Gilles Street
Bridge in an example of an integral bridge in Australia, see Figure 2:1. It was constructed in
1995, and the 59 m long superstructure is made of six precast concrete T-girders and a
concrete deck slab, which was cast in place. (Connal 2004)
One opinion in Australia is that integral bridges give most benefits in areas with climates that
involve ice and snow, because of the bad combination of leaking joints and salt used as de-
icing agent. Snow and ice on Australian roads are a very rare phenomenon, and de-icing
agents are not used. Therefore, the Australian Highway Agency does not think that they will
have the same benefits as UK and USA, where the climates are quite different with more
varying weather conditions. This is one reason to why Australia does not construct integral
bridges so often and does not have any special guidelines for integral bridges.
Figure 3:1 Gilles Street bridge in Ballarat, Australia (Connal 2004).

of Integral Bridges
3.4 Japan
In an article written by Japanese researchers in 2002, integral abutment bridges are mentioned
as a new technology of constructing composite bridges. An example of an integral bridge
constructed in Japan is shown in Figure 3:2.
Figure 3:2 Nishihama Bridge (Nakamura et al. 2002).
The Nishihama Bridge has a composite superstructure consisting of eight steel girders and a
concrete deck slab. The abutments are made of concrete and are supported by five steel piles
with the rather large diameter of 800 mm. An interesting thing with this bridge is that it is
located in the area of a steel mill, and vehicles with a weight of 90 tonnes are crossing the
bridge frequently. The high traffic loads could be a problem in the combination with large
temperature movement. The Nishihama Bridge is however quite short and located in an area
where the temperature differences over a year are not that big. A difference of 30°C has been
measured in the steel girders between January and August. Figure 3:3 shows a side view
drawing of the bridge and a view of one of the abutments. (Nakamura et al. 2002)
Figure 3:3 The Nishihama Bridge, side view drawing to the left and abutment view drawing to the right.

of Integral Bridges
3.5 Sweden
Integral abutment bridges are not that common in Sweden. A couple of integral bridges have
been constructed in the last few years, and they seem to become a more popular alternative.
The lengths of the bridges have so far been kept rather low. The Swedish National Road
Administration is rather conservative, concerning integral abutment bridges, compared to
some states Department of Transportation in the USA. In some states they design bridges with
the line of argument “it simply works”. Integral bridges are very difficult to analyse, and this
is probably the main reason of why they have not yet become common in Sweden.
Conventional elastic analysis fails to explain how the bridges work. This leads to a long and
expensive design process where the National Road Administration determines the limits on a
case to case basis. A development of general codes, rules or guidelines for integral bridges
would simplify the design process. (Pétursson and Collin 2002)
Hans Pétursson has in a post-graduate project developed some guidelines of how integral
abutment bridges can be designed (Pétursson 2000). These guidelines have been used in the
design of a couple of integral bridges in Sweden. Some of them are presented below.
Bridge over Fjällån
Figure 3:4 Bridge over Fjällån.
• The bridge is a single span composite bridge with a span length of 37.15 m and
a width of 9.0 m. Two welded steel girders, c/c 5.0 m, form the superstructure
together with the concrete deck slab.
• 8 X-piles (X180x24) were used in each abutment. These piles were oriented 45°
to the bridge longitudinal axis, in order to minimise the bending stresses.
• Constructed in year 2000.

of Integral Bridges
Bridge over Hökviksån
Figure 3:5 Bridge over Hökviksån.
• The bridge is a single span steel arch bridge with a span length of 42 m, and a
width of 7.0 m. An old conventional concrete arch bridge, from 1922, has been
replaced by the new integral bridge.
• 8 steel X-piles with a width of 200 mm and a thickness of 30 mm were used in
each abutment. The outermost piles are inclined 4:1 to take care of transverse
loading. All of the piles were oriented 45° to the bridge longitudinal axis.
Bridge over Leduån
Figure 3:6 View of the bridge over the Leduån River.
• This bridge is used in the calculations throughout this report, and it is described
in detail in Chapter 9.
• The bridge is a single span composite bridge with a span length of 40 m and a
width of 5.0 m. 6 steel pipe piles, RR170x10, were used in each abutment.

of Integral Bridges

Piles 15
4 Piles
Integral abutment piles are in general designed to have sufficient vertical capacity and low
flexural stiffness. The stiffness of the piles should be low in order to minimise the flexural
effects due to lateral movements and rotations of the abutments. The lateral movements are
mainly caused by variations in the temperature of the superstructure, but other internal and
external loads are also giving contributions to the movements. Lateral movements together
with the rigid connections between piles and abutment, gives maximum pile moments in the
connection between pile and abutment where the fixity is highest. Both theory and field
studies (Abendroth and Greimann 2005) have showed that piles in integral abutment bridges
will sometimes experience strains above their yield strain. The plastic strains are mainly a
result of the thermal movements of the abutments. It is therefore necessary to predict the
rotation capacity of the piles and their capacity to withstand repeated plastic deformations,
low-cycle fatigue.
The stiffness of the foundation soil is a very important parameter for the cyclic displacement
capacity of steel piles in integral bridges. A stiffer soil can results in a huge loss of
displacement capacity. Therefore, increasing soil stiffness gives a decreasing maximum
length for integral bridges. The soil stiffness must be reduced in one way or another if the
maximum length of integral bridges shall be increased (Dicleli and Albhaisi 2004). Oversized
pre-drilled holes are one way of reducing the horizontal resistance against lateral
displacements at the top of the piles. These holes are backfilled with low stiffness material
which surrounds the top of the piles. Examples of loose materials that are used is sand and
bentonite slurry (Dicleli and Albhaisi 2003), compressible foam has also been used (Connal
2004). A study in the USA from the early 1980’s showed that only four of twenty-nine states,
that were building integral bridges, were normally using pre-drilled holes. A newer survey
from 2000, which Abendroth and Greimann (2005) refer to, shows that twelve of thirty states
now are demanding a use of pre-drilled holes.
4.1 Pile Materials and Cross-sections

Several different pile materials and cross sections have been used in integral bridges. Steel is
the most common used pile material in integral bridges and the most common cross-section
seems to be H-piles. Concrete is also used as a pile material but has some limitations.
Composite fibre materials are not used at the moment, but might be a competitive alternative
in the near future. Figure 4:1 illustrates the cross-sections that are described in the following
sections.
4.1.1 Steel Piles

Steel piles can take cyclic stresses at least up to their yield stress capacity, provided that the
used cross-section will not experience local buckling. If the piles have sufficient rotation
capacity and plastic hinges are allowed, then it would be possible to tolerate strains which
exceed the yield strain. Plastic strains can however lead to low-cycle fatigue failure and this
should be taken into consideration when the piles are designed. The influence of the corrosion
on steel piles must also be taken into account, since the unaffected cross section area will be
time dependent.

16 Piles
H-piles
H-piles seem to be the first choice for integral bridges in the USA, especially in longer
bridges (Bakeer et al. 2005). Arsoy (2000) made cyclic load tests of steel H-piles, pipe piles
and prestressed reinforced concrete piles. His test results show that steel H-piles is the best
choice for integral bridges, among the tested piles. This fact seems to be well known since
most of the countries and states that are building integral bridges prefer steel H-piles. The
opinion of how the H-piles shall be orientated, in weak or strong axis bending, is varying.
Pipe piles
Steel pipe piles are an alternative to steel H-piles. Cyclic load tests on H-piles and pipe piles
with the same width have been performed by Arsoy (2000). These tests show that pipe piles
probably would survive the cyclic loading, and the abutment seems to be the first part to fail if
there would be a failure. The tested piles hade the same pile width, and that lead to a rather
stiff pipe pile compared to the H-piles oriented in weak axis bending. The pipe pile had an
area which was 71% larger than the H-pile, and the moment of inertia was almost 7 times
higher. One conclusion drawn by Arsoy is that stiff piles, like pipe piles, shall not be
recommended for integral abutment bridges. Cross-sections with lower flexural stiffness are
preferable, like H-piles oriented in weak axis bending.
X-piles
Cross-shaped steel piles, X-piles, have been used in integral bridges in Sweden. The X-shaped
piles are driven in a straight line and rotated 45° in order to minimize the bending stresses, see
Figure 4:1. (Pétursson and Collin 2002)
4.1.2 Reinforced Concrete Piles

Concrete piles are often used in rather short bridges, at least in the USA. The large
disadvantages of concrete piles are the low tensile strength and the possibility of suddenly
failures. As long as the yield stress is not exceeded, then concrete piles fulfill their purpose.
But, a suddenly failure can occur if the stress just slightly exceeds the yield strain. Cyclic
lateral displacements of the top of the piles lead to a development of cracks in the concrete
due to the tensile stresses. These cracks will decrease the vertical load carrying capacity of the
piles, which will be dependent on the number of cycles (Arsoy 2000). Since the mentioned
disadvantages are well known, many states have established upper length limits for integral
bridges with concrete piles. For instance, Illinois allows concrete piles up to a bridge length of
61 m (200 feet). (Bakeer et al. 2005)
4.1.3 Steel Pipes Filled with Concrete

Cast-In-Place piles (CIP) are driven steel pipes which later are filled with concrete and some
reinforcement in the upper part of the piles. These piles are like the concrete piles generally
used only in short bridges. Minnesota Department of Transportation allows these piles in
integral bridges with a bridge length less than 45 m. (Huang et al. 2004)

Piles 17
4.1.4 Fibre Composite Piles

The cross-section area for steel and concrete piles will be decreasing as time goes, due to
corrosion and deterioration. Piles made of composite materials can be designed to resist
corrosive soil and other hostile environments. Composite materials might therefore be a
competitive alternative to the traditional pile materials. Advantages of piles made of fibre-
reinforced-polymers (FRP) are corrosion and chemical resistance, high oriented-strength
structural shapes, durability, and low maintenance. FRP is a very expensive material
compared to concrete, and a combination of these materials can be used to get more
economical FRP piles. The FRP piles can be made as hollow cross-sections that are filled
with concrete, which increases the strength and ductility. A study made by Jaradat (2005)
resulted in the conclusions that rectangular piles gives a possibility of geometrical
optimization unlike circular piles. The cross-sections can be optimized for lowest stress and
stiffness. The rectangular shaped FRP piles behaved better than circular piles when they were
experiencing lateral displacements. The circular piles experienced local buckling whereas the
rectangular piles performed without local buckling. This is probably an effect of the two webs
which provides lateral support against local buckling. The distance between webs and flanges
can be designed to optimize a pile to a certain bridge and soil condition. (Jaradat 2005)
FRPs might be a common pile material in the future, but the present use of FRP piles seems to
be very limited. US Navy has the largest usage of FRP piles in the USA today. They use them
mostly as marine fenders, because of there high strength and durability.
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)
(a) H-pile strong axis bending (d) X-pile rotated 45°

(b) H-pile weak axis bending (e) Steel pipe filled with concrete (CIP) Longitudinal bridge direction
(c) Steel pipe pile (f) Rectangular FRP pile filled with concrete
Figure 4:1 Illustration of different pile cross-sections.
4.2 Pile Orientation
There have been different opinions about how single symmetric integral abutment piles, like
H-piles, shall be oriented. In the early 1980’s more than half of states in the USA, which
allowed integral bridges, oriented their piles for strong-axis bending due to the thermal
movements. (Abendroth and Greimann 2005)
In a survey ordered by The Federal Highway Administration in the USA, in year 2004, the
Departments of Transportations were asked how they oriented the piles in their integral
bridges. The result from this survey is quite different compared to the study from the early

18 Piles
1980´s, which Abendroth and Greimann (2005) refer to. Nowadays, most of the states are
orienting integral abutment piles for weak axis bending, see Figure 4:2. But it is obvious that
there are no uniform rules that are applied all over the USA, each state makes their own
decisions. Australia follows the main trend in the USA and orientates their piles for weak axis
bending (Connal 2004). Figure 4:3 shows how the orientation of piles was varying from state
to state in 2004. (Maruri and Petro 2005).
Soil pressure normal

to the abutment
Expansion and contraction

of the superstructure
Figure 4:2 Schematic illustration of an abutment with H-piles oriented for weak axis bending, seen from above.
50%
45%
40%
PERCENT OF STATES .
35%
30%
25%
20%
15%
10%
5%
0%
Weak axis parallell to CL Stro ng axis parallell to CL Not A pplicable (symetric Designer´s option
o f bearing o f bearing pile) or no answer
pro vided
ORIENTATION OF PILES
Figure 4:3 Pile orientations in the USA, according to Maruri and Petro (2005).
The reason to orient the pile for weak axis bending is mainly to minimize the stresses in the
abutments. For a given displacement of the abutment, a pile oriented for strong axis bending
will induce higher stresses in the abutment than a pile oriented for weak axis bending. It is
also done in order to make sure that local buckling of the flanges shall not occur, even if the
soil is not supporting the pile laterally. (Arsoy 2000, Huckabee 2005)
Dicleli and Albhaisi (2003) have studied the effect of cyclic thermal loading on the
performance of steel H-piles in integral bridges with stub-abutments. One of their conclusions
is that the orientation of the piles has only a negligible effect on the displacement capacity of
the integral bridge. Their study was made on bridges with stub-abutments, and it is possible
that this conclusion is not valid for bridges with larger abutment heights.

Piles 19
4.3 Pile-Abutment-Girder Interaction
The pile-abutment-girder interaction is very important in the design of the piles. Rigid
connections will transfers all forces and movements down into the piles. Hinged connections
can be used in order to transfer only vertical and shear forces to the piles, and no moments.
4.3.1 Rigid Joints

One way of constructing a rigid connection between piles and girders is to cover the driven
piles with a pilecap, or a lower part of the abutment backwall. The girders can then be
mounted on top of the pile cap, and fixed to the abutments on levelling bolts that have been
anchored in the pile cap, see Figure 4:4a. The ends of the girders are later surrounded by
concrete, when the top of the abutment backwall is cast. But there are different techniques in
the creation of a pile-abutment connection. When steel girders are used, some states in the
USA prefer a welded connection between piles and girders, see Figure 4:4b. This technique
is nowadays used in for example Maine, and has previously been used in many other states. It
was a common way of constructing integral abutments in New York a decade ago, but they
experienced some problems with this technique and prefers other types of connections
nowadays. When the piles are driven they have to be very close to their planned position, if
the girders shall be welded on top of them. This means that piles often must be driven within a
tolerance of 2-3 cm, and this can be hard to achieve in difficult pile driving condition.
(Conboy and Stoothoff 2005, Yannotti et al. 2005)
(a): Girder mounted on levelling bolts on top of a pile cap. (b): Welded connections between piles and girders.
Figure 4:4 Illustrations of two different techniques of designing the pile-abutment-girder

connection for steel bridges with integral abutments (Yannotti et al. 2005).
It has been proved that constructions without welds between piles and girders are easier to
construct, and no differences in performance have been detected (Conboy and Stoothoff
2005). Due to these facts, it is hard to understand why some states are still using welded
connections.

20 Piles
4.3.2 Hinged Joints

Another approach is to use a hinge between abutment and piles. The hinge transfers only
vertical and shear forces to the piles, no bending moment is transferred. An example of a
bridge with abutments constructed with this technique is Gillies Street Bridge, Australia.
Figure 4:5 shows one of the abutments from that bridge and the hinged connection between
the abutment and the concrete piles that was used. (Connal 2004)
ROAD PAVEMENT
PRECAST BEAM
BURIED APPROACH SLAB
PERMEABLE BACKFILL
DRAIN
PILES WRAPPED IN
COMPRESSIBLE MATERIAL
PIN CONNECTION
SINGLE LINE OF CONCRETE
PILES
Figure 4:5 Abutment with hinged-piles (Connal 2004).
The pin connection used in Gilles Street Bridge is illustrated more in detail in Figure 4:6. The
pin connection was made of galvanized dowel bars, which was anchored in both the concrete
pile and the pile cap. Polystyrene sheets were used as joint filling in order to avoid crushing of
the concrete when the pile cap is rotating due to the applied moments. To make sure that the
lateral forces are not getting to high in the top of the concrete piles, the upper 2 m were
wrapped with 50 mm thick compressible foam.
Galvanized
dowel bar
75x15 mm
Polystyrene Pile cap
15 mm
Pile
Figure 4:6 Illustration of the pin connection used in Gilles Street Bridge.
Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT) has been working a lot with jointless bridges
and has very good experiences from this type of bridges. VDOT prefers steel H-piles oriented
in weak axis bending, and the abutments shall be designed in a way that reduces the pile
stresses. One way of reducing the pile stresses is to construct a moment relief hinge in the
abutment wall. VDOT has been developing a moment relief hinge based on a shear key along
the joint. This type of hinge has later been modified after some tests made by Arsoy (2000).
Figure 4:7 illustrates both the original and the modified hinge. (Weakley 2005)

Piles 21
Figure 4:7 Original hinge to the left and modified hinge to the right,
redraw from Weakley (2005) and Arsoy (2000).
The modified hinge is more flexible to rotations and consists of strips of neoprene along both
sides of the line of dowels. The rest of the joint is filled with some joint filler, for example
sponge rubber. The vertical forces will be transferred from the upper part of the abutment
through the neoprene and down into the pilecap, and the dowels will transfer the shear forces.
Arsoy (2000) performed full scale laboratory tests of the original hinge construction and the
modified hinge. The hinges were tested both with static and cyclic lateral loading. The shear
key in the original hinge construction failed already at the static test. Analysis of the data
showed that the hinge did not work as a hinge. The abutment and the pile cap rotated as one
singular unit until the shear key failed. The bond between the upper and lower part was almost
as strong as if they would have been cast together. The modified hinge did not show such
behaviour in the tests, it behaved more as a hinge. The cyclic load test showed no sign of
fatigue failure after more than 27000 cycles, which should simulate the thermal movements
during 75 years. The bending stress during theses cycles were a bit higher than the yield
strength of the dowel bars. The original hinge with the failed shear key did not show any
further damage after the cyclic test. A failure of the shear key is therefore not expected to
result in a collapse of the bridge.
The rotational stiffness of the hinged abutments seems to be dependent on the abutments
rotation angle. When the rotation gets larger, then the rotational stiffness seems to go towards
a low constant. Arsoy (2000) draw the conclusion that hinged abutments actually are reducing
the pile moments quite a lot. This technique can therefore be useful in order to construct
longer bridges with integral abutments, without getting to high bending moments in the piles.

22 Piles
4.4 Simplified Pile Design
With the computer programs that are available today it would be possible to analyse the soil-
pile-abutment-girder interaction in a realistic way. A non-linear Finite Element Method
(FEM) could be used to calculate the pile stresses by taking into consideration the real
material properties of the steel and soil (Pétursson 2000). This type of calculation is generally
time consuming and is not an alternative in this report when a Monte Carlo1 (MC) simulation
of the loads and movements shall be performed. The possibility of calling upon results from
another computer program, like any FEM-program, is limited. It might be possible but would
require some computer programming or another tool for the MC simulation. A simplified
model of the pile stresses/strains is necessary in order to be able to perform a MC simulation
of the pile strains. This section is therefore focused on simplified methods that are used to
calculate pile stresses/strains.
According to Huckabee (2005), pile design for integral abutments involves two main criteria
that must be fulfilled, the geotechnical and the structural criteria. The geotechnical design of
the piles are mainly focused on the length of the pile embedment that are necessary, and the
end bearing capacity in order to transfer vertical loads into the ground. The structural design
criteria is focusing on the capability of the piles to carry vertical loads without experiencing
local or global buckling when they are bended due to the abutment movements and rotations.
Generally, buckling is not critical in the design of embedded piles. The soil has to be very soft
if the lateral restraint shall be insufficient to prevent buckling. Problems with buckling in
working piles are very rare, and are often more likely to happen during the handling and
pitching of the piles, than during the pile service lifetime. Sections with low rotation capacity
shall not be chosen to avoid buckling problems during the installation. (Fleming et al. 1992)
The piles are not just oriented differently in the states in USA. They are also designed in
different ways. A survey in the USA shows that the capacity of the piles is calculated with
different forces and methods. The vertical forces alone are used by 41% of the states to
determine the capacity of the piles. There will not be only vertical forces in the reality, the
expansion and contraction of the superstructure will also cause lateral forces and bending
moments. Therefore, it is more common to use a combination of axial and bending capacity,
51 % of the states are using this combination in their design calculations. (Maruri and Petro
2004)
4.4.1 Massachusetts’ Way of Designing Piles

Massachusetts is one of the states that require that the pile capacity must meet both the axial
load criteria and the bending criteria stated by American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials (AASHTO). The standard formulas that AASHTO suggests have
been modified in order to deal with the extra rotational capacity of a compact HP-pile. The
method developed in Massachusetts is based on the Abendroth and Greimann approach which
is presented in the next section. Massachusetts has introduced a “Coefficient of Inelastic
Rotation Capacity”, θi, as a step towards a design model that describes the real situation in a
better way. Compact HP-piles sections have an extra rotational capacity that is three times the
1
The Monte Carlo method is described more in detail in chapter 8 Monte Carlo Simulation.

Piles 23
elastic rotation capacity when they are bent in the weak-axis direction. The piles in an integral
abutment bridge can theoretically be subjected to movements, which cause plastic rotations in
the top of the piles that are three times the elastic rotation, without buckling or increased
stresses in the compression flange. Even if the piles theoretically can take rotations that are 3
times bigger than the elastic rotations, they do not design piles for those large movements.
Instead, a coefficient with a value of 1.75 is used. This gives a conservative formula, with a
rather large safety margin. The extra coefficient, θi, is only used in weak axis bending. If the
bridge is skewed and both axes are in bending, then the strong axis term will remain
unmodified. The formula for the design of the piles is expressed as follows: (Huckabee 2005,
Conboy and Stoothoff 2005)
Pu My M
+ + x ≤ 1 .0 . (4.1)
0,85 ⋅ As ⋅ Fy θ i ⋅ M uy M ux
Pu = Applied axial load determined from analysis.

As = Pile cross-section area.
y = weak axis bending , x = strong axis bending
My; Mx = Applied moment determined from analysis and P-∆ moment.
Muy; Mux = Maximum moment strength based on slenderness criteria.
θi = Coefficient of inelastic rotation capacity. 1.75 for compact sections.
1.0 for non-compact-sections.
4.4.2 The Abendroth – Greimann Approach

Abendroth and Greimann (1989) suggest a simplified design approach for the design of
integral abutment piles. This approach is based on analytical and experimental investigations,
and has been verified by Girton et al. (1991) through filed monitoring of two integral
abutment bridges in Iowa. Arsoy (2000) notes that the model appears to be overly
conservative since it does not consider the effects of the abutment-backfill interactions.
The method gives two alternatives of how to design integral abutment piles. Calculations of
bending moments differ between the alternatives, while the calculations of axial forces are the
same. The total axial force that is acting on a pile is the sum of the vertical gravity load, Nw,
and the vertical load component due to the thermal expansion, NT.
N = N w + NT (4.2)
Alternative 1
This alternative is based on elastic behaviour only, and do not take into consideration the
reserve strength due to plastic hinges. This alternative can be useful in the design of concrete
and timber piles, and steel piles with cross-sections that have moment-rotation capacities that
are too low. If steel piles have a significant moment-rotation capacity and they still are
designed by Alternative 1, then they will be designed very conservatively.
The bending moment applied at the top of the pile will be the sum of the moment from the
gravity loads and the moment due to thermal extraction and contraction of the superstructure.
M = M w + MT (4.3)

24 Piles
The gravity induced moment, Mw, can be calculated conservatively by doing some
simplifications of the structural system. Appendix F gives a summary of how Abendroth and
Greimann (1989) suggest that Mw is calculated.
Lateral displacement of the abutments, ∆abut, will result in a first order elastic moment, MT,
which for fully integral abutments can be calculated as
6 ⋅ E p I p ⋅ ∆ abut
MT = . (4.4)
L2equ
Alternative 2
This alternative is unlike Alternative 1 based on inelastic behaviour. This model allows the
occurrence of plastic hinges, and that lateral displacement of the top of the piles can lead to
plastic redistributions of internal forces. Lateral movements of the abutments will induce
stresses in the piles. The first-order plastic theory for small displacements says that support
movement will not affect the plastic failure. These stresses are therefore not taken into
consideration in the design of the piles. Alternative 2 is recommended for the design of piles
which have a sufficient moment-rotation capacity. Abendroth and Greimann (1989) suggest
that a ductility criterion, which they have developed themselves together with Johnson and
Ebner, is used to determine the moment-rotation capacity. This criterion is described in
Appendix D.
The axial pile force, N, will result in a moment, due to the displacement of the top of the pile.
The moments that are induced will in this case be second order bending moments, and are for
fully integral abutments calculated as,
N ⋅ ∆ abut
MN = . (4.5)
2
The total moment applied at the top of the pile will be the sum of the moment caused by the
rotation of the abutment and the second-order bending moment due to the displacement.
M = Mw + MN (4.6)

Bridge Temperature 25
5 Bridge Temperature
A bridge is a massive structure which will be directly exposed to varying weather conditions.
Thermal actions are therefore more important when bridges are designed, compared to the
design of load bearing elements in buildings, which often are embedded into the structure.
Bridges will be exposed to temperature changes throughout their lifetime. The length of a
bridge will be increasing and decreasing when the temperature is changing. In conventional
bridges, expansion joints and bearings are used to take care of movements. An integral bridge
has no moveable joints, the superstructure and the abutment forms a rigid structure. When the
length of the bridge is changing, due to thermal variations, there will be lateral displacements
of the abutments and the piles. When the temperature is increasing the abutments are pushed
against the backfill, and when the temperature is decreasin they are pulled away from the
backfill, see Figure 5:1. There will be repeating cycles of expansion and contraction
throughout the bridge lifetime. (Dicleli and Albhaisi 2004, Arsoy 2000)
Void
(a) Expansion of bridge (b) Contraction of bridge
Figure 5:1 Movements of the abutments caused by temperature variations (Arsoy 1999).
5.1 Factors Affecting Thermal Movements
Thermal movements of the abutments are dependent on the length of the bridge, the material
in the superstructure, and variations in bridge temperature due to different weather conditions.
5.1.1 Weather Conditions

The bridge temperature and its behaviour differ from one location to another. The climate at
the specific location is governing the thermal variations in the structure. It is hard to
understand and describe how meteorological conditions are affecting a bridge, but the most
governing factors have been identified by England et al. (2000) and are also described by
Arsoy (2000).

Shade air temperature

The shade temperature of the air, which is surrounding the bridge construction, is of course
one of the most important factors that are affecting the bridge temperature. The shade air
temperature should be measured in a standardised way, which ensures that the measured
temperatures are not affected by solar radiation, wind speed, precipitation etc.
Solar radiation
Higher solar radiation will give higher bridge temperature, if the other parameters that are
influencing the bridge temperature are kept constant. Solar radiation is varying over the year
in most of the world, due to varying approach angles into the atmosphere. It is also varying
daily, with the peak value in the middle of the day and the lowest value in the night. The solar
radiation can also be shifting from one minute to another, due to clouds.
Wind speed
The wind speed affects the bridge temperature by transporting air with different temperatures
from one place to another. This gives a faster heat transfer between air and structure. In
general, high wind speeds will give lower bridge temperatures.
Precipitation
The temperature in a structure will be affected by rain and snow that are falling on it. Heat
transfer will take place when the precipitation comes into contact with the surface of the
structure. Heat will be transferred from the warmer part to the cooler part. The bridge will in
most of the cases be warmer than the precipitation. Therefore, the bridge temperature will in
general be reduced by precipitation.
5.1.2 Thermal Properties of Superstructures

The materials that are used in the bridge are also affecting the temperature. The air
temperature can change rapidly, but structural materials will not immediately adjust their
temperature to the air temperature. If the temperature is measured inside a material, a
damping effect of the temperature changes should be observed. How fast a material adjusts its
temperature to the surroundings depends on the thermal properties of the material, thickness,
area that is exposed to the air, and the different weather conditions mentioned above.
Steel details will adjust their temperature faster than concrete details, while steel has a higher
thermal conductivity than concrete, 40-60 W/m⋅K vs. 1-2 W/m⋅K (Cengel 1997). A bridge
girder made of steel is also much thinner than any part of the bridge that is made of concrete.
The steel parts will therefore adjust their temperature even faster in comparison with concrete
parts. The coefficient of expansion is the same for both steel and concrete, α = 1.0⋅10-5 °C-1,
according to the Swedish Bridge Code – BRO2004 (Vägverket 2004). Yet, bridges made of
steel will have larger movements than bridges made of concrete, while steel faster adjusts its
temperature to the surrounding. According to research made by Emerson (1980, 1982),
concrete bridges have effective bridge temperatures (EBT) that are almost the same as the
average air temperatures over the previous two days. The EBT of bridges with composite
superstructures are more related to the temperature of the last 24 hours. Different types of
superstructures will give different patterns of cyclic displacements of the abutments. The
cyclic loading of the supporting piles will therefore be dependent on how the superstructure is
designed. The seasonal movements of a composite bridge deck are in general about 121 % of
the movements of a similar bridge with concrete deck (England et al. 2000). The load-path
history for the piles will be complex and unique to each bridge type, length, and location.

5.2 Thermal Distribution
There are a lot of factors that are affecting the temperature of a bridge, and all factors have
their own way of influencing the bridge temperature. Arsoy (2000) describes a temperature
distribution model, created by Mary Emerson. This model shows how the bridge
superstructure is affected over the depth. The temperature in the upper part is mostly
dependent on solar radiation and the temperature in the lower part is more dependent on the
shade air temperature and the heat transfer from the ground. The middle part of a
superstructure’s cross-section, especially one made of concrete, will mainly be affected by the
weather conditions in the past few days. Figure 5:2 illustrates how Emerson describes the
temperature distribution.
Figure 5:2 Illustration of how different factors influencing the temperature distribution
in a bridge superstructure (Emerson 1977, see Arsoy 2000).
The varying temperature distribution, described above, is not easy to use in calculations. The
temperature distribution in the superstructure is therefore separated in two parts, the mean
temperature and a thermal gradient. Lateral thermal movements of the abutments are primary
caused by the varying mean temperature of the bridge, and thermal gradients are mainly
responsible for the bending moments in the superstructure caused by a non uniform vertical
temperature distribution. (Arsoy 2000)
A non-linear temperature profile through the dept of the bridge will give stresses in the
superstructure as well as in the piles in integral abutment bridges. This must be taken into
consideration when bridges are designed. The proposal to Eurocode, ENV 1991-2-5, separates
the complex temperature distribution into three different components, see Figure 5:3.
(Soukhov 2000)
(a) (c)
(b)
Figure 5:3 The non-linear temperature and its components according to ENV 1991-2-5 (Soukhov 2000).

