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Effects of product personality, moral norms & moral disengagement on the

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Gianluigi Guido, M. Irene Prete, R. Christian Maloumby-Baka
and Carolina Buffa

3. Effects of product personality, moral norms

and moral disengagement on the intention
to buy organic food products3

3.1. Introduction

Over the past several years, research has identified a category of con-
sumers defined as “ethical consumers”, those who are interested in a
large number of principled topics, from the safeguard of the environ-
ment to the protection of health, human rights and the well-being of
animals. Nowadays, the market of ethical consumption has enormous
potential and has for some time shown high rates of growth (Leather-
head Food International 2007). Ethical consumption includes, among
the others, the organic food market, which, though being a niche with-
in the food sector in many national markets, has nonetheless seen
strong growth in the last few years – e.g., the global organic market
rose by 13.6% in 2006 (Datamonitor 2007). Yet, despite the great
potential of this market, there is still no deep understanding of the
mechanisms at the basis of ethical consumers’ decision making. As
regards organic agriculture, in particular, some researcher has studied
the connection between moral considerations and the purchase of
organic food products by applying prevalently Schwartz’s (1992)
Value theory, or Ajzen’s (1991) Theory of planned behavior.

3 The Authors would like to thank Dr Alessandro M. Peluso for his comments
on a previous version of this manuscript and Giorgia A. Pollara for her sup-
port in data collection and codification.

44
 The objective of the present study is to broaden the analysis of
how significant this ethical dimension can be in the purchasing inten-
tion of organic food products, as well as to propose an intercultural
comparison between Italy and France as regards components of the
organic food product image – identified through the Five-factor model
of personality (cf. Digman 1990) – which is supposed to have an im-
pact on these ethical determinants. In order to evaluate how people’s
ethics influences purchase intention, the Theory of planned behavior
has been extended here to two factors which identify the ethical com-
ponent: Moral norms, which represent personal beliefs regarding what
is right or wrong (Parker, Manstead and Stradling 1995), and Moral
disengagement (Bandura 1986, 1999), which refers to those cognitive
mechanisms which allow individuals’ peace of mind when their be-
havior infringes their own moral codes. Until now, the construct of
moral disengagement has been primarily employed in situations of
violence and aggressiveness. In the present study, it is applied to nor-
mal behavior – in accordance with Caprara et al. (2006). The study is
structured as follows: Section 2, after presenting organic agriculture
and other cultivation methods, reviews the literature regarding the
demographic and psychographic profile of the organic food product
consumers and presents the Prospect method (Caprara and Barbaran-
elli 2000; Caprara, Barbaranelli and Guido 2000) – which integrates
the Theory of planned behavior and the Five-factor model within a
single model – by tracing, specifically, the moral antecedents in the
purchase intention of organic food products. Section 3 introduces the
research objectives, methodology and results; whereas, Section 4 syn-
thesizes findings and discusses implications, limitations, and future
lines for research.

3.2. Determinants of intention to buy organic food products

Organic agriculture is a type of production which is natural, not ge-

netically manipulated, and which “maintains and replenishes soil fer-

45
tility without the use of toxic and persistent pesticides and fertilizers”
(Organic Trade Association 2008: 1). It is an agricultural system
which produces healthy food free of chemical substances, in full re-
spect of the environment, and which differentiates itself from other
methods of cultivation such as: (i) conventional agriculture, which
employs crop intensive technologies aimed at maximizing the vol-
umes of production and profit and which makes an unrestricted use of
chemical synthetic substances for fertilizing and insecticide purposes;
and (ii) biotechnological agriculture, which applies recent scientific
achievements, including those in the field of genetic engineering, in
order to modify plants, animals and micro-organisms, and to promote
improvements in production and agronomy (United States Department
of Agriculture 2008).

3.2.1. The consumer of organic food products

Several studies have researched into the demand for organic food
products in order to identify the demographic and psychographic pro-
file of the standard consumer (see Hughner et al. 2007, for a review).
As regards demographic characteristics, most of the studies have
considered gender, marital status, family size, income and level of
education. Generally, consumers of organic food products are women
(Buzby and Skees 1994; Byrne, Bacon and Toensmeyer 1994; Davies,
Titterington and Cochrane 1995; Govindasamy and Italia 1997; Groff,
Kreidor and Toensmeyer 1993; O’Donovan and McCarthy 2002) and,
in particular, middle-aged women (Aguirre 2007), even though some
studies (Buzby and Skees 1994; Magnusson et al. 2001) have revealed
the young segment to possess a higher propensity towards such prod-
ucts. Nonetheless middle-aged consumers are the most frequent pur-
chasers, this being explained, according to Hughner et al. (2007), by
the higher prices of organic food compared to those of conventional
products which means that only certain consumers can afford the for-
mer: in fact, the greater financial resources of middle-aged consumers
allow them to pay a higher premium price for organic food products.
Research findings have also indicated that consumers of organic food
products live mainly in the family home (Aguirre 2007) together with

46
their children (Wier and Smed 2000). Although there is no general
consensus, many authors agree that both an upper-middle income and
a relatively high level of education are important characteristics of
such standard consumers (Aguirre 2007; Chinnici, D’Amico and
Pecorino 2002; Davies, Titterington and Cochrane 1995; Fotopoulos
and Krystallis 2002; O’Donovan and McCarthy 2002).
Some studies have also focused on understanding the organic
food product consumer’s psychographic profile, in the sense of person-
ality and lifestyle. The purchase of organic food products is part of a
wider lifestyle choice, deriving from a particular value system, which
influences personality, attitudes and consumer behavior (Schifferstein
and Oude Ophuis 1998). Such values have been studied by various
authors (e.g., Dreezens et al. 2005; Makatouni 2002; Zanoli and
Naspetti 2002) who have emphasized how regular organic food product
consumers draw inspiration from a set of values, such as: Universalism,
i.e. the understanding, tolerance and protection of all people and of
nature; Altruism, i.e. the generosity in relationships with others; Ecolo-
gy, i.e. the harmony with the universe and with a sustainable future;
Benevolence, i.e. the improvement of the well-being of the people with
whom one is in contact; and Spirituality, i.e. the unity with nature. Fur-
thermore, the organic food product consumer leads an “alternative”
lifestyle, being often a vegetarian, an active environmentalist and a user
of alternative medicine (Cicia, Del Giudice and Scarpa 2002).

