chapter 2

Calculating unit costs (Part 1)

Contents

Introduction
Examination context
Topic List
1 Identifying direct and indirect costs for cost units
2 Inventory valuation
Summary and Self-test
Answers to Self-test
Answers to Interactive questions

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Introduction

Learning objectives Tick off

` Classify costs as direct or indirect as regards cost units

` Calculate direct material and direct labour costs from information provided
The specific syllabus reference for this chapter is: 1c.

Practical significance
An important task to be fulfilled by the management information system is to provide unit costs as the basis
for a variety of management planning and control activities.
But how are the individual elements of costs to be determined for each cost unit? For example there must
be mechanisms for recording the hours worked by employees and the tasks they accomplish in this time.
As regards material, if several different batches of material are purchased, all at different prices, which price
should be reported within unit costs for managers to use as the basis of their day to day operational and
planning decisions?
Information providers need mechanisms to systematically record the prices paid for material and the
quantities purchased and issued to production or sales.

Stop and think

In times of rapid inflation, why is it important to use up to date prices when reporting costs to the manager
who is responsible for determining the selling price of the company's main products or services?

Working content
You may come across inventory valuations in the context of audit engagements. Typical procedures might
involve checking that costs have been calculated and recorded correctly and that the inventory valuation
method has been applied consistently.

Syllabus links
A thorough understanding of the valuation of materials inventory will underpin your understanding of
inventory valuation for the Accounting syllabus.

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 CALCULATING UNIT COSTS (PART 1) 2

Examination context

Exam requirements
The context of much of this chapter provides scope for a range of numerical questions. However, you
should also be prepared to deal with narrative questions that examine your understanding of the
implications of the techniques you are using.
Narrative questions on the pricing of materials issues and on the classification of costs have been popular in
past examinations.
In the examination, candidates may be required to:
` Classify costs as direct or indirect
` Calculate the prime cost of a cost unit
` Calculate the price of materials and the value of inventory using ('first in, first out') FIFO, ('last in, first
out') LIFO and average pricing methods

It is important to realise that in this chapter and the next, ideas from Chapter 1 are being applied in
determining the cost of a unit of output. The cost object is, therefore, the unit of output and all terms such
as direct and indirect are used in that context. It is also essential to appreciate that direct and variable costs
and indirect and fixed costs are NOT the same thing. The narrative is as important as the calculations for
FIFO, LIFO and weighted average inventory valuations.

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1 Identifying direct and indirect costs for cost units

Section overview
` Direct costs are those that can be specifically identified with the cost unit being costed.
` Direct material cost is all material becoming part of the cost unit, unless used in negligible amounts.
` Direct labour cost is all wages paid to labour that can be identified with a specific cost unit.
` Direct expenses are expenses incurred on a specific cost unit, other than direct material and direct
labour costs.
` Indirect costs are those that cannot be identified directly with the cost unit being costed.

For the purposes of this chapter and Chapter 3 the cost object is a cost unit (eg a unit of product, a job, a
batch, a unit of service).

1.1 Direct material cost

Direct material is all material becoming part of the cost unit (unless used in negligible amounts and/or
having negligible cost).
Direct material costs are charged to the cost unit as part of the prime cost. Examples of direct material
are as follows.
` Component parts or other materials purchased for a particular product, service, job, order or
process.
` Primary packing materials like cartons and boxes.
Materials used in negligible amounts and/or having negligible cost can be grouped under indirect materials as
part of overhead.

1.2 Direct wages or direct labour costs

Direct wages are all wages paid for labour (either as basic hours or as overtime) that can be identified
with the cost unit.
Direct wages costs are charged to the cost unit as part of the prime cost.
Examples of groups of labour receiving payment as direct wages are as follows.
` Workers engaged in altering the condition, conformation or composition of the product.
` Inspectors, analysts and testers specifically required for such production.