(a) - Uniform temperature component, ∆TN

This component is calculated as the bridge effective temperature, TN, subtracted by the datum
temperature, T0. The datum temperature is the temperature at the day when the top of the
abutments is cast, and the rigid connection between abutments and girders is formed. If the
datum temperature is unknown it is recommended that 10°C is used as T0. The uniform
temperature component will mainly be responsible to the lateral movements of the abutments.
∆TN = TN − T0 (5.1)
(b) - Linearly varying temperature component, ∆TM

This temperature component will cause bending moments in the superstructure and rotations
of the abutments, as a result of the rigid connection between girders and abutments. It is
varying linearly though the dept of the superstructure, and can be separated into a vertical and
horizontal part. In general, only the vertical part is taken into consideration for bridges.
(c) - Non-linear temperature distribution, ∆TE

The part of the temperature distribution which is non-linear will create internal stresses which
also are non-linear. These stresses will be in self equilibrium over the cross-section of a
bridge, and will therefore not contribute to any load effect in the piles.
5.3 Effective Bridge Temperature Calculations
Longitudinal thermal movements of a bridge are mainly governed by the effective bridge
temperature (EBT), TN. The EBT is a complex parameter which is hard to determine. Several
factors are influencing the EBT, as the materials in the superstructure, geometry, air
temperature, solar radiation, wind speed, and precipitation (see Chapter 5.1). The weather
related factors are not easy to predict and they are also highly variable. Another problem is the
relationship between the weather parameters, it is hard to measure or decide how big the
contribution is from one certain factor at a specific time.
Mary Emerson created, in the 1970´s, a model where the EBT is related to the shade air
temperature. Her tests and theories have later been reviewed in other research projects.
Oesterle and Volz (2005) have for instance tried to evaluate Emerson’s theories and adjust
them to a more varying climate than the climate on the British islands. They have made some
statistical analyses of the relationship between the shade air temperature and the EBT. They
came to the conclusion that there are only small differences between the shade air
temperatures in the last 24 respectively 48 hours. The old model uses the mean temperature
during the last 48 hours for concrete superstructures. The results from Oesterle and Volz
analyze indicate that the mean temperature could be taken during either 24 or 48 hours,
independent of the type of bridge superstructure. Their study resulted in a new way of
determining the mean temperature during the last 24 hours by using the minimum and
maximum shade air temperatures, taken from tables. The following equations where defined
by Oesterle and Volz (2005).

Concrete bridges
Tmin EBT = 1,0 ⋅ Tmin shade + 5°C (5.2)
Tmax EBT − 2,2°C + ∆T solar (5.3)
Composite bridges
Tmin EBT = 1,04 ⋅ Tmin shade + 2,4°C (5.4)
Tmax EBT = 1,09 ⋅ Tmax shade − 0,1°C + ∆T solar (5.5)
Tmin EBT minimum effective bridge temperature

Tmax EBT maximum effective bridge temperature
Tmin shade minimum shade temperature at the bridge location
Tmax shade maximum shade temperature at the bridge location
∆T solar uniform temperature change from direct solar radiation
T1 solar incremental temperature
Oesterle and Volz (2005) derived an expression for ∆T solar , from their studies on concrete and
composite bridges. The bridge temperature change due to solar radiation was measured as a
function of the solar incremental temperature, T1, at the top of the bridge deck. Field tests
showed that ∆T solar was varying between 0.18-0.28 T1 for concrete bridges and between 0.14-
0.19 T1 for composite bridges. Oesterle and Volz (2005) proposed 0.26T1 and 0.18T1 as
design values for concrete respectively composite bridges.
5.4 Design Codes for Thermal Actions
This section is a summary of how Eurocode and the Swedish Bridge Code are dealing with
the thermal actions on a bridge structure.
5.4.1 Eurocode
The work with the development of a European standard, Eurocode, has resulted in some
proposals for design rules for thermal actions on bridges. Eurocode is still in the phase of
development, and different countries prefer different approaches. This section in based on a
proposal for EN1991-1-5 (Soukhov 2000), and there might be some differences to the final
EN1991-1-5 document.
In order to deal with different materials and their different properties, three different groups of
superstructures are considered in Eurocode for thermal actions.
Group 1: Steel deck on steel box, truss or plate girders

Group 2: Concrete deck on steel box, truss or plate girders
Group 3: Concrete slab or concrete deck on concrete beams or box girders

The effective bridge temperatures (EBT) are derived for each group of superstructures. The
real situation, with influence from solar radiation, precipitation, wind etc, has been simplified
into a model where the shade air temperature alone is used to estimate the EBT. This
simplification is not so far from the truth, Soukhov (2000) states that the EBT mainly is
governed by the shade air temperature, with some influence from the average value of solar
radiation. He also states that solar radiation is the dominant variable for the linear temperature
distribution, which is taken into consideration by the temperature gradient. Mary Emerson has
made a lot of research work, back in 1970´s, about how the temperature affects bridges. Her
research has been the background for the development of the following graphs, which can be
found in the proposal for EN1991-1-5 (Soukhov 2000), see Figure 5:4. The graphs show how
maximum and minimum values of the shade air temperature can be used in order to estimate
the EBT for different type of bridges.
Figure 5:4 Correlation between max/min shade air temperature and max/min EBT.
The second component in the temperature distribution is the linearly varying temperature
component. This component is taken into consideration by using characteristic values for
different types of bridges. The characteristic values are results of statistical analyses, which
have given the following values, see Table 5:1. These values occur with a probability of one
time in 50 years.
Table 5:1 Characteristic values of linear temperature differences (Soukhov 2000).

Positive temperature Negative temperature
Type of superstructure difference difference
∆TM,pos [°°C] ∆TM,neg [°°C]
Group 1 Steel deck on steel box, 18 -13
truss or plate girders
Group 2 Concrete deck on steel box, 15 -18

truss or plate girders
Group 3 Concrete deck on:

- concrete box girder 10 -5
- concrete T-girder 15 -8
- concrete slab 15 -8

Positive temperature difference means that the top surface of the bridge superstructure is
warmer than the bottom surface. Negative temperature difference is the opposite situation
with a warmer bottom surface. The positive temperature difference for the linear temperature
distribution will be largest during days with high solar radiation (Soukhov 2001).
Eurocode 1991-1 defines some other temperature values as functions of the characteristic
temperatures. These values are calculated by adding reduction factors to the characteristic
values. The Eurocode proposal documents give the following reduction factors for thermal
actions on bridges according to Soukhov (2001), see Table 5:2.
Table 5:2 Reduction factors and functions for thermal actions on bridges.
Infrequent value (once in a year) ∆T1 ' = ψ 1 '⋅∆TK ψ1’ = 0.8

Frequent value (once in two weeks) ∆T1 = ψ 1 ⋅ ∆TK ψ1 = 0.6
Quasi-permanent value ∆T2 = ψ 2 ⋅ ∆TK ψ2 = 0.5
The non-linear temperature distribution, the third component (c) presented in Chapter 5.2, is
not used in the design of bridges in most of the countries in Europe. Therefore, it is not
included in the main part of the proposal for Eurocode 1991-1-5. United Kingdom is the only
country that is using the non-linear temperature distribution for bridge design. Their way of
using it is described in an annex to ENV 1991-2-5, see Appendix A.
5.4.2 Swedish Bridge Code – BRO2004

The Swedish Bridge Code for thermal actions is based on the variations of the uniform
temperature, and shall be combined with the worst alternative of three different non-uniform
temperature distributions.
Uniform temperature changes

The uniform temperature change shall be assumed to be uniform in the entire superstructure.
The temperatures that are used in the design calculations are the extreme values of the mean
temperature in the construction. How these temperatures are calculated is shown in Table 5:3,
which is redrawn from BRO2004.
Table 5:3 Bridge design temperatures according to Swedish Bridge Code, BRO2004.
Mean bridge Temperature
Type of superstructure temperature [°°C] differences [°°C]
T+ T- ∆T+ ∆T-
Steel or aluminum deck on steel Tmax + 15 Tmin - 5 +20 -5
box girders or steel I-girders
Concrete or wood deck on steel Tmax + 5 Tmin - 5 +10 -5
box girders or steel I-girders
Concrete deck on concrete box Tmax Tmin + 10 +10 -5
girders, T-girders or slabs.
Wood deck on wood girders Tmax - 5 Tmin + 10 +5 -5

Tmax and Tmin, in Table 5:3, are the maximum and minimum shade air temperatures that occur
with a probability of one time in fifty years. These values are given for different locations in
Sweden by two maps with isotherms, see Appendix E.
Non-uniform temperature changes
1. The non-uniform temperature changes in a cross-section, ∆T, are assumed to be linearly

distributed and with a zero point that coincides with the cross-section’s center of gravity.
The magnitudes of the differences are taken from Table 5:3.
2. If different elements of a bridge structure are exposed to different temperatures, then it

shall be assumed that there is a temporary temperature difference between the elements,
horizontally as well as vertically. If at least one of the elements is made of concrete, then
the temperature difference shall be taken as 10°C, in other cases it is assumed to be
20°C.
3. If concrete box cross-sections are used in a bridge, then it shall be assumed that a
temperature difference of 15°C can occur between the inner and outer wall of the box
cross-section.
5.5 Long Term and Short Term Temperature Changes
There will be both daily and seasonal temperature changes which will affect the bridge. The
daily variation in temperature between night and day creates a cycle of expansion and
contraction. In the general case, this cycle is repeated every day. There is also a seasonal
change in temperature. The mean temperature reaches the highest level in the summer, and
the lowest temperature is observed during the winter. The largest expansion will therefore
occur during summer days and the largest contractions can be observed during winter nights.
(Arsoy 1999)
The daily variations in temperature will create temperature cycles with low amplitude and
high frequency. The seasonal changes will on the other hand give annual temperature cycles
with high amplitude and low frequency. If a mathematical model of the temperature is
created, the seasonal changes could be described by a modified sinus curve, see Figure 5:7.
The daily temperature changes could be superposed on the annual sinus curve. In many cases
the daily changes can be disregarded, while the variations are small compared to the seasonal
changes. Another reason to neglect daily temperature changes is the fact that there is a
thermal inertia in the material which will give a damping effect on the short term changes.
This report is focused on pile fatigue, and daily temperature movements will give a
contribution to the fatigue. Hence, daily changes are not neglected.
Russel and Gerken (1994) noted that the annual temperature variations mainly affect the
changes in the length of the superstructure, while the daily temperature changes mainly affect
the vertical temperature gradient in the superstructure. A field study made in Iowa was
performed on integral bridges with steel and concrete girders. This study showed that bridge
length and pile strains are varying due to daily temperature variations (Girton et al. 1991). The
lateral movements caused by the daily temperature changes should therefore be taken into
consideration in the fatigue calculations.

5.5.1 Estimating Thermal Displacements

A conservative estimation of thermal movements can be made by using the theoretical
variations in the length of the superstructure, due to changes in temperature. Equation (5.6)
describes how the length of the bridge, Lb, is changing due to changes in temperature.
Changes in length, ∆L, are directly proportional to changes in temperature, ∆TN, with the
thermal coefficient, α, as proportional constant.
∆L=α⋅∆TN⋅Lb (5.6)
∆TN is the difference between the temperature at the construction day and the effective bridge
temperature at a certain time. It is important that the designer of the bridge take into
consideration the maximum variations in temperature, ∆Tmax, while this value is governing
how large movements and stresses the abutments and piles will be experiencing.
A field study (Frosch et al. 2005) made in Indiana, shows that the actual lateral displacements
of the abutments are a bit smaller than the theoretical displacements. The differences can be
explained by resistance from piles, restraint from the backfill, and approach slab friction.
Figure 5:5 illustrates the differences between calculated and measured movements. The
bridge where the measurements took place is a 112 m five-span integral abutment bridge, with
a superstructure made of pre-stressed concrete girders. The bridge is a crossing over the
Mississinewa River on State Road 18, located in Indiana (USA).
Time
Figure 5:5 Comparison between theoretical and measured movements (Frosch et al. 2005).
The same study (Frosch et al. 2005), lead to the conclusion that movements of the abutments,
caused by thermal expansion and contraction of the superstructure, are primary horizontal
sliding movements. It is noted that small rotations of the abutments also occur, these are
however so small that the authors suggest that they should be ignored in an analysis. This
observation by Frosch et al. is not proved to be general, and might be a result of a stiff
superstructure, a short end span or something else. Rotations of the abutments are not ignored
in the calculations in this report, since even small rotations can be important in the fatigue
calculations.

One of the conclusions from a study made by Dicleli and Albhaisi (2003) is that, since
concrete bridges are less sensitive to temperature variations they are better suited for integral
constructions than composite bridges. This is general for all integral bridges, but when the
climate gets colder the recommendation to use concrete bridges become even stronger.
Calculations according to the Swedish Bridge Code, made by Pétursson (2000), shows that a
bridge in northern Sweden will move 0.82 mm/length meter if it is a composite bridge, and
0.57 mm/length meter if it is a concrete bridge. In Tennessee (USA) bridges are designed for
movements that are calculated to be 0.78 mm/length meter for a composite bridge and 0.42
mm/length meter for a concrete bridge. The bridge temperature range that are used in
Tennessee is -18°C to 49°C for steel bridges, and -7°C to 32°C for concrete bridges
(Abendroth and Greimann 2005).
Thermal movements are limiting how long an integral bridge can be. Although, there are no
guidelines today to determine how long an integral bridge can be. Bridge engineers in the
USA seem to depend on their experiences from previously constructed integral bridges when
they are determining the maximum length of a new one. A guideline to determine the
maximum length is needed, and there have been studies made in this area in the past few
years. (Dicleli and Albhaisi 2003)
5.6 Thermal Effects on Piles
It is important to predict thermal movements while the stresses in the piles will be directly
dependent on these. The abutment piles can be subjected to large bending moments, caused
by the contraction and expansion of the bridge superstructure. The vertical load capacity of
the piles can be reduced as a result of the thermal movements (Bayoglu Flener 2004).
Lateral abutment displacements are not the only effect from temperature changes that affect
integral abutment piles. Vertical temperature gradients will occur in the bridge superstructure,
and if the temperature distribution curve does not coincide with the rotation center of the
girders then a secondary bending moment will occur (Arsoy 1999). This varying moment will
give rotations of the abutments and will therefore also affect the piles.
The bridge superstructure will expand and contract as a result of seasonal temperature
changes. These seasonal changes of the bridge length will cause an annual cycle of lateral
displacements of the top of the piles. There will also be a lot of smaller pile displacements
caused by daily or weekly temperature changes, and by daily thermal gradients in the
superstructure. Thermal gradients are smaller in the winter compared to the summer. The
minor cycles will therefore appear more frequently during summer than in winter, see Figure
5:6. But the amplitudes of daily/weekly changes are often higher in the winter. A sharp
change in temperature is often the reason to the relatively large minor cycles in the winter.
This behavior is confirmed by field measurements from a study performed in Iowa
(Abendroth and Greimann 2005), and a research study made in England (England et al. 2000).

Figure 5:6 Measured pile curvatures (Huang et al. 2004).
Data recorded from field tests shows that piles will be subjected to daily or weekly variations
in strain. According to Dicleli and Albhaisi (2004), these short term changes have amplitudes
of approximately 20-40 % of the annual strain amplitude, εa, see Figure 5:7. Several field
tests in the USA are also indicating that the daily movements have larger amplitudes in the
winter than in the summer (Arsoy 2000).
England et al. (2000) point out that daily variations in EBT are smaller in the winter than in
the summer, they are just 20-30% of the variations in the summer. If the abutment
displacements are assumed to be directly dependent on the EBT, this would be a contradiction
to the field tests in the USA. One could speculate upon if it is the British Islands that has
another type of climate and therefore get larger variations in the summer, or are the pile
stresses not directly dependent on the EBT? Another possibility would be that the authors
refer to different behaviors. England et al. might refer to the total variations during the
summer and the winter when they note that the variations are 20-30 % larger in the summer.
While the field test from the USA might refer to the more frequently higher amplitudes that is
observed during the winter.
Figure 5:7 Pile strain in integral bridges as a function of time (Dicleli and Albhaisi 2004).

The temperature at the casting day will affect the zero strain level in the piles. It may not be at
the point where the second order derivative, of the seasonal temperature curve, is zero. In the
general case, it will be a net difference between the zero strain level and the maximum and
minimum strain levels. The location of the bridge and the climate will influence how large the
net differences in strain will be. In order to be able to describe the strain cycle in a proper
way, Dicleli and Albhaisi (2004) defined two new amplitudes. The positive strain amplitude,
εap, will reach its peak during summertime, and the negative strain amplitude, εan, has the peak
of the net strain in the wintertime, see Figure 5:7. (Dicleli and Albhaisi 2004)
When Dicleli and Albhaisi (2004) made their study of cumulative fatigue in steel H-piles,
they neglected the difference between the positive and negative strain amplitudes. The
explanation of why the differences can be neglected is the fact that the range of the total strain
amplitude is far more important for the fatigue than the strain amplitude for single cycles.
5.7 Simplified Structural Analysis of Thermal Movements
The thermal contribution to the strains in integral abutment piles is assumed to be a direct
result of the thermal movements. Which in turn are directly proportional to changes in EBT.
Equation (5.7) gives an estimation of how large the lateral movements of the abutments will
be, due to variations in bridge temperature. The expression is based on an assumption that the
lateral movements have the same magnitude at both abutments. Abendroth and Greimann
(1989) used this equation to determine the thermal displacement of the abutments. Their
analysis is approximate and neglects the passive soil pressure and the lateral pier stiffness
when the displacement of the abutments, ∆abut, is calculated.
α ⋅ ∆TN ⋅ Lb
∆ abut = . (5.7)
2
The length of the bridge is denoted Lb and the difference in effective bridge temperature
between a certain day and the construction day in denoted ∆TN (see Chapter 5.2 Thermal
Distributions).
Integral abutment piles can be treated as beam-columns and designed by the cantilever
method. Equivalent cantilevers with a length Lequ are used in the calculation, see Appendix B.
The lateral displacements caused by bridge temperature variations will induce a pile moment,
MT, and a lateral pile force, FT. Abendroth and Greimann (1989) state that (5.8) and (5.9) can
be used to calculate the pile moment and the lateral pile force, caused by thermal variations.
6 EI∆ abut
MT = (5.8)
L2equ
12 EI∆ abut
FT = (5.9)
L3equ

Figure 5:8 shows a free body diagram, which presents the forces and moments that are acting
on an integral bridge.
Les
FT + FP
Hp
H FP
NT
FT
MT
NT
Figure 5:8 Free body diagram for an end span of an integral bridge.
The abutment wall height is denoted H, and the length of the end span is denoted Les. When
the bridge temperature increases and the superstructure become longer, the abutment will be
pushed against the backfill behind the abutment wall. The passive soil pressure from the
backfill is represented by a horizontal force, FP. This force will act on a distance Hp from the
top of the abutment wall, and can be estimated by using a soil model, for instance Rankine’s
theory of earth pressure, see Appendix C.
γ ⋅ H 2 1 + sin φ 
FP = . (5.10)
2 1 − sin φ 
Thermal movements will also give rise to axial forces in the piles, NT, in order to keep the
force situation in equilibrium. This axial force can be calculated by an equilibrium equation,
which can be derived from the free body diagram in Figure 5:8.
NT =
(F p ⋅ H p ) + (FT ⋅ H ) + M T
(5.11)
Les
5.8 Measuring Bridge Average Temperature

If temperature measurements are made on an existing bridge, it would be possible calculate
the average bridge temperature, Tave, and the resulting thermal movements. Bridge
superstructures are often constructed with different materials and different cross-sections, and
should therefore be divided into n segments in an analysis of the temperature. Temperature
measurements should be performed in every segment. If the temperature distribution (∆Tj)
inside of segment j with the area Aj is approximated as uniform, then the average bridge
temperature can be calculated as a weighted average of the segments temperatures, see (5.12).
n
∑ ∆T j Aj
Tave =
j =1 (5.12)
n
∑A E
j =1
j j

Girton et al. (1991) took this equation a step further and used it to calculate the longitudinal
displacement of a bridge, ∆b, due to thermal movements. The unrestrained displacements of
each segment in the superstructure, ∆j, are used to calculate a weighted average displacement
of the bridge. To be able to do that, a uniform coefficient of thermal expansion, αj, is
introduced for every segment, and also a uniform modulus of elasticity, Ej. Girton et al.
suggest that bridge displacement is calculated as
n
∑α j ∆T j A j E j
∆b =
j =1
⋅L , (5.13)
n
∑A E
j =1
j j
where L is the length of all segments.
5.9 Available Temperature Measurements
The most proper way of studying temperature changes in a bridge, would be by performing
field measurements in a real bridge superstructure. This could be done by embedded thermal
sensors that are mounted at different depths of a cross-section. But if there are no real
temperature measurements available, estimations can be done by using shade air temperature.
The Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute (SMHI) are measuring the shade air
temperature at hundreds of stations spread out over the whole county. Some of the stations are
manned but most of them are automatic nowadays. They have been recording the mean
temperature of each month from the start of the measurements, in some cases from the 18th
century. Daily temperature measurements are recorded and available in their database, from
1961 until today. Some stations are recording the temperature every hour, and others are
recording it at least three times a day. (SMHI 2006)
This database can be a good source in order to find out how the shade temperature is varying
at a location where a bridge shall be constructed.
5.9.1 Measurement Equipment

In order to measure the shade air temperature and nothing else, thermometers have to be
protected from solar radiation and precipitation in some way. Different techniques have been
used through the years. For instance, white painted cages made of wood, or smaller radiation
shelters made of white painted plastic or metallic materials. The thermometers are in general
placed 1.5 m above the ground surface and with no high surrounding objects closer than their
height. The thermometers that are used are often resistance thermometers which automatically
are recording the temperature at certain times. Some mercury thermometers are also used,
those are not so common nowadays but they have been used a lot during the period since
1961. Hence the temperature database contains a lot of temperatures measured by those.
(SMHI 2006)

5.9.2 Sources of Errors

There will always be some errors when the temperature is measured during a long period,
mostly not because of the thermometers themselves. The thermometers have in general good
precision, and do not measure more than a few tenth of a degree wrong. The sources of errors
are instead often the lack of protection against solar radiation, and bad placing of
thermometers. As a result of this, to high shade temperatures might sometimes be recorded.
Fast changes in temperature can also be a source to misleading temperatures. (SMHI 2006)


Low-cycle Fatigue 41
6 Low-cycle Fatigue
Low-cycle fatigue is fatigue caused by strain cycles involving plastic deformations. Large
temperature displacements and cyclic loading of integral abutment piles can cause plastic
deformations and lead to low-cycle fatigue failures. Thermal movements of the abutments can
give elastic as well as plastic deformations of the piles, depending on how long the bridge is
and how large the variations in EBT are. Rotations of the abutments due to varying traffic
loads and temperature gradients will also cause deformations of the piles. These deformations
must also be taken into account in an analysis of a possible low-cycle fatigue failure.
The majority of the states in the USA, and among other countries as well, are orienting their
H-piles for weak axis bending in integral abutment bridges. Because of that, the following
section is focused on low-cycle failure for H-piles oriented in weak axis bending.
Lateral displacements at the top of the piles will lead to varying stresses in the flanges of the
H-piles, oriented for weak axis bending. It is possible that these stresses will exceed the yield
strength now and then during the bridge lifetime. The tip of the flanges will then yield and
plastic deformations take place. How frequently plastic deformations might occur depend on
climate, soil properties, bridge length, pile cross-section etc. The low-cycle fatigue failure will
start with small cracks that appear at the tip of the flanges. These cracks will propagate
towards the web under further cyclic loading, see Figure 6:1. The width of the flanges that
can transfer axial loads become smaller and smaller, and the web has to take more and more
axial load. The part of the pile where the cracks are propagating starts to work more as a
hinge, until an ultimate failure of the web take place. (Huang et al. 2004)
Figure 6:1 Illustration of low-cycle fatigue failure in a steel H-pile (Huang et al. 2004).
One way of estimating the time until a low-cycle fatigue failure is to use a strain-based
approach. In this approach, the number of displacement cycles that a structural unit can
withstand is formulated as a function of the plastic strains in the studied area of a structural
member. Piles in integral abutments will be subjected to lateral movements that in many cases
are quite large and plastic deformations are expected. Dicleli and Albhaisi (2004) state that, a
strain-based approach is an appropriate way of estimating the number of cycles until low-
cycle fatigue failure for steel piles in integral abutment bridges.

42 Low-cycle Fatigue
6.1 Low-cycle Fatigue Prediction
Huang et al. (2004) presents three different methods which can be used to predict low-cycle
fatigue failures. The methods are: General Strain Life Equation, Manson’s Universal Slope
Equation, and extrapolated strain-cycle curves.
Dicleli and Albhaisi (2004) are also presenting a strain based approach for calculations of
cumulative fatigue. This approach is a simplified version of the general strain life equation
and especially made for H-piles.
6.1.1 General Strain Life Equation

The general strain life equation is a strain based approach to fatigue problems. The total strain
in an element is the sum of the elastic and plastic strains. The magnitude of the strain will
govern which strain component that will be dominant. At small strains, elastic strains will be
dominant and the strength will control the performance. At large strains, plastic strains will be
dominant and the ductility of the steel will control the performance. The perfect material
would be one with high strength and high ductility. A perfect material is not available today,
and the designers of the structures have to make compromises between strength and ductility
depending on the loads and strains that are expected. (ASM Handbook 1996)
Figure 6:2 illustrates the strain situation in an element. The elastic and plastic strain
components are both represented by straight lines in a log-log diagram.
ε 'f
σ 'f
E
Figure 6:2 Strain-life curves showing the total-, elastic-, and plastic strain components (ASM Handbook 1996).
The general strain life equation for small smooth axial specimens is given in (6.1). This
expression is based on an assumption that the displacement amplitude is totally reversed
under each cycle. This might not be the case in the reality, but this model gives an answer that
will be on the safe side.

∆ε σ ' f
= (2 N f )
b
+ ε ' f (2 N f )c
(6.1)
2 E
∆ε/2 total strain amplitude c fatigue ductility exponent

Nf fatigue life σ’f fatigue strength coefficient
ε’f fatigue ductility coefficient b fatigue strength exponent
6.1.2 Coffin-Manson’s Universal Slope Equation

Coffin-Manson’s equation is a simplified form of the general strain life equation. This model
is more conservative and gives higher safety margins than the previous model. It has been
developed from tensile tests on small specimens. The simplified equation is written as
σu
∆ε = 3.5 (N )
f
− 0.12
+ ε 0f .6 (N f )− 0.6
. (6.2)
E
∆ε total strain range

εf elongation at fracture
σu ultimate tensile strength
Figure 6:3 illustrates an example of the Coffin-Manson’s equation, assuming a steel with
ultimate strength of 500 MPa and an elongation at fracture that is 20 %.
100,00%
10,00%
∆ε ∆ε σu = 500 MPa
E = 210 GPa
1,00%
εf = 0.20
σu
3.5 (N ) f
− 0.12
E
0,10%
ε 0f .6 (N f )−0.6
0,01%
1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 10000000
Nf
Figure 6:3 Illustration of Coffin-Manson’s fatigue model.
6.1.3 Extrapolated ∆ε-Nf Curves

Another way of evaluating the low-cycle fatigue would be by using the frk-Nf (characteristic
fatigue strength – number of stress cycles until failure) curves given in the Swedish
Regulations for Steel Structures - BSK99. The curves that can be found in BSK99 have to be
extrapolated since they are illustrated only for Nf larger than 1000. The curves are
extrapolated to one cycle and also converted from stresses into strains. The expressions for the
frk-Nf curves can be rewritten as

1/ 3
C  2 ⋅ 10 6 

∆ε = ⋅ if Nf ≤ 5⋅106 (6.3)
E  N f 

1/ 5
C  2 ⋅ 10 6 
∆ε = 0.885 ⋅ ⋅  , if 5⋅106 < Nf < 108 (6.4)
E  N f 
where C is the detail fatigue category factor, which is defined as the characteristic fatigue
strength at 2⋅106 stress cycles with constant amplitude. The C-factor equals 112 MPa, for a
rolled cross section of performance class GB, according to BSK99. The frk-Nf curves given in
BSK99 have two different levels for the fatigue endurance limit for steel. Which curve that
should be used depends on in which extension the constructions will be affected by corrosion.
If the construction has a well maintained corrosion protection, then it can be presumed that
the endurance limit occurs at the strain giving 5⋅106 cycles until failure. For other
constructions, it is presumed that the endurance limit occurs at the strain giving Nf = 108
cycles. Figure 6:4 illustrates the ∆ε-Nf curves from BSK99 for a cross-section with the detail
fatigue category factor C = 112 MPa. Coffin-Manson’s equation is also plotted in Figure 6:4,
in order to illustrate the differences between the models.
100,00%
Coffin-Manson
10,00% BSK99
σu = 500 MPa
BSK99 corrosion E = 210 GPa
∆ε εf = 0.20
1,00% C = 112 MPa
0,10%
0,01%
1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 1E+07 1E+08 1E+09 1E+10
Nf
Figure 6:4 Extrapolated ∆ε-Nf curve from BSK99 in comparison with Coffin-Manson’s equation.
Huang et al. (2004) refers to some tests which indicates that the ∆ε-Nf curves gives a lower
bound for low-cycle fatigue failure. It actually seems to give rather conservative answers.
Coffin-Manson’s equation is on the other hand developed from tensile test results on small
specimens. There is no scale factor in the equation, but it might be a scale factor in the reality.
Since a larger cross-section increases the probability of the occurrence of any type of
imperfection. Yet, both models are still treated as conservative in the literature.

6.2 Predicting the Level of Cumulative Fatigue
Dicleli and Albhaisi (2004) state that, it is possible to make an estimation of how many strain
cycles, with constant amplitude, that will take place before it ends up in a low-cycle fatigue
failure. The following expression is proposed in order to get a slight idea of when a fatigue
failure will happen. Their expression is valid for steel H-piles, and it is based on the total
strain amplitude, εa. The number of strain cycles until failure, Nf, can be expressed as
m −1
1 ε 
N f = ⋅ a  or ε a = M ⋅ (2 N f )m
, (6.5)
2 M 
where M and m are constants that have been derived for H-piles, M = 0.0795 and m = -0.448.
This formula is only valid for strain cycles with constant amplitudes. It could therefore be
useful to predict the fatigue caused by the seasonal thermal movements in integral bridges,
since the seasonal movements would not vary too much from one year to another. An integral
bridge is however not only subjected to seasonal thermal movements. There are also
movements that take place daily or weekly, as a result of different temperatures during day
and night, and different weather conditions. The question is how these movements shall be
taken into account when the level of cumulative fatigue is calculated. Stresses in piles caused
by daily or weekly temperature variations may not be large enough to cause yielding by their
own. But, if the seasonal thermal movements already have caused yielding, then the strain
cycles with small amplitudes will add an extra amount of plastic deformation. Dicleli and
Albhaisi (2004) state that many of the small strain cycles will occur when piles already have
yielded, and therefore they must be a part of the low-cycle fatigue calculation.
The left part of Figure 6:5 shows a zoomed portion of a curve illustrating the strain-time
behavior in integral abutment piles. Stresses due to the seasonal variations in temperature are
so large that yielding already has taken place. A change in temperature over a day or a week
can make the yielding even bigger or lowering the stress in the structure. The stress-strain
behavior that takes place at the same time as the strain is changing is illustrated in the right
part of Figure 6:5. Elastic perfectly plastic behavior is assumed.
ε 2
5
σ
1 Small strain cycles 1 2, 4 5

σy
4 Large strain cycle
3
3
Time εy Strain
Figure 6:5 Illustration of the loading and unloading of the piles that cause
small strain cycles, after Dicleli and Albhaisi (2003).