3.2.2. The Prospect method

Products, in general, and organic food products, in particular, possess

not merely a functional value but also a symbolic meaning, which can
be personified through their product image. The Prospect method
(Caprara and Barbaranelli 2000; Caprara, Barbaranelli and Guido
2000) is a framework employed in the present study in order to evalu-
ate the influence that the traits of product image – in this case, of the
image of organic food products, operazionalized through the construct
of product personality – exerts on the determinants of purchase inten-
tion. This method combines two models that are well-established in
literature: the Five factors model of human personality (a.k.a. the Big

47
Five factors model, see Digman 1990, for a review), which allows
researchers to find the fundamental features of brands and products
when applied in a marketing setting; and the Theory of planned behav-
ior by Ajzen (1991), which identifies the main determinants of con-
sumers’ purchase intention, assumed as the most reliable predictor of
purchasing behavior. The Prospect method integrates, in a single re-
search tool, both models with the goal of verifying whether and to
what extent latent dimensions of brand and product image (as assessed
by the Five-factor model) influence purchase intention and its cogni-
tive determinants as measured by the Theory of planned behavior (see
Figure 3.1). In this way, the Prospect method allows the identification
of: (i) the personality elements of brands and products which can in-
fluence the main determinants of purchase intention; and (ii) the most
appropriate adjectives to be used in marketing communications,
among those that are the best in eliciting in consumers’ minds the
traits of product image which can have an impact on the determinants
of purchase intention.

ATT

Dimensions
of product
image SN INT BEH

PBC

Note: Dimensions of product image = Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Emotional

stability/Neuroticism, Extroversion/Introversion, Openness to experience; ATT =
Attitude; SN = Subjective norm; PBC = Perceived behavioral control; INT = Intention
to perform a specific behavior; BEH = Behavior (e.g., the intention to buy organic
food products).

Figure 3.1. The influence model according to the Prospect method.

48
3.2.2.1. The Five-factor model of personality
Through the application of factor analysis on a potentially infinite set
of adjectives describing persons, the Five-factor model (hereafter
FFM) of personality (cf. Digman 1990) identifies as many principle
dimensions (the so-called Big Five factors) that describe the basic
latent traits of human personality. According to some authors (e.g.,
Aaker 1997; Plummer 2000), since branded products can also have a
personality, it is possible to employ the FFM to identify also the latent
dimensions of products and brand images, even though some allow-
ances need to be made (Caprara and Barbaranelli 1996; Caprara, Bar-
baranelli and Guido 1998, 2000, 2001). Although there is a lack of
agreement in literature on the labels to be attributed to the five factors,
the most common are: Agreeableness, referring to the importance
given to information and the opinions of others regarding the correct-
ness of one’s behavior: Conscientiousness, referring to the degree of
meticulousness and preciseness in which an individual aims at specific
objectives; Emotional stability/Neuroticism, referring to the degree of
patience with which an individual reacts to external stimuli; Extrover-
sion/Introversion regarding the number of interpersonal relations an
individual feels at ease with; and Openness to experience, referring to
the level of open-mindedness an individual shows towards new ideas
and experiences.
A search through the available sources reveals no study apply-
ing the FFM to organic food products. Given the potential of this mar-
ket and the importance of image in the purchasing of food, the present
study aims therefore to analyze the possible latent dimensions of the
image of organic food products in two European countries (i.e., Italy
and France) in order to evaluate how far the differences between the
two cultures can explain the different perceptions consumers may
have of the products under examination.

3.2.2.2. The Theory of planned behavior

The Theory of planned behavior (hereafter TPB) is a predictive model
based on the fundamental assumption that the Intention to perform (or
not) a specific Behavior (e.g., buying) is the best predictor of that
behavior. In its turn, intention is a function of a series of determinants

49
whose importance varies according to the target behavior. They are
(Ajzen 1991; Ajzen and Fishbein 1980): Attitude, defined as the level
of favorable or unfavorable propensity of an individual towards the
behavior considered; Subjective norm, defined as the level of social
pressure which people who are taken as important exert on an individ-
ual to make him/her adopt a specific form of behavior; and Perceived
behavioral control, defined as the perception by an individual of the
degree of ease or difficulty required to adopt a specific form of behav-
ior.
The TPB has been also extended to include “additional predic-
tors if it can be shown that they capture a significant proportion of the
variance in intention or behavior” (Ajzen 1991: 199). Research has
generally taken into account (cf. Eagly and Chaiken 1993): Past be-
havior, considered as a good predictor of future behavior, provided
that the internal and external factors that have determined it remain
stable over time (Jaccard and Blanton 2005); Self-identity, defined as
the set of durable characteristics which people assign to themselves
(see, for example, Biddle, Bank and Slavings 1987); and Moral
norms, defined as personal beliefs regarding what is right or wrong
(Parker, Manstead and Stradling 1995).
The purchase intention of organic food products has been ana-
lyzed in various studies that have tried to determine which variable is
more important in influencing intention. Generally, a positive attitude
displayed by consumers towards organic food products has been
shown to be very influential in most studies (Michaelidou and Hassan
2008; Sparks and Shepherd 1992; Thøgersen 2002). On the contrary,
different authors have drawn different conclusions as regards the in-
fluence of subjective norm: according to some of them, subjective
norm has a great influence, both direct (Sparks and Shepherd 1992)
and indirect (Tarkiainen and Sundqvist 2005), via attitude; whereas
Thøgersen (2002) has shown that subjective norm is not a significant
predictor of intention. Also perceived behavioral control – which in
theory seems to negatively influence intention due to major obstacles
perceived during purchase, such as price and product availability
(Sparks and Shepherd 1992) – does not emerge as a significant varia-
ble in Tarkiainen and Sundqvist’s study (2005). The extension of the
TPB to past behavior, though used only in Thøgersen’s (2002) study,

50
has significantly improved the predictive capability of the model ap-
plied to the case of organic food products. Self-identity has instead
been included in several studies (e.g., Michaelidou and Hassan 2008;
Sparks and Shepherd 1992), which claim that its influence on inten-
tion of purchasing organic food products is direct and significant;
Michaelidou and Hassan (2008) believe this influence to be both di-
rect and mediated by attitude. Also as regards the inclusion of moral
norms – considered necessary not only for behaviors with a high ethi-
cal content (Conner and Armitage 1998; Manstead 1999), but also in
low involvement situations (such as the buying of food) – there are
two branches of research concerning their influence on the purchase
intention of organic food products: some researchers consider their
impact as direct and significant (Thøgersen 2002); others consider it
as indirect, taking moral norms as an antecedent of attitude (Dreezens
et al. 2005; Honkanen, Verplanken and Olsen 2006).