1.3 Direct expenses

Direct expenses are any expenses that are incurred on a specific cost unit other than direct material
cost and direct wages.
Direct expenses are charged to the product as part of the prime cost. Examples of direct expenses are as
follows.
` The cost of special designs, drawings or layouts for a particular job
` The hire of tools or equipment for a particular job

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 CALCULATING UNIT COSTS (PART 1) 2

1.4 Indirect costs

Indirect costs or overheads are those costs that cannot be traced in full to a specific cost unit.
For example, a garage carries out a repair job on a customer's car.
` The direct material cost of the job will include the replacement parts used.
` The direct labour cost will be wages paid to the mechanics who carried out the work. The labour is
treated as a direct cost in this case, even if the mechanics are paid a fixed amount each period. This is
because it is possible to measure exactly how long each person worked on the repair, and their hourly
rate of pay.
` The indirect costs of the repair job will include a share of the overhead costs incurred in the garage,
such as the rent, the buildings insurance, the depreciation of the garage equipment and so on. These
costs cannot be traced to any single job worked on during the period.
Try this interactive question to ensure you have understood the principle of how to distinguish a direct
cost from an indirect cost.

Interactive question 1: Direct cost or indirect cost? [Difficulty level: Intermediate]

Indicate whether each of the following costs would be classified as a direct cost or an indirect cost of a
particular car repair in a garage. The repair was worked on in overtime hours due to an unusually large
number of repairs being booked into the garage that day.

Cost incurred Direct or indirect?

The salary of the garage's accountant

The cost of heating the garage
A can of engine oil used in the repair
A smear of grease used in the repair
An overtime premium paid to the mechanic
carrying out the repair
An idle time payment made to the mechanic while
waiting for a delivery of parts for a number of jobs
The wages of the supervisor overseeing the
mechanic carrying out the repair

See Answer at the end of this chapter.

1.5 Direct and indirect costs: some further points

There are a few possible misconceptions about direct and indirect costs that should be clarified at this
stage.
` Direct costs are not necessarily bigger in size than indirect costs. In highly-automated service
industries, direct materials and direct labour costs are likely to be very small, relative to overhead
costs. The relative size of direct and indirect costs per unit of output varies according to the type of
output, the industry, the technology, etc.
` Indirect costs are not less important than direct costs. Although they cannot be directly
attributed to individual units of output or to individual jobs, they represent expenditure on resources
that are essential for the units to be made or the jobs to be done. In the example of the garage repair
job, the rent of the garage is an indirect cost, but the rental cost represents a share of the use of the
garage space, without which the job could not have been done.

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` It is easy to confuse fixed and variable costs with indirect and direct costs. A direct cost is
often also a variable cost: for example, the cost of raw materials that goes into making a unit of
product is both a direct cost and a variable cost. However, a direct cost may be a fixed cost rather
than a variable cost. For example, the direct cost of the labour employed to do a certain type of work
is a fixed cost to the business if the employees are paid a fixed amount of wages or salary regardless of
the amount of work they do. Similarly, an indirect cost may a variable cost. For example, the cost of
heating in a manufacturing plant may rise as more hours are worked. The cost of heating cannot be
directly attributed to an individual job or unit of output. Nevertheless, it is a cost that rises with the
level of activity, and is a variable cost. Variable indirect costs are more commonly referred to as
variable overheads.

2 Inventory valuation
Section overview
` The pricing of issues of inventory items and the valuation of closing inventory have a direct effect on
the calculation of profit. Several different methods can be used in practice.
` With FIFO all issues are priced at the cost of the earliest delivery remaining in inventory.
` With LIFO all issues are priced at the cost of the most recent delivery remaining in inventory.
` The cumulative weighted average pricing method calculates a weighted average price for all units in
inventory whenever a new delivery of materials is received into store.
` The periodic weighted average pricing method calculates a single weighted average price at the end of
the period. The average is based on the opening inventory plus all units received in the period.
` Each method of inventory valuation usually produces different figures for the value of closing
inventories and the cost of material issues. Therefore, profit figures using the different inventory
valuations are usually different.

2.1 Valuing inventory in financial accounts

You may be aware from your studies of Accounting that, for financial accounting purposes, inventories are
valued at the lower of cost and net realisable value. In practice, inventories will probably be valued at
cost in the stores records throughout the course of an accounting period. Only when the period ends will
the value of the inventory in hand be reconsidered so that items with a net realisable value below their
original cost will be revalued downwards, and the inventory records altered accordingly.