A model used to estimate the cumulative low-cycle fatigue must be able to consider both the
small and the large strain cycles. Palmgren and Miner (1924, 1945) have formulated an
expression of how the cumulative fatigue damage in a structure can be calculated:
n
ni
∑N
i =1
≤ 1. (6.6)
fi
Nfi is the number of cycles until failure for a load or displacement with certain amplitude, and
ni is the number of times that a cycle with the same amplitude is repeated. This equation can
be used to calculate how much of a structure’s fatigue life that has been consumed. In the case
with piles in integral abutment bridges, the expression can be written in a slightly different
way:
n ndi n ns j
∑N
i =1
+∑
j =1 N fs j
≤1 (6.7)
fd i
where ndi is the number of small cycles with a certain amplitude, which the structure has been
exposed to. And Nfdi is the number of small cycles until failure for the load or displacement
with the certain amplitude. Nfsj and nsj are defined in the same way, but they refer in this case
to the large cycles which are a result of the seasonal variations in temperature. If the seasonal
temperature cycles are assumed to have the same amplitude from one year to another, then the
expression can be simplified as following:
 n ndi  ns
∑ + ≤ 1. (6.8)
 i =1 N fd  N fs
 i 
This simplification implies that changes in seasonal temperature cycles between one year and
another are not taken into consideration. Even if the trend right now might be towards higher
and higher temperatures, caused by the greenhouse effect and other phenomena, it would be
hard to predict how large influences these phenomena might have in the future.
The cumulative damage could be predicted in a more simplified and conservative way, or by a
model that is based on field measurements.
6.2.1 Simplified Cumulative Damage Model

The large strain cycles will have periods of one year. Therefore, ns will be equal to the
number of years, n, that the bridge will be in service. In this simplified approach the small
strain cycles could be assumed to be repeated once a week, according to strain measurements
studied by Dicleli and Albhaisi (2004). The number of small cycles, nd, will then be 52 times
the number of years, n. If the seasonal strain amplitude is known as well as the constants M
and m, which are provided by Dicleli and Albahaisi for H-pile cross-sections. Then it will be
possible to calculate the cumulative low-cycle damage. Measurements made on piles in
integral bridges have indicated that strain amplitudes of daily or weekly changes are
approximately in the range between 20-40% of the amplitude that is observed as a result of
the seasonal changes. A constant, β, is introduced in order to simplify the equations. This
constant describes the relationship between the daily/weekly amplitudes and the seasonal

strain amplitudes, εad = β⋅εas. The constant β will have a value between one and zero, and
measurements indicates a value between 0.2 and 0.4. If this constant is used and (6.5) is
substituted into (6.8), then the following expression is obtained for the cumulative low-cycle
fatigue damage:
104 ⋅ n 2⋅n
1
+ 1
≤ 1. (6.9)
 β ⋅ ε as  m  ε as  m
   
 M  M 
6.2.2 Cumulative Damage Model Based on Measurements

Another approach to the cumulative low-cycle fatigue is a method that relies on results from
field measurement or simulations. The principle is the same as the simplified approach, but
the small changes in the strain amplitude are not treated in the same way. Instead of making
an assumption that the strains will change a number of times each year, it is possible to
monitoring the strain in the piles or the temperature that causes the strain. Results from field
tests can then be input data in order to calculate the fatigue damage from each strain cycle.
The number of calculations increases dramatically when this approach is used, while the
amplitudes of the small strain cycles are varying from one cycle to another. If a large amount
of cycles shall be studied, some kind of computer program would be preferable for the
calculations as well as a tool to identify the cycles. The large amplitude cycles from the
seasonal changes in temperature can be treated in the same way as in the simplified approach.
The following expression could be used in the analysis of the cumulative low-cycle fatigue:
 
 
 n 2⋅n  2⋅n
∑ di
+ ≤ 1. (6.10)
 i =1 ε 1
 1
    ε as 
m m
  adi 
 
  M   M 
The field measurements can not go on forever because of economical reasons. Therefore, it
might be necessary to perform some kind of statistical simulation based on data received from
measurements. If the strains in the piles are monitored over a period of for instance 2 years,
then there would be two large strain cycles and hundreds of small strain cycles that would be
available for a statistical analysis. The measurements can then be used in order to create a
probability distribution function, which shows how large the probability is that a strain cycle
with a certain amplitude would occur. The probability function can then be one part of the
input data in a simulation of pile strains during the bridge service lifetime.

6.3 Comments
In this chapter some theoretical models have been presented, which can be used in order to
estimate when a fatigue failure will occur. Some of these models are widely used today, but it
must be point out that they are not that accurate. In the ASM Handbook (1996) the authors
consider if it is possible to aim at a model that actually gives reliable answers, so that
experimental investigations would not be necessary. Today, Palmgren-Miner’s model is often
used in an early stage to estimate the fatigue lifetime when a structure with variable amplitude
loading is studied. Unfortunately, the model is not reliable in all cases. Especially not when
strain cycles with large differences in amplitudes are studied. The following sentences are
taken from the chapter Fatigue Crack Growth under Variable-Amplitude Loading in ASM
Handbook Vol. 19 (1996).
“A warning must be made here: the Miner rule is fully unreliable for comparing
the severity of different load spectra. As a simple illustration, compare a load
spectrum to a modification of that spectrum obtained by adding a small number of
high-load cycles. According to the Miner rule the addition should lead to
somewhat shorter fatigue lives, whereas in general it leads to significant fatigue
life improvements.”
Today, no theoretical model is able to predict the fatigue failure accurate enough. A rough
estimate is the best result. Therefore, the Palmgren-Miner model is used in this report to get a
slight idea of if a fatigue failure is likely to occur or not, during the bridge service lifetime.
The answers from the calculations in this report can not be treated as “the truth”. Yet, they
will probably give a hint whether or not a low-cycle fatigue failure is likely to happen.
However, the result from all theoretical models about fatigue should be supplemented by test
results.

Traffic Loads 49
7 Traffic Loads
Traffic loads seems to be a research area where few studies have been carried out. Among
bridge designer in general, traffic loads are just assumed to be numbers given in codes. A
detailed model of traffic loads, which reflects the real situation, is very difficult to create
because of the randomness of the loads. (Getachew 2003)
Sundquist (1998) has compared the maximum allowable vehicle gross weight in different
countries. The Scandinavian countries allow higher loads than the other European countries.
There are only small differences in the allowable weight for shorter vehicles, but significant
differences for long vehicles as lorries with trailer. The allowable gross weight in the USA
varies from state to state, but seems to be a bit lower in comparison to the allowable weights
in Europe. The reason to the higher allowable gross weights in the Nordic countries is mainly
the need of timber transports.
If a traffic load model shall be created, it will be necessary to measure the real traffic load in
one way or another. Field measurements can be performed over a long period of time, in order
to collect a large amount of data. If there is no time or money to perform long time
measurements, it might be necessary to use a sample from collected data instead. This sample
can be used to generate fictitious traffic loads that represent the results from measurements
over a long period of time. A Monte Carlo simulation is one way of generating the fictitious
loads. This simulation technique is described in Chapter 8.
Bridge designers use traffic load models given in different codes when they design bridges.
These loads are often believed to be conservative today, while they often are based on old
traffic data. The vehicles are nowadays designed in another way with better damping
mechanisms, an update of some of the codes might be necessary (Getachew 2003). Traffic
load models in the codes are often based on the largest load that will act on the bridge during
its service lifetime. This approach gives a large safety margin, perhaps larger than needed.
Although, it is necessary to realize that a safety margin is needed, a balance on the edge
between overestimated and underestimated design loads must be avoided. Overestimated
loads will certainly give higher construction costs than necessary, but underestimated loads
can lead to a collapse of the whole structure. A safety margin is needed, the question is how
big. Getachew (2003) states that, the increased costs of a construction due to overestimated
loads are small, and necessary to deal with the uncertainties and to make the design process as
fast and simple as possible.
7.1 Traffic Fatigue Load According to BRO2004

The fatigue caused by the traffic loads must be taken into consideration when a bridge is
designed. BRO2004 (Vägverket 2004) defines the traffic fatigue load as following. The
fatigue load consists of two groups of loads, each group represents two axels of a vehicle, see
Figure 7:1. One of the groups has axel loads of 150 kN and the distance between the axels is
1.5 m. The other group has axel loads of 180 kN and 2.0 m between the axels. The distance
between the two groups of loads shall be at least 6.0 m. The axel loads shall be regarded as
two point loads of 75 and 90 kN respectively. The distance between the point loads is 2.0 m.
The group of loads shall be placed at the position on the bridge which gives the largest stress
amplitude in the studied part of the structure. The dynamic effects of the loads have been
considered when the axel loads in the code were decided.

50 Traffic Loads
150 kN 150 kN 180 kN 180 kN
0.2 m
1.5 m ≥ 6.0 m 2.0 m
Figure 7:1 Illustration of the fatigue load according to the Swedish Bridge Code (Vägverket 2004).
Bridges that are trafficked by less than 10 000 vehicles per day, measured as a mean value
over a year, shall be designed to withstand at least 105 load cycles. The rest of the bridges
shall be designed to withstand at least 4⋅105 load cycles.
7.2 Measured Traffic Loads
Different measurement systems have been used through the years in order to get a better
understanding of the real loads that are acting on roads and bridges. The first way of
measuring the vehicle weights was by using static scales. This method is very time consuming
and can only be used for spot checks. A development of a rational system has been necessary,
to be able to continuously weigh vehicles in motion. The Swedish National Road
Administration (Vägverket) has used at least two of these measurement systems in the last
two decades. The first one that was used was the Weigh-In-Motion system (WIM), which
later on has been replaced by a Bridge-Weigh-In-Motion system (BWIM).
7.2.1 WIM
WIM is a relatively wide term for different techniques to weigh vehicles that are traveling in
high speed. Three common WIM-systems that are used nowadays are bending plate,
piezoelectric sensors, and load cells. Bending plate is a strain based method, with an
equipment which registers the strain in a plate that is loaded by the axle loads of the vehicles.
Piezoelectric sensors are detecting the change in voltage which is caused by the load that acts
on the sensor. The changes in voltage are calculated into dynamic loads which are
transformed into static loads by some calibration parameters. Load cells are based on two
scales which are recording the weight from the left and the right side of each axel. The
recorded data from the two scales are summed up to an axel load. Axel sensors are often used
in combination with these systems in order to classify the vehicles by counting the number of
axels and measuring the axel distances. (McCall and Vodrazka 1997)
The WIM technology is quite old, and has been developed and refined through half a century.
There were a lot of initial problems with these systems. Southgate (2000) describes the
problems they had with the new WIM technology in Kentucky (USA) back in the late 60´s.

Traffic Loads 51
There were a lot of problems with the electronic measurements device and the calibration of
it. The development of the computerized measurement devices has led to better accuracy of
the measurements, but there are still problems to overcome. Getachew (2003) has studied and
evaluated the results from some WIM measurements made by the Swedish National Road
Administration during the time period 1993-1994. He found out that the data contained some
weights and lengths of vehicles that were absurd. Before analyze was made, approximately 10
% of the measured data were excluded because of the unreasonable values. Another 9 % of
the data was registered as vehicles with only one axel. It is obvious that the data contains such
an amount of errors that it is necessary to filter the data in one way or another before an
analysis is made.
7.2.2 BWIM
Bridge-Weigh-In-Motion is another way of measuring the weight of vehicles that traveling
across bridges. This technique is based on strain measurements, by strain gauges that are
mounted on the bridge, see Figure 7:2. A calibration of the measurement equipment is made
by using a vehicle with known weight, axel space and axel load. When the behavior of the
bridge under the load of the calibration vehicle is known, then the result from the strain
measurements can be used to calculate weight and axel loads from any other vehicle. The
Swedish National Road Administration tested this measurement technique for the first time in
the summer of 2001. The test period showed that the BWIM-equipment performed well. The
measurements have been extended to several bridges all over Sweden, and will continue at
least until 2006. (Vägverket 2006)
Figure 7:2 BWIM strain gauges mounted at a concrete bridge, picture from Vägverket (2003).

52 Traffic Loads

Monte Carlo Simulation 53
8 Monte Carlo Simulation

This chapter gives an overview of Monte Carlo simulation as a mathematical tool and as a
complement or an alternative to real experiments.
8.1 Introduction and History

The Monte Carlo (MC) method is a general name of any method that uses a sequence of
random numbers to perform different types of calculations. The method can be used to
approximate solutions of problems in different areas. It was developed during the twenties
century, but there are some older experiments from the second half of the nineteenth century
which showed that different kind of deterministic problems can be solved by using random
processes. A systematic development of the method started about 1944 and was named during
the World War II, by a team working with the development of the atomic bomb. The method
was named after the city of Monte Carlo, a centre of gambling. Because of the similarity
between the games of chance played in the casinos, and the random numbers in a statistical
simulation. The method was in the beginning used in order to solve nuclear physics problems,
but soon it became a well known method that could be applied in different fields. For instance
in mathematics, physics, economy, demography, etc. (Hammersley and Handscomb 1979,
Marek et al. 2003)
8.2 Why a Simulation?

The objective of a simulation is to understand how something works in the reality.
Simulations are experiments that are performed on designed models instead of real objects. In
order to understand how something works and to prove the correctness, a model and its
assumptions must be tested by repetitions of the behavior. Repetitions can be achieved by
performing several physical experiments. But, in many cases the restrictions of both time and
money makes it impossible to perform the experiments in the reality. A simulation is then a
very competitive alternative to an experiment, since it is more cost and time effective in most
cases. In some cases it might even be impossible to perform real experiments. It is possible to
simulate how fast a mortal disease could be spread across the world and how large casualties
that could be expected. Yet, no one would perform a real experimental study on a human
population. A simulation is also a good tool to produce new artificial data from data collected
by measurements, this technique is known as resampling. (Marek et al. 2003, Getachew 2003)
8.3 The Method

MC methods can handle two types of problems. They can either be probabilistic or
deterministic. The difference between the two types is whether or not they are dealing with
objects, operations or processes that involve randomness. A deterministic simulation deals
with a process where all of the object and operations are non-random. In a probabilistic
simulation, on the other hand, there are random objects or processes that can not be predicted.
In the real world there are a lot of randomness, therefore it is hard to find a real situation that
can be described as purely deterministic. For instance, a studied steel girder could have a

higher or lower strength, length, height, etc. compared to the values which the manufacturer
gives. Probabilistic simulations can deal with these variations.
There is only one requirement for probabilistic problems solved by MC simulations. They
must have solutions that can be described by probability density functions or probability mass
functions. (Hammersley and Handscomb 1979, Marek et al. 2003)
A mathematical model that describes the problem is created, and the input and output
variables are defined. The input values are randomly picked out of their probability
distribution functions, which are used to describe the input variables. One set of input values
will result in one set of output values, which will be stored in one way or another.
The law of large numbers is one of the fundamental things which the MC method is based on.
A short version of the law of large numbers is given by Marek et al. (2003)
“The empirical distribution of a random variable converges to the
theoretical one if the number of samples increases to infinity.”
The consequence of this law is that mathematical models are looped as many times as
necessary in order to get the desired accuracy of the results.
8.3.1 Central Limit Theorem
The central limit theorem (CLT) states why results from simulations can be very good
approximations of answers to some problems. The CLT states that the sum of n independent
random variables can be approximated by a normal distribution when n are large
(Hammersley and Handscomb 1979). This theorem is not general and there are some
limitations. The random variables are not allowed to vary in size too much. For instance, the
theorem is not valid if one of the variables is bigger than the sum of all other variables.
Another disadvantage of CLT is the “tail problem”. If n goes towards infinity then the
distribution function of the sum adopt the same shape as a normal distribution in the region
around the mean value. But, the values that are much lower or higher than the mean value
(values in the tail) do not adopt the normal distribution shape as quickly as the central regions
of the normal distribution.
8.3.2 Random Variables

A classification of random variables can be made in three basic types: attributes, counts and
measurements. Attributes are criteria which a sample either fulfills or not. The number of
samples that fulfill an attribute can be summarized in order to create counts. As an example,
the attribute could be “heavier weight than 70 kg”. If this attribute are tested on 1000 students,
the sample, one could create counts showing how the distribution is between students that
weigh more or less than 70 kg. Attributes and counts are both discrete variables.
Measurements are on the other hand continuous variables, which can be described by
numerical value. For instance length, weight, temperature, load etc. (Marek et al. 2003)
A random variable can be purely discrete, purely continuous or a combination of both discrete
and continuous. A purely discrete variable, which are defined at discrete values only, can be
represented by a Probability Mass Function (PMF) which shows how the variable is

distributed. Rolling a dice would generate a PMF. Figure 8:1a shows a PMF for a discrete
variable. The sum of the heights of the bars shall be equal to 1. Random variables that are
purely continuous are described by continuous functions. These functions are called
Probability Density Functions (PDF). Figure 8:1b shows a PDF for a continuous variable, the
area under the curve shall equal 1.
Probability, p
0
(a) PMF for a discrete variable. (b) PDF for a continuous variable
Figure 8:1 Illustration of distributions for discrete and continuous variables.
8.3.3 Limitations
MC simulations based on experimental data are dependent on how good the experimental data
are. The sample can be more or less suitable for the problem, and the result of the simulation
can never be better than the input. If the input contains invalid data, then the output will
contain invalid data as well. This is known as the axiom “garbage in garbage out”.
Simulations will never give answers that are absolutely correct. The method can nevertheless
be very useful in order to solve complicated problems. The question that has to be answered
is, how likely it is that the answer is wrong and how much wrong might the answer be. If the
uncertainties can be controlled then it will be possible to achieve an answer which can be
treated as valid with a certain probability.
8.4 Structure of Monte Carlo Simulations
The structure of a MC simulation is almost the same, no matter what type of problem that is
studied. Figure 8:2 is an illustration of the structure of a simulation, and describes how the
different components and steps are connected. The following sections summarize how Marek
et al. (2003) describe the major components and the basic structure of MC simulations.
8.4.1 Random Input Values

The probability distributions of the input values must be known in one way or another. One
way of obtaining the probability distribution is to perform real experiments and record the
data from the measurements that are done. If no tests can be performed and no historical data
are available, it might be possible to create a probability distribution using theoretical
knowledge. If there is little knowledge available about the problem that is studied, then it
might be necessary to use some general theoretical distribution, like uniform, normal,
triangular etc. The character of the problems governs which type of distribution that will be
selected.

8.4.2 Random Number Generation

To be able to perform a MC simulation there must be a source from which random numbers
can be generated. The source is the probability distribution that is created in one way or
another (see 8.4.1 Random Input Values). The generation process is normally made in two
steps. The first step is to generate random numbers out of a uniform distribution. The second
step is to convert the result from the first step into the specified probability distributions. The
outcome of the second step is single values from the probability distributions of the input
variables. These values will be used as input data in the system model, see Figure 8:2.
Random numbers generation
System model evaluation
Primary random numbers generation
Y = F(X)
Input variables generation Recording results

Input variables generation
- Numerical measures
X1 - Logs
X2 - Histograms
Xn
Repeat
Figure 8:2 Monte Carlo simulation scheme, after Marek et al. (2003).
8.4.3 System Model

Problems taken from real life are often very complex and involve a large amount of variables.
The real life situation must be translated into a mathematical model which describes the real
situation as good as necessary. The creation of a system model involves a compromise
between the complexity of the model and the accuracy. The model should also be designed in
a way which makes it possible to perform time effective calculations. The studied problem
must be described by at least one variable that has a probability density function or a
probability mass function. If no probability function is involved in the model, then there will
be no need of a MC Simulation.
8.4.4 Recording the Results

Results from simulations can be recorded and presented in different ways, depending on the
type of problem and the aim of the simulation. In many cases there is no need of information
from a specific calculation, a few statistical parameters are often the only values that are
interesting.

Sometimes it can be useful to illustrate the results from the simulations by some sort of
diagrams. Histograms are one way of presenting the results. Some important choices must be
done when a histogram is created. The number of distribution categories and their intervals
must be decided. Each simulation step will result in one value which will be sorted into one of
the distribution categories, each category will be illustrated by a histogram bin. The choice of
the number of histogram bins will affect the result and cause some errors if the graphical
result is compared to the numerical result. If a continuous variable is involved in the
calculation then it will always be a loss of information using histograms. The loss of
information can be reduced by using more histogram bins.
The most time and space consuming way of recording the results is to record all output values
and sometimes also all input values. If this is done, every single calculation can be
reconstructed and studied. This type of recording can give enormous amounts of data, which
has to be stored. Therefore, it is mostly used in cases where the solution of the problem is not
as important as the understanding of the whole system.


59
PART 2
Mathematical Models, Simulations, and Calculations

60

Example Bridge – Leduån Bridge 61
9 Example Bridge - Leduån Bridge

The bridge that is used in the calculations, throughout this report, is a one span integral
abutment bridge. It has a span length of 40 m, measured between the centres of the pile rows
which are integrated in the abutment walls. It is a composite bridge with two I-girders made
of steel, and a deck slab made of concrete C40/50. The bridge is a two lane roadway bridge,
designed to be a crossing over the Leduån stream some kilometres west of the Swedish town
Nordmaling. Some drawings of the bridge are shown in Figure 9:1 and 9:2.
Figure 9:1 View of the bridge over the Leduån River.
Figure 9:2 Cross-section view of the superstructure.

62 Example Bridge – Leduån Bridge
The bridge girders are produced in three sections. Two end girders with the same dimensions
and a midspan girder. The bridge girder dimensions are shown in Figure 9:3 and Table 3:1.
Figure 9:3 Drawing of the bridge girders, seen from above.
Table 9:1 Steel girder dimensions.

End girders dim [mm] material
Upper flange 25x500 S460M
Web 13x1221 S355J2G3
Lower flange 36x800 S460M
Midspan girders dim [mm] material

Upper flange 25x600 S460M
Web 11x1234 S355J2G3
Lower flange 45x800 S460M
Six end bearing piles are supporting each abutment. The piles used in the construction are
steel pipe piles, RR170x10 see Table 9:2, which are driven in straight lines perpendicular to
the longitudinal bridge axis. Pre-drilled holes with a depth of 2 m are performed at each pile
position. Steel pipes with a diameter of 600 mm are installed, at the top 2 meters, as a shelter
to the piles. Styrofoam plates are installed inside of these piles as shown in Figure 9:4. The
pipes are then filled with loose sand that surrounds the piles.
Figure 9:4 Cross-section of the upper part of the pile, surrounded by a steel pipe.

Example Bridge – Leduån Bridge 63
Table 9:2 Pile dimensions and properties, RR170x10 from Ruukki.

∅
Without corrosion 2.4 mm corrosion
E 210 GPa 210 GPa
∅ 168.3 mm 163.5 mm
t 10 mm 7.6 mm
2 2
A 4973 mm 3722 mm
3 3
Wp 250.9 cm 184.9 cm
4 4
I 1564 cm 1134 cm
2 2
EI 3284 kN/m 2381 kN/m
t
The bridge designer’s original idea was to use different type of piles in the two abutments.
Therefore, an alternative pile cross-section was dimensioned. H-piles of type HEM120 were
suggested to be used in one of the abutments. The number of piles and their positions were
supposed to be the same as for the pipe piles. However, these piles could not be delivered in
time and the pipe piles were used in both abutments. In this report, fatigue calculations are
performed mainly for the pipe piles, but also for the alternative pile cross-section HEM120.
This is done in order to find out if and how different cross-sections affect the fatigue lifetime.
The dimensions and properties of the HEM120 cross-section are presented in Table 9:3.
Table 9:3 Alternative pile dimensions and properties, HEM120.
Without corrosion 2.4 mm corrosion

E 210 GPa 210 GPa
h 140 Mm 135.2 mm
b 126 Mm 121.2 mm
t 21.0 mm 16,2 mm
d 12.5 mm 7.7 mm
R 12 mm 12 mm
2 2
A 6641 mm 4842 mm
4 4
Ix 2018 cm 1470 cm
4 4
Iy 703 cm 481 cm

64 Example Bridge – Leduån Bridge
Figure 9:5 shows a view of the abutments and Figure 9:6 an illustration of how the piles are
located in the abutments, seen from above.
Figure 9:5 Abutment view drawing.
Figure 9:6 Drawing of pile locations, seen from above.

Temperature Models 65
10 Temperature Models
The temperature has been studied at five different locations in Sweden, see Figure 10:1. One
of the locations, Karesuando, is chosen since it is the location in Sweden with the largest
temperature differences during a year, according to Alexandersson et al. (1991). The four
other locations were chosen to be able to study how the location of the bridge will affect the
fatigue of the integral abutment piles. It is possible that there are other places in Sweden
which have larger temperature differences than Karesuando, but temperature data from those
places have not been accessible in this study. Temperature stations that are located in the
mountain regions of Sweden, with no infrastructure in the surrounding area, have been
excluded from the selection.
Karesuando
Kiruna
Umeå
Stockholm
Malmö
Figure 10:1 Map of Sweden, showing the locations where the temperature has been studied.
10.1 Seasonal Temperature Changes

Temperature measurements from different places indicate that seasonal temperature changes
are varying almost like a cyclic sinus wave (Dicleli and Albhaisi 2004, Arsoy 2000).
Temperature measurements, in Stockholm, during a period of 5 years are used to illustrate the
cyclic behaviour, see Figure 10:2. The input data are measured at the Old Astronomical
Observatory Building in Stockholm, and compiled by Moberg et al. (2002, 2005).
Daily m ean tem perature in Stockholm 2000-01-01 -- 2004-12-31
30
°C
25
20
15
Temperature
10
5
0
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004
-5
-10
-15
-20
Figure 10:2 Seasonal temperature changes in Stockholm during a period of five years.

10.1.1 Mathematical Model of Seasonal Temperature Changes

A mathematical model which describes how the daily mean temperature is varying, over a
period of time, can be created by using a sinus curve that is adapted to measured temperatures
at the specific location. The mean temperature of each month, at the five studied locations,
can be obtained from Temperature and Precipitation in Sweden 1961-90 (Alexandersson et al.
1991). These monthly mean temperatures are based on daily measurements from 1961-1990.
Seasonal temperature variations can be represented by a sinus curve with a period of one year.
The amplitude of the curve can be adjusted to temperature measurements that are available.
The sinus curve can also be shifted horizontally and vertically in order to fit the measured
temperatures. By studying the variations in temperature over a historic period of several years,
it might be possible to make a good estimation of the maximum and minimum daily average
temperature during a year, Ts, max and Ts, min. These values are used to calculate the amplitude
of the sinus function, Ts, amp, and the mean temperature, Ts, m, of the seasonal average
temperature curve, see (10.1) and (10.2).
Ts ,max − Ts ,min
Ts , amp = (10.1)
2
Ts ,max + Ts , min
Ts , m = (10.2)
2
An expression for the seasonal variations in daily average temperature, Ts, can the be written
as
 t 
Ts = Ts , amp ⋅ sin  d ⋅ 2π − t0  + Ts , m , (10.3)
 365 
where td is the time measured in days, and t0 is a factor which is introduced in order to shift
the sinus curve horizontally to adjust it to measured temperature data. By changing this factor
it is possible to adjust the model to different locations. In some cases the mathematical model
seems to describe the real temperature better if also Ts,amp and Ts,m are adjusted slightly to fit
the curve to the measured values. Figure 10:3 shows an example of how the daily mean
temperature is varying during a year in Kiruna. The solid line represents the mathematical
sinus model, and the dots are representing the monthly mean temperature during the period
from 1961-1990. Input data to Figure 10:3 are presented in Appendix G.
15
°C
10
5
Temperature
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Okt Nov Dec
-5
-10
-15
-20
Figure 10:3 Mathematical mean temperature model for Kiruna, compared with historical data.

The mathematical model is focused on the extreme values among the monthly mean
temperatures during a year. In this case with Kiruna it differs up to almost 1.7 degrees, in
April, between the measured temperature and the model. Yet, the model fits the historical data
quite good. The difference is less than 0.6°C in eight of twelve months, and the mean
difference is less than 0.7°C.
There are probably other functions that can describe the seasonal temperature changes more
exactly than this simple model. The question is if it is worth the effort to construct a more
complex temperature model, when it is obvious that temperatures never can be predicted
exactly. The purpose of this model is to generate temperatures which primary shall be used to
calculate thermal bridge movements, and secondary to calculate the amplitude of the strain
cycles that occur in the abutment piles. The seasonal temperature variations are interesting
mostly in order to describe how large the seasonal strain cycles will be. The extreme values
will be most important. Daily temperature changes will also take place and induce movements
and strains in the piles, on top of the seasonal contribution. These daily changes and the strain
amplitudes that they generate will be more interesting, than the exactly temperature that they
are varying around, especially in the months with daily mean temperature far away from the
extreme values. Therefore, the seasonal temperature model should be focused on covering the
extreme values, and the daily temperature model should be focused on amplitudes rather than
mean values.
The temperature data have mainly been handled in Microsoft Excel, and since this program
can produce regression lines this function has been tested and compared to the sinus model.
Excel can however only produce polynomial regression lines up to sixth degree. Figure 10:4
illustrates results from the sinus model and the polynomial regression line produced by Excel.
The equations of the regression line and the sinus curve are also shown in the figure.
20,0
°C Sinus equation:
Ts = -13,5⋅sin(2πt/365 -0,95) + 4,2
15,0
Polynomial equation:
10,0 Ts = -0,0116t6 + 0,2459t5 – 1,6699t4 + 3,1473t3 + 3,962t2 – 5,0482t – 7,7295
5,0 Kiruna
Sinus temp.model
0,0 Poly. (Kiruna)
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Okt Nov Dec
-5,0
-10,0
-15,0
Figure 10:4 Seasonal variations in daily max temperature in Kiruna, modelled

by a sinus curve and a polynomial regression line.
The polynomial regression line, of sixth degree, is obviously not that good to predict the
extreme temperature in July. The sinus curve on the other hand, has been adjusted to fit the
extreme values relatively good, but is not as good as the polynomial regression line to predict
the temperature in the month between the extreme values. A polynomial regression line of a
higher degree might describe the temperature in a better way.

The sinus model will be used in the temperature calculations in this report. Mostly because of
the facts that it is cyclic, easy to handle and can easily be adjusted to the extreme values. The
extreme values are assumed to give rise to the largest contribution to low-cycle fatigue in
integral abutment piles, from seasonal temperature variations.
10.2 Daily Temperature Changes
Daily temperature variations can be modelled in many different ways. For instance by sinus
functions with periods of one day and with amplitudes that is adjusted to measured values, or
by statistical probability distributions which gives the highest and lowest temperature during a
day. The maximum and minimum temperatures could be assumed to take place in 24 hour
intervals, and with 12 hours between the maximum and minimum values. The temperatures
between the daily extreme values could easily be described by connecting the maximum and
minimum values with straight lines or some trigonometric function.
If there are no measurements of daily temperatures changes accessible for the specific
location, then it might be necessary to use a simplified temperature model. A simplified
mathematical model could be based on results from field studies made at other locations.
Observations from several field tests are indicating that daily temperature induced movements
have larger magnitudes in winter than in summer (Arsoy 2000). A mathematical model for
daily temperature changes should be able to take these variations into consideration. Three
different mathematical models are proposed in order to describe daily temperature variations.
10.2.1 Model 1
This is the most simplified and most conservative temperature model. Instead of using daily
temperature changes, monthly variations in temperature are studied. If the maximum and
minimum values of daily temperatures are studied over a whole month, instead of a day, then
it would generate a higher temperature range than a single day, and the model would be
conservative. The benefit of studying temperature variations over a whole month, instead of a
day, is the reduced need for input data. Maximum and minimum temperatures for each month
are in general easy to get access to. Since meteorological institutes all over the world are
collecting these data in order to create comparable climate information, according to the
general directions from The World Meteorological Organization (SMHI 2006).
Arsoy (2000) used a model based on monthly temperature variations in his study, because of
the reasons that it was easier to obtain the monthly temperature data, the reduced amount of
input data was easier to handle, and the answer would still be on the safe side.
The monthly maximum and minimum temperatures, Tm, max and Tm, min, that are used in the
model are mean values of the maximum and minimum daily temperatures during a month.
Equation (10.4) can be used to describe the daily variations in temperature, according to
Model 1.