3.2.3. Moral antecedents in the purchasing of organic food products

Moral considerations are often considered important by consumers of

organic food products. Such considerations are one of the topics of
this study. The purchase of organic food products, in fact, implies
ethical evaluations associated with consumers’ health protection
(Chinnici, D’Amico and Pecorino 2002; Lockie et al. 2002; Ma-
katouni 2002; Padel and Foster 2005; Zanoli and Naspetti 2002), mor-
al responsibility towards the users of these products (Finch 2005;
Makatouni 2002; Raats, Shepherd and Sparks 1995), the well-being of
animals (Honkanen, Verplanken and Olsen 2006; Makatouni 2002;
McEachern and McClean 2002; Padel and Foster 2005); and political
aspects such as the promotion of the local economy and the support of
commerce, as well as the preference for goods from countries with
democratic regimes (Honkanen, Verplanken and Olsen 2006). In order
to understand the role played by moral dimensions in the purchase of
organic food products, the present study extends the TPB by including
moral disengagement (Bandura 1986, 1990, 1999) as a further deter-
minant of the purchase intention, in addition to the classic moral
norms. The extension of the TPB to these two elements is justified by

51
the fact that moral disengagement and moral norms are not necessari-
ly opposite concepts, hence they can both influence intention: i.e.,
moral norms positively, whereas moral disengagement negatively.
The present study hypothesizes that consumers of organic food prod-
ucts are influenced by moral obligations and that, at the same time,
they are involved in tasks of an ethical nature.

3.2.3.1. Moral disengagement

The construct of moral disengagement, developed by Bandura (1999)
within the context of social-cognitive theory, represents “the process
by which an individual proactively suspends his/her moral standards
in an effort to reduce the self-censure that ordinarily accompanies
conduct that violates one’s moral code” (Cava 2000: 492). The con-
duct of an individual is, in fact, bound by a moral code developed over
time and “in this process of auto-regulation the individual abstains
from behaving in ways which would break his/her moral code, since
such behaviors would result in self-punishment” (Bandura 1999: 193–
194). The reduction of self-punishment following the process of moral
disengagement provides an individual with the freedom to break
his/her moral code.
Various mechanisms allow the individual to selectively suspend
his/her moral principles in order to perform acts that would otherwise
trigger self-punishment. Bandura (1986) has identified eight of them:
Moral justification, when a reproachful conduct becomes personally
and socially acceptable by appealing to moral goals; Euphemistic
labeling, when metaphorical language is used to make offences and
atrocities genteel and tolerable; Advantageous comparison, when a
reprehensible action is made less blameworthy in relationship with
even more reprehensible actions; Displacement of responsibility to
other individuals, when people blame superiors, usually those in au-
thority, for their harmful actions; Diffusion of responsibility, when
individual liability for reprehensible actions is attenuated by assigning
it to a group of people; Negligence or distortion of consequences,
when the effects of a harmful action are minimized or ignored; Dehu-
manization, when a victim is deprived of his/her individual dignity in
order to avoid any empathic reaction; and Attribution of blame, when

52
the guilt of adversaries or circumstances allows denial of one’s re-
sponsibility for an offence.
Although Bandura (1986) has studied moral disengagement
with special reference to aggressive and violent forms of behavior, the
use of this concept in the present study is supported by Caprara et al.
(2006), who demonstrate how this construct can be applied also to
normal forms of behavior, such as “minor” transgressions, as is the
case of not choosing organic food products, thus exposing, for exam-
ple, to risk one’s own health and that of one’s loved ones.

3.3. Methodology

3.3.1. Research objectives

The present study has two objectives: firstly, to analyze the purchase
behavior of organic food consumers by means of Ajzen’s (1991) TPB,
which is extended in order to consider the importance of moral dimen-
sions; secondly, to evaluate – through the Prospect method (Caprara,
Barbaranelli and Guido 2000) – the influence that the organic prod-
ucts’ personality traits exert on determinants of consumers’ purchase
intention (moral antecedents included).
As regards the first objective, moral norms and moral disen-
gagement have been chosen as possible additional predictors of pur-
chase intention – together with attitude, subjective norm and perceived
behavioral control – in order to evaluate the influence of the moral
dimensions in the TPB, when applied to organic food products. While
the inclusion of moral norms to explain the purchase behavior of or-
ganic products has been the topic of previous studies (Honkanen,
Verplanken and Olsen 2006; Thøgersen 2002), no research has so far
extended the TPB to moral disengagement, and its use in the present
study is justified by extension from situations that imply major trans-
gressions, such as violent behaviors, to more ordinary situations, such