2.2 Charging units of inventory to cost of production or cost of sales

It is important to be able to distinguish between the way in which the physical items in inventory are
actually issued and the way in which inventory is costed. In practice a storekeeper may issue goods in the
following way.
` The oldest goods first
` The latest goods received first
` Randomly
` Those that are easiest to reach
By comparison, the cost of goods issued must be determined on a consistently applied basis, and must
ignore the likelihood that the materials issued will be costed at a price different from the amount paid for
them.
This may seem a little confusing at first, and it may be helpful to explain the point further by looking at an
example.

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2.3 Example: Inventory valuation

Suppose that there are three units of a particular material in inventory.
Units Date received Purchase cost
A June 20X1 £100
B July 20X1 £106
C August 20X1 £109
In September, one unit is issued to production. As it happened, the physical unit actually issued was B. The
accounting department must put a value or cost on the material issued, but the value would not be the cost
of B, £106. The principles used to value the materials issued are not concerned with the actual unit issued,
A, B, or C. Nevertheless, the accountant may choose to make one of the following assumptions.
` The unit issued is valued as though it were the earliest unit received into inventory, ie at the purchase
cost of A, £100. This valuation principle is called FIFO, or first in, first out.
` The unit issued is valued as though it were the most recent unit received into inventory, ie at the
purchase cost of C, £109. This method of valuation is LIFO, or last in, first out.
` The unit issued is valued at an average price of A, B and C. The three units cost a total of £315, an
average of £105 each.

2.4 Pricing methods in inventory valuation

In the following sections we will consider each of the pricing methods detailed above, using the following
transactions to illustrate the principles in each case.
TRANSACTIONS DURING MAY 20X6
Quantity Unit cost Total cost Market value
per unit on date
of transaction
Units £ £ £
Opening balance, 1 May 100 2.00 200
Receipts, 3 May 400 2.10 840 2.11
Issues, 4 May 200 2.11
Receipts, 9 May 300 2.12 636 2.15
Issues, 11 May 400 2.20
Receipts, 18 May 100 2.40 240 2.40
Issues, 20 May 100 2.42
Closing balance, 31 May 200 2.45
1,916

2.5 FIFO (first in, first out)

FIFO assumes that materials are issued out of inventory in the order in which they were delivered into
inventory: issues are priced at the cost of the earliest delivery remaining in inventory.

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Worked example: FIFO

Using FIFO, the cost of issues and the closing inventory value of the transactions in section 2.4 would be
as follows.
Date of issue Quantity issued Value
Units £ £
4 May 200 100 b/f at £2 200
100 at £2.10 210
410
11 May 400 300 at £2.10 630
100 at £2.12 212
842
20 May 100 100 at £2.12 212
Cost of issues 1,464
Closing inventory value 200 100 at £2.12 212
100 at £2.40 240
452
1,916
Using a tabular format, as below, is a practical way of tracking items when carrying out a FIFO calculation:
£2.00 £2.10 £2.12 £2.40 Total
b/f 100 100
Receipt 3 May 400 400
Issue 4 May (100) (100) (200)
Receipt 9 May 300 300
Issue 11 May (300) (100) (400)
Receipt 18 May 100 100
Issue 20 May (100) (100)
– – 100 100 200
Points to note
1 The cost of materials issued plus the value of closing inventory equals the cost of purchases plus the
value of opening inventory (£1,916).
2 The market price of purchased materials is rising dramatically. In a period of inflation, there is a
tendency with FIFO for materials to be issued at a cost lower than the current market value, although
closing inventories tend to be valued at a cost approximating to current market value.

2.6 Advantages and disadvantages of the FIFO method

Advantages Disadvantages

It is a logical pricing method, which probably FIFO can be cumbersome to operate because of
represents what is physically happening: in practice the need to identify each batch of material
the oldest inventory is likely to be used first. separately.
It is easy to understand and explain to managers. Managers may find it difficult to compare costs and
make decisions when they are charged with varying
prices for the same materials.
The inventory valuation can be near to a valuation In a period of high inflation, inventory issue prices
based on replacement cost. will lag behind current market value.

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Interactive question 2: FIFO [Difficulty level: Intermediate]

Complete the table below in as much detail as possible using the information from the last worked example.
Receipts Issues Inventory
Date Unit Unit Unit
price Amount price Amount price Amount
Quantity £ £ Quantity £ £ Quantity £ £

See Answer at the end of this chapter.