∆Tm, i
Td = ⋅ cos(td ⋅ 2π ) (10.4)
2
∆Tm ,i = Tm ,i ,max − Tm ,i ,min (10.5)
i = January, February, ….. , December
The expression of the daily temperature variations will change from one month to another.
Index i, which represent the months, is therefore introduced in the equations. Figure 10:5
illustrates an example of a temperature distribution during a year according to Model 1. The
daily temperature changes have been superposed on the seasonal changes. The period of the
daily changes has been modified in Figure 10:5, it has been plotted as three times longer than
in the reality. This is only done in order to get a clearer and more illustrative figure.
30
Input values
°C Tm, max Tm, min
20 [°C] [°C]
Jan -2 -28
10 Feb -3 -26
Mars 2 -18
April 6 -10
Temperature
0
Jan July Dec May 12 -2
-10
June 19 7
July 21 9
Aug 16 3
-20
Sept 14 -1
Oct 8 -10
-30
Nov 3 -18
Dec 1 -22
-40
Figure 10:5 Example of a result from temperature Model 1
This temperature model does not describe the temperature variations in a realistic way, the
real situation are much more random. The daily changes in temperature would certainly be
overestimated over a year, by this model, but it does not take into account the probability of
even higher temperature changes at single days. This model has its benefit in the simplicity
and could be used as a first trial, and to evaluate if the results are acceptable in spite of the
fact that the model is conservative. If the purpose is to simulate the reality as good as possible,
another model should be used.
10.2.2 Model 2
This model is based on probability distributions in one way or another. The simplest way of
simulating daily temperature variations would be by using a probability distribution with a
mean value, µ, that equals zero. Random numbers could then be generated from this
probability distribution and superposed on top of the seasonal mean temperature curve, see
Figure 10:6.

Normal distribution
°C
Uniform distribution
Figure 10:6 Illustration of how daily temperatures could be added to the seasonal
temperature curve by using different probability distributions.
The daily maximum and minimum temperatures could be generated from a uniform
temperature distribution between the daily maximum and minimum temperatures, which can
be obtained from temperature databases at SMHI. This model will indeed not take into
consideration the extreme temperatures that not occur too often. These extreme values might
however be very important in the analysis of low-cycle fatigue in integral abutment piles.
Therefore, a normal distribution is suggested instead, in order to take the “tail” temperatures
into consideration. The normal distribution could be adapted to the measured extreme values
that statistically occurs one time in fifty years, or some other time interval.
The big problem with a normal distribution, which is adapted to extreme values that occur in
certain time intervals, is that the probability for the maximum and minimum temperatures are
highest around the daily mean temperature. The model does not seems to agree with daily
measured maximum and minimum temperatures available in Sveriges Nationalatlas – Klimat,
sjöar och vattendrag (1995). A better agreement would be achieved if the maximum and
minimum daily temperatures were modelled by two separate normal distributions. The mean
values of the distributions could be set as the monthly mean values of the daily maximum and
minimum temperatures. The standard deviations could be adapted to the characteristic
temperatures that statistically occur with a certain probability. The mean values of the daily
maximum and minimum temperature during a month are often quite easy to get access to.
Klimatdata för Sverige (Teasler 1972) has in this study been used as the source for daily
maximum and minimum values. These values are unfortunately relatively old, from 1931-
1960. The current standard normal period is 1961-1990, but temperatures from this period has
only been available in the form of isothermal maps, in this study. The data from 1931-1960
has been compared with the isothermal maps from 1961-1990, and they seem to agree quite
well with each other. It might differ up to one degree some month. The overall changes in
temperatures should not affect the fatigue analysis, while the daily temperature changes are
modelled with a safety margin that surely is larger than one degree.

Annual variations in daily maximum and minimum temperature can be modelled in the same
way as the seasonal mean temperature, and represented by sinus functions. The daily changes
are modelled by a normal distribution which is added on top of the sinus functions.
Figure 10:7 is illustrating a simulation of the daily maximum and minimum temperature
during a year. The simulation has been performed with input data for Karesuando, see
Appendix G. The normal probability distribution and the random generation of numbers, has
been performed with the computer programs Anthill Lite and Microsoft Excel with the
Analysis ToolPak.
°C 30 °C 30
20 20
10 10
0 0
-10 -10
-20 -20
-30 -30
-40 -40
-50 -50
Figure 10:7 Illustration of a simulation result of the annual variations in daily max and min
temperature to the left, and the simulated temperature curve to the right.
The normal distribution of the daily temperature changes must somehow be established in real
measurements. The Swedish Bridge Code - BRO2004 contains two isothermal maps over
Sweden in which the maximum and minimum characteristic temperatures are presented, see
Appendix E. These temperatures occur in intervals of 50 years. The Swedish National Board
of Housing, Building and Planning (Boverket) provides supplementary tables of max and min
temperature at about 250 locations in Sweden. The maps and the tables are used in order to fit
the temperature model to the probability of 0.02 (once in 50 years) that the given
characteristic temperatures will occur once in a year. The adjustments and calculations of the
normal distributions are presented in Chapter 11.
Information about the normal distribution, or Gaussian distribution, as a probability tool can
be found in handbooks about statistics or probability. The theory behind the model will not be
described in this report, only the equation and its parameters will be presented briefly. The
probability distribution function are illustrated in Figure 10:8, along with the equation where
σ are the standard deviation and µ the mean value. The normal distribution will be denoted as
N(µ,σ) when it is used in the calculations.
( x−µ )2
1 −
f ( x) = e 2σ 2
σ 2π
Figure 10:8 Illustration of the normal distribution function.

10.2.3 Statistical Model

If extensive temperature measurements have been done, every day during many years, it
would be possible to create a probability distribution function for each time of a day when the
temperatures have been registered. The temperature model should in some way also take the
temperatures from the former hours or days into consideration. It would give the probability
for the occurrence of a certain temperature at a certain time at a certain date. A source to such
measurements could be the national meteorological institute. They have often measurements
from at least 30 years available. In many cases, it would probably be possible to get all the
temperatures that are needed. But the question is, if the benefits from using real temperature
statistic are worth the effort of creating the database of probability functions that are needed.
It would indeed take some time to create all the probability functions that are needed, and to
make a model which also takes into consideration the temperature during the former hours
and days. Such a model would certainly describe the temperature changes in the most proper
way statistically, among the suggested models. Yet, it would still only give an estimation of
how the temperature changes could be, since there are no absolute answers.
10.3 Temperature Gradient
Temperature gradients in the superstructure will result in bending moments which will rotate
the abutment and induce an additional bending moment in the piles. Temperature gradients
will be time and weather dependent and give positive as well as negative bending moments.
Positive moments occur when the deck is warmer than the girders, and negative moments
occur when the girders are warmer than the bridge deck. Positive temperature gradients are
expected to be largest in days with high solar radiations, while the negative temperature
gradients are expected to be highest during nights when the ground surface are warmer than
the air. Table 10:1 shows the characteristic values of positive and negative temperature
gradients for a composite bridge, given by the proposal to Eurocode and BRO2004.
Table 10:1 Positive and negative temperature gradients (characteristic values).

∆T [°C] ∆T [°C]
+ -
ENV 1991-2-5 15 -18

BRO2004 10 -5
Since thermal gradients will give moments that are varying from one time to another, they
should be taken into account when a low-cycle fatigue analysis is made. A simple and
conservative approach would be preferable, in order to keep the amount of input data rather
low. No other values or models have been available than the design values from the codes. A
conservative approach could therefore be to assume that the thermal gradient is varying
between the negative characteristic value in the day and the positive characteristic value in the
night. The highest and lowest values would be assumed to occur at the same time as the
maximum and minimum daily temperatures. The advantage of this model would be the
simplicity, and the disadvantage is that it would be a very conservative assumption, since the
characteristic values given in the codes are based on temperature gradients that occur once in
50 years. The pile strains caused by temperature gradients should be overstated a lot, and
another model is preferable.

A simulation of the positive and negative temperature differences from a probability

distribution could also be an alternative. The probability distributions could be adapted to the
characteristic temperature differences and the reduced temperature differences, given in Table
5:1 respectively Table 5:2. The simulation process is described in Chapter 11.2.
10.4 Effective Bridge Temperature Models
The Effective Bridge Temperature (EBT) has been presented in Chapter 5, and two different
ways of transforming the shade air temperature into EBT have been discussed.
10.4.1 EBT – According to Oesterle and Volz

The EBT model presented by Oesterle and Volz (2005) uses two temperature variables to
calculate the maximum and minimum EBT. The variables are, the shade air temperature
(Tshade) and the uniform temperature change due to direct solar radiation ( ∆T solar ). The shade
air temperature at a specific location can be modelled from earlier measurements, according
to the models in the previous sections. The variable that takes the effect from the solar
radiation into consideration is not as easy to calculate. Oesterle and Volz are suggesting that
the Solar Incremental Temperature, T1, is used to calculate the effect from the solar radiation.
A source of the Solar Incremental Temperatures in Sweden has not been found. For that
reason, this model can not be used in the way it is supposed to be used.
10.4.2 EBT – According to Eurocode

The EBT model given in the proposal to Eurocode, ENV1991-2-5, is only using the shade air
temperature to calculate the EBT. The studied bridge is a composite bridge and classed as a
Group 2 bridge, according to Eurocode. The relationship between the max/min shade air
temperature and max/min EBT is given in Figure 5:4. The EBT for bridges in Group 2 can be
calculated according to the following expression, which has been derived from Figure 5:4.
Teff max/ min = 4 + 0,98 ⋅ Tshade max/ min (10.6)
In this study, simulated daily maximum and minimum shade air temperatures are transformed
into Effective Bridge Temperatures by equation (10.6). The EBTs are later on used to
calculate the thermal movements of the abutments.

10.5 Comments
Model 1 could be a starting point if the temperature behaviour shall be analysed, since it is
rather simple and conservative. That kind of temperature model has been used in laboratory
tests to simulate thermal movements in integral abutment piles (Arsoy 2000). Model 1 is
probably best suited for laboratory testing, since it reduces the need of input data to control
the loading and unloading device. But, the temperature is obviously not varying in that perfect
pattern in the reality. The model has some “tail problem” as well, while it does not take into
consideration the extreme temperatures that might occur now and then. Therefore, I suggest
that Model 2, with normal distributed maximum and minimum daily temperatures, is used in
an analysis of low-cycle fatigue in integral abutment piles. The statistical model would
certainly give a temperature distribution which statistically would be most correct, but I do
not believe that it is worth the time and effort to construct such a model. No matter how much
temperature measurements and information that is available, you can not predict the
temperature.
Fields studies on integral abutment piles have showed that, daily temperature changes give
strains that are approximately 20-40 % of the strain amplitude given by seasonal variations in
temperature (Dicleli and Albhaisi 2004). Another observation from several field tests is that
the daily temperature induced movements have a larger magnitude in the winter than in the
summer (Arsoy 2000). If there is a shortage or a lack of daily temperature data and the only
data available is the seasonal trend. Then it might be necessary to simplify Model 2, and use
the observations mentioned above instead, to produce a mathematical model of daily
temperature changes.

Temperature Simulations 75
11 Temperature Simulations
Monte Carlo simulations, based on the models described in previous chapters, have been
performed to simulate the daily temperature changes and the varying temperature differences
between deck and girders.
11.1 Daily Temperatures
The daily temperature simulations that have been performed are based on temperature
Model 2, presented in a previous chapter. The daily temperature variations are simulated by
using normal distributions which are added on top of the seasonal trend for the daily
maximum respectively minimum temperature. The standard deviations in the normal
distributions are adjusted to the extreme values that occur statistically once in 50 years, see
Table 11:1. The temperatures given in Table 11:1 can be found in the document BFS 2005:9
EBS2 published by the Swedish National Board of Housing, Building and Planning (Boverket
2005).
Table 11:1 Characteristic temperatures, which statistically occur one time in 50 years.
Maximum Minimum
temperature [°C] temperature [°C]
Karesuando 31 -48
Kiruna 30 -45
Umeå 29 -38
Stockholm 36 -29
Malmö 33 -22
One maximum and one minimum temperature are simulated every single day, that gives
18 250 daily max and min temperatures during a time period of 50 years. The statistical
probability that a certain daily temperature shall exceed the characteristic temperatures is
1/18250.
The daily maximum and minimum temperature are modelled by sinus functions and normal
distributions according to following equation,
 t 
Td ,max/ min = Tmax/ min amp ⋅ sin  d ⋅ 2π − t 0  + Tmax/ min m + N ( µ , σ max/ min ) . (11.1)
 365 
The parameters in the sinus function have been established for five different locations, see
Appendix G. The only parameter that can be used to fit the daily temperature variations to the
characteristic temperatures is the standard deviation. Appropriate values for standard
deviations for max and min temperatures at different locations are calculated by using a
computer program, Anthill Lite. The number of simulation steps are limited by the program to
50 000 steps.
The calculations are performed iteratively. A value of the standard deviation is chosen and the
temperature model are then simulating the daily temperature during 100 years, 36 500 max
respectively min values are calculated. The results from the simulations are then compared to

the max and min temperatures that statistically are exceeded two times in 100 years. The
probability that one of the daily max/min temperatures are exceeding the 50 year extreme
value is 5.48⋅10-5. The model are ran 10 times at each chosen standard deviation, and the
temperature that is exceeded with a probability of 5.48⋅10-5 is registered. The mean values of
the results, from running the model 10 times, are then compared to the values in Table 11:1.
The procedure continuous until the difference, between the values given in Table 11:1 and the
simulated values, is less than 0.5 degree.
Figure 11:1 illustrates the result from a run of the model performed in order to find the
standard deviation making the temperature exceed 30°C with a probability of once in 50
years.
Figure 11:1 Results from a simulation of daily maximum temperature in Kiruna , during a period of 100 years.
MC simulations give the standard deviations shown in Table 11:2, for daily maximum and
minimum temperature models at different locations. Several studies have showed that daily
variations in temperature are larger in the winter than in the summer. The standard deviations
for the minimum daily temperatures have therefore been separated into two standard
deviations. One standard deviation for the six warmest months, and one for the six coldest. If
only one standard deviation is used to describe the minimum temperature variations, based on
the probability that a certain minimum temperature occurs once in fifty years. Then as a result
of the rather high value of the standard deviation, the simulation of daily minimum
temperature in summer could generate temperatures that are even higher than the maximum
temperatures that occur with a probability of once in fifty years. The two different standard
deviations are introduced to avoid these problems. Another kind of distribution could also be
used as an alternative to avoid these problems.
Table 11:2 Standard deviations of daily max and min temperature models.
Standard deviations - σ [°°C]
Max temp Min temp
Jan - Dec Oct - Mars April - Sept
Karesuando 3.8 8.6 3.8
Kiruna 3.8 8.4 3.8
Umeå 2.7 7.7 2.7
Stockholm 4.4 6.6 4.4
Malmö 3.3 5.3 3.3

The daily maximum and minimum shade air temperatures are simulated during the service
lifetime of the bridge, 120 years. A graphical example of a result from a simulation of fifty
years temperature variations in Kiruna, is given in Appendix I - Figure I1. The temperatures
generated by the simulations are converted into effective bridge temperatures, by using (10.6)
from the Eurocode EBT-model. The simulated shade air temperatures, during 10 years in
Kiruna, are compared with the calculated EBTs in Figure I2, Appendix I.
The difference between the simulated daily max and min temperature are summarized, and
the mean difference is calculated. This value is compared to the mean difference between the
daily max and min temperature given in Klimatdata för Sverige (Teasler 1972), see Table
11:3.
Table 11:3 Comparisons between simulated and statistical mean values of daily temperature variations [°C].
Simulated Statistical
Karesuando 10.1 8.8
Kiruna 9.8 8.4
Umeå 9.4 8.3
Stockholm 7.7 5.9
Malmö 7.6 6.9
The mean value of the simulated daily temperature variations is larger than the mean value of
the statistical temperature variations, at all locations. The difference is between 10 and 17 %
for all locations except Stockholm that has a difference of 30 %. Therefore, the daily
temperature model will be conservative. The safety margin against the statistical values could
be minimised, but my opinion is that it is better too keep it a bit on the safe side in order to
study a case that are at least as tough as the reality. A safety margin in daily temperature
variations could also be justified by the fact that the Eurocode EBT model is rather simplified
and dependent only on shade air temperatures. The safety margin can be seen as a way to deal
with unexpected variations in the other weather factors, which the EBT model does not take
into consideration.
11.2 Temperature Differences Between Deck and Girders

The MC simulation program Anthill Lite was used to adapt probability distributions to the
temperature differences that occur with a certain probability, according to ENV 1991-2-5.
One negative and one positive temperature difference is simulated every day during the bridge
service lifetime. They are assumed to take place at the same time as the coldest respectively
warmest daily shade air temperatures.
The probability distributions are mainly adapted to the more extreme temperature differences
that occur once in a year and once in 50 years, since these are assumed to give the largest
contribution to the fatigue. The quasi permanent temperature differences are adapted to the
mean value as good as possible without affecting the extreme values to much. A log-normal
distribution was chosen since it seemed to be most suitable. A normal distribution could be an
alternative but if it is adapted to the extreme values it would overstate the more frequently
occurring values. Figure 11:2 illustrates how the negative and positive temperature
differences are described by two suitable log-normal distributions. The temperature
differences that occur with a certain probability according to ENV 1991-2-5 are compared to
the temperatures in the log-normal distribution that occur with the same probability, see Table
11:4.

[°C] [°C]
µ = -8.8 µ = 7.5
σ = 1.65 σ = 1.3
median = -8.6 median = 7.4
min = -19 min = 0
max = 0 max = 16
Figure 11:2 Log-normal distributions used to simulate negative respectively positive temperature differences.
Table 11:4 Simulated temperature differences compared with temperature differences from ENV1991-2-5.
∆T [°C] ∆T [°C]
- +
Probability ENV 1991 Sim ENV 1991 Sim

once in 50 years -180 -17.9 15.0 14.8
once in 1 year -14.4 -14.4 12.0 12.0
once in 14 days -10.8 -11.3 9.0 9.5
Quasi-permanent value -9.0 -8.7 7.5 7.4
The vertical temperature gradient in the superstructure is assumed to vary linearly between the
negative and positive temperature differences that occur each day. Figure 11:3 illustrates a
result from a simulation of varying temperature gradients during four months.
°C 15
10
∆TG 0
-5
-10
-15
-20
Figure 11:3 Graphical result of a simulation of varying temperature gradient during four month.

11.3 Thermal Movements
The expansion and contraction of the superstructure, due to changes in EBT, can be described
as following,
∆L=α⋅∆TN⋅Lb. (11.2)
The length of the superstructure at the studied bridge, Lb, is 40.0 m and the thermal
coefficient, α = 1.0⋅10-5 °C-1, is taken from the Swedish Bridge Code - BRO2004. It is valid
for both steel and concrete. The changes in EBT, ∆TN, are taken from the effective bridge
temperatures that have been calculated from the simulated shade air temperatures. The
variations in the length of the bridge can be plotted as a function of time, see Figure 11:4. The
bridge deck and the top of the abutment walls are assumed to be cast the 1st of June in a shade
air temperature of 10°C. After that date, the joints between the superstructure and the
abutment walls are treated as rigid.
15
[mm]
10
∆L 0
-5
-10
-15
-20
-25
Figure 11:4 Varying bridge length, during 3 years, of a composite bridge

with a single span of 40.0 m, located in Kiruna.
Thermal movements can either be assumed to cause displacements of the same size at either
abutments, or displacements that are unevenly distributed between the abutments. In this
study, the displacements are assumed to be the same at both abutments.


Soil Calculations 81
12 Soil Calculations
Investigations of soil conditions below the abutments have been performed. Some of the
results are presented in Table 12:1 and Figure 12:1. These parameters are taken from the
design drawings of the Leduån Bridge.
Table 12:1 Soil conditions below the abutments.
Level Soil type Soil parameters
0.000 m – -2.000 m Fine sand and fine sandy silt φk = 28-30°
-2.000 m – -6.000 m Fine sandy silt and silty fine sand φk = 30°
-6.000 m – -20.000 m Silt / Clay cuk = 40 kPa
+ 1.090
0.000 GWL Loose sand + styrofoam plates

z
- 0.910
- 2.000 Fine sand and fine sandy silt φk= 28-30°
Fine sandy silt and silty fine sand φk= 30°
- 6.000
Silt/Clay cuk= 40 kPa
Figure 12:1 Illustration of soil conditions below the abutments.
12.1 Lateral Soil Stiffness Parameter – kh
The bottoms of the abutments are situated at level +1.090 m, and the piles are driven in pre-
drilled holes with a depth of 2 m. The pre-drilled holes are sheltered by steel pipes,
∅600 mm, which are filled with loose sand and styrofoam plates. A properly filled pre-drilled
hole shall be treated as soil without any lateral soil stiffness (Abendroth and Greimann 2005).
The top 0.6 m of the piles will be surrounded by crushed stone, as erosion protection. The
piles will be sheltered by the back wall, and the lateral soil stiffness from the erosion
protection is neglected. The undisturbed soil starts at level –0.910 m. The lateral soil stiffness
is calculated from this level and down to a depth of half of the critical length of a pile, lc, since
this length will be the active part of the pile according to the model developed by Abendroth
and Greimann (1989, 2005). A new coordinate axis, z, is introduced in order to make the
calculations easier. It has its zero point at the bottom of the abutment (+1.090) and is positive
downwards. The lateral soil stiffness, kh = kk⋅d, for the different layers are calculated
according to Appendix 3-4 in BRO2004. The lateral soil stiffnesses are mean values for
movements up to the limit pressure, qk, above this level the soil stiffness is constant.

Granular soil – long and short term loading
nh ⋅ z
kk = (12.1)
d
nh coefficient of subgrade reaction (Table 1 in Appendix 3-4 BRO2004)
z soil depth
d pile width
Cohesive soil
Long term loading Short term loading
cuk cuk
k k = 50 (12.2) k k = 200 (12.4)
d d
q k = 6 ⋅ cuk (12.3) q k = 9 ⋅ cuk (12.5)
cuk undrained shear strength
The groundwater level is situated at ±0.000 m. All of the undisturbed granular soil layers are
below the water table. According to geotechnical data, the relative soil stiffness is “very low”.
This gives the following coefficients of subgrade reaction.
nh = 1.5 MN/m3 (very low relative soil stiffness, below groundwater level)
nhm = 4.5 MN/m3 (medium relative soil stiffness, below groundwater level)
The subgrade reaction modulus nhm is used to proportion the kk⋅d values to different soil
stiffnesses, since kk⋅d values are given only for medium relative soil stiffness in BRO2004.
The following maximum values of kk⋅d are allowed above the groundwater level, according to
BRO2004. Below the groundwater level the given maximum values are reduced to 60%.
Sand (kk⋅d)max = 12 MN/m3

Silt (kk⋅d)max = 6 MN/m3
Sand (above GWL) z = 0 – 1.090

nh1
(kk1⋅d)max = (k k ⋅ d )max
2.5
= 12 ⋅ = 4.286 MN/m3
nhm 7.0
(kk1⋅d) = nh1⋅zmax = 2.5⋅1,090 = 2.725 MN/m3
Sand (below GWL) z = 1.090 – 3.090

n
(kk1⋅d)max = 0.6 ⋅ (k k ⋅ d )max h1 = 0.6 ⋅ 12 ⋅
1.5
= 2.4 MN/m3
nhm 4.5
(kk1⋅d) = nh1⋅zmax = 2.5 ⋅ 3.090 = 7.725 MN/m3

Silt z = 3.090 –7.090

n
(kk2⋅d)max = 0.6 ⋅ (k k ⋅ d )max h 2 = 0.6 ⋅ 6 ⋅
1.5
= 1.2 MN/m3
nhm 4.5
(kk2⋅d) = nh2⋅zmax = 1.5 ⋅ 7.090 = 10.635 MN/m3
Clay/Silt z = 7.090 –21.090

As a first assumption, this layer was assumed to be below the part of the piles that are active,
lc/2. The iterative calculation process, described in next section, verified later that this was a
correct assumption. Therefore, no calculations of the soil stiffness in the Silt/Clay layer have
been done.
12.2 Equivalent Uniform Lateral Soil Stiffness Parameter - keh
The varying soil stiffness parameter, kh, is transformed into an equivalent uniform lateral soil
stiffness parameter, keh. The calculations are done by an iterative process described in detail in
Appendix B. The following data were used as input to the calculations, together with the soil
parameters calculated in the previous section.
No corrosion 2.4 mm corrosion

E = 210 GPa E = 210 GPa
I = 1 564 cm4 I = 1 133.6 cm4
Iterative calculations
keh = 2.246 MN/m2 keh = 2.283 MN/m2

lc/2 = 2.199 m lc/2 = 2.021 m
The left part of Figure 12:2 illustrates the varying lateral soil stiffness parameter, kh, down to
the silt/clay layer at a depth of 7.090 m. The right part illustrates the keh parameter and the
active length for a pile with no corrosion and one that has corroded to a depth of 2.4 mm.
kh [MN/m2]
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
keh
0
2.000 m
No corrosion
1
kh max lc/2 = 2.199 m keh = 2.246 MN/m2
2 kh calculated
kh dim
z
3
z [m]
4 keh
2.4 mm corrosion 2.000 m
5
6 lc/2 = 2.021 m keh = 2.283MN/m2
7 z
Figure 12:2 Diagrams over the varying soil stiffness parameter (kh)
and the equivalent uniform soil stiffness parameter (keh).

Alternative soil model

According to Abendroth and Greimann (2005), properly filled pre-drilled holes shall be
treated as soil without any lateral stiffness in the calculation of the equivalent cantilever
length. In this report, an alternative soil model has also been used to calculate the equivalent
cantilever length. This model takes into consideration the lateral stiffness of the sand in the
predrilled holes. The calculations are done in order to make a comparison between the results.
The results of these calculations are shown in Figure 12:3.
kh [MN/m2]
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
keh
0
No corrosion
1 lc/2 = 2.524 m keh = 1.295/m2
kh max
kh calculated
2 kh dim
z [m] z
3
4 keh
2.4 mm corrosion
5
lc/2 = 2.352 m keh = 1.244 MN/m2
7
z
Figure 12:3 Diagrams over the varying soil stiffness parameter (kh) and the equivalent
uniform soil stiffness parameter (keh), for the alternative soil model.
Alternative pile cross-section

The varying soil stiffness parameter, kh, for the HEM120 piles is transformed into keh in the
same way as the calculations shown above for the pipe piles. The results from the calculations
are presented in Table 12:2 and Table 12:3.
Table 12:2 Results from calculations of keh, original soil model.

Original soil model
No corrosion 2.4 m corrosion
4 4
Iy 703 cm Iy 481 cm
2 2
keh 2.329 MN/m keh 2.358 MN/m
lc/2 3.569 m lc/2 3.236 m
Table 12:3 Results from calculations of keh, alternative soil model.

No corrosion 2.4 m corrosion
4 4
Iy 703 cm Iy 481 cm
2 2
keh 1.168 MN/m keh 1.108 MN/m
lc/2 2.121 m lc/2 1.954 m

12.3 Calculations of Equivalent Cantilever Length
Calculations are made according to the concept described in Appendix B.
Equivalent cantilever length – Lequ

Lequ = l e + l u (12.6)
lu = 2 600 mm (depth of pre-drilled hole + not embedded length)
Critical pile length without corrosion – lc

EpI p
lc = 4 ⋅ 4 , (12.7)
k eh
Ep = 210 GPa
Ip = 1564 cm4
keh = 2.246 MN/m2
lc = 4.415 m
Critical pile length with 2.4 mm corrosion allowances – lc
EpI p
lc = 4 ⋅ 4 , (12.8)
k eh
Ep = 210 GPa
Ip = 1133.6 cm4
keh = 2.283 MN/m2
lc = 4.247 m
Embedded length of Lequ – le
Figure 12:4 is re-created from a diagram developed by Abendroth and Greimann (1989,
2005). The original functions have not been found, and polynomial regression lines of sixth
degree have been used to create expressions of how the quotient le/lc is dependent on the
quotient lu/lc. The following expressions have been used to describe the relationship between
le/lc and lu/lc, in the interval 0 ≤ lu/lc ≤ 1.5.
6 5 4 3 2
Buckling: le l  l  l  l  l  l 
= 0.0569 u  + 0.2133 u  − 1.6178 u  + 2.6533 u  − 1.0191 u  − 0.9667 u  + 1.1
lc  lc   lc   lc   lc   lc   lc 
6 5 4 3 2
Moment: le l  l  l  l  l  l 
= −0.2276 u  + 1.152 u  − 2.1689 u  + 1.72 u  − 0.2236 u  − 0.462 u  + 0.6
lc  lc   lc   lc   lc   lc   lc 
6 5 4 3 2
Horiz. stiff. le l  l  l  l  l  l 
= −0.5262 u  + 2.3787 u  − 3.9422 u  + 2.7767 u  − 0.5316 u  − 0.2678 u  + 0.5
lc l
 c l
 c l
 c l
 c l
 c  lc 

1,2
1
Buckling
0,8 Moment
le Horizontal stiffness
lc 0,6
0,4
0,2
lu
0
0 1 2 3 4 lc
Figure 12:4 Relationships between le/lc and lu/lc for a pile in uniform
soil, developed by Abendroth and Greimann (1989).
Figure 12:4 combined with the previous calculations give the results shown in Table 12:4 for
the original soil model, and the results for the alternative soil model are shown in Table 12:5.
Table 12:4 Calculated embedded length le and equivalent cantilever length Lequ, for the original soil model.
allowance
lu/lc 0.591 0.643 -
le/lc 0.541 0.513 -

Buckling le 2.379 2.075 m
Lequ 4.979 4.675 m
le/lc 0.413 0.408 -

Moment le 1.815 1.647 m
Lequ 4.415 4.247 m
le/lc 0.397 0.397 -

Horiz. stiff. le 1.748 1.603 m
Lequ 4.348 4.203 m
Table 12:5 Calculated embedded length le and equivalent cantilever length Lequ, for the alternative soil model.
allowance
lu/lc 0.119 0.128 -
le/lc 0.975 0.965 -

Lequ 5.521 5.141 m
le/lc 0.544 0.540 -

Moment le 2.748 2.543 m
Lequ 3.348 3.143 m
le/lc 0.465 0.462 -

Lequ 2.945 2.773 m


Figure 12:4 combined with the previous calculations for the alternative piles, HEM120, give
the results shown in Table 12:6 and Table 12:7.
Table 12:6 Embedded length le and equivalent cantilever length Lequ, original soil model and alternative pile.
allowance
lu/lc 0.728 0.803 -

le/lc 0.477 0.454 -
Lequ 4.304 4.070 m
le/lc 0.401 0.397 -

Moment le 1.432 1.285 m
Lequ 4.032 3.885 m
le/lc 0.395 0.394 -

Lequ 4.011 3.875 m
Table 12:7 Embedded length le and equivalent cantilever length Lequ, alternative soil model and alternative pile.
allowance
lu/lc 0.141 0.154 -
le/lc 0.950 0.936 -

Lequ 4.628 4.260 m
le/lc 0.534 0.529 -

Moment le 2.266 2.067 m
Lequ 2.866 2.667 m
le/lc 0.458 0.454 -

Lequ 2.542 2.376 m


Loads and Rotations 89
13 Loads and Rotations

The loads acting on an integral abutment bridge will result in normal pile forces, rotations and
lateral movements of the abutments. Rotations of the abutments will give rise to small lateral
displacements at the top of the piles. These displacements are added to the lateral thermal
movements, see (13.1). The relationship between the lateral movements and the abutment
rotations is illustrated in Figure 13:1.
∆Lb
∆ tot = +θ ⋅ H (13.1)
2
∆abut
∆tot
Figure 13:1 Illustration of the relationship between lateral movements and abutment rotations.
The height H is the vertical distance between the level where the piles enter the abutment and
up to the level where the center of gravity for the composite superstructure is located. The
distance H is approximated to 1.65 m, which is based on the center of gravity for short term
loading of the end girders.
The lateral movements are defined as positive when the length of the bridge are increasing,
and the rotation angle are defined as positive clockwise in Figure 13:1. The rotations caused
by traffic loads will always be positive in a single span bridge with this definition.
How a certain dead load affects the piles depends on in which order the different part of the
bridge are mounted and cast at the construction site. The following construction order is
assumed for the Leduån Bridge.
• Piles are driven

• Lower part of the abutment walls and the wingwalls are cast
• Steel girders are mounted, but are free to rotate until the top of the abutment wall shall be cast.
Then they are fixed in the current position before they are embedded in concrete
• Bridge deck is cast in one stage, and the top of the abutment walls are cast last.
• Backfill behind the abutment walls
• Concrete pavement is cast and crash barriers are mounted.