53
as not buying products which can have positive effects both socially
and personally (Caprara et al. 1996, 2006).
In particular, moral norms have been measured considering sa-
lient beliefs, i.e. those beliefs easily accessible to memory (Fishbein
and Ajzen 1975), such as the protection of one’s health and that of
one’s loved ones, whereas moral disengagement (Bandura 1986) has
been measured through the Moral disengagement scale (Caprara et al.
1996), consisting of 76 items, grouped into eight categories referred to
the same number of moral disengagement mechanisms. The reason for
the inclusion of both constructs into the TPB is – as mentioned above
– that moral norms and moral disengagement are not necessarily op-
posed, since they consist of different elements which can be activated
by contextual factors: social factors, such as the presence of other
people; and situational factors (e.g., environmental ones). In other
words, even a person with a moral sense might behave in a morally
disengaged way in particular situations and contexts; social factors do
not exclude the situational ones, and they can be both significant pre-
dictors of intention.
The basic assumption of the present study is that organic food
product consumers are influenced by moral considerations and that
they show a lesser degree of disengagement with regard to ethical
topics. From an operational point of view, the aim of this study is to
demonstrate that moral norms directly influence the purchase inten-
tion of organic food products, while moral disengagement can have a
statistically significant, negative effect on intention.
As far as the second research objective is considered, the aim
here is to verify which aspects of organic food product image – opera-
zionalized through product personality – mostly affect the significant
determinants of the purchase intention. Moreover, this research has
been extended to two European countries – namely, Italy and France –
in order to evaluate whether cultural differences play a role in this
respect. The choice of these two countries is justified by the fact that
the goal is to compare the Italian results with those relative to a more
advanced country (France) as far as ethical consumerism goes (Data-
monitor 2005). In fact, since values and moral standards are generally
shared within the same culture, it can be useful to explain potential
differences in the behavior of citizens of different nationalities by

54
considering the similarities and the differences between the relevant
cultures.

3.3.2. Procedure

The research has been divided into two steps: a pilot study, designed
to identify the salient beliefs at the basis of attitude, subjective norm,
perceived behavioral control; and a main study, designed to evaluate
the weight of these variables, moral norms and moral disengagement
– measured through the Moral disengagement scale (Caprara et al.
1996) – on the intention to buy. Finally, the Prospect method (Capra-
ra, Barbaranelli and Guido 2000) was employed to evaluate the influ-
ence of organic food product personality traits on determinants of the
purchase intention.

3.3.2.1. The pilot study

The pilot study, designed to identify the salient beliefs needed for the
main survey, was conducted on a sample of 40 subjects – 20 males
and 20 females, grouped into five age-groups (15-29; 30-41; 42-53;
54-65; 66+ years old) – selected through the direct interception tech-
nique (i.e., the random interview of consumers at the end of their pur-
chase act) in specialized shops.
Following a common practice in testing the TPB (Ajzen and
Fishbein 1980; Fishbein and Ajzen 1975), an open-ended question-
naire was administered to this sample in order to identify the salient
beliefs at the basis of intention determinants, namely: attitude, by
asking them to enumerate the advantages and disadvantages of their
purchase of organic and non-organic food products; subjective norm,
by asking them to specify possible people or groups of people that
might approve or disapprove of their purchase of such products; per-
ceived behavioral control, by asking them to enumerate facts or cir-
cumstances that could facilitate or impede the purchase intention; and
moral norms, by asking two questions aimed to specify possible ethi-
cal reasons behind their purchase intention. Further questions were
introduced to investigate: the frequency and the likelihood of purchase

55
intention during the two weeks following the test; and the adjectives
that best describe the organic food product image, to be used to find
any further latent factor, not included among the Big Five ones (so-
called non-Big Five factor). The results of the pilot study, obtained by
analyzing the protocols of answers and extracting the most frequent
ones, allowed the construction of the main close-ended questionnaire.

3.3.2.2. The main study

The main study was carried out both in Italy and in France on a ran-
domly selected sample of 212 subjects, 160 Italians and 52 French
(see Table 3.1, for a description of the sample). A closed-ended ques-
tionnaire was administered to the sample; it was made up of four sec-
tions: a first section, containing a series of items, defined on a 7-point
Likert scale designed to measure the probability and the importance of
the elements of the TPB (i.e., attitude, subjective norm, perceived
behavioral control, and purchase intention), as well as the probability of
two items regarding moral norms; a second section, structured in such a
way as to identify the image of organic food products through the use of
20 adjectives – 15 Big Five attributes, chosen among those marker
attributes, as indicated by Caprara and Barbaranelli (2000), that are best
able to elicit the five main dimensions of personality (three adjectives
for each Big Five factor), and 5 non-Big Five attributes, namely
healthy, tasty, genuine, natural and good – evaluated through a 7-
point semantic differential scale, selected from those most frequently
named in the pilot stage; a third section, regarding social-demographic

Countries N Gender Age

40 ss. (16-29 y.o.)
M = 80 ss.
40 ss. (30-39 y.o.)
Italy 160
40 ss. (40-49 y.o.)
F = 80 ss.
40 ss. (50-59 y.o.)
30 ss. (16-29 y.o.)
M = 21 ss.
10 ss. (30-39 y.o.)
France 52
7 ss. (40-49 y.o.)
F = 31 ss.
5 ss. (50-59 y.o.)

Table 3.1. Sampling characteristics in the main study.

56
data (i.e., gender, age, frequency and point-of-purchase of food prod-
ucts); and a fourth section, regarding the Moral disengagement scale
(Caprara et al. 1996) consisting of 76 items, defined on a 5-point Lik-
ert scale. In order to consider moral disengagement as an additional
determinant of the extended TPB, the mean value of the 76 items was
considered in data analysis.

3.4. Results

3.4.1. Determinants of the purchase intention of organic food products

In order to evaluate whether attitude, subjective norm, perceived be-

havioral control, moral disengagement and moral norms can be con-
sidered valid predictors of organic food product purchase intention, a
multiple linear regression analysis was employed, considering inten-
tion as the dependent variable and all the determinants of the extended
TPB as independent variables.
The results of the first part of the study, conducted in Italy (see
Table 3.2, below), show that the model adapts well to real data (R2 =
.562), since the total variance of intention explained is over 50%, in
line with results for this kind of study (Sutton 1998). On the basis of
beta values, it can be seen that the determinants which influence sig-
nificantly the purchase intention of organic food products are: per-
ceived behavioral control, which shows the highest beta value (β =
.376, p < .001); moral norms (β = .309, p < .001); attitude (β = .261, p
< .001); subjective norm (β = .233, p < .001); whereas moral disen-
gagement does not significantly influence intention, since the proba-
bility was not low enough (p > .05), even though – as hypothesized – a
negative beta value does occur. The non-significant influence of moral
disengagement can be probably explained on the basis of the proce-
dure used to measure this construct in the first place, which
makes the respondents sensitive to the “social desirability bias” – the

57
 Variables B Beta t p
Constant -26.875 -5.064 .000
ATT .109 .261 4.472 .000
SN .089 .233 3.559 .000
PBC .160 .376 6.641 .000
MD -1.426 -.050 -.909 .365
MN 1.083 .309 4.553 .000

Note: Dependent variable: Intention; N = 160; R = .749; R2 = .562; Adjusted R2 = .548.

