ECE131: BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

Fundamental of Semiconductor Devices

UNIT-3
Dr. Krishan Kumar
LECTURE-15/16/17
 Topics

Unit III
Fundamental of semiconductor devices : PN junction
diode and its applications, Bipolar junction
transistor (PNP and NPN), MOSFET (working and
applications), Op-amp (features and virtual ground
concept), Op-amp (inverting and non-inverting)
 KEYWORDS

• OP-AMP
• Inverting Input
• Non-inverting Input
• Gain (AV)
• Operational amplifier or op amps as they are usually referred are
linear devices .
• They are fundamentally voltage amplifying devices used with
external feedback components like resistors or capacitors.
• An op amp is a three terminal device, with one terminal called
the inverting input, other the non-inverting input and the last
one is the output
• Op-Amp has two inputs and one output termed as inverting and
noninverting. IC 741 op amp is the most common op-amp used in
various electronic circuits.

• The main function of an op-amp is to amplify AC and DC signals

and also for mathematical operations like addition, multiplication,
subtraction, etc.
Construction of Operational Amplifier
An op-amp consists of differential amplifier(s), A differential amplifier is present at
the input stage of an op-amp and hence an op-amp consists of two input terminals.
One of those terminals is called as the inverting terminal and the other one is
called as the non-inverting terminal. The terminals are named based on the phase
relationship between their respective inputs and outputs.

•Pin 1 is Offset null.

•Pin 2 is Inverting input terminal.
•Pin 3 is a non-inverting input terminal.
•Pin 4 is negative voltage supply (VCC)
•Pin 5 is offset null.
•Pin 6 is the output voltage.
•Pin 7 is positive voltage supply
(+VCC)
•Pin 8 has no connection.
The 741 op-amp is used in two ways
such as an inverting and a noninverting
This arrangement is named as inverting because it amplifies and
reverses the polarity of input signal (Observe the waveforms at the
input and output). Resistor R2 is the feedback resistor. Gain of the
amplifier is given by the formula:
Gain (AV) = -(R2 / R1)
Negative sign indicates that the polarity of the output waveform is
reversed. By adjusting the values of R1 and R2 desired amplification
can be achieved.
• The applications of inverting amplifiers are: in
trans-resistance amplifiers, at the output stage in
the circuits designed with different types of
sensors, integrator circuits, phase shifter, etc.
• An inverting op amp circuit gives you a more linear
output than a non-inverting op-amp circuit does.
• Inverting op-amps provide more stability to the
system than non-inverting op-amp.
• In case of inverting op-amp negative feedback is
used that is always desirable for a stable system.
• The inverting amplifier is the normal operational
amplifier, in the inverting amplifier the output is
given as the feed back to the input by means of
the resistor, so it makes the closed loop.

• If the input of the inverting amplifier is small

voltage, the output of the inverting amplifier is very
high voltage.
Inverting amplifier has a phase difference of 180∘ between input and output voltage.
This arrangement is named as non-inverting because it amplifies
the input signal, while retaining the same polarity. Gain of the
amplifier is given by the formula:
Gain (AV) = 1 + (R2 / R1)
By adjusting the values of R1 and R2 desired amplification can be
achieved.
If the value of feedback resistor R2 is made 0, the gain equals 1 and
the Op-Amp configuration behaves as a “unity gain buffer”
or a voltage follower.
• Non-inverting amplifiers are used in circuits where high input impedance is
required. They are used as a voltage follower, isolation of cascaded circuits, to
perform mathematical simulations
• If a high input impedance is needed, the non-inverting amplifier is the way to go as
the inverting amplifier has a resistor to virtual ground as input.
• A non-inverting amplifier produces an output signal that is in phase with the input
signal, whereas an inverting amplifier's output is out of phase.
• The gain of inverting amplifier can be less than, greater than, or equal to 1 but the
non-inverting amplifier gain is always greater than 1. The gain of inverting amplifier
is negative while the gain of the non-inverting amplifier is positive.
 What is Virtual Ground ?

As the name indicates it is virtual, not real ground. For some purposes we can consider
it as equivalent to ground. In Opamps the term virtual ground means that the
voltage at that particular node is almost equal to ground voltage (0V). It
is not physically connected to ground. This concept is very useful in analysis of opamp
circuits and it will make a lot of calculations very simple.

For real op amps also the gain will be very high such that we can consider it as infinite for calculation
purposes.
Gain = Vo/Vin
As gain is infinite, Vin = 0
Vin = V2 – V1
In the above circuit V1 is
connected to ground, so V1 = 0.
Thus V2 also will be at ground
potential.
V2 = 0
Why we need Virtual Ground ?