With this construction order, the dead loads from the steel girders and the concrete deck slab
are assumed to give no rotations or lateral movements at the top of the piles. While the steel
girders are free to rotate at the supports until the top of the abutment walls are cast. Yet, the
dead load from pavement and crash barriers will give rotations as well as lateral movements.
13.1 Permanent Loads
Dead loads from different parts of the bridge superstructure are calculated according to the
Swedish Bridge Code - BRO2004. The following unit weights, γ, are taken from BRO2004
21.11.
Reinforced concrete 25 kN/m3
Steel 77 kN/m3
13.1.1 Girders
The weight and length of the steel girders are taken from the construction drawings of the
Leduån Bridge, and are presented in Table 13:1 together with their dead loads. The weights of
the crossbeams, UPE300, are included in the girder weights. One crossbeam is included in
each pair of end girders, and twp crossbeams are included in the weight of the pair of midspan
girders.
Table 13:1 Steel girder weights, lengths and dead loads.
Weight [kg] L [m] q [kN/m]
2 End girders 10 640 11 9.7
2 Midspan girders 19 256 18 10.7
2 End girders 10 640 11 9.7
40 536 40
13.1.2 Deck
The cross-section area of the concrete deck slab is 1.5 m2.
q deck = Adeck ⋅ γ conc (13.2)

q deck = 1.5 ⋅ 25 = 37.5 kN/m
13.1.3 Pavement
The pavement on top of the bridge deck is a 95 mm thick layer of net reinforced concrete.
q pave = A pave ⋅ γ conc (13.3)

q pave = (4.850 ⋅ 0.095) ⋅ 25 = 11.5 kN/m
13.1.4 Crash Barriers

q barr = 0.5 kN/m

13.1.5 Concrete Shrinkage

The concrete in the bridge deck slab will shrink and cause rotations at the supports. The
normal forces at the supports will not be affected since the example bridge is a single span
bridge.
The bridge deck slab is made of concrete C40/50. The concrete shrinkage will give rise to a
normal force in a perpendicular cross-section of the deck slab. This force is assumed to act in
the bridge deck’s centre of gravity, and will not coincide with the centre of gravity for the
composite cross-section. Therefore, an additional bending moment will act on the
superstructure. The cross-section calculations are presented in Appendix J.
The Swedish Regulations for Concrete Structures - BBK04 Chapter 2.4.6 gives the mean
value of the final shrinkage, εcs = 0.25⋅10-3, a relative humidity of 75 % is assumed. A
fictitious stress can be calculated according to Hooke’s law, long-term loading gives ϕ = 2.
Material reduction factors are not used in the calculations, since it would give an
underestimation of the stresses.
E
σ shrink = ε cs ⋅ (13.4)
(1 + ϕ )
35 ⋅ 10 9
σ shrink = 0.25 ⋅ 10 −3 ⋅ = 2.917 MPa
(1 + 2)
The cross section area of the concrete deck is 1.5 m2, which gives a normal force with the
following magnitude,
Fshrink = σ shrink ⋅ Adeck (13.5)

Fshrink = 2.917 ⋅ 1.5 = 4.375 MN.
The uniformly distributed moment, due to the shrinkage, are calculated by multiplying the
normal force with the lever arm from the centre of the deck to the centre of gravity for the
whole cross section. The dimensions of the midspan girders are used in the calculations since
they have a lower centre of gravity than the end girders.
M shrink = Fshrink ⋅ (e LT − edeck ) (13.6)

M shrink = 4.38 ⋅ (0.512 − (−0.122)) = 2.774 MNm
13.1.6 Summary of Permanent Loads

Dead loads from the steel girders and the concrete deck are assumed to only give normal
forces in the piles, and no rotations. This assumption is made since their weights are loaded
on the piles when the superstructure is still behaving as simply supported. The loads from
pavement, crash barriers, and concrete shrinkage will be loaded on the piles after the
superstructure has been integrated in the abutments. They will therefore give contributions to
the rotations at the top of the piles, as well as lateral displacements. Figure 13:2 illustrates
how the dead loads are distributed over the length of the bridge.

Barriers 0.5 kN/m
11.5 kN/m
Pavement
37.5 kN/m
Concrete
Steel 9.7 kN/m 10.7 kN/m 9.7 kN/m
Shrinkage
4.375 MN 4.375 MN
2.78 MNm 2.78 MNm
11 m 18 m 11 m
Figure 13:2 Illustrations of dead loads from the superstructure.
The permanent loads are uniformly distributed over the cross section, and there are no
eccentric dead loads. The resulting pile forces from the permanent loads are the same in all
piles, because of the evenly distributed dead loads. Table 13:2 shows the normal force in a
single pile due to dead loads.
Table 13:2 Normal forces in a single pile due to the dead loads.
dead
N pile [kN]
Steel girders 33.83
Concrete deck 125.00
Crash barriers 1.67
Pavement 38.33
198.8
13.1.7 Rotations due to Permanent Loads

The gravity loads that are acting on the superstructure are transformed into end rotations, θw,
assuming a simply supported superstructure. The connection between the superstructure and
the abutment wall are treated as totally rigid. The relationship between the bending stiffness,
W, of the superstructure and the bending stiffness of the six piles in each abutment is about
140:1 for long term loading, and larger than 400:1 for short term loading. Hence, the piles are
assumed to not give any resistance to the rotations and lateral displacements of the abutments.
These assumptions give rotations at the top of the piles that equals θw. A uniformly distributed
load, q, gives the following rotation
3
qLb
θw = , (13.7)
24 EI LT

where Lb and ILT are the length respectively the long term moment of inertia for the
superstructure. Dead loads from pavement and crash barriers, giving rotations of the
abutments, are both uniformly distributed and give the rotations that are presented in Table
13:3. The concrete shrinkage will also give a rotation of the abutments. In this calculation it is
assumed that the shrinkage process take place instantaneously. The contribution from the
shrinkage to the abutment rotation can be calculated as following
MLb
θ shrink = . (13.8)
3 ⋅ EI LT
Table 13:3 Rotations caused by dead loads and concrete shrinkage.

θ [‰ rad]
Pavement 1.48
Crash barriers 0.06
Shrinkage 2.48
13.2 Variable Loads
Expressions for pile forces, rotations, and lateral displacements are formulated for three types
of variable loads in order to calculate the strain in the piles. The following variable loads are
taken into account.
• Traffic loads (gravity induced)

• Loads due to lateral thermal displacements of the abutments
• Loads induced by temperature gradients in the superstructure
13.2.1 Thermal Loads

Thermal loads have been presented in detail in a previous chapter, and are therefore just
mentioned briefly in this chapter.
Thermal loads are separated into two types of temperature changes. The first one is the
uniform temperature variations in the bridge superstructure, which results in a varying length
of the bridge and lateral displacements of the abutments. The second is the vertical
temperature gradient, or the temperature difference between steel girders and concrete deck.
13.2.1.1 Uniform Temperature Variations – Changes in EBT

The characteristic maximum and minimum temperatures that occur once in fifty years can be
used for design purpose in order to estimate how large temperature displacement that can be
expected. If the pile fatigue is studied, it might be better to use a simulation of the temperature
in order to take both the daily and annual variations into consideration.
Calculations of the maximum lateral displacements are performed to be able to evaluate if the
strains in the piles will exceed the yield strain. The bridge is assumed to be located in
Karesuando in these calculations, since it is the studied location with the largest temperature

variations. The temperatures that have been used are the maximum and minimum shade air
temperatures given in BRO2004. The shade air temperatures are transformed to EBTs,
according to equation (10.6). The bridge deck is assumed to be cast at a day with an air
temperature of +10°C.
Teff max/ min = 4 + 0.98 ⋅ Tmax/ min (13.9)
Tmax = 31°C Teff max = 4 + (0.98 ⋅ 31) = 34.4°C

Tmin = - 48°C Teff min = 4 + (− 0.98 ⋅ 48) = -43.0°C
α ⋅ ∆TN ⋅ Lb
∆ abut = . (13.10)
2
Lb = 40 m
α = 10-5 °C-1
10 −5 ⋅ (34.4 − 10 ) ⋅ 40
∆+ abut = = 4.9 mm
2
10 −5 ⋅ (− 43.0 − 10 ) ⋅ 40
∆− abut = = -10.6 mm
2
The moment that is induced in the top of the piles can be calculated by the following equation
6 E p I p ∆ abut
MT = . (13.11)
L2equ.h
13.2.1.2 Varying Temperature Gradient

The temperature differences in the superstructure are modelled as a sharp change in
temperature in the joint between the concrete deck and the steel girders. This model does not
reflect the real situation entirely, since there would not be any steps in the vertical temperature
curve. Instead it would be a temperature gradient which would be dependent on the vertical
depth and different weather conditions. This simplification of the temperature differences is
done in order to keep the model quite simple. Since the temperature distribution curve does
not coincide with the centre of gravity for the cross-section, a secondary bending moment will
occur, see Figure 13:3.
eST
CGST
e∆T
htot
CGSteel
∆TTG
Figure 13:3 Illustration of the vertical temperature differences.

The end rotations of the bridge girders, θ∆T, are calculated assuming a simply supported
superstructure. The rotations at the top of the piles are then assumed to be equal to θ∆T, since
the connection between the bridge girders and the abutments is modelled as totally rigid. The
end girders’ moment of inertia is lowest, and is taken as valid for the whole superstructure.
M ∆T ⋅ Lb
θ ∆T = (13.12)
3EI girders
ε ∆T , girders = α ⋅ ∆T TG (13.13)
σ ∆T , girders = ε ∆T ⋅ E steel (13.14)
F∆T , girders = σ ∆T ⋅ Asteel (13.15)
(
M ∆T , girders = F∆T ⋅ e ∆T −eST ) (13.16)
α = 1.0⋅10-5 °C-1
Esteel = 210 GPa
Asteel = 0.1143 and 0.1291 m2 (end girders respectively midspan girders)
eST = 210 and 251 mm (end girders respectively midspan girders)
esteel = 816 and 852 mm (end girders respectively midspan girders)
The characteristic values of the positive respectively negative temperature gradients in a

composite bridge are, according to ENV1991-2-5, +15°C respectively -18°C. The Swedish
Bridge Code - BRO2004 recommends +10°C and -5°C. Yet, if a study of the pile fatigue shall
be done, then a simulation of the varying temperature gradient is preferable. The simulation
process has been described in Section 11.2.
The maximum rotations, due to the temperature differences, that are expected to occur 2 times
during the bridge service lifetime of 120 years, are calculated according to the characteristic
values from ENV1991-2-5.
α ⋅ ∆TTG ⋅ Asteel ⋅ (esteel − eST ) ⋅ Lb

θ ∆T = − (13.17)
3 ⋅ I ST
∆TTG+ = 15°C
10 −5 ⋅ 15 ⋅ 0.1143 ⋅ (0.816 − 0.210 ) ⋅ 40

θ ∆T = − = - 0.001404
3 ⋅ 0.0987
∆TTG− = -18°C
10 −5 ⋅ (− 18) ⋅ 0.1143 ⋅ (0.816 − 0.210 ) ⋅ 40

θ ∆T =− = 0.001684
3 ⋅ 0.0987

13.2.2 Traffic Loads

Fatigue load according to BRO2004
A bridge shall be designed to resist the fatigue load illustrated in Figure 13:4. If the number
of vehicles that daily crosses the bridge exceeds 10 000, then 4⋅105 load cycles shall be
assumed. If there are less than 10 000 crossing per day, 105 load cycles shall be assumed.
90 or 75 kN 90 or 75 kN
500 2 000 500
1.5 m 6.0 m 2.0 m
150 kN 150 kN 180 kN 180 kN
3 000
5 000
Figure 13:4 Illustration of the fatigue load according to BRO2004.
The maximum normal force at one of the abutments and the maximum rotation of the same
abutment will not coincide. Therefore two calculations are done, one with the maximum
normal force and one with the maximum rotation.
Maximum normal force

The maximum value of the resulting normal force on the abutment, R, will occur at the time
when all of the axels of a vehicle have entered the bridge. The maximum resulting force on
the abutments is calculated as following
n N axel, i ⋅ ( Lb − a i )
R left = ∑ (13.18)
i Lb
n N axel, i ⋅ a i
R right = ∑ (13.19)
i Lb
where ai is the distance from the left abutment to the i:th load. The maximum normal force
will in this case be
max
R fatigue = 601.9 kN
The vehicle loads in the fatigue calculations are eccentric, and the transverse moment caused
by this eccentricity has to be calculated.
M fatigue = e fatigue ⋅ R max
fatigue (13.20)
M fatigue = 1.000 ⋅ 601.9 = 601.9 kNm

Maximum pile force due to the traffic fatigue load

The traffic fatigue load is eccentric, this gives unevenly distributed normal forces in the piles.
The eccentric vertical load that is acting on the abutment is replaced by a vertical force acting
on the symmetric axis, and a moment around the symmetric axis, see Figure 13:5.
e
R M = R⋅e
R
= +
Figure 13:5 Eccentric load is replaced by a force and moment acting at the symmetric axis.
The eccentric load is distributed over the piles as shown in Figure 13:6. Equation (13.22) can
be used to calculate the maximum force that will act in one of the outer piles, Pile 1 in Figure
13:6.
x6
Npile, 1 x5
x1 2.100 m
Npile, 2
x4 x2 1.300 m
Npile, 3
x3 0.500 m
x4 -0.500 m
x3 Npile, 4
Npile, 5 x5 -1.300 m
x2
Npile, 6 x6 -2.100 m
x1
Figure 13:6 Distributions of normal forces in the piles due to eccentric loads.
R M ⋅ xi
N pile , i = + n (13.21)
n
∑ xi2 i
R M ⋅x
max
N pile = + n max (13.22)
n
∑ xi2 i
601.9 601.9 ⋅ 2,1

fatigue
N pile max
= + = 199.8 kN
6 12,7

The rotation of the abutments are calculated as following
n N axel ,i ⋅ Lb ⋅ (Lb − ai )  ( Lb − a i ) 2 
θ left = ∑ ⋅ 1 − 
 (13.23)
 6 EI Lb2
i  ST  
 N axel ,i ⋅ Lb ⋅ a i
n  ai 2 
θ right = ∑ ⋅ 1 − 2  . (13.24)
 6 EI ST  Lb 
i   
When the maximum normal force occurs in one of the abutments, then the heaviest loaded
pile will have the following rotation at the top.
θ fatigue = 0.001077
Maximum rotation
The rotations of the abutments, θ, are calculated according to (13.23) and (13.24). The
maximum rotation of one of the abutments occurs when the last axel of the fatigue vehicle are
17.774 m from the left abutment. Assuming that, the vehicle is travelling to the right in Figure
13:4.
θ max
fatigue = 0.003126
The normal force, due to the traffic fatigue load, that acts on the abutment at the same time as
the rotations reaches its maximum value is calculated according to (13.18) and (13.19). The
calculations of transverse moment and resulting pile forces are done according to (13.20)-
(13.22).
R fatigue = 375.4 kN
M fatigue = 1.000 ⋅ 375.4 = 375.4 kNm
375.4 375.4 ⋅ 2,1

fatigue
N pile = + = 124.6 kN
6 12.7

13.2.3 Backfill Soil Pressure

Soil pressures are in this report calculated according to BRO2004. Figure 13:7 illustrates the
load situation, and equation (13.25) - (13.27) are used to estimate the soil pressures.
2H
3 p Hbw
Fres
Figure 13:7 Illustration of backfill soil pressure.
p = p act if ∆abut = 0 (13.25)

200
p = p act + c1 ⋅ ∆ abut ⋅ ⋅ ( p pass − p act ) if 0 < ∆abut < (Hbw/200) (13.26)
H bw
p = p act + c1 ⋅ ( p pass − p act ) if ∆abut ≥ (Hbw/200) (13.27)
c1 = 0.5 (soil pressure is favourable for the piles)
The lateral thermal movement of the abutment backwall, ∆abut, shall be taken as the lateral
movement between the lowest and the highest temperature, according to BRO2004 21.231.
The soil pressure is assumed to give a reduction of the abutment rotations. The lateral
displacements due to annual temperature variations are assumed to be independent of the soil
pressure. The calculations of the reduction of the rotation angle due to the soil pressure are
shown below.
Hbw= 3.00 m height of the abutment backwall

B = 5.00 m width of the abutment backwall
γ = 18 kN/m3 unit weight of the backfill
Kp = 5.83 passive soil pressure coefficient
Ka = 0.34 active soil pressure coefficient
ppass = Kp ⋅ γ ⋅ Hbw (13.28)

ppass = 5.83 ⋅ 18 ⋅ 3.0
ppass = 314.82 kPa
pact = Ka ⋅ γ ⋅ Hbw (13.29)

pact = 0.34 ⋅ 18 ⋅ 3.0
pact = 18.36 kPa
Hbw/200 = 3000/200 = 15 mm ⇒ ∆abut ≥ (Hbw/200)

p = 18.36 + 0.5 ⋅ (314.82 − 18.36)

p = 166.6 kPa
Fres = Hbw ⋅ B ⋅ (p/2) (13.30)

Fres = 3 ⋅ 5 ⋅ (166.6/2)
Fres = 1.250 MN
 2 H bw adj 
M soil = Fres ⋅  − eST 
 3 
adj
eST = 0.75 The superstructure’s centre of gravity, adjusted to a coordinate system with the
zero level at the top of the abutment backwall and positive downwards.
 2⋅3 
M soil = 1.250 ⋅  − 0.75 
 3 
M soil = 1.562 MNm
M soil ⋅ Lb
θ soil = − , (13.31)
2 ⋅ EI ST
1.562 ⋅ 10 6 ⋅ 40
θ soil =− ,
2 ⋅ 210 ⋅ 10 9 ⋅ 0.0987
θ soil = – 0.00151
 2⋅∅  
ε pile, soil =  ⋅θ
 soil
(13.32)
 Lequ , m 
No corrosion Corrosion 2.4 mm

 2 ⋅ 0.1683   2 ⋅ 0.1635 
ε pile
soil
= −  ⋅ 0.00151 ε pile , soil = −  ⋅ 0.00151
 4.415   4.247 
ε pile
soil
= – 0.000115 ε pile
soil
= – 0.000112
The moment caused by the backfill soil pressure would reduce the pile strains up to
approximately 5% of the yield strain. The soil pressure is assumed to reduce or eliminate
small rotations and translations due to traffic loads and daily temperature variations. This
would be favourable for the piles, and the effect of the backfill are brought into the
calculations of the total piles strain as shown in (13.33).
 3⋅∅   
ε pile
soil
=  ⋅ H ⋅ θ soil +  2 ⋅ ∅  ⋅ θ soil (13.33)
 L2  L 
 equ ,h   equ ,m 

13.3 Summary of Forces, Movements and Rotations
Dead loads
dead
N pile [kN] θdead
Steel girders 33.83 -
Concrete deck 125.00 -
Crash barriers 1.67 0.00006
Pavement 38.33 0.00148
Shrinkage - 0.00248
198.83 0.00402
Lateral thermal movements
∆+ abut = 4.9 mm
∆− abut = - 10.6 mm
Temperature gradient
∆T+ = 15°C ∆T+ = -18°C
θ ∆+T = - 0.001404 θ ∆−T = 0.001684
Traffic loads
Maximum normal force Maximum rotation

max
N pile = 199.8 kN N pile = 124.6 kN
θ fatigue = 0.001077 θ max
fatigue = 0.003126
Backfill soil pressure
Maximum reduction of positive rotations
θ soil = -0.00151


Maximum Strain Calculations 103
14 Maximum Strain Calculations

The maximum expected strains in the top of a pile during an annual cycle, are calculated as
the sum of the strains caused by the following loads and movements.
- Lateral thermal movements
- Temperature gradients
- Traffic loads
- Dead loads
The strain variation at the top of the pile is studied at the two points that will experience the
largest strain variations, P1 and P2, see Figure 14:1.
A-A
P1 P2
A A
P1 P2 P1 P2
or
P1 P2
P1 P2
Figure 14:1 Pile strains are studied at the points P1 and P2.
The strain amplitudes will be the same at both points, due to the symmetry, even if the
maximum and minimum strains would be different. For instance, it is possible that P2 will
experience only compressive strains which would be rather harmless in the development of
cracks due to the fatigue. But, P2 will also experience the highest strains, and the yield strain
of about 0.002 would first be reached at this point. It would not be that relevant for the fatigue
calculations if only the first annual cycle gives plastic deformations. It would only change the
equilibrium position for the piles. Low-cycle fatigue would only be a major problem if there
would be repeating cycles giving strain differences more than 2εy, see Figure 14:2a. That
situation is not expected, it seems more likely that the stress-strain relation would be varying
as shown in Figure 14:2b.
σ σ
(a) (b)
2σy < 2σy

ε ε
Figure 14:2 Illustration of stress-strain relationship for two possible situations, elastic perfectly plastic material.

The pile strains are calculated as a function of the lateral movements, normal forces and
rotations that occur. Normal forces and strains are defined as positive in compression, see
Figure 14:3.
M
N
y y
εy ε=
N εy
E ⋅ A pile
εy
εy
x 0 x
x 0 x ∅
∅
∅ ∅ M ⋅∅
ε=
2 ⋅ E ⋅ I pile
Figure 14:3 Definition of positive strain direction.
According to the previous definitions, strains in P1 and P2 are calculated according to (14.1)
and (14.2). Two different equivalent cantilever lengths are used in the calculations. The pile
strains due to lateral displacements are based on the horizontal pile stiffness model, and
Lequ,h is used. The strains from the rotations due to gravity loads and temperature gradients are
based on the maximum moment equivalency model, and Lequ,m is used. How these equivalent
cantilever lengths are calculated and why different lengths are used is presented in section
12.3 and Appendix B.
(N dead
+ N traffic )  3⋅∅  
 ⋅ (∆ abut + H (θ ∆T + θ traffic + θ dead )) −  2 ⋅ ∅

 ⋅ (θ ∆T + θ traffic + θ dead )
εP = − 2 (14.1)
pile pile
1
A pile ⋅ E L  L 
 equ , h   equ , m 
(N dead
+ N traffic )  3⋅∅  
 ⋅ (∆ abut + H (θ ∆T + θ traffic + θ dead )) +  2 ⋅ ∅

 ⋅ (θ ∆T + θ traffic + θ dead )
εP = + 2 (14.2)
pile pile
2
A pile ⋅ E L   Lequ, m 
 equ, h   
The following fatigue calculations are based on the strains in P2, (14.2). Yet, same result
would be achieved if P1, (14.1), was used instead. If H-piles are studied then ∅ is replaced by
b.

14.1 Maximum Positive Lateral Movement - Summertime

The traffic load used in the calculations is the traffic fatigue load model according to
BRO2004. Dead loads and traffic loads will give extra lateral movements in the same
direction as the thermal movement, in summertime. The most ultimate temperature gradient is
also assumed to occur at the warmest day, in order to illustrate the worst situation. The most
negative temperature gradient that statistically occurs once during fifty years is -18°C,
according to ENV1991-2-5. It is not realistic to assume that a negative gradient of this size
would occur at the warmest day of the year. Yet, in these calculations it is assumed to be
possible, just to illustrate the worst case. The positive effect of the backfill soil pressure is not
taken into consideration in the calculations of maximum strains.
No corrosion
∅ 0.1683 m ∆abut 0.0049 m ∆abut 0.0049 m
θ∆T θ∆T
2
Apile 4973.1 mm 0.001684 - 0.001684 -
H 1.65 m θtraffic 0.001077 - θtraffic 0.003126 -
Lequ.m 4.415 m θdead 0.004024 - θdead 0.004024 -
Lequ.h 4.348 m Ntot 398.63 kN Ntot 323.43 kN
εP2 = 0.001330 εP2 = 0.001504
Corrosion 2.4 mm
∅ 0.1635 m ∆abut 0.0049 m ∆abut 0.0049 m
θ∆T θ∆T
2
Apile 3722.3 mm 0.001684 - 0.001684 -
H 1.65 m θtraffic 0.001077 - θtraffic 0.001077 -
Lequ.m 4.247 m θdead 0.004024 - θdead 0.004024 -
Lequ.h 4.203 m Ntot 398.63 kN Ntot 323.43 kN
εP2 = 0.001480 εP2 = 0.001635

No corrosion Lequ.m= 3.348 m εP2 = 0.002002 εP2 = 0.002333
Lequ.h = 2.945 m
Corrosion 2.4 mm Lequ.m = 3.143 m εP2 = 0.002244 εP2 = 0.002576
Lequ.h = 2.773 m

Original soil model Maximum normal force Maximum rotation
No corrosion Lequ.m = 4.032 m εP2 = 0.001089 εP2 = 0.001242
Lequ.h = 4.011 m
Lequ.h = 3.875 m
Alternative soil model Maximum normal force Maximum rotation

No corrosion Lequ.m = 2.866 m εP2 = 0.001825 εP2 = 0.002149
Lequ.h = 2.542 m
Lequ.h = 2.376 m

14.2 Maximum Negative Lateral Movement - Wintertime
Negative lateral movements can be observed in the wintertime, when bridges contracts due to
low temperatures. Dead loads and traffic loads will in this case decrease the negative lateral
movements and the rotations, and will not contribute to a wider strain range. The lowest
strains, giving the largest strain range, would be achieved when no vehicles are on the bridge.
A positive temperature gradient, +15°C, that statistically occurs once during fifty years is
used in the calculations.
No corrosion
No traffic load
∅ 0.1683 m ∆abut -0.0106 m
θ∆T
2
Apile 4973.1 mm -0.001404 -
H 1.65 m θtraffic 0 -
Lequ.m 4.415 m θdead 0.004024 -
Lequ.h 4.348 m Ntot 198.83 kN
εP2 = 0.000223
Corrosion 2.4 mm
No traffic load
∅ 0.1627 m ∆abut -0.0106 m
θ∆T
2
Apile 3722.3 mm -0.001404 -
H 1.65 m θtraffic 0 -
Lequ.m 4.247 m θdead 0.004024 -
Lequ.h 4.203 m Ntot 198.83 kN
εP2 = 0.000282

No traffic Load
No corrosion Lequ.m = 3.348 m εP2 = 0.000090
Lequ.h = 2.945 m
Corrosion 2.4 mm Lequ.m = 3.143 m εP2 = 0.000128
Lequ.h = 2.773 m

Original soil model No traffic Load
Lequ.h = 4.011 m
Lequ.h = 3.875 m
Alternative soil model No traffic Load

Lequ.h = 2.542 m
Lequ.h = 2.376 m

14.3 Discussion About the Strain Calculations
14.3.1 Pipe Piles

Original soil model
The piles are made of steel with yield strength of 440 MPa (S440J2H), this gives a yield strain
of about 0.0021. The calculated strains, according to the equivalent cantilever method, are all
lower than the yield strain, and there would not be any plastic deformations of the piles. The
maximum strain range is 0.61⋅εy for piles unaffected by corrosion, and 0.65⋅εy for piles that
have corroded to a depth of 2.4 mm. This is about one third of the strain range, 2⋅εy, which
would be necessary to achieve an annual cycle which would give plastic deformations every
year. A low-cycle fatigue failure would not be expected according to these calculations, but it
is still necessary to perform an ordinary fatigue calculation to prove that there would not be
any high-cycle fatigue failure. A short analyse is also made to get an idea of how long a
similar bridge can be, before low-cycle fatigue become a possible failure mode.

The alternative soil model gives compressive pile strains which exceed the yield strain. The
piles are made of steel pipes with cross-section class 1, which means that their rotation
capacity enables plastic hinges. The maximum strain range is 1.07⋅εy for piles unaffected by
corrosion, and 1.17⋅εy for piles that have corroded to a depth of 2.4 mm. Only the outmost
part of the pile cross-section that is in compression will experience stresses which exceed the
yield strength. The highest tensile stress at the opposite side of the pile is about 70 % of the
yield strength. There will be no reversible cycles with amplitudes of 2⋅εy. The cycles with the
largest amplitudes will still only be about 58% of 2⋅εy. The stress-strain situation for an elastic
perfectly plastic material could be simplified as shown in Figure 14:4.
ε
0.5⋅ 2εy
Figure 14:4 Illustration of stress-strain relationship, elastic perfectly plastic material.
The effect of higher traffic loads has also been studied, with the intention of finding out
whether or not it is realistic to believe that cyclic plastic deformations would appear in the
piles supporting the abutments in the Leduån Bridge. The results from the calculations with
higher traffic loads are presented in section 14.3.3.

14.3.2 H-piles
If the H-piles are made of steel with yield strength of 440 MPa (S440J2H), then no plastic
hinges would be developed according to the original soil model. The worst situation is the
alternative soil model and a corrosion depth of 2.4 mm. This situation gives strains in the
outermost part of the flanges which exceeds the yield strain (12%).
If the piles instead are made of steel with yield strength of 355 MPa (S355J2G4), then there
would be plastic deformations of both corroded and unaffected piles, according to the
alternative soil model. The original soil model gives no plastic deformations. The maximum
strain range is 1.39⋅εy for piles that have corroded to a depth of 2.4 mm and the alternative soil
model. This is about 70% of the variation, 2⋅εy, which is needed to achieve annual cycles
involving plastic deformations.
Low-cycle fatigue failure is not expected, no matter which soil model that is used in the
calculations, which steel that is chosen, and if the piles are corroded or not. Other failure
modes than low-cycle fatigue failure has not been analysed
14.3.3 Higher Traffic Fatigue Load

The fatigue load from the traffic shall according to BRO2004 be modelled as a vehicle with
four axles and a weight of 66 tonnes. This load is not sufficient to cause plastic strains in the
pipe piles, according to the original soil model. A new calculation is done to illustrate the
effect of a higher load. The higher load is modelled as a vehicle with three axels and a weight
of 75 tonnes, this load is assumed to always coincide with a lane load of 12 kN/m (the same
load as the equivalent load Type 1 in BRO2004 21.2211), see Figure 14:5.
500 2 000 500
125 kN 125 kN
4 kN/m2
1.5 m 6.0 m 2,0 m
250 kN 250 kN 250 kN
3 000
5 000
Figure 14:5 Illustrations of the higher loads that have been assumed.
If these loads are combined with the original soil model then the maximum strain in a pile
would be as shown in Table 14:1.The same calculations are also done for the alternative soil
model and the results are shown in Table 14:2.