ATT = Attitude; SN = Subjective norm; PBC = Perceived behavioral control; MD =
Moral disengagement; MN = Moral norms.

Table 3.2. Regression results for the intention to buy organic food products in Italy.

tendency of interviewees to give replies that will be evaluated posi-

tively by others (Fisher 1993).
In order to understand which salient beliefs – at the basis of the
variables that significantly influence intention – have the most weight,
the mean (M) and standard deviation (SD) values were calculated.
From the analysis of the results shown in Table 3.3 and Tables 3.4–3.6
(below), it is possible to infer that, as regards the organic food prod-
ucts in Italy, the most salient beliefs are: for perceived behavioral
control, that it improves health (M = 30.013, SD = 11.917) and that
stores can offer a great selection (M = 23.056, SD = 10.612); for mor-
al norms, health protection (M = 4.563, SD = 1.899); for attitude,
following a healthy and balanced diet (M = 25.475, SD = 10.199) and
eating completely natural products (M = 24.663, SD = 9.071); and for

Control beliefs M SD
Benefits to health 30.013 11.917
High variety/assortment 23.056 10.612
High availability in stores 22.163 10.229
Distance and difficulty of reaching stores 19.769 9.965
Low prices 18.331 10.468

Table 3.3. Control beliefs affecting perceived behavioral control for organic food
products in Italy.

58
 Relevant beliefs behind moral norms M SD
I feel obliged to purchase organic food to safeguard my health 4.563 1.899
I feel obliged to purchase organic food to safeguard the health
of my family 4.506 2.009

Table 3.4. Salient beliefs affecting moral norms for organic food products in Italy.

Behavioral beliefs M SD
Following a healthy and balanced diet 25.475 10.199
Eating completely natural products 24.663 9.071
Avoiding possible food poisoning and/or allergies 23.813 9.677
High prices 23.238 10.154
Difficulties in finding specialized shops 21.413 9.431

Table 3.5. Behavioral beliefs affecting attitude for organic food products in Italy.

Normative beliefs M SD
Partner’s (wife/husband, fiancée/fiancé) approval 26.413 15.652
Family’s approval 24.438 14.908
Friends’ approval 14.413 11.051

Table 3.6. Normative beliefs affecting subjective norm for organic food products in Italy.

subjective norm, the social pressure exercised by one’s partner (M =

26.413, SD = 15.652) and by the family (M = 24.438, SD = 14.908).
The same analysis was carried out, in the second part of the
study, in reference to the purchase intention of organic food products
in France (see Table 3.7, below). Although it shows a low level of
adaptation to real data (R2 = .302), it is possible to infer that moral
norms (β = .414, p < .01) turned out to be, for French consumers, the
variable that influenced intention most – followed by perceived be-
havioral control (β = .282, p < .05).

59
 Variables B Beta t p
Constant -15.952 -1.064 .293
ATT .083 .171 1.264 .213
SN -.003 -.007 -.050 .960
PBC .095 .282 2.250 .029
MD -.538 -.015 -.105 .917
MN 1.539 .414 2.901 .006

Note: Dependent variable: Intention; N = 52; R = .550; R2 = .302; Adjusted R2 = .226.

ATT = Attitude; SN = Subjective norm; PBC = Perceived behavioral control; MD =
Moral disengagement; MN = Moral norms.

Table 3.7. Regression results for the intention to buy organic food products in France.

From the analysis of the mostly salient beliefs at the basis of the vari-
ables which significantly influence intention (see Tables 3.8–3.9), it is
possible to affirm that those who buy organic food products in France
are influenced mainly by consumers feeling compelled to purchase
organic food to safeguard their health (M = 4.000, SD = 1.990), as
well to obtain benefits from it (M = 37.404, SD = 10.008).

Relevant beliefs behind moral norms M SD

I feel obliged to purchase organic food to safeguard my health 4.000 1.990
I feel obliged to purchase organic food to safeguard the health
of my family 3.981 2.063

Table 3.8. Salient beliefs affecting moral norms for organic food products in France.

Control beliefs M SD
Benefits to health 37.404 10.008
High variety/assortment 24.635 12.637
High availability in stores 22.942 11.863
Distance and difficulty of reaching stores 21.750 13.171
Low prices 20.058 14.056

Table 3.9. Control beliefs affecting perceived behavioral control for organic food
products in France.

60
3.4.2. Results of the moral disengagement scale

From the analysis of the moral disengagement items’ average values it

can be inferred that, in Italy, consumers of organic food products dis-
agree with statements like: “It doesn’t make sense for an individual to
care about environmental damage, since harmful effects are produced
at a collective level” (M = 1.42, SD = .82), or “Companies that pro-
duce things of public interest shouldn’t be prosecuted if they pollute
the environment” (M = 1.48, SD = .98). In France, too, consumers
declared that they disagree with the same statements – “It doesn’t
make sense for an individual to care about environmental damage,
since harmful effects are produced at a collective level” (M = 1.38, SD
= .72), and “Companies that produce things of public interest
shouldn’t be prosecuted if they pollute the environment” (M = 1.54,
SD = .83) – but also with: “It doesn’t make sense to care about those
who smoke since the damage they do is almost irrelevant compared to
that related to environmental pollution” (M = 1.63, SD = .86).
Yet, it has to be emphasized how results in general display low-
medium values (always below 4): the average value of moral disen-
gagement for Italian consumers of organic food products equals, in
fact, 2.06; while, in France, it equals 2.02. Respondents hence de-
clared themselves to be “Not morally disengaged” (that is, in a sense,
ethically involved). This result deserves some reflection as it raises
issues about the reliability of answers. In fact, while the literature
recognizes the effectiveness of indirect measurement of elements
related to the intimate and personal sphere, the scale used measures
moral disengagement through the eliciting of an explicit opinion about
the 76 situations considered. Such direct moral disengagement meas-
urement can explain one tendency shown in results: it can, in fact, act
as a barrier to the freedom of expression of people who will hardly
admit that they would behave or would agree with behaviors conflict-
ing with common moral codes when asked in public.