Virtual Ground concept is very useful in analysis of an

opamp when negative feedback is employed. It will
simply a lot of calculations and derivations.
QWhy virtual ground concept is not applicable for positive
feedback?
Answer
Since using a positive feedback, or an open-
loop configuration, does NOT result in both
inputs being at the same voltage potential,
the concept of virtual short between the input
terminals falls apart.
Virtual Ground Real Ground

Real Ground is a terminal

Virtual Ground is a which is physically
concept that made for connected to ground or
easy explantaion and earth which acts as the
calculation purposes. reference point for the
entire circuit.
Voltage
Voltage is Zero
is approximately Zero
Not able to sink infinite It is an infinite current
current sink
Not electrically Electrically connected to
connected to Ground Ground
Applications

• Amplifiers: 741 IC is mostly used to amplify signals of varying

frequencies ranging from DC to higher radio frequencies. It is
also used in frequency selective amplifiers which filter out
signals of unwanted frequencies, E.g. tone control systems in
stereo.
• Computational: Many electronic circuits that perform
mathematical operations like integration, differentiation,
summers etc. use 741 Op-Amp.
• Rectifiers: Ordinary diodes used in rectifiers have voltage
drop across them which makes it unsuitable for high accuracy
signal rectifiers. The 741 IC can be configured to perform as
an ideal diode i.e., with no voltage drop at all and can be used
in precise rectifier circuits.
 • Oscillators: Op-Amp IC 741 is used as an oscillator in
function generators to create different output
waveforms like sinusoidal, square, triangular etc. It is
also used in Pulse Width Modulators (PWM
generators)
• Comparators: The 741 IC can be used to compare
voltage signals and determine if they are almost of
the same voltage. This can be used in voltage
regulators and signal comparators.
•ADCs / DACs: 741 Op-Amp can be used to create Digital
to Analogue Converters that can take digital binary input
from computers or microcontrollers and create a
corresponding analogue signal. Similarly, it is can also
used in Analogue to Digital circuits.
characteristics of an op amp:
Open Loop Voltage Gain(A)
The open loop voltage gain without any feedback for an ideal op amp is
infinite. But typical values of open loop voltage gain for a real op amp ranges
from 20,000 to 2, 00,000. Let the input voltage be Vin. Let A be the open loop
voltage gain. Then the output voltage is Vout = AVin. The value of a typically
is in the range specified above but for an ideal op amp, it is infinite.
Input Impedance(Zin)
Input Impedance is defined as the input voltage by the input current. The
input impedance of an ideal op amp is infinite. That is there no current
flowing in the input circuit. However, an ideal op amp has certain current
flowing in the input circuit of the magnitude of few pico-amps to a few milli-
amps.
Output Impedance (Zout)
Output impedance is defined as the ratio of the output voltage to the input current. The
output impedance of an ideal op amp is zero, however, real op amps have an output
impedance of 10-20 kΩ. An ideal op amp behaves like a perfect voltage source delivering
current without any internal losses. The internal resistance reduce the voltage available to
the load.
Bandwidth(BW)
An ideal op amp has an infinite bandwidth that is it can amplify any
signal from DC to the highest AC frequencies without any losses. So
therefore, an ideal op amp is said to have infinite frequency
response. In real op amps, the bandwidth is generally limited. The
limit depends on the gain bandwidth (GB) product. GB is defined as
the frequency where the amplifier gain becomes unity.
Offset Voltage(Vio)
The offset voltage of an ideal op amp is zero, which means that the
output voltage will be zero if the difference between the inverting
and non-inverting terminal is zero. If both the terminals are
grounded, the output voltage will be zero. But real op amps have an
offset voltage.
Common Mode Rejection Ratio(CMRR)
Common mode refers to the situation when the same voltage is applied to
both the inverting and non-inverting terminal of the op amp. The common
mode rejection refers to the ability of the op amp to reject the common
mode signal.
The common mode rejection ratio refers to the measure of the ability of the
op amp to reject the common mode signal. Mathematically it is defined as
Where, AD is the differential gain of the op amp, ∞ for an ideal op amp.
ACM refers to the common mode gain of the op-amp.
The CMRR of an ideal op amp is ∞. That means it is able to reject all common
mode signal. Also from the formula, we can see the AD is infinite for an ideal
op amp and ACM is zero. Therefore the CMRR of an ideal op-amp is infinite.
Therefore it will reject any signal which is common to both.
However, real omp have finite CMRR, and does not reject all common mode
signals.
Any Queries