2.7 LIFO (last in, first out)

LIFO assumes that materials are issued out of inventory in the reverse order from that in which they were
delivered: the most recent deliveries are issued before earlier ones, and issues are priced accordingly.

Worked example: LIFO

Using LIFO, the cost of issues and the closing inventory value of the transactions in section 2.4 would be as
follows.
Date of issue Quantity issued Valuation
Units £ £
4 May 200 200 at £2.10 420
11 May 400 300 at £2.12 636
100 at £2.10 210
846
20 May 100 100 at £2.40 240
Cost of issues 1,506
Closing inventory value 200 100 at £2.10 210
100 at £2.00 200
410
1,916
A tabular format similar to that in section 2.5 can also be used in section 2.7.
Points to note
1 The cost of materials issued plus the value of closing inventory equals the cost of purchases plus the
value of opening inventory (£1,916).
2 In a period of inflation there is a tendency with LIFO for the following to occur.
– Materials are issued at a price that approximates to current market value.
– Closing inventories become undervalued when compared to market value.

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2.8 Advantages and disadvantages of the LIFO method

Advantages Disadvantages

Inventories are issued at a price which is close to The method can be cumbersome to operate
current market value. because it sometimes results in several batches
being only part-used in the inventory records
before another batch is received.
Managers are continually aware of recent costs when LIFO is often the opposite of what is physically
making decisions, because the costs being charged to happening and can therefore be difficult to
their department or products will be current costs. explain to managers.
As with FIFO, decision making can be difficult
because of the variations in prices.

2.9 Cumulative weighted average pricing

The cumulative weighted average pricing method calculates a weighted average price for all units in
inventory. Issues are priced at this average cost, and the balance of inventory remaining would have the
same unit valuation. The average price is determined by dividing the total cost by the total number of units.
A new weighted average price is calculated whenever a new delivery of materials is received into
store. This is the key feature of cumulative weighted average pricing.

Worked example: Cumulative weighted average pricing

Using cumulative weighted average pricing, issue costs and closing inventory values of the transactions in
section 2.4 would be as follows.
Total
Date Received Issued Balance inventory value Unit cost
Units Units Units £ £ £
Opening inventory 100 200 2.00
3 May 400 840 2.10
* 500 1,040 2.08
4 May 200 (416) 2.08 416
300 624 2.08
9 May 300 636 2.12
* 600 1,260 2.10
11 May 400 (840) 2.10 840
200 420 2.10
18 May 100 240 2.40
* 300 660 2.20
20 May 100 (220) 2.20 220
Cost of issues 1,476
Closing inventory value 200 440 2.20 440
1,916
* A new inventory value per unit is calculated whenever a new receipt of materials occurs.
Points to note
1 The cost of materials issued plus the value of closing inventory equals the cost of purchases plus the
value of opening inventory (£1,916).
2 In a period of inflation, using the cumulative weighted average pricing system, the value of material
issues will rise gradually, but will tend to lag a little behind the current market value at the date of
issue. Closing inventory values will also be a little below current market value.

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2.10 Advantages and disadvantages of cumulative weighted average

pricing
Advantages Disadvantages

Fluctuations in prices are smoothed out, making it The resulting issue price is rarely an actual
easier to use the data for decision making. price that has been paid, and can run to several
decimal places.
It is easier to administer than FIFO and LIFO, because Prices tend to lag a little behind current market
there is no need to identify each batch separately. values when there is gradual inflation.

Interactive question 3: Inventory valuation methods [Difficulty level: Intermediate]

Shown below is an extract from records for inventory item number 988988.
Receipts Issues Balance
Date Qty Value Total Qty Value Total Qty Value Total
£ £ £ £ £ £
5 June 30 2.50 75
8 June 20 3.00 60
10 June 10 A
14 June 20 B
18 June 40 2.40 96
20 June 6 C D
(a) The values that would be entered on the stores record for A, B, C and D in a cumulative weighted
average pricing system would be:
A £ ........................................
B £ ........................................
C £ ........................................
D £ ........................................
(b) The values that would be entered on the stores record for A, B, C and D in a LIFO system would be:
A £ ........................................
B £ ........................................
C £ ........................................
D £ ........................................
See Answer at the end of this chapter.