61
3.4.3. The Prospect method

The Prospect method (Caprara and Barbaranelli 2000; Caprara, Bar-

baranelli and Guido 2000) was used to evaluate the influence of or-
ganic food product personality traits on determinants of the purchase
intention. By integrating the TPB and the FFM, this statistical method
allows one to identify the latent dimensions of organic food product
image, and after that to regress, one by one, the variables of the ex-
tended TPB – attitude, subjective norm, perceived behavioral control,
moral disengagement and moral norms – on the six traits which were
found (i.e., the Big Five factors, i.e., Agreeableness, Conscientious-
ness, Emotional stability/Neuroticism, Extroversion/Introversion, and
Openness to experience, plus a non-Big Five factor, which was named
Naturalness after the non-Big Five attributes saturated on it).

3.4.3.1. The latent dimensions of organic food product image

In order to identify the latent dimensions of organic food product
image in Italy and France, factorial analyses were employed by apply-
ing the extraction method of the principal components, with an or-
thogonal Varimax rotation, and by imposing a solution with six fac-
tors, five of which were found to be the Big Five ones, and one repre-
senting the non-Big Five factor. To identify each factor, the saturation
levels of each “marker” attribute – that is of every adjective able to
elicit, better than others, the underlying factors – was observed, con-
sidering a level of acceptability equal to .40. Table 3.10 (below) shows
the results related to the latent dimensions of organic food product
images in the two countries.
In Italy, the main dimension of organic food product image is
Extroversion, saturated by adjectives like tasty, good, cheerful and
energetic, followed by Naturalness, saturated by adjectives like genu-
ine, natural, and healthy. The six factors explain 71.44% of the total
variance, which demonstrates the high level of representativeness of
such dimensions. In France, results show that Naturalness, saturated
by adjectives like reliable, genuine, safe, healthy, and natural, is the
principal dimension of organic food product image, followed by

62
 ITALY* FRANCE**
Factors Saturations Factors Saturations
I. Extroversion I. Naturalness
Tasty .764 Reliable .755
Good .719 Genuine .737
Cheerful .640 Safe .729
Energetic .581 Healthy .632
Natural .629
II. Naturalness II. Conscientiousness
Genuine .897 Innovative .813
Natural .854 Funny .792
Healthy .834 Diligent .627
Careful .627
Friendly .586
III. Conscientiousness III. Agreeableness
Reliable .764 Cheerful .772
Careful .698 Warm .700
Safe .600 Affectionate .688
Competitive .584 Energetic .607
IV. Agreeableness IV. Emotional Stability
Affectionate .790 Calm .814
Warm .743 Tolerant .657
Friendly .717 Stable .613
V. Emotional Stability V. Openness to
Tolerant .804 experience
Stable .668 Tasty .809
Calm .616 Good .636
Diligent .512
VI. Openness to VI. Extroversion
experience Competitive .771
Innovative .903
Funny .449

Note: Processing method: analysis of the principal components; Rotation method:

Varimax rotation with Kaiser normalization; * = Convergence with 19 iterations; ** =
Convergence with 12 iterations.

Table 3.10. Dimensions of organic food product images in Italy and in France.

Conscientiousness, saturated by adjectives like innovative, funny, dili-

gent, careful, and friendly. The total variance explained was slightly

63
better than in Italy and equal to 72.40%, with a loss of less than one
third of the information.

3.4.3.2. The influence of the image dimensions on the determinants of

intention
A standard regression analysis was carried out to examine the influ-
ence of each of the six latent dimensions of organic food product im-
ages, both in Italy and in France, exerted on the determinants of pur-
chase intention that were revealed to be significant – as well as, direct-
ly, on purchase intentions.
Results related to organic food product image in Italy (see Table
3.11 and Tables 3.12–3.15, below) show, in order of relevance, that the
most significant image traits connected to perceived behavioral control
are Naturalness (β = .249, p < .001), and Conscientiousness (β = .192, p
< .05); whereas the only significant trait to influence moral norms is
Extroversion (β = .471, p < .001). Agreeableness (β = .246, p < .001)
and Emotional Stability (β = .169, p < .05) are the traits influencing
attitude. Extroversion, again, is the latent image trait that both signifi-
cantly influences subjective norm (β = .312, p < .001), and directly
intention (β = .408, p < .001) – in this latter case, together with Consci-
entiousness (β = .168, p < .05). As far as France is concerned (see Ta-
bles 3.16–3.17, below), the factors that mostly influence moral norms

Variables B Beta t p
Constant 113.331 48.382 .000
Extroversion 3.865 .123 1.645 .102
Naturalness 7.791 .249 3.316 .001
Conscientiousness 6.007 .192 2.556 .012
Agreeableness 3.551 .113 1.511 .133
Emotional stability -.091 -.003 -.039 .969
Openness to experience 3.616 .115 1.539 .126

Note: Dependent variable: Perceived behavioral control; N = 160; R = .374; R2 = .140;

Adjusted R2 = .106.

Table 3.11. Regression of perceived behavioral control on the image factors of

organic food products in Italy.

64
 Variables B Beta t p
Constant 9.069 34.309 .000
Extroversion 1.790 .471 6.749 .000
Naturalness .452 .119 1.703 .091
Conscientiousness .471 .124 1.778 .077
Agreeableness .102 .027 .385 .701
Emotional stability -.161 -.042 -.609 .543
Openness to experience .179 .047 .676 .500

Note: Dependent variable: Moral norms; N = 160; R = .506; R2 = .256; Adjusted R2 = .227.

Table 3.12. Regression of moral norms on the image factors of organic food products in Italy.