Table 14:1 Pile strains due to the higher traffic load, original soil model.
Lequ,m 4.415 m Lequ,m 4.247 m
Lequ,h 4.348 m Lequ,h 4.203 m
ε ε
Max temp 0.001841 0.002009
Min temp 0.000223 0.000282
Table 14:2 Pile strains due to the higher traffic load, alternative soil model.
Lequ,m 3.348 m Lequ,m 3.143 m
Lequ,h 2.945 m Lequ,h 2.773 m
ε ε
Max temp 0.002824 0.003125
Min temp 0.000090 0.000128
Original soil model

The pile strains would not exceed the yield strain of 0.0021, and no plastic deformations
would be expected even in this rather extreme load situation, which can be described as
following.
• +31°C shade air temperature (EBT +34.4°C)

• 18°C temperature difference between deck and girders (girders are warmer). This
situation occurs statistically once in fifty years and probably never in the summer.
• A vehicle with a weight of 75 tonnes, 3 axles, and 7.5 m between the first and last
axel are crossing the bridge at the same time as 48 tonnes are uniformly distributed
in the same lane. Every single axel on the vehicle has an overload of 80% and the
gross weight limit is more than two times higher than the allowable weight for a
vehicle with 7.5 m between the first and last axel. This type of vehicle will
hopefully never be on the roads, and if there are such vehicles on the roads they will
probably be very rare.
• The positive effect of the passive soil pressure is not included.

The more conservative soil model gives compressive pile strains which exceed the yield strain
with 50%, for corroded piles. There are no tensile stresses which exceed the yield strength.
The highest tensile stress at the opposite side of the pile is about 82% of the yield stress.
There will be no reversible cycles with amplitudes of 2⋅εy. The cycles with the largest
amplitudes will be about 72% of 2⋅εy.
Conclusion
A low-cycle fatigue failure of the piles, in the Leduån Bridge, is not expected. There are no
indications that reversible plastic strain cycles would occur.

14.4 Not Included Parameters
Some parameters that actually would affect the piles strains are not taken into consideration
when the pile strains are calculated. These parameters are described in this section, and there
are also explanations of why they are not included in the calculations.
14.4.1 Moments Caused by Dead Load from the Abutments

The wingwalls and the lower part of the backwalls are cast at the same time and become one
structural unit. This unit has its centre of gravity located behind the back wall and will add an
extra moment to the piles. This moment will give a negative rotation angel at the top of the
piles, and add some extra strains to the pile when the lateral movements are negative (in
wintertime) or give some relief of the strains when the lateral movements are positive (in
summertime). The Leduån Bridge abutment is illustrated in Figure 14:6. Only the weights
from the parts of the abutments that are cast before the rigid connection to the superstructure
is formed have been taken into consideration when the centre of gravity was calculated. The
weight from the upper part of the backwall and the edge beams, which are cast later, were not
taken into the calculations.
648
CG
754
[mm]
313
Figure 14:6 Illustration of the Leduån Bridge abutment.
The moment, due to the dead load from the abutment, could be used to pre-stress the piles and
would neutralize at least a part of the rotations caused by loads acting on the superstructure.
Yet, these rotations are not taken into consideration. Mainly because of the fact that it will not
affect a possible fatigue failure since the load is constant. But also since an easy way to
calculate how large the real moments in the piles would be, has not been found. It would be
dependent of how much of the load that is transferred through the 1.65m2 large bottom
surface of the abutment, and how large settlements that are expected beneath this surface. A
simple model could be based on the assumption that all forces and moment are transferred
through the piles. But, as shown in the previous strain calculations, the strains in the piles are
likely to be highest in the summer, and the rotations due to the abutment dead load would
lower the strains in the summer. An assumption that all of the dead load is transferred through
the piles could therefore result in an underestimation of the rotations and an overestimation of
the normal forces, in the summer. By not taking this rotation into consideration, the pile
rotations in the wintertime might be underestimated. Yet, since pile strains in the winters
appear to be rather small compared to the strains in the summer this would not be that
important.

Fatigue Simulation Model 111
15 Fatigue Simulation Model

The simulation of fatigue in integral abutment piles is performed according to the formulas
and calculation models described earlier in this report. The given values in design codes for
traffic load, temperatures and temperature gradients are replaced by simulations of the varying
parameters. The temperature simulation models have been described earlier in Chapter 10 and
11, and the traffic simulation model is described in the following section. The traffic loads
from the codes are in the simulation replaced by a traffic load model based on real gross
weight measurements in order to get a better estimation of the fatigue.
15.1 Traffic Load Model

The traffic load model in this report is based on truck loads from Bridge Weigh In Motion
(BWIM) measurements and AADT (Annual Average Daily Traffic) values measured with the
Metor 2000 system. Second hand information has been used, and most of the information has
been collected from the report BWIM-mätningar 2002 och 2003 Slutrapport (Vägverket
2004). A doctoral thesis, Traffic Load Effects on Bridges, written by Getachew (2003) has
also been frequently used as a source of information.
AADT measurements
The Swedish National Road Administration uses a system called Metor 2000 to collect traffic
data from the Swedish roads. This system is rather simple but effective. It consists of two
rubber tubes that are placed perpendicular across the road. A pulse is sent to the recording
device each time an axel of a vehicle crosses a tube. The pulses from the two tubes are
analysed by the Metor system and vehicles are classified in 15 categories depending on the
number of axels and axel distances. The vehicle classes according to Metor 2000 are shown in
Appendix K.
BWIM measurements
Vehicles with a gross weight larger than 3.5 tonnes are all classified as trucks in the results
from the BWIM monitoring. The data received from the monitoring gives a lot of information
of the vehicles, such as axel loads, number of axels and axel distances. Each vehicle that
crosses the bridge can be sorted into a certain vehicle class. There are several different ways
of classifying a vehicle.
The BWIM monitoring gives more information than the Metor system, since it also registers
the axel weights. If raw data are available from a BWIM monitoring with a satisfying quality,
then it would not be necessary to use the Metor system. Yet, since no raw data has been
available in this report and second hand information have been used instead, the results from
both Metor and BWIM monitoring have been combined to form a traffic load model.
15.1.1 Truck Weight Models

BWIM measurements performed by the Swedish National Road Administration are presented
in the report BWIM-mätningar 2002 och 2003 Slutrapport (Vägverket 2004). Truck weight
distributions are presented from some of the measurement locations. In this report, two of
these locations are chosen in order to get two different types of traffic load models. The first
one is measurements made at a bridge along the road E22 close to the Swedish town
Strängnäs. This location is chosen since it has the highest AADT of the available

measurement series. The second location is a bridge along the National Road 67 near to
Tillberga. The results from the measurements on this bridge showed that a lot of the trucks
that crosses the bridge are heavily loaded. This bridge is chosen to be able to study how
different truck weight distributions are affecting the fatigue of the piles.
The truck weight distributions that are available have intervals of 5 tonnes. For instance, all
vehicles between 5 and 10 tonnes are placed in the same bin in the histogram, and there is no
information of how the weights are distributed within that interval. An assumption has been
made saying that the weight is uniformly distributed within an interval of 5 tonnes. A more
conservative assumption would be that all vehicles within a weight interval have the highest
weight in that interval. A weight model made on this assumption would probably
overestimate the fatigue, since it would give a maximum load that is frequently occurring.
The fatigue is expected to be mainly caused by the heavy vehicles, and the trend in the tail of
the distributions is a decreasing frequency as the vehicle weight increases. The assumption
that the weight is uniformly distributed within an interval is probably also relatively
conservative for the highest and the most interesting weight intervals.
The BWIM measurements performed by Vägverket have only been going on for a week at
each location, and there have been some interruptions in the measurements. Therefore, AADT
values measured by the Metor system are used instead of the AADT measured with the
BWIM-technique, see Table 15:1. It is also assumed that traffic intensity is the same in both
directions at the studied road, 50% of the vehicles travels in one lane and 50% in the other.
Table 15:1 Results from AADT measurements, performed with a Metor system.
AADT
Road Location Year All vehicles Trucks
E22 Strängnäs 2002 13520 1560
National Road 67 Tillberga 2001 8970 1200
15.1.1.1 E22 - Strängnäs

Traffic loads acting on a bridge at the road E22 have been monitored continuously with
BWIM-technique by Vägverket, during the time period 2002-09-09 – 2002-09-15. The
number of trucks (>3.5 tonnes) that crossed the bridge during this period was 9434, and the
mean value of the trucks gross weight was 24.4 tonnes (Vägverket 2004). The distribution of
the truck gross weight is presented in Figure 15:1.
18
16
14
Relative frequency [%]
12
10
0
0-5 5-10 10-15 15-20 20-25 25-30 30-35 35-40 40-45 45-50 50-55 55-60 60-65 65-70
Truck
Truck gross
gross weight
w eight [ton] ton]
[metric
Figure 15:1 Truck gross weight distribution at E22 – Strängnäs.

15.1.1.2 National Road 67 - Tillberga

BWIM measurements at National Road 67 (Riksväg 67) have been performed by Vägverket
during the time period 2002-08-19 – 2002-08-25. The number of trucks (>3.5 tonnes) that
crossed the bridge during this period was 4643, and the mean value of the trucks gross weight
was 33.1 tonnes (Vägverket 2004). Figure 15:2 shows the truck gross weight distribution.
14
12
10
0
0-5 5-10 10-15 15-20 20-25 25-30 30-35 35-40 40-45 45-50 50-55 55-60 60-65 65-70 70-75
Truck
Truck gross
gross weight
w eight [ton] ton]
[metric
Figure 15:2 Truck gross weight distribution at National Road 67 – Tillberga.
15.1.2 Vehicle Classification

If raw data from BWIM-measurements were available, it would be possible to divide the
trucks into several different classes depending on axel load, number of axels and axel
distances. Yet, since no raw data have been available the number of vehicle classes is
simplified. Getachew (2003) based his Monte Carlo simulation of traffic loads on WIM
measurements from road E6. He divided the vehicles into three classes.
Group 1: Passenger cars and vans.
Group 2: Rigid lorries with two to four axels, including busses.
Group 3: Articulated lorries and lorries with trailer.
If the load is doubled then the fatigue increases eight times. The weight of a passenger car is
only a few percentage of the weight of a heavily loaded truck. The loads from single
passenger cars (Group 1 vehicles) are neglected in this report, since their contribution to the
fatigue of the piles are insignificant. The loads from passenger cars are only taken into
account when there are traffic queues at the bridge.
The vehicles in Group 2 and 3 span over a weight interval from 3.5 to 75 tonnes, and contain
vehicles with different number of axels and different axel distances. The number of different
trucks is in this report simplified to four types, since there are no data available for every
single truck that has crossed the bridge during the measurement period. The four types of
trucks are defined in the following pages.
The Swedish traffic regulation, Trafikförordningen (1998), defines in Chapter 4 12 § and

Appendix 1 the maximum allowable loads on public roads in Sweden. These paragraphs have
been used as a support in the creation of a traffic model. The paragraphs are summarised by
Table 15:2 and Table 15:3.

Table 15:2 Allowable gross weights according to the Swedish Traffic Regulation, Trafikförordningen (1998).
Motor driven vehicles Maximum weight
Vehicles with two axels 18 ton
Vehicles with three axels 25 ton
Vehicles with three axels + extra requirements on suspension
26 ton
and double wheels, see Trafikförordningen (1998)
Articulated bus with three axels 28 ton
Vehicles with four axels or more 31 ton
Vehicles with four axels or more + extra requirements on suspension
32 ton
Table 15:3 Allowable loads according to the Swedish Traffic Regulation, Trafikförordningen (1998).
Axel load Weight
Non driving axel 10 ton
Driving axel 11.5 ton
Bogie load Weight
Axel distance less than 1.0 m 11.5 ton
Axel distance within 1.0 – 1.3 m 16 ton
Axel distance within 1.3 – 1.8 m 18 ton
Axel distance within 1.3 – 1.8 m + extra requirements on suspension
19 ton
Axel distance larger than 1.8 m 20 ton
Triple axel load Weight

Axel distance between the outer axles is less than 2.6 m 21 ton
Axel distance between the outer axles is larger than 2.6 m 24 ton
The allowable gross weights for articulated lorries and trailers are given in Appendix M in
proportion to the distance between the first and last axel.
Getachew (2003) used the distributions in Figure 15:3 when he simulated the traffic loads
from vehicle Group 2 and 3. The two figures are based on WIM measurements from road E6
in Sweden, near to Torp.
250
Mean weight = 6.99 ton

200
Standard deviation = 5.63 ton

150
Group 2
100
50
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
Vehicle gross weight [ton]
120
Mean weight = 27.81 ton
100
80
Standard deviation = 12.86 ton
Group 3 60
40
20
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65
Vehicle gross weight [ton]
Figure 15:3 Vehicle gross weight distribution in Group 2 and 3, redraw from Getachew (2003).

Most of the vehicles in Group 2, 99% (2.3 standard deviations), have a weight below 20
tonnes, but there are some exceptions with weights up to 28 tonnes. As shown in Figure 15:3,
a lot of the vehicles in Group 3 have a weight below 28 tonnes. In this report, all vehicles with
a weight less than 28 tonnes are sorted in as Type 1 vehicles. That boundary gives a rather
conservative approach to the traffic load, since more than 50% of the Group 3 vehicles, in
Getachew’s model, will be modelled as Type 1 vehicles in this report, with at least one axel
less.
Overloaded trucks or trucks with at least one overloaded axel occur rather frequently on the
Swedish roads. Vägverket (2005) states that 13.8% of the trucks, weighted by the BWIM-
technique during 2005, were overloaded. Vehicles with high gross weight, more than 35
tonnes, were overrepresented in the group of overloaded trucks. Every third vehicle above 35
tonnes was overloaded at least on one axel. This is taken into consideration when the model of
the trucks is created by allowing some overload. The higher load that is allowable at the
driving axel, according to the Swedish Traffic Regulation, is not taken into consideration in
the model. All single axels are treated equally.
15.1.2.1 Vehicle Type 1

This truck with three axels will represent the vehicles that Getachew (2003) defined as Group
2 vehicles. The axel distances and the distribution of the gross weight, W, between the axels
are the same as for the Equivalent Load Type 1 in BRO2004, see Figure 15:4. The maximum
allowable gross weight is set as 28 tonnes, giving a possible gross weight overload of 12.5%
compared to the allowable weight of a three axel vehicle.
1.5 m 6.0 m
W
3
W W Weight interval
3 3
3.5 < W < 28 ton
Figure 15:4 Vehicle load model for vehicle Type 1.

The Type 2 vehicle is modelled with four axels. The axel distances and the distribution of the
gross weight between the axels are the same as for the fatigue load model in BRO2004, see
Figure 15:5. The maximum gross weight is set as 38 tonnes, giving a possible gross weight
overload of 19% compared to the allowable weight of a four axel vehicle.
1.5 m 6.0 m 2.0 m
18
W⋅
66
15 15 18
W⋅ W⋅ W⋅
66 66 66 Weight interval
28 ≤ W < 38 ton


The Type 3 vehicle is defined as a vehicle with five axels, shown in Figure 15:6. The
maximum gross weight it set as 55 tonnes. That gives a possible gross weight overload of 6%,
compared to the maximum gross weight that is allowed for a vehicle with a maximum axel
distance of 14.5 m. The possible overload is assumed to be distributed over all axels except
the first one, see Figure 15:6. This distribution gives axel loads that can be more than 20%
higher than the allowable values.
5.0 m 1.5 m 5.0 m
3.0 m
9
W⋅
55
12 12 11 11 Weight interval
W⋅ W⋅ W⋅ W⋅
55 55 55 55
38 ≤ W < 55 ton

The Type 4 vehicle is defined as a vehicle with seven axels, see Figure 15:7. The maximum
gross weight it set to 75 tonnes, which is the largest possible gross weight in the simulation.
That gives a possible gross weight overload of 25% compared to the maximum gross weight
that is allowable for a vehicle with a maximum axel distance of 20.5 m. The possible overload
is assumed to be distributed over all axels except the first one, see Figure 15:7. This
distribution gives axel loads and bogie loads that can be more than 20% higher than the
allowable values.
1.5 m 6.0 m 1.5 m 4.0 m 1.5 m 6,0 m
9
W⋅
75
 11 
6 ⋅ W ⋅  Weight interval
 75 
55 ≤ W < 75 ton
15.1.3 Queue weight

The strains caused in the piles by single passenger cars are negligible, since the strain cycles
are so small that the number of cycles to failure, Nf, goes towards infinity. Yet, if there are
traffic stockings or something else causing queues over the bridge, then it could be important
to study the load from all vehicles, not just only trucks.
Getachew (2003) calculated queue weight distributions from WIM measurements performed
by Vägverket. Figure 15:8 illustrates how the queue weight is distributed in a 250 m long
queue, according to Getachew’s calculations. This distribution is based on unfiltered WIM
data, with no consideration taken to the fact that the proportion of trucks is higher during the
night than during the day. In his further calculations, Getachew uses a more sophisticated
model with periodic variations in the queue weight. In this report, the queue weights are
modelled after the simple distribution showed in Figure 15:8, with some modifications.

2200
2000
1800
1600
[kN/m]
1400
mean = 4.6
1200
median = 4.18
1000
min = 0
800 max = 16.3
600
400
200
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Queue weight [kN/m]
Figure 15:8 Queue weight distribution in a 250 m long queue, redraw from Getachew (2003).
The probability distribution of the Queue weight has a similar shape as a log-normal
distribution. In the simulations, the distribution in Figure 15:8 is replaced by a log-normal
distribution which has been adjusted to fit the distribution based on WIM-measurements.
Figure 15:9 shows a simulation result from the log-normal distribution and its input
parameters.
[kN/m]
µ = 4.8
σ = 2.75
median = 4.17
min = 0
max = 18
Queue weight [kN/m]

Figure 15:9 Simulation result from the queue weight model used in this report, containing 50 000 values.
There are no statistics available of how often a queue occurs and how often a truck is a part of
a queue. The most conservative assumption would be that there is always a queue when a
truck is crossing the bridge. That assumption is of course not true and would overestimate the
fatigue a lot, but it is not that easy to estimate how often a queue occurs at a single road
without information about how the traffic intensity is varying over a day.
In the Swedish Bridge Code, no lane load is used in the fatigue calculations. The fatigue load
is modelled with a single truck. One alternative would be to neglect the queue weight from the
simulations of the varying pile strains. Yet, it will occur and it is possible that the highest pile
strains would occur during a traffic queue. The queue weight is therefore brought into the
model even if the model is not verified against the reality. In order to not overestimate the
fatigue caused by the queue weight too much, the simulated number of queues per day is kept
rather low.
An assumption is made, saying that a queue occurs in average ten times a day at the same
time as a truck crosses the bridge. When this happens a uniformly distributed queue weight
are added to the same lane as the truck load. This assumption is not verified against the

reality, it is only a result of the discussion in the following sentences. The queue weight
model is developed assuming 2 m distances between the vehicles. The vehicles have to be
almost standing still to keep those small distances. In a normal case with vehicles travelling in
70-110 km/h the distances between the vehicles are much larger. If there is a truck at the
middle of a 40 m long bridge travelling in 90 km/h, then the probability is rather low that one
or more vehicles are on the bridge in the same lane at the same time. Therefore, the queue
weight is only taken into consideration when the traffic is almost standing still. This is
assumed to happen in average 10 times a day. That would be a rather high value if the bridge
is located on a road with a speed limit of 90 km/h, but it could also be low if the bridge are in
the middle of a city or close to a crossing.
If a bridge is long, it might be better to divide the lanes into sectors and generate a queue
weight value for each sector. The bridge over Leduån River has a span length of 40 m and is
relatively short, and one lane is in this case treated as only one sector.
15.1.4 Summary of the Traffic Load Models

The traffic load models are based on truck weights measured with BWIM-technique at two
different locations, E22 Strängnäs and National Road 67 Tillberga. The trucks are divided in
four groups depending on their gross weight, vehicle Type 1 - 4. When there are traffic
queues over the bridge, the truck weights are combined with a queue weight which is
uniformly distributed over the lane in which the truck is. The queues involving a truck are
assumed to occur in average 10 times a day. This parameter can of course be varied in the
simulations. The queue weight model is a simplified version of a model created by Getachew
(2003). The traffic load model works according to the following schedule, see Figure 15:10.
• Truck weight, W, is generated.

• W ⇒ Vehicle type 1, 2, 3 or 4.
• Queue weight, q, is generated
• Normal force is calculated in the most exposed pile.
• Rotation due to the traffic load is calculated
• Pile strain caused by the traffic load is calculated.
Truck weight
Type 1 Type 2
18
E22 Strängnäs National Road 67 Tillberga
16 14
14
or 12
12
10
Type 3 or Type 4
10
6
8
4
4
2
2
0
0-5 5- 10 10 -15 15-20 20 -2 5 2 5-3 0 3 0- 35 3 5- 40 40 -4 5 45-50 50- 55 55- 60 6 0- 65 65-70
0
Truck gross w eight [metric ton] 0- 5 5- 10 10-15 15-2 0 20 -25 2 5-3 0 3 0-3 5 35-40 40 -4 5 4 5-50 50- 55 55-60 6 0-6 5 65- 70 70 -75
Truck gross w eight [metric ton]
+
qqueue Queue weight
2200
2000
1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
θtraffic Ntraffic
Figure 15:10 Schematic illustration of the traffic load models.

The six steps in the generation of strain cycles, due to the traffic loads, should be repeated
every time a truck crosses the bridge. The two roads that are used as examples in this study,
E22 and National Road 67, have in average 1560 respectively 1200 trucks that are crossing
the bridges daily. This would give 68 respectively 53 million traffic load cycles during the
120 year long service lifetime of the bridge. If every individual strain cycle is calculated, the
amount of data would be enormous. Therefore, 100 000 traffic load cycles are generated for
each road. These load cycles are taken as representative for the whole lifetime, and are
repeated until the demanded number of cycles are achieved.
The traffic load simulation is done with the Monte Carlo simulation program Anthill Lite. The
input files are presented in Appendix L.
15.2 Fatigue Calculations
The fatigue calculations are strain based since plastic deformations are allowed to occur. The
number of cycles until failure, Nf, for a certain strain cycle can be estimated according to
Coffin-Manson’s universal slope equation or the extrapolated ε-Nf curves. As shown in
Chapter 6, the extrapolated ε-Nf curves are more conservative than Coffin-Manson’s model.
The first choice in the calculations of number of cycles until fatigue failure is the extrapolated
ε-Nf curves. Since it is a more conservative model, simpler to use, and it is the most common
used fatigue model in the codes. The S-Nf curves in BSK99 are defined for Nf > 103, and are
extrapolated to 1 cycle. The Coffin-Manson model will not be used as long as Nf > 103.
The extrapolated ε-Nf curves are based on high-cycle fatigue tests, and are not developed for
low-cycle fatigue. The Coffin-Manson model is developed for low-cycle fatigue, and will
probably give better estimations of the number of cycles until fatigue when there are a lot of
cycles giving plastic deformations. A drawback with the Coffin-Manson model is the rather
complex equation, see (15.1).
σu
∆ε = 3,5 (N )
f
− 0 ,12
+ ε 0f , 6 (N f )
− 0, 6
. (15.1)
E
Since there are millions of strain cycles that shall be analysed it would be really good with an
expression where Nf is a function of the strain range, ∆ε. It seems hard to transform (15.1) to
such a function. It is possible to perform a graphical solution of the equation, use an
approximation, or use a computer program to solve the equation for each cycle. A graphical
solution is time consuming, and an external computer program is not an alternative since the
calculation process is automated in Excel.
Chapter 8:71 in BSK99 says that corrosion protection can be a certain fraction of the cross-
section area that is allowed to corrode without loosing the necessary strength of the
construction. The piles can perhaps be classified as corrosion protected due to the fact that
they are overdimensioned to allow a certain depth of corrosion. A more conservative
assumption is made in this report. The piles are treated as constructions that will be affected
by corrosion, and the lower level of the fatigue endurance limit in the ε-Nf curves is used in
the fatigue calculations.

The contributions to the fatigue from different strain cycles are calculated according to the
Palmgren-Miner rule for cumulative fatigue. The number of cycles until failure is not
calculated for every single strain cycle. The cycles with amplitudes that are within a certain
interval are all assumed to have the highest amplitude in that interval. How wide and many
intervals that are used depends on the number of strain cycles. The intervals that have been
used in this report are presented in the following sections.
15.2.1 Definition of Different Strain Cycles

The pile strains in the calculation model are dependent on EBT, temperature gradient, traffic
loads, concrete shrinkage and the weight of the construction. Only the first three parameters
are variable. Figure 15:11 shows an example of how pile strains can be varying over a period
of three years.
0
Year 1 Year 2 Year 3
Figure 15:11 Total strain variation during three years, traffic loads excluded.
The total strain in the piles is a function of variables with frequencies that spans from seconds
up to a year. To be able to analyse the fatigue with the available computer programs, the total
pile strain must be separated into different cycles. Two groups of cycles are identified.
• Temperature cycles EBT, daily temperature variations, temperature gradient
variations, and constant loads (dead loads and shrinkage)
• Traffic cycles loads from vehicles
15.2.1.1 Temperature Cycles

The temperature cycles are based on annual temperature cycles on which daily temperature
variations are superposed.
Annual strain cycle

The annual strain cycle has a period of one year, and an amplitude that mainly are a function
of the EBT. The service lifetime of the bridge is 120 years, and the piles must be able to
withstand 120 annual strain cycles. Amplitude differences between the annual strain cycles,
from one year to another, are expected to be rather small compared to the total amplitude.
The constant load from the superstructure is taken into consideration when the annual strain
cycles are calculated. It will not affect the amplitude, but they will add some rotations and
normal forces that shift the position of the strain curves in a way that magnifies the strains
during the summer. The largest constant rotation is caused by the shrinkage in the concrete
deck.

Figure 15:12 shows an example of how the annual strain cycle could vary during three years.
0
Figure 15:12 Yearly strain cycle caused by seasonal temperature variations.
Daily strain cycles

The daily variations in EBT and temperature gradients will give daily strain cycles with a
period of 12-24 hours. The amplitude can vary a lot from one cycle to another since individual
values are generated every day during 60 years for the daily maximum and minimum EBT,
and the temperature gradients. The strain cycles from these 60 years are taken as
representative for the whole lifetime and are therefore assumed to be repeated another time
during the bridge service lifetime of 120 years. Figure 15:13 shows an example of a result
from a simulation of daily strain cycles during three years.
Figure 15:13 Daily strain cycles caused by daily temperature variations and temperature gradients.
15.2.1.2 Traffic Cycles

The strain cycles in the piles induced by traffic loads will have periods that could be measured
in seconds or parts of a second. The number of cycles that occur during a day is modelled by
the AADT value for the specific road and location. Figure 15:14 illustrates the simulated pile
strains caused by the traffic during three hours. The E22 traffic model has been used with an
AADT value of 1560 trucks per day.
0
Hour 1 Hour 2 Hour 3
Figure 15:14 Strain cycles due to traffic loads, during three hours.

15.2.2 Counting Cycles

The amplitudes of daily strain cycles are varying a lot in contrast to the annual cycles, which
are almost the same from one year to another. The temperature cycles are analysed together,
which means that the daily variations have been superposed on the annual cycles. The simple
ranges between peaks and valleys are known from the simulations, but it is harder to identify
the cycles among these variations. A number of different techniques can bee used to identify
cycles for irregular loading. ASM Handbook in Fatigue and Fracture, states that an agreement
appears to have been reached that the preferable method is the rain-flow method. The rain-
flow counting technique has therefore been used to identify the temperature cycles in this
report.
The strain cycles caused by the traffic loads are counted separately, since the period of such a
cycle is very short compared to the temperature cycles. There is no need of any cycle counting
technique either, since every single traffic load is modelled as one complete cycle with
loading and unloading. If the traffic cycles should be superposed on the temperature cycles it
would be necessary to use a time scale in seconds. This would give enormous amounts of
data, since it would be necessary to define the temperature at every single traffic load. It
would be necessary to define about 1500 temperature values daily. This can be compared to
the 2 daily values which now are used in the temperature model. The Monte Carlo simulation
program that has been used should only be able to simulate the strain during one month if the
traffic cycles were superposed, due to the limitation of 50000 simulation steps. It would
certainly be possible to analyse all cycles superposed on each other, but it would demand a
computer program which can deal with at least 1 million simulation steps to be able to analyse
one year in one simulation.
The traffic loads will however give a contribution to the maximum strains that occurs daily. In
order to not underestimate the maximum amplitudes of the daily cycles, a traffic strain is
added to the daily maximum strain. The minimum values will not be affected since the traffic
always gives positive rotations and translations. Figure 15:15 illustrates how the temperature
strain cycles are combined with the traffic strain cycles.
ε Temperature strain cycles ε Traffic strain cycles
7 days 12 hours
7 days
Figure 15:15 Illustration of how daily strain ranges are modelled.

In the upper left corner, the varying strain due to daily temperature changes are illustrated
during seven days. In the upper right corner, the varying traffic strain cycles during 12 hour is
illustrated. The traffic strains during 12 hours are superposed on a part of the temperature
strain curve, in order to illustrate the contribution from the traffic loads. The daily maximum
strain will be higher and the minimum strain will not be affected. Daily temperature strain
cycles are therefore modelled with a traffic load added on top of the daily maximum values.
The strains due to the traffic loads are then analysed separately from the temperature strains.
This will not give any extra cycles compared to a model with all cycles superposed on each
other, analysed by any cycle counting technique. The number of cycles and the size of the
amplitudes will be the same, since the traffic cycles are fully reversible and have periods
which are just a fraction of the period of the daily variations. The mean value of the traffic
cycles will be irrelevant, and the amplitude will be the only interesting parameter.
The strain that is added on top of the daily maximum temperature strain is set as the
maximum strain according to the traffic models. It means the strain caused by a truck with a
gross weight of 70 tonnes in the E22 model, and 75 tonnes in the NR67 model.
15.2.2.1 Rain-flow Method

A number of different techniques can bee used to identify cycles for irregular loading. The
rain-flow method has been used in this report since it seemed to be the most common
accepted method.
In the rain-flow method, a cycle is defined as a peak-valley-peak or a valley-peak-valley

sequence A-B-C with a second range B-C that exceeds the first range A-B, see Figure 15:16.
ε C
A
A C
B B
εAB< εBC εAB> εBC
εAB = one cycle No cycle
Figure 15:16 Definition of cycles in the rain-flow method, after ASM Handbook.
When a cycle is identified, the range and the mean value are registered and the cycle is
removed from the loading sequence. If an A-B-C sequence is identified as no cycle, then the
next sequence are checked for a cycle. This process is repeated through the whole loading and
unloading history. Figure 15:17, from ASM Handbook (1996) is used to illustrate the
counting technique. When the identification of cycles is completed, every single peak and
valley will be a part of one and just one cycle. Most of the cycles will in this certain case have
periods of about a day, but there will also be cycles with periods up to years.

Figure 15:17 Illustration of the cycle counting technique in the rain-flow method, after ASM Handbook (1996).
Since there will be ten thousands of temperature cycles, a computer program is used to
perform the rain-flow counting method. A Matlab-script, made by Adam Niesłony (2003), has
been used to identify the strain cycles, count them and sort them into bins. The number of
cycles until failure will not be calculated for each individual cycle, since there are about
43 800 temperature cycles during the bridge service lifetime. The temperature strain cycles
are instead sorted according to their amplitude, and divided in 40 intervals. When the
cumulative fatigue is calculated, all cycles within an interval are assumed to have the highest
amplitude in that interval. Figure 15:18 illustrates a result from rain-flow counting of
simulated temperature strain cycles during 60 years. The sixty annual cycles can be seen in
Figure 15:18a and Figure 15:18b as a small separate group with higher amplitudes than the
other cycles.
3000
Nr of cycles: 21899.5 (5.5 from half-cycles)
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5
Histogram of strain cycle amplitudes [-] -4
x 10
(a) (b)
Figure 15:18 (a) Amplitude distribution of temperature induced strain cycles.