2.11 Periodic weighted average pricing

This average method differs from the cumulative weighted average method. Instead of calculating a new
inventory value per unit whenever a receipt occurs, a single average is calculated at the end of the period
based on all purchases for the period. Unless stated to the contrary, assume the cumulative
method is required in an exam question.

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Worked example: Periodic weighted average pricing

Using periodic weighted average pricing, the issue costs and closing inventory of the transactions in section
2.4 would be as follows.
Cost of opening inventory + Total cost of receipts in period
Periodic weighted average price =
Units in opening inventory + Total units received in period

(£200 +£1,716)
=
(100 + 800)

= £2.129 per unit

This average price is used to value all the units issued and the units in the closing inventory.
£
Cost of issues = 700 units × £2.129 1,490
Closing inventory value = 200 units × £2.129 426
1,916
Notice that once again the cost of materials issued plus the value of closing inventory equals the cost of
purchases plus the value of opening inventory (£1,916).

2.12 Inventory valuation and profitability

Each method of inventory valuation usually produces different figures for the value of closing inventories
and the cost of material issues. A summary of the valuations based on the transactions in section 2.4 is as
follows.
Valuation method Closing Cost Total
inventory of issues
value
£ £ £
FIFO (section 2.5) 452 1,464 1,916
LIFO (section 2.7) 410 1,506 1,916
Cumulative weighted average (section 2.9) 440 1,476 1,916
Periodic weighted average (section 2.11) 426 1,490 1,916
Since material costs affect the cost of production, and the cost of production works through eventually into
the cost of sales (which is also affected by the value of closing inventories), it follows that different
methods of inventory valuation will provide different profit figures.
The following example will help to illustrate the point.

Worked example: Inventory valuation and profitability

On 1 November 20X2, Delilah's Dresses Ltd held 3 pink satin dresses with orange sashes, designed by
Freda Swoggs. These were valued at £120 each. During November 20X2, 12 more of the dresses were
delivered as follows.
Date Dresses received Purchase cost per dress
10 November 4 £125
20 November 4 £140
25 November 4 £150
A number of the pink satin dresses with orange sashes were sold during November as follows.
Date Dresses sold Sales price per dress
14 November 5 £200
21 November 5 £200
28 November 1 £200

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Requirements
Calculate the gross profit from selling the pink satin dresses with orange sashes in November 20X2,
applying the following principles of inventory valuation.
(a) FIFO
(b) LIFO
(c) Cumulative weighted average pricing
Calculate gross profit using the formula: gross profit = (sales – (opening inventory + purchases – closing
inventory)).

Solution
(a) FIFO
Cost Closing
Date of sales Total inventory
£ £
14 November 3 units × £120
+ 2 units × £125
610
21 November 2 units × £125
+ 3 units × £140
670
28 November 1 unit × £140 140
Closing inventory 4 units × £150 600
1,420 600
(b) LIFO
Cost of Closing
Date sales Total inventory
£ £
14 November 4 units × £125
+ 1 unit × £120
620
21 November 4 units × £140
+ 1 unit × £120
680
28 November 1 unit × £150 150
Closing inventory 3 units × £150
+ 1 unit × £120
570
1,450 570
(c) Cumulative weighted average pricing
Balance in Cost of Closing
Units Unit cost inventory sales inventory
£ £ £ £
1 November 3 120.00 360
10 November 4 125.00 500
7 122.86 860
14 November 5 122.86 614 614
2 246
20 November 4 140.00 560
6 134.33 806
21 November 5 134.33 672 672
1 134
25 November 4 150.00 600
5 146.80 734
28 November 1 146.80 147 147
30 November 4 146.80 587 1,433 587

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Profitability Weighted
FIFO LIFO average
£ £ £
Opening inventory 360 360 360
Purchases 1,660 1,660 1,660
2,020 2,020 2,020
Closing inventory 600 570 587
Cost of sales 1,420 1,450 1,433
Sales (11 × £200) 2,200 2,200 2,200
Gross profit 780 750 767

2.13 Profit differences

In this example, different inventory valuation methods produced different costs of sale and
hence different gross profits. As opening inventory values and purchase costs are the same for
each method, the different costs of sale are due to different closing inventory valuations. The
differences in gross profits therefore equal the differences in closing inventory valuations.
The profit differences are only temporary. In the example, the opening inventory in December 20X2 will
be £600, £570 or £587, depending on the inventory valuation method used. Different opening inventory
values will affect the cost of sales and profits in December, so that in the long run, inequalities in costs of
sales each month will even themselves out.