Variables B Beta t p
Constant 118.600 48.518 .000
Extroversion .933 .029 .380 .704
Naturalness .533 .017 .218 .828
Conscientiousness .384 .012 .156 .876
Agreeableness 7.888 .246 3.217 .002
Emotional stability 5.410 .169 2.206 .029
Openness to experience 3.451 .108 1.407 .161

Note: Dependent variable: Attitude; N = 160; R = .320; R2 = .102; Adjusted R2 = .067.

Table 3.13. Regression of attitude on the image factors of organic food products in Italy.

Variables B Beta t p
Constant 65.263 24.973 .000
Extroversion 10.912 .312 4.162 .000
Naturalness 2.677 .077 1.021 .309
Conscientiousness 4.502 .129 1.717 .088
Agreeableness .010 .000 .004 .997
Emotional stability -4.327 -.124 -1.650 .101
Openness to experience -1.718 -.049 -.655 .513

Note: Dependent variable: Subjective norm; N = 160; R = .371; R2 = .138; Adjusted

R2 = .104.

Table 3.14. Regression of subjective norm on the image factors of organic food
products in Italy.

65
 Variables B Beta t p
Constant 16.863 17.907 .000
Extroversion 5.435 .408 5.754 .000
Naturalness 1.294 .097 1.370 .173
Conscientiousness 2.245 .168 2.377 .019
Agreeableness 1.853 .139 1.961 .052
Emotional stability .133 .010 .140 .889
Openness to experience 1.190 .089 1.259 .210

2 2
Note: Dependent variable: Intention; N = 160; R = .481; R = .231; Adjusted R = .201.

Table 3.15. Regression of purchase intention on the image factors of organic food
products in Italy.

Variables B Beta t p
Constant 7.981 16.533 .000
Extroversion -.234 -.061 -.479 .634
Naturalness 1.384 .362 2.838 .007
Conscientiousness -.200 -.052 -.411 .683
Agreeableness 1.320 .345 2.709 .010
Emotional stability -.319 -.084 -.655 .516
Openness to experience .249 .065 .510 .612

Note: Dependent variable: Moral norms; ; N = 52; R = .518; R2 = .268; Adjusted R2 = .170.

Table 3.16. Regression of moral norms on the image factors of organic food products
in France.

Variables B Beta t p
Constant 20.106 13.137 .000
Extroversion 2.324 .163 1.527 .134
Naturalness 5.841 .411 3.838 .000
Conscientiousness -4.497 -.316 -2.955 .005
Agreeableness 4.575 .322 3.006 .004
Emotional stability -2.471 -.174 -1.624 .111
Openness to experience 3.329 .234 2.187 .034

Note: Dependent variable: Intention; N = 52; R = .696; R2 = .484; Adjusted R2 = .415.

Table 3.17. Regression of purchase intention on the image factors of organic food
products in France.

66
are Naturalness (β = .362, p < .01) and Agreeableness (β = .345, p =
.01); while none of the six latent dimensions seem to significantly
impact perceived behavioral control (p >.05). Directly, Naturalness (β
= .411, p < .001), Agreeableness (β = .322, p < .005) and Openness to
experience (β = .234, p < .05) influence positively intention; whereas
Conscientiousness shows a negative influence on it (β = -.316, p =
.005).

3.5. General discussion

The aim of the present study was, on the one hand, to understand the
extent to which the moral dimension is important for organic food
product purchasing, extending the TPB to moral norms and moral
disengagement; and, on the other hand, to appraise the influence of
organic food product personality traits on the determinants of the pur-
chase intention, by employing the Prospect method to achieve such a
purpose. The study was carried out both in Italy and in France in an
effort to evaluate from a cross-cultural perspective the way consumers
of these two countries’ each perceive organic food products’ images
and express their purchase intention.
As regards to the first objective, the results show that in both
countries, in line with what was hypothesized, moral norms positively
influence the purchase intention, whereas, as predicted, moral disen-
gagement shows a negative beta, albeit not one which is statistically
significant (p > .05). The moral dimension hence plays a fundamental
role in determining intentions: the act of purchasing organic food
products, in fact, implies a series of ethical considerations regarding
the consequences that the consumption of these products may have on
one person’s and his/her loved ones’ health, in particular, and on the
environment, in general. Consumers who feel morally involved show,
therefore, a higher purchase intention for this kind of product. Moral
disengagement is statistically of little weight, probably because of the
“social desirability” bias related to the data collection method (Fisher

67
1993), a phenomenon that could distort its measurement. As main-
tained by Fisher (1993: 303), “the basic human tendency to present
oneself in the best possible light can significantly distort the infor-
mation gained from self-reports. Respondents are often unwilling or
unable to report accurately on sensitive topics”, such as indulging in
specific forms of behavior that are in contrast with one’s moral codes.
As a consequence, data could be systematically distorted in relation to
what is perceived as correct or socially acceptable. An additional mo-
tivation may be linked to the fact that the moral disengagement scale
(Caprara et al. 1996) includes items that are too generic to be used to
test the moral disengagement for food product consumers.
As regards to other variables which influence organic food
product purchase intention, the most relevant predictor in Italy ap-
peared to be perceived behavioral control – also significant in France
immediately after moral norms – which, in both countries, is influ-
enced by the control beliefs pertaining to the effects on health, as well
as to the selection and to the availability of organic food products.
This result mirrors that which has already emerged in other studies
which consider crucial, in the purchase decision, certain values, such
as healthiness (Chinnici, D’Amico and Pecorino 2002; Lockie et al.
2002; Makatouni 2002; Padel and Foster 2005), as well as assortment
and availability (Lea and Worsley 2005). The price, considered by
some other authors as an obstacle to purchase (Lea and Worsley 2005;
Padel and Foster 2005; Zanoli and Naspetti 2002), was shown to be
less relevant.
Furthermore, by examining the items of the moral disengage-
ment scale that have the lowest mean scores, it is possible to identify
which topics organic food product consumers in Italy and France de-
clare to be less morally disengaged. In particular, organic food product
consumers in both countries showed that they indeed take into consid-
eration ethical topics related to the environment (disagreeing with
statements like: “It doesn’t make sense for an individual to care about
environmental damage, since harmful effects are produced at a collec-
tive level”; or “Companies that produce things of public interest
shouldn’t be prosecuted if they pollute the environment”), in line with
the importance attached to environmental considerations in the deci-