(b) 3D-model of the distribution of both amplitudes and mean
values for temperature induced strain cycles.

Fatigue Simulation Results 125
16 Fatigue Simulation Results

The results that are presented in this chapter are the calculated cumulative fatigue during 120
years for the outermost piles, which will suffer the highest strain variations. All calculations
are done both for unaffected piles and piles that have corroded to a depth of 2.4 mm. The
parameters that will be varied are
• equivalent cantilever length (different soil models)
• bridge length
• location
• pile cross-section
The cumulative fatigue failure criterion can be expressed as
n
ni
∑N
i =1
< 1. (16.1)
fi
16.1 Different Soil Models
The calculations are done for the original soil model, based on Abendroth and Greimann’s
model, which assume that the soil stiffness in the pre-drilled holes is zero. The calculations
are also done according to the alternative model which assumes that the loose sand in the pre-
drilled holes have a stiffness according to BRO2004.
16.1.1 Original Soil Model
Table 16:1 Cumulative fatigue different traffic models, according to extrapolated ε-Nf curves, orig. soil model.
n
ni
Cumulative fatigue ∑N
i =1
Extrapolated ε - Nf curves
fi
Lequ.m 4.415 m BRO2004
Lequ.h 4.348 m Traffic model E22 R67
fatigue load
Bridge length: 40 m Temp. strain cycles 0.0252 0.0298 0.0251
Corrosion: No corrosion
Location: Karesuando Traffic strain cycles 0.0487 0.1312 0.0251
0.074 0.161 0.050
Table 16:2 Cumulative fatigue for different traffic models, according to extrapolated ε-Nf curves, orig. soil model.
n
ni
i =1
fi
Lequ. m 4.247 m BRO2004
Lequ. h 4.203 m Traffic model E22 R67
fatigue load
Corrosion: 2.4 mm
0.157 0.330 0.080

16.1.2 Alternative Soil Model
Table 16:3 Cumulative fatigue for different traffic models, according to extrapolated ε-Nf curves, alt. soil model.
n
ni
Cumulative fatigue ∑N i =1
fi
Lequ. m 3.348 m BRO2004
fatigue load
0.406 0.848 0.203
n
ni
fi
Lequ. m 3.143 m BRO2004
fatigue load
Corrosion: 2.4 mm
0.707 1.506 0.263
16.2 Longer Bridges
A short analyse is made of how the length of the bridge would affect the cumulative fatigue.
The calculations are done for corroded piles and with both the original- and the alternative
soil model. It would be time consuming to design new superstructures and supports for the
longer bridges, therefore some simplifications have been done. The rotations and pile forces
from the traffic are kept constant from the Leduån Bridge calculations. A longer bridge would
probably need supports or at least a stiffer superstructure. The bridges are therefore assumed
to be designed in a way which gives the same rotations and forces, at the abutments, due to
the traffic loads. The effect of uneven settlements between the supports is also neglected. The
traffic load model that has been used is the fatigue load according to BRO2004.
Table 16:5 Cumulative fatigue for varying bridge length, according to extrapolated ε-Nf curves, orig. soil model.
n
ni
i =1
fi
Lequ. m 4.247 m
Lequ. h 4.203 m Bridge length 60 m 80 m 100 m 150 m 200 m
Corrosion: 2.4 mm Temp. strain cycles 0.0576 0.0926 0.1418 0.3295 0.6423
Location: Karesuando Traffic strain cycles 0.0482 0.0482 0.0482 0.0482 0.0482
0.106 0.141 0.190 0.378 0.691

Fatigue Simulation Results 127
Table 16:6 Cumulative fatigue for varying bridge length, according to extrapolated ε-Nf curves, alt. soil model.
n
ni
fi
Lequ. m 3.143 m
Lequ. h 2.773 m Bridge length 60 m 80 m 100 m 150 m 200 m
Corrosion: 2.4 mm Temp. strain cycles 0.2526 0.4343 0.6967 1.7517 3.5615
Location: Karesuando Traffic strain cycles 0.1325 0.1325 0.1325 0.1325 0.1325
0.385 0.617 0.829 1.884 3.694
16.3 Different Locations

The bridge location has been varied in order to get an idea of how large influence the climate
has on a 40 m long integral bridge. Calculations have been performed for five locations in
Sweden.
Table 16:7 Cumulative fatigue at different locations, according to extrapolated ε-Nf curves, alt. soil model.
n
ni
Lequ. m
Lequ. h
3.143 m
2.773 m
i =1
fi
Bridge length: 40 m
Bridge length Karesuando Kiruna Umeå Stockholm Malmö
Corrosion: 2.4 mm
Traffic load: BRO2004 Temp. strain cycles 0.1300 0.1268 0.1263 0.1123 0.1153
16.4 Alternative Pile Cross-section

HEM120
n
ni
fi
Lequ. m 2.866 m BRO2004
fatigue load
0.238 0.486 0.148
n
ni
fi
Lequ. m 2.667 m BRO2004
fatigue load
Corrosion: 2.4 mm
0.427 0.906 0.214


Conclusion and Discussion 129
17 Conclusion and Discussion

The aim of this thesis was to investigate if, how and when low-cycle fatigue failure is a
possible failure mode in piles supporting integral abutment bridges. The conclusion is that
low-cycle fatigue does not seem to be a problem at all. At least as long as the length of the
bridge does not exceed 100 m, according to the calculation models that have been used.
Where the bridge is located, inside of the Swedish borders, is not that important for the
fatigue, as long as the bridge is rather short (<100 m). Some pile cross-sections seem to be
more suitable than others for integral abutment bridges. No general conclusion about pile
cross-sections can be stated, since only two cross-sections have been studied. However, the
HEM120 that has been oriented for weak axis bending, seems to be a better choice than
RR170x10, considering fatigue. The large influence of the lateral soil stiffness can also be
noted, higher soil stiffness decreases the fatigue lifetime considerably. In order to build longer
integral bridges, lateral soil stiffness must be controlled in one way or another.
The results from the calculations do not show any sign of problems with low-cycle fatigue,
but they instead show that there can be problems with high-cycle fatigue caused by the traffic
loads, especially in soils with high lateral stiffness. The traffic load model might be a bit
conservative, more about that in the next section Possible Sources of Errors. If we leave out
of account the possible errors. The fatigue load, given in BRO2004, seems to underestimate
the fatigue compared to the two traffic models. The fatigue load model in BRO2004 consists
of a vehicle with a weight of 66 tonnes, and the load is assumed to occur 4⋅105 times during
the bridge service lifetime. The E22 model gives 4.37⋅105 vehicles with a weight of more than
66 tonnes during the bridge lifetime, and the NR67 model gives 8.20⋅105 vehicles. The larger
number of trucks with a weight of 66 tonnes or more can explain a part of the more
conservative fatigue estimations which are achieved. But, since only 50% of the vehicles are
assumed to travel in one specific lane, giving the worst load in one specific pile, this would
not be the main reason. Yet, the largest contribution to the fatigue comes from allowing
vehicle weights heavier than 66 tonnes. A vehicle with a weight of 75 tonnes gives a
contribution to the fatigue which in this case is 86% higher than the contribution from a
vehicle with a weight of 66 tonnes. And the contribution to the fatigue from a 70 tonnes
vehicle is 34% higher than from a 66 tonnes vehicle. These relationships are based on
calculations with the original soil model and corroded pipe piles. The passive soil pressure has
been assumed to resist abutment rotations less than 1.51‰. However, the fatigue load in the
Swedish Bridge Code can not be questioned due to the results in this report. The accuracies of
the BWIM measurements, which the calculations are based on, are not known. The
measurement periods are very short, one week, and it is possible that these periods are not
representative for the annual traffic. The BWIM measurements are second hand information,
and it is not known exactly how the measurements have been performed and what type of
problems that might have occurred during the measurements.
All assumptions that are made are tried to be conservative, this fact could have lead to an
overestimation of a lot of parameters. Rotations of the abutments due to traffic loads are a
major reason to the frequently varying stresses/strains in the piles. These rotations are based
on an assumption that the connection between superstructure and abutment are monolithic,
and 100% rigid. This assumption is not completely true, and the rotations are not entirely
transferred to the top of the piles. There will be a loss in the connection between the
superstructure and the abutments, and the abutment back walls might also deflect a bit. The

abutments are in this report treated as stub abutments without any deflections. The rotations of
the abutments could be reduced by using a superstructure with higher bending stiffness. Yet,
the largest profit with integral abutment bridges is the rather cheap construction. A stiffer
superstructure means more steel and more costs, and then the profit of the integral abutment
bridge might be lost. The bridge that has been analysed is a composite bridge, and it has not
been studied whether or not a concrete construction would give smaller abutment rotations.
I have not read anything in the literature about problems with high-cycle fatigue in integral
abutment piles. I am therefore a little bit sceptical to the result. The calculation model that has
been used might fail to describe the stresses/strains in the piles. Results from a monitoring of
pile strains on the existing bridge would be very interesting.
The studied bridge may not be a representative bridge of the roads E22 and NR67, since it is
very narrow with 2 lanes and a total width of 5 m. The AADT-value for the road over the
Leduån River will probably be just a few percentages of the AADT at the two studied roads.
Consequently, the results from the fatigue simulations can not be directly applied to the
Leduån Bridge since the fatigue due to the traffic would be much lower. It might have been a
better choice to use a bridge with 4-lanes as an example, or at least a wider 2 lane bridge,
when the traffic models were developed for roads with high traffic intensity.
17.1 Possible Sources of Errors
The traffic load models were developed to be a bit conservative. The axel loads as well as the
vehicle gross weight were allowed to exceed the limits in the Swedish Traffic Regulation.
However, the vehicle gross weights have not been exaggerated. They have been taken from
BWIM measurements performed by Vägverket. The probability distribution of the gross
weight was given in intervals of 5 tonnes. This could lead to an overestimation of the load in
the “tail” of the distribution. For instance, it is possible that most of the vehicles in the highest
weight interval 70-75 tonnes had a weight that barely exceeded 70 tonnes. But since there was
no information available of how the loads were distributed within the 5 tonnes intervals, a
uniform distribution was assumed. This might have caused a higher cumulative fatigue than a
more exactly distribution of the gross weight would have. The vehicle models are also a
possible source of error. Without having the raw data from the BWIM measurements it is hard
to model the traffic load in a satisfying way, since a lot of assumptions and simplifications
have to be done. The vehicle models that have been used are more an adaptation to the limits,
given by the Swedish Traffic Regulations, than models of real vehicles. The axel distances
and length of vehicles are not based on any specific vehicles.
The annual temperature models are based on measurements during 60 years, spanning over a
period from 1930 to 1990. The temperature model does not take into consideration that we
right now might have an increasing mean temperature which could continue to rise in the
future. A couple of degrees higher mean temperature would probably not affect the pile
fatigue that much. A worse situation would arise if the amplitude of the annual temperature
cycles got larger, warmer summers and colder winters. Such a tendency has not been
observed as far as I know. The daily temperature model is rather conservative, the daily
amplitudes are varying more in the model than in the reality. This is a result of the fact that
the model does not take into consideration the former temperatures when it generates a new

Conclusion and Discussion 131
one. In the reality the temperature might vary in a small interval during a period of days up to
weeks. For instance, it is rather common that the temperature in the wintertime is varying
between -20 and -25 °C during a week or two. The probability of getting such small variations
in the simulated temperature during a week is very low. The positive and negative
temperature gradients have also been assumed to always occur at the part of the day when
they would give the most disadvantageous effect. Negative gradients are assumed to occur
during the day giving the worst situation. In the reality positive gradients would be expected
in the day and negative gradients in the night. The influences from the temperature gradients
have probably been exaggerated in this report. But, since their influences are not that big it
does not seem to affect the results to much.
17.2 Future Work
It would be interesting if someone created a traffic model based on raw data from BWIM
measurements, it might be a subject for a future master thesis. This work should be done in
cooperation with Vägverket, since they have experiences from the BWIM technique and the
equipment that is necessary. Vägverket have performed a lot of BWIM measurements, and
they have certainly an extensive database already. It would probably take a lot of time and
effort to transform raw data to a traffic model, based on hundreds of different vehicles and
axel distances. It would be really nice with some kind of computer program, which only
needed the input from the BWIM measurements to create simulations of the traffic during the
bridge lifetime. Then it would be rather easy to create traffic load models for specific roads.
In a future it might be possible to design a bridge more after the real traffic loads and
intensity, than the values given in codes. It would also be interesting if someone made a full-
scale test, and monitored the pile strains in an integral bridge in Sweden. A lot of bridges have
been monitored in the USA, but it would be interesting to see if they performed in the same
way in our climate and with our traffic loads. Different bridge design codes might also lead to
another design and behaviour of the bridges.


References 133
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137
Appendixes

138

Appendix A 139
Appendix A
Non-linear Temperature Differences in Different Types of Superstructures.
Figure A:1 Non-linear temperature differences in different type of superstructures.

140 Appendix A

Appendix B 141
Appendix B
Equivalent Cantilever Length
One way of designing piles is to treat them as beam-columns. Equivalent cantilevers are
replacing the piles in design calculations.
Pile capacity
Lateral deformations of integral abutment piles will in general be restricted to the upper part
of the piles. The piles can be simplified as cantilever beams, without any transversal loads
between the ends. The lower end of the pile is fixed at a certain depth in the soil, le, and the
upper end could be either fixed or hinged. This report is focused on fully integral abutments,
and the only model that is studied is one with fixed pile tops. Figure B:1 shows how an actual
pile system can be modelled with an equivalent cantilever, according to a design approach by
Abendroth and Greimann (1989, 2005).
lu lu
Lequ
le
Figure B:1 Actual pile system and the equivalent cantilever model.
The length of the pile in the equivalent cantilever model, Lequ, is a function of pile and soil
properties, and can be calculated as
Lequ = l e + l u , (B.1)
where le is the length of the pile from the fixed lower end up to the undisturbed soil surface,
and lu is the length of the pile above the undisturbed soil surface. Abendroth and Greimann
(1989) used the critical length of a pile, lc, to non-dimensionalize le and lu. The critical length
of a pile, embedded in soil, is the depth beyond which the pile almost behaves as it was
infinitely long (Fleming et al. 1992). Lateral movements at the top of the piles will not
considerably affect the pile deeper than lc, No induced shear forces or lateral displacements
are assumed to take place below this depth. The lateral displacements and bending moments
below lc, will only be about 4% of those at the top of the pile, according to Abendroth and
Greimann (2005). If the lateral soil stiffness, kh, is constant along the depth, then the critical
length of a pile can be calculated as

142 Appendix B
EpI p
lc = 4 ⋅ 4 , (B.2)
kh
where Ep and Ip are the pile elasticity modulus respectively the pile moment of inertia. The
soil stiffness is in general not constant along the depth, and a model with a varying soil
stiffness are often more useful. The equivalent uniform lateral soil stiffness parameter, keh,
was introduced by Abendroth and Greimann (1989, 2005), in order to transform varying soil
stiffness into an equivalent uniform soil stiffness value, see Figure B:2. The transformation is
done by calculating the external work for a real soil model (varying soil stiffness), and then
assuming that it would be equal to the external work in a uniform soil model, see (B.3). The
part of a pile that is affected by the lateral displacements, the active length, is assumed to be
one-half of the critical length. The lateral displacements are denoted y.
lc / 2 lc / 2
k h ( z) y 2 ( z) k eh y 2 ( z )
∫0
2
dz = ∫0
2
dz (B.3)
kh keh
lc/2
z z
(a) (b)
Figure B:2 (a) Actual soil stiffness
(b) Equivalent uniform soil model, according to Abendroth and Greimann (1989)
The equivalent soil stiffness parameter can be calculated by an iterative calculation with the
following steps, described by Abendroth and Greimann (1989, 2005).
1. An initial value of keh is assumed

2. Calculate the second moment, Ik, of the kh(z) diagram, taken about a line at a
depth of lc/2.
lc / 2 2
l 
I k = ∫ k h ( z ) c − z  dz (B.4)
0 2 
3. Calculate a new value of keh by following expression
3I k
k eh = (B.5)
(l c / 2)3
4. Repeat step 2-3 until the input value of keh equals the output value.

Appendix B 143
The constant lateral soil stiffness value, kh, in (B.2) is substituted by the value of keh, which
has been achieved through the iterative calculation. The critical length, lc, can then be
calculated according to (B.2).
The critical length is then used in order to calculate the equivalent cantilever length, Lequ, by
using the relationship between its two components, le and lu, and the critical length.
Abendroth and Greimann (1989) have developed three equations to determine three types of
equivalent cantilever lengths. They can be used in three different purposes in the design of an
integral abutment bridge. These equations are based on the following three assumptions.
1. The lateral pile stiffness of the equivalent cantilever pile is

equal to the lateral stiffness of a pile embedded in soil.
2. The maximum moment in the equivalent cantilever equals the

maximum moment in a pile embedded in soil
3. The elastic buckling load of an equivalent cantilever equals the

elastic buckling load of a pile embedded in soil.
Abendroth and Greimann’s three equations for fixed headed piles are plotted in Figure B:3.
Figure B:3 Equivalent cantilever lengths according to Abendroth and Greimann (1989, 2005)
The equivalent cantilever length based on horizontal stiffness is used to calculate the lateral
thermal movement and the moments induced from these. The equivalent length for maximum
moment is used to calculate the forces and moments due to gravity loads, and the elastic
buckling equivalent length is used to calculate the axial compressive strength of the pile as a
structural member.

144 Appendix B

Appendix C 145
Appendix C
Rankine’s Theory of Earth Pressure
Rankine’s theory of earth pressure, described by Craig (1997), considers the stress state in a
soil when the condition of plastic equilibrium has been reached. The resulting force, FP, on an
abutment wall due to the passive soil pressure can be calculated as
H
FP = ∫p
0
pass dz (C.1)
where H is the height of the abutment wall and ppass is the passive soil pressure. The passive
soil pressure is a measure of a soils resistance to lateral compression, and is defined as
following
p pass = K P ⋅ γ ⋅ z + 2 ⋅ c ⋅ K p , (C.2)
where KP is the passive pressure coefficient, and γ is the unit weight of the soil material. The
second term is dependent of the cohesion, c, of the soil material. In general, well drained
granular soil with no cohesive strength is used as backfill behind an abutment wall. The
second term in (C.2) can therefore be neglected in an analysis. For granular soils, (C.1) can be
written as
KP ⋅γ ⋅ H 2
FP = . (C.3)
2
The passive pressure coefficient, KP, is defined as
1 + sin φ
KP = , (C.4)
1 − sin φ
where φ is the soil friction angle. This gives the following expression for the resulting force
caused by the passive soil pressure
γ ⋅ H 2 1 + sin φ 
FP = . (C.5)
2 1 − sin φ 

146 Appendix C

Appendix D 147
Appendix D
Ductility Criterion for H-piles – Developed by Abendroth, Greimann, Jones and Ebner
In order to prevent local buckling, due to the lateral movement of the top of the pile, the
flange width to thickness ratio must be limited. Abendroth and Greimann (1989) present a
ductility criterion based on the condition that the moment-rotation demand do not exceed the
capacity. The equations below are valid for fully integral abutment piles.
∆ Mp ⋅L 3C M L
2 abut −  + θ w ≤ i p (D.1)
 L 6 EI  4 EI
The inelastic rotation capacity reduction factor, Ci, is given as
19 b f f y
Ci = − . (D.2)
6 60t f
(D.1) can also be written in terms of lateral displacements of the pile head.
Fb SL2
∆ abut ≤ ⋅ (0.6 + 2.25 ⋅ C i ) (D.3)
6 EI
Mp plastic moment capacity

θw pile head rotation
Ci inelastic rotation capacity reduction factor
bf flange width
tf flange thickness
fy yield strength
E the elastic modulus
I moment of inertia
L pile length
Fb allowable bending stress
S section modulus

148 Appendix D

Appendix E 149
Appendix E
Isothermal Maps over Sweden
The maps shown in Figure E:1 are based on shade air temperature measurements from 148
meteorological stations spread over the whole country. The probabilities that the maximum
and the minimum temperatures are exceeded once a year are 0.02, which is equivalent with an
interval of 50 years. These maps are taken from the Swedish Bridge Code - BRO2004
(Vägverket 2004).
Figure E:1 Isothermal maps of Tmin to the left and Tmax to the right [°C].

150 Appendix E

Appendix F 151
Appendix F
Calculations of the Gravity Induced Moments - Mw
Abendroth and Greimann (1989) proposed a structural model, according to Figure F:1, in
order to perform a simplified structural analysis. The contribution from the gravity loads to
the pile moments can be calculated in a conservative way by making some simplifications of
the structural system.
Les
q
Lequ
Figure F:1 Idealized structural model, proposed by Abendroth and Greimann (1989)
The bending stiffnesses of bridge superstructures are in general much higher than the bending
stiffness of the integral abutment piles, in many cases more than hundred times higher. The
stiffness of the superstructure is assumed to be unaffected by the restraint from piles and soil.
The continuity of the superstructure at the first support is also neglected, and conservatively
simplified to a simply supported beam. These assumptions make it possible to calculate the
end rotation, θw, of a bridge structure due to the gravity loads. Since the integral abutment
piles are rigidly connected to the abutments, they will also rotate by θw. This approximation is
conservative in many ways. For instance, the joint between the superstructure and the
abutments may not be 100% rigid, and the rotation of the pile head would therefore be less
than θw, which will be an upper limit. The end rotation of the bridge structure, and the upper
bound for the pile rotation, can be calculated as
3
qLes
θw = , (F.1)
24 E g I g
where q is the uniformly distributed gravity load, Les is the length of the end span, Eg is the
elasticity modulus of the bridge girders, and Ig is the moment of inertia for the bridge girders.
The rotation angle at the top of the pile can then be used to calculate the moment applied at
the top of the piles, Mw.
 4 EI 
Mw =   ⋅θ (F.2)
L  w
 equ 

152 Appendix F

Appendix G 153
Appendix G
Input Data to Temperature Models
The temperatures that are used in this report are taken from two sources, Klimatdata för
Sverige (Teasler 1972) and Temperature and Precipitation in Sweden 1961-90
(Alexandersson et al. 1991).
Table G:1 Monthly mean temperature [°C], based on temperatures from 30-years 1961-1990
Karesuando Kiruna Umeå Stockholm Malmö

January -16.0 -13.8 -8.7 -3.7 -0.2
February -14.6 -12.4 -8.3 -3.8 -0.2
Mars -10.0 -8.7 -4.0 -0.5 2.1
April -3.7 -3.1 1.4 4.2 6.1
May 3.4 3.5 7.6 10.4 11.5
June 10.3 9.6 13.3 15.1 15.4
July 12.8 12.1 15.5 16.7 17.0
August 10.4 9.9 13.8 15.7 16.8
September 5.0 4.6 9.0 11.3 13.6
October -1.6 -1.3 4.0 7.0 9.6
November -9.1 -7.8 -2.3 1.8 5.2
December -14.0 -11.7 -6.4 -1.9 1.8
Table G:2 Monthly mean value of the daily maximum temperatures [°C],
based on temperatures from 30-years 1931-1960.

January -9.5 -8.2 -4.4 -1.0 1.6
February -9.5 -8.2 -4.0 -1.2 1.6
Mars -4.2 -4.3 0.3 1.9 4.0
April 1.6 0.5 5.0 8.3 10.4
May 7.5 6.7 12.0 14.6 16.1
June 14.1 13.7 17.0 19.2 19.7
July 19.1 17.6 20.4 21.8 21.7
August 16.0 14.9 18.6 20.2 21.0
September 9.5 8.7 12.9 15.3 17.4
October 1.5 1.5 6.7 9.0 11.9
November -4.0 -3.6 1.5 4.5 7.0
December -7.5 -6.4 1.5 1.9 3.9

154 Appendix G
Table G:3 Monthly mean value of the daily minimum temperatures [°C],
based on temperatures from 30-years 1931-1960

January -18.5 -17.1 -11.8 -4.7 -3.0
February -18.8 -17.0 -12.2 -5.5 -3.3
Mars -15.6 -14.4 -9.2 -3.6 -1.7
April -8.9 -8.5 -2.9 0.7 2.2
May -1.2 -1.4 1.8 5.7 6.1
June 5.4 4.7 7.2 10.4 10.2
July 9.2 8.4 10.9 14.0 12.7
August 6.6 6.2 9.5 13.3 12.3
September 1.8 1.9 5.3 9.4 9.6
October -4.8 -4.6 0.2 4.8 5.5
November -11.1 -10.7 -3.8 1.0 2.5
December -15.4 -14.6 -7.5 -1.9 -0.1
The following input data have been used to adapt the annual temperature model to measured
temperatures.
 t 
Ts = Ts ,amp ⋅ sin  d ⋅ 2π − t 0  + Ts ,m (G.1)
 365 
Table G:4 Input data to adjust the daily mean, max and min temperature
model to measured values in the five studied locations.

Ts.amp 14.4 13.0 12.1 10.6 8.9
Mean Ts. m -1.6 -0.85 3.4 6.4 8.4
to 1.02 1.02 1.02 0.90 0.85
Ts.amp 14.9 13.5 12.6 11.9 10.6
Max Ts. m 4.2 4.2 7.9 10.1 11.5
to 0.98 0.95 0.95 0.93 0.89
Ts.amp 14.5 13.2 11.9 10.0 8.3
Min Ts. m -4.9 -4.5 -0.7 4.3 4.7
to 0.90 0.88 0.80 0.75 0.80

Appendix H 155
Appendix H
Temperature Models for Different Locations
The average value of the daily mean, maximum, and minimum temperatures for each month
measured during 30 year periods, 1931-1960 and 1961-1990, are compared to the sinus temperature
model and the polynomial temperature model. All temperatures are given in °C.
Kiruna Karesuando
15,0 15,0
10,0 10,0
5,0 5,0
0,0 Kiruna 0,0 Karesuando

Sinus temp. model
Sinus temp. model
-5,0 -5,0 Poly. (Karesuando)
Poly. (Kiruna)
-10,0 -10,0
-15,0 -15,0
-20,0 -20,0
Figure H:1 Daily mean temperature in Kiruna Figure H:4 Daily mean temperature in
Karesuando
20,0 25,0
15,0 20,0
15,0
10,0
10,0
Karesuando
5,0 Kiruna
Sinus temp.model 5,0 Sinus temp. model
0,0 Poly. (Kiruna) Poly. (Karesuando)
0,0
-5,0 -5,0
-10,0
-10,0
-15,0
-15,0
Figure H:2 Daily maximum temperature in Kiruna Figure H:5 Daily maximum temperature in
Karesuando
10,0 15,0
10,0
5,0
5,0
0,0
0,0
Karesuando
Kiruna
-5,0 Sinus temp. model -5,0 Sinus temp. model
Poly. (Kiruna) Poly. (Karesuando)
-10,0
-10,0
-15,0
-15,0 -20,0
-25,0
-20,0
Figure H:3 Daily minimum temperature in Kiruna Figure H:6 Daily minimum temperature in
Karesuando

156 Appendix H
Umeå Stockholm
20,0 20,0
15,0 15,0
10,0
10,0
Umeå Stockholm
5,0
Sinus temp. model 5,0 Sinus temp. model
0,0 Poly. (Umeå) Poly. (Stockholm)
0,0
-5,0
-5,0
-10,0
-15,0 -10,0
Figure H:7 Daily mean temperature in Umeå Figure H:10 Daily mean temperature in
Stockholm
25,0 25,0
20,0 20,0
15,0
15,0
Umeå Stockholm
10,0
Sinus temp. model 10,0 Sinus temp. model
5,0 Poly. (Umeå) Poly. (Stockholm)
5,0
0,0
0,0
-5,0
-10,0 -5,0
Figure H:8 Daily maximum temperature in Umeå Figure H:11 Daily maximum temperature in
Stockholm
15,0 15,0
10,0
10,0
5,0
Umeå 5,0 Stockholm
0,0 Sinus temp. model Sinus temp. model

Poly. (Umeå) Poly. (Stockholm)
0,0
-5,0
-5,0
-10,0
-10,0
-15,0
Figure H:9 Daily minimum temperature in Umeå Figure H:12 Daily minimum temperature in
Stockholm
Malmö
20,0 25,0 15,0
15,0 20,0
10,0
10,0 Malmö 15,0 Malmö Malmö

Sinus temp. model Sinus temp. model 5,0 Sinus temp. model
5,0 Poly. (Malmö) 10,0 Poly. (Malmö) Poly. (Malmö)
0,0
0,0 5,0
-5,0 0,0 -5,0
Figure H:13 Daily mean temperature in Figure H:14 Daily maximum temperature Figure H:15 Daily minimum temperature
Malmö in Malmö in Malmö

Appendix I 157
Appendix I
Example of Graphical Results from Temperature Simulations
Simulated shade air temperature in Kiruna, year 1-10
°C 40
30
20
10
0
-10
-20
-30
-40
-50
°C 40
30
20
10
0
-10
-20
-30
-40
-50
°C
40
30
20
10
0
-10
-20
-30
-40
-50
°C 40
30
20
10
0
-10
-20
-30
-40
-50
°C
40
30
20
10
0
-10
-20
-30
-40
-50
-60
Figure I:1 Graphical results from shade air temperature simulation in Kiruna, 50 years.

158 Appendix I
Simulated shade air temperature compared with EBT in Kiruna, during 2 years
°C 40
30
20
10
-10
-20
-30
Shade air temp
-40
EBT
-50
Figure I:2 Comparison between shade air temperatures and EBT´s.

Appendix J 159
Appendix J
Cross-section Calculations
According to the theory of elasticity, the composite action between concrete deck and steel
girders can be taken into account by replacing the concrete deck with a rectangular cross
section of massive steel. The height of the fictitious cross section is the same as the average
height of the concrete deck, hdeck, and the area, ∆A, is calculated as
E deck
∆A = Adeck ⋅ , (J.1)
E girder ⋅ 1.2 ⋅ (1 + ϕ )
where ϕ is a shrinkage factor which is 2 for long term loading and 0 for short-term loading.
The average height of the bridge deck is 244 mm.
35
∆ALT = 1.50 ⋅ = 0.0694 m2
210 ⋅ 1.2 ⋅ (1 + 2)
LT
bequ = 0.284 m
35
∆AST = 1.50 ⋅ = 0.2083 m2
210 ⋅ 1.2 ⋅ (1 + 0)
ST
bequ = 0.854 m
The moment of inertia is calculated for the two types of girders that are used in the bridge.
Results from the calculations are shown in Table J:1 and J:2. The e-axis is positive
downwards and has its origin in the layer between the upper flange and the deck.
Table J:1 Cross section properties, long term loading
end girder Total cross-section
2 3 4
b [mm] t [mm] A [mm ] e [mm] A⋅e [mm ] I [mm ]
4
Deck 142 244 34648 -122 -4227056 1.199E+10 I 0.0710 m
3
Upper flange 500 25 12500 13 156250 2.526E+09 WU 0.1537 m
3
Web 1221 13 15873 636 10087292 2.45E+09 WL 0.0866 m
Lower flange 800 36 28800 1264 36403200 1.853E+10
91821 462 42419686 3.549E+10
midspan girder Total cross-section
2 3 4
4
Deck 142 244 34648 -122 -4227056 1.41E+10 I 0.0822 m
3
Upper flange 600 25 15000 13 187500 3.744E+09 WU 0.1606 m
3
Web 1234 11 13574 642 8714508 1.952E+09 WL 0.1038 m
Lower flange 800 45 36000 1282 46134000 2.132E+10
99222 512 50808952 4.112E+10

160 Appendix J
Table J:2 Cross section properties, short term loading
end girder Total cross-section
2 3 4
4
Deck 427 244 104188 -122 -12710936 1.202E+10 I 0.0987 m
3
Upper flange 500 25 12500 13 156250 489760184 WU 0.4691 m
3
Web 1221 13 15873 636 10087292 4.842E+09 WL 0.0921 m
Lower flange 800 36 28800 1264 36403200 3.198E+10
161361 210 33935806 4.933E+10
midspan girder Total cross-section
2 3 4
Deck 427 244 104188 -122 -12710936 1.5E+10 I 0.1158 m4
Upper flange 600 25 15000 13 187500 852566063 WU 0.4617 m3
Web 1234 11 13574 642 8714508 3.8E+09 WL 0.1099 m3
Lower flange 800 45 36000 1282 46134000 3.825E+10
168762 251 42325072 5.79E+10

Appendix K 161
Appendix K
Vehicle Classification System – Metor 2000

162 Appendix K

Appendix L 163
Appendix L
Input Data for Monte Carlo Simulations
Simulation of strain cycles due to traffic loads – pipe piles
Input distributions
W Truck weight probability distribution
q Queue weight probability distribution
p Uniform distribution between 0 and 1
t Calculation step number
Code
Str = POS(2*b-t+1)*Str1+(1-POS(2*b-t+1))*Str2 ; [-] Pile strain due to traffic loads every
b = int(t/2) ; every second value is str1 respectively str2
str1 = V1/(Apile*E) + (3*d/(Leh^2))*H*Rtot + (2*d/Lem)*Rtot ; [-] Pile strain in the most exposed pile, vehicle in lane 1
str2 = V2/(Apile*E) + (3*d/(Leh^2))*H*Rtot + (2*d/Lem)*Rtot ; [-] Pile strain in the most exposed pile, vehicle in lane 2
Rtot = POS(O+Rsoilmax)*(O+Rsoilmax)+(1-POS(O+Rsoilmax))*0 ; [-] Rotations after reduction due to the backfill soil pressure
O = Z + (qA*1000*L^3)/(24*E*I) ; Sum of the rotations due to the traffic loads
V1 = (N+(qA*1000*L)/2)/6+(N+(qA*1000*L)/2)*1,000*2,1/(12,7) ; Normal force, in the most exposed pile, vehicle in lane 1[N]
V2 = (N+(qA*1000*L)/2)/6-(N+(qA*1000*L)/2)*1,000*2,1/(12,7) ; Normal force, in the most exposed pile, vehicle in lane 2 [N]
Z = POS(W-m1)*Za+(1-POS(W-m1))*R1 ; IF the vehicle weight is larger than m1 THEN the rotation is
Za otherwise R1
Za = POS(W-m2)*Zb+(1-POS(W-m2))*R2 ; IF the vehicle weight is larger than m2 THEN the rotation is
Zb otherwise R2
Zb = POS(W-m3)*R4+(1-POS(W-m3))*R3 ; IF the vehicle weight is larger than m3 THEN the rotation is
R4 otherwise R3
N = POS(W-m1)*Na+(1-POS(W-m1))*N1 ; IF the vehicle weight is larger than m1 THEN the vertical
force at each abutment is Na otherwise N1
Na = POS(W-m2)*Nb+(1-POS(W-m2))*N2 ; IF the vehicle weight is larger than m2 THEN is the vertical
force at each abutment Nb otherwise N2
Nb = POS(W-m3)*N4+(1-POS(W-m3))*N3 ; IF the vehicle weight is larger than m3 THEN is the vertical
force at each abutment N4 otherwise N3
R1 = (W*10000/3)*(L-a1)*L/(6*E*I)*(1-((L-a1)^2)/(L^2)) +
(W*10000/3)*(L-a1-1,5)*L/(6*E*I)*(1-((L-a1-1,5)^2)/(L^2)) +
(W*10000/3)*(L-a1-7,5)*L/(6*E*I)*(1-((L-a1-7,5)^2)/(L^2)) ; Rotations caused by a Type 1 vehicle with 3-axels
R2 = (W*10000*15/66)*(L-a2)*L/(6*E*I)*(1-((L-a2)^2)/(L^2)) +
(W*10000*15/66)*(L-a2-1,5)*L/(6*E*I)*(1-((L-a2-1,5)^2)/(L^2)) +
(W*10000*18/66)*(L-a2-7,5)*L/(6*E*I)*(1-((L-a2-7,5)^2)/(L^2)) +
(W*10000*18/66)*(L-a2-9,5)*L/(6*E*I)*(1-((L-a2-9,5)^2)/(L^2)) ; Rotations caused by a Type 2 vehicle with 4-axels
R3= (W*10000*12/55)*(L-a3)*L/(6*E*I)*(1-((L-a3)^2)/(L^2)) +
(W*10000*12/55)*(L-a3-5)*L/(6*E*I)*(1-((L-a3-5)^2)/(L^2)) +
(W*10000*11/55)*(L-a3-8)*L/(6*E*I)*(1-((L-a3-8)^2)/(L^2)) +
(W*10000*11/55)*(L-a3-9,5)*L/(6*E*I)*(1-((L-a3-9,5)^2)/(L^2)) +
R4= ((W*10000*11/75)*(L-a4)*L/(6*E*I))*(1-((L-a4)^2)/(L^2)) +
((W*10000*11/75)*(L-a4-1,5)*L/(6*E*I))*(1-((L-a4-1,5)^2)/(L^2)) +
((W*10000*11/75)*(L-a4-7,5)*L/(6*E*I))*(1-((L-a4-7,5)^2)/(L^2)) +
((W*10000*11/75)*(L-a4-9)*L/(6*E*I))*(1-((L-a4-9)^2)/(L^2)) +
((W*10000*11/75)*(L-a4-13)*L/(6*E*I))*(1-((L-a4-13)^2)/(L^2)) +
((W*10000*11/75)*(L-a4-14,5)*L/(6*E*I))*(1-((L-a4-14,5)^2)/(L^2)) +
((W*10000*9/75)*(L-a4-20,5)*L/(6*E*I))*(1-((L-a4-20,5)^2)/(L^2)) ; Rotations caused by a Type 4 vehicle with 7-axels
N1 = (W*10000/3)*(L-a1)/L+(W*10000/3)*(L-a1-1,5)/L +
(W*10000/3)*(L-a1-7,5)/L ; The vertical force at the abutment with largest rotations due
to the Type 1 vehicle. [N]
N2 = (W*10000*15/66)*(L-a2)/L + (W*10000*15/66)*(L-a2 - 1,5)/L +
(W*10000*18/66)*(L-a2 - 7,5)/L + (W*10000*18/66)*(L-a2 - 9,5)/L ; The vertical force at the abutment with largest rotations due
N3 = (W*10000*12/55)*(L-a3)/L + (W*10000*12/55)*(L-a3 - 5)/L +
(W*10000*11/55)*(L-a3 - 8)/L + (W*10000*11/55)*(L-a3 - 9,5)/L +
(W*10000*9/55)*(L-a3 - 14,5)/L ; The vertical force at the abutment with largest rotations due
N4 = (W*10000*11/75)*(L-a4)/L + (W*10000*11/75)*(L-a4 - 1,5)/L +

164 Appendix L
(W*10000*11/75)*(L-a4 - 7,5)/L + (W*10000*11/75)*(L-a4 - 9)/L +

(W*10000*11/75)*(L-a4 - 13)/L + (W*10000*11/75)*(L-a4 - 14,5)/L+
Apile = (Pi/4)*(d^2-(dypile-2*tpile*0,001)^2) ; [m2] Area of a pile
qA = POS(p-(s/Tr))*0+(1-POS(p-(s/Tr)))*q ; IF p is larger than s/1560 THEN the queue weight is zero
otherwise q
d = dypile-2*corr*0,001 ; [m] Pile diameter after corrosion
dypile = 0,1683 ; [m] Pile outer diameter
tpile = 10 ; [mm] Thickness of the pile material
corr = 0 (varying parameter) ; [mm] Depth of the corrosion
Rsoilmax = -0,00151 ; [-] Max reduction of the rotations due to the backfill soil
pressure.
L = 40 ; Bridge length [m]
E = 210*10^9 ; Steel E-modulus [Pa]
I = 0,0987 ; [m4] Moment of inertia for the superstructure, short term
loading
m3 = 55 ; Weight limit for Type 3 vehicles [ton]
H = 1,65 ; Abutment height [m]
Lem = 4,415 (varying parameter) ; Equivalent cantilever length moment[m]
Leh = 4,348 (varying parameter) ; Equivalent cantilever length lateral stiffness [m]
a1 = 14,133 ; The last axels position on the bridge causing the largest
rotations of the abutments, Type 1 vehicles [m]
s = 10 ; Number of traffic queues per day at the same time as a truck
is crossing the bridge
Tr=1560 ; Number of trucks per day crossing the bridge

Appendix L 165
Simulation of strain cycles due to traffic loads – H-piles
Input distributions
W Truck weight probability distribution
q Queue weight probability distribution
p Uniform distribution between 0 and 1
Code
Str = POS(2*b-t+1)*Str1+(1-POS(2*b-t+1))*Str2 ; [-] Pile strain due to traffic loads every
b = int(t/2) ; every second value is str1 respectively str2
str1 = V1/(Apile*E) + (3*bp/(Leh^2))*H*Rtot + (2*bp/Lem)*Rtot ; [-] Pile strain in the most exposed pile, vehicle in lane 1
str2 = V2/(Apile*E) + (3*bp/(Leh^2))*H*Rtot + (2*bp/Lem)*Rtot ; [-] Pile strain in the most exposed pile, vehicle in lane 2
Rtot = POS(O+Rsoilmax)*(O+Rsoilmax)+(1-POS(O+Rsoilmax))*0 ; [-] Rotations after reduction due to the backfill soil pressure
O = Z + (qA*1000*L^3)/(24*E*I) ; Sum of the rotations due to the traffic loads
V1 = (N+(qA*1000*L)/2)/6+(N+(qA*1000*L)/2)*1,000*2,1/(12,7) ; Normal force, in the most exposed pile, vehicle in lane 1[N]
V2 = (N+(qA*1000*L)/2)/6-(N+(qA*1000*L)/2)*1,000*2,1/(12,7) ; Normal force, in the most exposed pile, vehicle in lane 2 [N]
Z = POS(W-m1)*Za+(1-POS(W-m1))*R1 ; IF the vehicle weight is larger than m1 THEN the rotation is
Za otherwise R1
Za = POS(W-m2)*Zb+(1-POS(W-m2))*R2 ; IF the vehicle weight is larger than m2 THEN the rotation is
Zb otherwise R2
Zb = POS(W-m3)*R4+(1-POS(W-m3))*R3 ; IF the vehicle weight is larger than m3 THEN the rotation is
R4 otherwise R3
N = POS(W-m1)*Na+(1-POS(W-m1))*N1 ; IF the vehicle weight is larger than m1 THEN the vertical
force at each abutment is Na otherwise N1
Na = POS(W-m2)*Nb+(1-POS(W-m2))*N2 ; IF the vehicle weight is larger than m2 THEN is the vertical
force at each abutment Nb otherwise N2
Nb = POS(W-m3)*N4+(1-POS(W-m3))*N3 ; IF the vehicle weight is larger than m3 THEN is the vertical
force at each abutment N4 otherwise N3
R1 = (W*10000/3)*(L-a1)*L/(6*E*I)*(1-((L-a1)^2)/(L^2)) +
(W*10000/3)*(L-a1-1,5)*L/(6*E*I)*(1-((L-a1-1,5)^2)/(L^2)) +
(W*10000/3)*(L-a1-7,5)*L/(6*E*I)*(1-((L-a1-7,5)^2)/(L^2)) ; Rotations caused by a Type 1 vehicle with 3-axels
R2 = (W*10000*15/66)*(L-a2)*L/(6*E*I)*(1-((L-a2)^2)/(L^2)) +
(W*10000*15/66)*(L-a2-1,5)*L/(6*E*I)*(1-((L-a2-1,5)^2)/(L^2)) +
(W*10000*18/66)*(L-a2-7,5)*L/(6*E*I)*(1-((L-a2-7,5)^2)/(L^2)) +
R3= (W*10000*12/55)*(L-a3)*L/(6*E*I)*(1-((L-a3)^2)/(L^2)) +
(W*10000*12/55)*(L-a3-5)*L/(6*E*I)*(1-((L-a3-5)^2)/(L^2)) +
(W*10000*11/55)*(L-a3-8)*L/(6*E*I)*(1-((L-a3-8)^2)/(L^2)) +
(W*10000*11/55)*(L-a3-9,5)*L/(6*E*I)*(1-((L-a3-9,5)^2)/(L^2)) +
R4= ((W*10000*11/75)*(L-a4)*L/(6*E*I))*(1-((L-a4)^2)/(L^2)) +
((W*10000*11/75)*(L-a4-1,5)*L/(6*E*I))*(1-((L-a4-1,5)^2)/(L^2)) +
((W*10000*11/75)*(L-a4-7,5)*L/(6*E*I))*(1-((L-a4-7,5)^2)/(L^2)) +
((W*10000*11/75)*(L-a4-9)*L/(6*E*I))*(1-((L-a4-9)^2)/(L^2)) +
((W*10000*11/75)*(L-a4-13)*L/(6*E*I))*(1-((L-a4-13)^2)/(L^2)) +
((W*10000*11/75)*(L-a4-14,5)*L/(6*E*I))*(1-((L-a4-14,5)^2)/(L^2)) +
((W*10000*9/75)*(L-a4-20,5)*L/(6*E*I))*(1-((L-a4-20,5)^2)/(L^2)) ; Rotations caused by a Type 4 vehicle with 7-axels
N1 = (W*10000/3)*(L-a1)/L+(W*10000/3)*(L-a1-1,5)/L +
(W*10000/3)*(L-a1-7,5)/L ; The vertical force at the abutment with largest rotations due
N2 = (W*10000*15/66)*(L-a2)/L + (W*10000*15/66)*(L-a2 - 1,5)/L +
(W*10000*18/66)*(L-a2 - 7,5)/L + (W*10000*18/66)*(L-a2 - 9,5)/L ; The vertical force at the abutment with largest rotations due
N3 = (W*10000*12/55)*(L-a3)/L + (W*10000*12/55)*(L-a3 - 5)/L +
(W*10000*11/55)*(L-a3 - 8)/L + (W*10000*11/55)*(L-a3 - 9,5)/L +
N4 = (W*10000*11/75)*(L-a4)/L + (W*10000*11/75)*(L-a4 - 1,5)/L +
(W*10000*11/75)*(L-a4 - 7,5)/L + (W*10000*11/75)*(L-a4 - 9)/L +
(W*10000*11/75)*(L-a4 - 13)/L + (W*10000*11/75)*(L-a4 - 14,5)/L+
Apile = 6641*0,001^2 (varying parameter) ; [m2] Area of a pile

166 Appendix L
qA = POS(p-(s/Tr))*0+(1-POS(p-(s/Tr)))*q ; IF p is larger than s/1560 THEN the queue weight is zero

otherwise q
bp = bile-2*corr*0,001 ; [m] Pile width after corrosion
bpile = 0,126 ; [m] Pile width
corr = 0 (varying parameter) ; [mm] Depth of the corrosion
Rsoilmax = -0,00151 ; [-] Max reduction of the rotations due to the backfill soil
pressure.
L = 40 ; Bridge length [m]
E = 210*10^9 ; Steel E-modulus [Pa]
I = 0,0987 ; [m4] Moment of inertia for the superstructure, short term
loading
H = 1,65 ; Abutment height [m]
Lem = 4,032 (varying parameter) ; Equivalent cantilever length moment[m]
Leh = 4,011 (varying parameter) ; Equivalent cantilever length lateral stiffness [m]
s = 10 ; Number of traffic queues per day at the same time as a truck
is crossing the bridge
Tr=1560 ; Number of trucks per day crossing the bridge

Appendix L 167
Simulation of temperature induced strains – pipe piles

Input distributions
Nmax Normal distributed daily max temperature
Nmin1 Normal distributed daily min temperature during the month with tm>0
Nmin2 Normal distributed daily min temperature during the month with tm<0
TGn Normal distributed negative temperature gradient
TGp Normal distributed positive temperature gradient
Code
Str = (Ndead/(Apile*E*10^9))+(3*d/((Leh)^2))*(Dabt+H*(Rtg+Rdead)) +
(2*d/Lem)*(Rtg+Rdead) + STRtraff ; Strain calculations
Ndead = 1000*(((Pave+Conc+Barr+Steel2)*L/2 –
(Steel2-Steel1)*(L-Lmid)*0,5*(1-(L-Lmid)*0,5/(2*L)) –
(Steel2-Steel1)*((L-Lmid)*0,5)^2/(2*L))/n) ; Normal force in the piles due to deadloads [N]
Rdead = ((Barr+Pave)*1000*L^3/(24*E*IST*10^9))+Shrink ; Rotations of due to deadloads, shrinkage included
Shrink = ((0,25*(1/10^3)*Econc/3)*Aconc*(eLT-edeck))*L/(2*E*ILT) ; Rotation of the abutments due to shrinkage
Rtg = ((1/10^5)*Y*Ag*(eg-eST)*L)/(6*IST) ; Rotation due to thermal gradients
STRtraff = POS(2*b-t+1)*STRtraff99+(1-POS(2*b-t+1))*0 ; Traffic load added at daily max temperature
Y = POS(2*b-t+1)*TGn+(1-POS(2*b-t+1))*TGp ; Every second value are max and min
Dabt = (1/10^5)*L*(EBT-To)/2 ; Lateral displacements of the abutments [m]
EBT = 4+0,98*X ; Effective Bridge Temperature [°C]
X = POS(2*b-t+1)*Tmax+(1-POS(2*b-t+1))*Tmin ; Every second value are max and min
b = int(t/2)
Tmax = Tmaxamp*sin(2*Pi*t/730-tomax)+Tmaxmean+Nmax ; daily maximum temperature [°C]
Tmin = Tminamp*sin(2*Pi*t/730-tomin)+Tminmean+Nmin ; daily minimum temperature [°C]
Nmin = POS(Tm)*Nmin1+(1-POS(Tm))*Nmin2 ; Every second value are taken from Nmin1 and Nmin2
Tm = Tmamp*sin(2*Pi*t/730-tom)+Tmmean ; ; daily mean temperature [°C]
Apile = (Pi/4)*(d^2-(dypile-2*tpile*0,001)^2) ; m2 Area of a pile [m2]
d = dypile-2*corr*0,001 ; Pile diameter after corrosion [m]
dypile = 0,1683 ; Pile outer diameter [m]
tpile = 10 ; Thickness of the pile material [mm]
corr = 2,4 (varying parameter) ; Depth of the corrosion [mm]
L = 40 ; Length of the bridge [m]
To = 10 ; Temperature at the construction day [°C]
Lem = 3,413 (varying parameter) ; Equivalent cantilever length - moment[m]
Leh= 2,773 (varying parameter) ; Equivalent cantilever length – lateral stiffness[m]
Ag = 0,1143 ; Cross-section area of the steel girders [m2]
eg = 0,816 ; Distance between the top of the upper flange and the
center of gravity for the steel girders [m]
edeck = -0,122 ; Distance between the top of the upper flange and the
center of gravity for the concrete deck [m]
eST = 0,210 ; Distance between the top of the upper flange and the short
term center of gravity for the superstructure [m]
eLT = 0,521 ; Distance between the top of the upper flange and the long
IST = 0,0987 ; Moment of inertia - short term loading [m4]
ILT = 0,0710 ; Moment of inertia - long term loading [m4]
H = 2,25 ; Height of the abutment [m]
n=6 ; Number of piles at each abutment
E = 210 ; E-modulus steel [GPa]
Econc = 35 ; E-modulus concrete [GPa]
Aconc = 1,5 ; Cross-section area concrete deck [m2]
Barr = 0,5 ; Barriers [kN/m]
Pave = 11,5 ; Pavement [kN/m]
Conc = 37,5 ; Concrete [kN/m]
Steel1 = 9,7 ; Steel end girders [kN/m]
Steel2 = 10,7 ; Steel midspan girders [kN/m]
Lmid = 18 ; Length of the midspan girders [m]
Tmaxamp = 14,9 (varying between locations) ; Tmax amplitude
Tminamp = 14,5 (varying between locations) ; Tmin amplitude
Tmamp = 14,4 (varying between locations) ; Tm amplitude
tomax = 0,98 (varying between locations) ; to max
tomin = 0,90 (varying between locations) ; to min
tom = 1,02 (varying between locations) ; to max
Tmaxmean = 4,2 (varying between locations) ; Tmax mean value
Tminmean = -4,9 (varying between locations) ; Tmin mean value
Tmmean = -1,6 (varying between locations) ; Tm mean value
STRtraff99 = 0,00030749 (varying between load models) ; Added strain from traffic load model

168 Appendix L
Simulation of temperature induced strains – H-piles

Input distributions
Nmax Normal distributed daily max temperature
Nmin1 Normal distributed daily min temperature during the month with tm>0
Nmin2 Normal distributed daily min temperature during the month with tm<0
TGn Normal distributed negative temperature gradient
TGp Normal distributed positive temperature gradient
Code
Str = (Ndead/(Apile*E*10^9))+(3*bp/((Leh)^2))*(Dabt+H*(Rtg+Rdead)) +
(2*bp/Lem)*(Rtg+Rdead) + STRtraff ; Strain calculations
Ndead = 1000*(((Pave+Conc+Barr+Steel2)*L/2 –
(Steel2-Steel1)*(L-Lmid)*0,5*(1-(L-Lmid)*0,5/(2*L)) –
(Steel2-Steel1)*((L-Lmid)*0,5)^2/(2*L))/n) ; Normal force in the piles due to deadloads [N]
Rdead = ((Barr+Pave)*1000*L^3/(24*E*IST*10^9))+Shrink ; Rotations of due to deadloads, shrinkage included
Shrink = ((0,25*(1/10^3)*Econc/3)*Aconc*(eLT-edeck))*L/(2*E*ILT) ; Rotation of the abutments due to shrinkage
Rtg = ((1/10^5)*Y*Ag*(eg-eST)*L)/(6*IST) ; Rotation due to thermal gradients
STRtraff = POS(2*b-t+1)*STRtraff99+(1-POS(2*b-t+1))*0 ; Traffic load added at daily max temperature
Y = POS(2*b-t+1)*TGn+(1-POS(2*b-t+1))*TGp ; Every second value are max and min
Dabt = (1/10^5)*L*(EBT-To)/2 ; Lateral displacements of the abutments [m]
EBT = 4+0,98*X ; Effective Bridge Temperature [°C]
X = POS(2*b-t+1)*Tmax+(1-POS(2*b-t+1))*Tmin ; Every second value are max and min
b = int(t/2)
Tmax = Tmaxamp*sin(2*Pi*t/730-tomax)+Tmaxmean+Nmax ; daily maximum temperature [°C]
Tmin = Tminamp*sin(2*Pi*t/730-tomin)+Tminmean+Nmin ; daily minimum temperature [°C]
Nmin = POS(Tm)*Nmin1+(1-POS(Tm))*Nmin2 ; Every second value are taken from Nmin1 and Nmin2
Tm = Tmamp*sin(2*Pi*t/730-tom)+Tmmean ; ; daily mean temperature [°C]
Apile = 6641*0,001^2 ; m2 Area of a pile [m2]
bp = bpile-2*corr*0,001 ; Pile width after corrosion [m]
bpile = 0,1683 ; Pile width [m]
corr = 2,4 (varying parameter) ; Depth of the corrosion [mm]
L = 40 ; Length of the bridge [m]
To = 10 ; Temperature at the construction day [°C]
Lem = 2667 (varying parameter) ; Equivalent cantilever length - moment[m]
Leh= 2,376 (varying parameter) ; Equivalent cantilever length – lateral stiffness[m]
Ag = 0,1143 ; Cross-section area of the steel girders [m2]
eg = 0,816 ; Distance between the top of the upper flange and the
center of gravity for the steel girders [m]
edeck = -0,122 ; Distance between the top of the upper flange and the
center of gravity for the concrete deck [m]
eST = 0,210 ; Distance between the top of the upper flange and the short
eLT = 0,521 ; Distance between the top of the upper flange and the long
IST = 0,0987 ; Moment of inertia - short term loading [m4]
ILT = 0,0710 ; Moment of inertia - long term loading [m4]
H = 2,25 ; Height of the abutment [m]
n=6 ; Number of piles at each abutment
E = 210 ; E-modulus steel [GPa]
Econc = 35 ; E-modulus concrete [GPa]
Aconc = 1,5 ; Cross-section area concrete deck [m2]
Barr = 0,5 ; Barriers [kN/m]
Pave = 11,5 ; Pavement [kN/m]
Conc = 37,5 ; Concrete [kN/m]
Steel1 = 9,7 ; Steel end girders [kN/m]
Steel2 = 10,7 ; Steel midspan girders [kN/m]
Lmid = 18 ; Length of the midspan girders [m]
Tmaxamp = 14,9 (varying between locations) ; Tmax amplitude
Tminamp = 14,5 (varying between locations) ; Tmin amplitude
Tmamp = 14,4 (varying between locations) ; Tm amplitude
tomax = 0,98 (varying between locations) ; to max
tomin = 0,90 (varying between locations) ; to min
tom = 1,02 (varying between locations) ; to max
Tmaxmean = 4,2 (varying between locations) ; Tmax mean value
Tminmean = -4,9 (varying between locations) ; Tmin mean value
Tmmean = -1,6 (varying between locations) ; Tm mean value
STRtraff99 = 0,00030749 (varying between load models) ; Added strain from traffic load model

Appendix M 169
Appendix M
Relationship Between Allowable Gross Weight and Axel Distances
The information in this appendix can be found in the Swedish Traffic Regulation,
Trafikförordningen (1998:1276).
Table M:1 Allowable gross weight for vehicles with different axel distances.
Distance between the More than Less than Allowable gross weight
first and the last axel [m] [m] [ton]
0 1 11.5
1 1.3 16
1.3 1.8 18
1.8 2 20
2 2.6 21
2.6 5 24
5 5.2 25
5.2 5.4 26
5.4 5.6 27
5.6 5.8 28
5.8 6 29
6 6.2 30
6.2 6.4 31
6.4 8.25 32
8.25 8.5 33
8.5 8.75 34
8.75 9 35
9 9.25 36
9.25 9.5 37
9.5 9.75 38
9.75 10 39
10 10.25 40
10.25 10.5 41
10.5 10.75 42
10.75 11 43
11 11.25 44
11.25 11.5 45
11.5 11.75 46
11.75 12 47
12 12.5 48
12.5 13 49
13 13.5 50
13.5 14 51
14 14.5 52
14.5 15 53
15 15.5 54
15.5 16 55
16 16.5 56
16.5 17 57
17 17.5 58
17.5 18 59
18 24 60
70
60
Allowed gross weight [ton]
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Distance between the first and the last axel [m]
Figure M:1 Relationship between the allowable gross weight and the total axel distance.

170 Appendix M

Appendix N 171
Appendix N
Maximum Integral Bridge Lengths in 30 States in the USA
Table N:1 Length limits and skew angle limitations in 30 states in USA (Bakeer et al. 2005)
State First year built Length limit [m] Skew angle [degrees]
Arkansas 1996 79 33
California 1959 25 mm movement 45
Georgia 1975 125 / 79 0 / 40
Hawaii - 76 -
Illinois 1983 92 30
Indiana - 92 30
Idaho - 122 30
Iowa 1962 92 30
Kansas 1935 137 -
Kentucky 1970 122 30
Louisiana 1989 305 0
Maine 1983 46 30
Michigan 1990 - 30
Missouri - 183 -
Massachusetts 1930 92 30
North Dakota 1960 122 30
Nevada 1980 61 45
New York 1980 92 30
Ohio - 114 30
Oklahoma 1980 64 0
Pennsylvania 1946 183 20
Oregon 1940 61 25
South Dakota 1948 214 35
South Carolina - 153 30
Tennessee 1965 50 mm movement No limit
Utah - 92 20
Virginia 1982 153 -
Wyoming 1957 110 30
Washington 1965 137 40
Wisconsin - 92 30

Steel Piles in Integral Abutment Bridges

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2006:291 CIV

MASTER OF SCIENCE PROGRAMME

Luleå University of Technology

2006:291 CIV • ISSN: 1402 - 1617 • ISRN: LTU - EX - - 06/291 - - SE

Luleå, September 2006

Low-cycle Fatigue of Steel Piles in Integral Abutment Bridges

Low-cycle Fatigue of Steel Piles in Integral Abutment Bridges

Low-cycle Fatigue of Steel Piles in Integral Abutment Bridges

Low-cycle Fatigue of Steel Piles in Integral Abutment Bridges

Sammanfattning (Summary in Swedish)

Examensarbetet inleddes med en litteraturstudie för att få en djupare inblick i de aktuella

Low-cycle Fatigue of Steel Piles in Integral Abutment Bridges

Temperaturmodellen som använts i denna rapport är baserad på trettio års mätningar av

Trafiklastmodellen är baserad på verkliga fordons bruttovikter som uppmätts av Vägverket

Resultatet från beräkningarna i denna rapport tyder på att utmattningsbrott av låg-cyklisk

Low-cycle Fatigue of Steel Piles in Integral Abutment Bridges

Low-cycle Fatigue of Steel Piles in Integral Abutment Bridges

5.5 Long Term and Short Term Temperature Changes ............................................................. 32

Low-cycle Fatigue of Steel Piles in Integral Abutment Bridges

11 Temperature Simulations .................................................................................................. 75

Low-cycle Fatigue of Steel Piles in Integral Abutment Bridges

Low-cycle Fatigue of Steel Piles in Integral Abutment Bridges

Low-cycle Fatigue of Steel Piles in Integral Abutment Bridges

Low-cycle Fatigue of Steel Piles in Integral Abutment Bridges

Figure 15:12 Yearly strain cycle caused by seasonal temperature variations............................................................................121

Low-cycle Fatigue of Steel Piles in Integral Abutment Bridges

Low-cycle Fatigue of Steel Piles in Integral Abutment Bridges

Low-cycle Fatigue of Steel Piles in Integral Abutment Bridges

Low-cycle Fatigue of Steel Piles in Integral Abutment Bridges

α Thermal coefficient of a material [°C-1]

Roman upper case letters

Low-cycle Fatigue of Steel Piles in Integral Abutment Bridges

Roman lower case letters

b Fatigue strength exponent [-]

Low-cycle Fatigue of Steel Piles in Integral Abutment Bridges

AADT Annual Average Daily Traffic

Low-cycle Fatigue of Steel Piles in Integral Abutment Bridges

Introduction and Literature Review

Low-cycle Fatigue of Steel Piles in Integral Abutment Bridges

Low-cycle Fatigue of Steel Piles in Integral Abutment Bridges

1.2 Aims and Scope

1.3 Structure of the Thesis

Chapter 2 - Integral Bridges

Chapter 3 - International Experiences of Integral Bridges

Low-cycle Fatigue of Steel Piles in Integral Abutment Bridges

Chapter 5 - Bridge Temperature

Chapter 6 - Low-cycle Fatigue

Chapter 7 - Traffic Loads

Chapter 8 - Monte Carlo Simulation

Chapter 9 - Example Bridge - Leduån Bridge

Chapter 10 - Temperature Models

Chapter 11 - Temperature Simulations

Chapter 12 - Soil Calculations

Chapter 13 - Loads and Rotations

Low-cycle Fatigue of Steel Piles in Integral Abutment Bridges

Chapter 14 - Maximum Strain Calculations

Chapter 15 - Fatigue Simulation Model

Chapter 16 - Fatigue Simulation Results