68
sion to purchase organic food products (in line with Honkanen, Ver-
planken and Olsen 2006; and Lockie et al. 2002).
As for the second research objective, from the analysis of the la-
tent image dimensions, we can infer that Extroversion is the main
personality trait of organic food products in Italy, saturated by Big
Five attributes such as jolly and energetic, but also by non-Big Five
attributes such as tasty and good. Therefore, organic food product
consumers in Italy seem to seek, mainly, taste, as well as enjoyment
while eating (Zanoli and Naspetti 2002). Naturalness, saturated by
attributes such as genuine, safe, healthy, and natural, turned out to be
the main image dimension of organic food products in France. Dimen-
sions like Extroversion in Italy and Naturalness in France are also
those influencing most the purchase intention of organic food products
in these two countries. A possible explanation for this can be found in
Hofstede’s (1984) theory, which identifies five main dimensions that
are significant for cross-country comparisons: Power distance, Indi-
vidualism/Collectivism, Masculinity/Femininity, Uncertainty avoid-
ance, and Long-term/short term orientation. Even though differences
between France and Italy are not of great magnitude, due to geograph-
ical proximity and common cultural roots, France has a higher level of
Uncertainty avoidance, which is defined as “the degree to which the
members of a society feel uncomfortable with uncertainty and ambi-
guity” (Hofstede 1984: 83). This tendency to minimize risk can ex-
plain the greater importance attached in France to genuineness, safety,
healthiness, reliability and naturalness in the organic food product
image. In Italy, elements linked to more selfish themes, such as taste
and quality, seem to prevail. Organic food products are furthermore
perceived as jolly and energetic. Italy, in fact, as a country, presents a
slightly higher level of Individualism, defined by Hofstede (1984: 83)
as the “social framework in society wherein individuals are supposed
to take care of themselves and their immediate families only”.

69
3.6. Implications and future research

This research could have interesting implications for organic food

product marketers. In particular, from the analysis of the salient be-
liefs of perceived behavioral control, i.e. the main determinant of the
purchase intention in Italy, it emerges that availability and variety of
organic food products are major aspects on which to focus in order to
stimulate demand (Fotopoulos and Chryssochoidis 2000). In this per-
spective, a fundamental role is played by the distribution of these
products, usually sold in specialized stores and, in recent years, also in
supermarkets. If on the one hand the choice to distribute them in su-
permarkets can increase the potential demand, on the other, consumers
have an ambivalent attitude towards them. Trust is, in fact, a funda-
mental factor in the decision of where to buy such products, and con-
sumers trust both supermarkets and big companies less. However,
despite the fact that specialized stores are considered more trustwor-
thy, the many engagements of everyday life usually lead consumers to
renounce to their values when faced with the greater selection and
convenience of products in a supermarket (Padel and Foster 2005).
Price can play a fundamental role in explaining the difference
between intentions and actual purchase behavior, as suggested by
several studies (Lea and Worsley 2005; Padel and Foster 2005), even
though price does not emerge here among the more salient beliefs of
perceived behavioral control. Indeed, according to some authors (Lea
and Worsley 2005; Zanoli and Naspetti 2002), a reduction of price
would be appropriate in order to promote a greater diffusion of organ-
ic food products, since their high costs for consumers can be a pur-
chase obstacle for those who would like to buy them but lack adequate
financial resources. However, not all studies agree with this statement
(Chinnici, D’Amico and Pecorino 2002; Hill and Lynchehaun 2002;
Padel and Foster 2005). Hill and Lynchehaun (2002), for example,
suggest that prices can encourage consumers to shape their opinions
on the quality and taste of organic food products, on the grounds that
higher prices can be related to a higher quality and even a difference
in taste.

70
 The main findings of this research, related to the latent dimen-
sions of the organic food product image, provide indications as re-
gards possible improvements in communication plans too. Companies
in this field, in Italy, should in fact broadcast a message based on the
concepts of the extroversion and quality of the organic food products
by using marker attributes with a higher level of saturation, like tasty,
good, jolly and energetic. In France, instead, communication should
be based on the safeness, healthiness and naturalness of these prod-
ucts via a message capable of inspiring confidence in consumers, by
making use of adjectives such as genuine, safe, healthy, reliable, and
natural – due to the higher level of uncertainty avoidance characteris-
tic of the French (Hofstede 1984). In this perspective, a significant
role could also be played by packaging and labeling (Fotopoulos and
Chryssochoidis 2000), which allow product identification and appre-
ciation. Some studies have highlighted how reliable labels are an im-
portant factor in organic food product purchase (Fotopoulos and
Chryssochoidis 2000).
This study can be used as a starting point for future studies, in
that it stresses the opportunity for developing various research paths:
firstly, an analysis of the relationship between intention and purchase
behavior of organic food products, already attempted by some authors
(Padel and Foster 2005; Tarkiainen and Sundqvist 2005). Secondly, an
investigation of the methods of measuring indirectly moral disen-
gagement or of substituting the Moral disengagement scale items with
less invasive ways of questioning. Finally, from the conducted analy-
sis it appears appropriate that future research should be carried out on
a larger sample and with methods different from the one adopted in
this survey, such as direct observation, in order to permit a deeper
understanding of organic food product purchase not only as a result of
rational decision-making, but also as a study of consumers’ emotions,
which are influential in purchase behaviors and in the creation of con-
sumers’ experiences.

71
 3.7. Conclusions

In sum, the present research has demonstrated how the moral dimen-
sion plays a fundamental role in organic food product purchase, since,
in both countries under analysis, moral norms turned out to be a sig-
nificant predictor of the purchase intention, while moral disengage-
ment showed a negative correlation with the intention, even though it
was not statistically significant. This study has furthermore provided
indications regarding the latent dimensions of the organic food prod-
uct image which can influence purchase intention the most: i.e., Ex-
troversion in Italy and Naturalness in France. Hence, it seems neces-
sary that, in defining their strategies to increase sales and to support
the high growth rates that the market has experienced in recent years,
marketers should bear in mind the higher sensibility of organic food
product consumers in relation to ethical topics.

72

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