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Summary and Self-test

Summary

Direct costs Indirect costs

Can be traced in full to cost unit Cannot be traced in full to cost
being costed object being costed

Direct material cost Direct labour cost Direct expenses

All material becoming part of the Wages that can be identified with Non-material and labour cost that
cost unit a specific cost unit can be identified with a specific
cost unit

FIFO LIFO Weighted average

Issues priced at oldest prices in Issues priced at latest prices in Issues priced at a calculated
inventory inventory weighted average

Cumulative weighted average Periodic weighted average

New average calculated whenever Single average calculated at end of
a delivery is received each period

Self-test
Answer the following questions.
1 Which two of the following are cost objects?
A A packing machine
B The factory canteen
C Direct materials for production
D Annual salary of the chief accountant
E A telephone bill
2 Which two of the following are classified as indirect costs of individual units of output or of individual
projects?
A The cost of overtime worked specifically to complete a one-off project
B The depreciation of a machine on an assembly line
C Primary packing materials, eg cartons and boxes
D The hire of maintenance tools or equipment for a factory

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3 Which one of the following would be classified as an indirect cost of individual batches of output, units
of service or of individual projects of the organisation concerned?
A The cost of sugar used for a batch of cakes in a bakery
B The lease rental cost of a leased car used by a site foreman travelling to a specific construction
project
C The accountant's salary in a factory
D The cost of drinks served on an intercity train journey
4 When costing cost units, wage payments for idle time within a production department are classified as
A Direct labour cost
B Prime cost
C Administration overhead
D Factory overhead
5 A retailer currently uses the LIFO method to value its inventory of goods for sale.
If the retailer decides instead to use the FIFO method, in a period of rising prices
A The closing inventory value will be lower and the gross profit will be lower
B The closing inventory value will be lower and the gross profit will be higher
C The closing inventory value will be higher and the gross profit will be lower
D The closing inventory value will be higher and the gross profit will be higher
6 A wholesaler had an opening inventory of 750 units of geronimos valued at £80 each on 1st March.
The following receipts and sales were recorded during March.
4 March Received 180 units at a cost of £85 per unit
18 March Received 90 units at a cost of £90 per unit
24 March Sold 852 units at a price of £110 per unit
Using the weighted average cost method of valuation, what was the cost of geronimos sold on 24
March? (to the nearest £)
A £35,320
B £38,016
C £38,448
D £69,660
7 At the beginning of week 10 there were 400 units of component X held in the stores. 160 of these
components had been purchased for £5.55 each in week 9 and 240 had been purchased for £5.91 each
in week 8.
On day 3 of week 10 a further 120 components were received into stores at a purchase cost of £5.96
each.
The only issue of component X occurred on day 4 of week 10, when 150 units were issued to
production.
Using the FIFO valuation method, what was the value of the closing inventory of component X at the
end of week 10?
A £1,980.45
B £2,070.15
C £2,135.10
D £2,200.55

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8 A wholesaler had an opening inventory of 330 units of product T valued at £168 each on 1April.
The following receipts and sales were recorded during April.
4 April Received 180 units at a cost of £174 per unit
18 April Received 90 units at a cost of £186 per unit
24 April Sold 432 units at a price of £220 per unit
Using the LIFO valuation method, what was the gross profit earned from the units sold on 24 April?
A £16,350
B £18,120
C £18,520
D £19,764
9 Which of the following statements is/are correct?

True False

Using LIFO, managers are continually aware of recent costs when making
decisions, because the costs being charged to their departments or products
will be current costs
FIFO lets managers value issues at current prices in a period of high inflation

The use of the cumulative average pricing method of inventory valuation is

easier to administer than FIFO and LIFO because there is no need to identify
each batch separately

10 A business buys and sells boxes of item J. The transactions for the latest quarter are shown below.
Opening inventory 400 boxes valued at £1,000
Purchases Sales
Boxes Value Boxes
£
July 1,000 2,600 1,100
August 1,200 3,300 900
September 1,000 3,000 800
The business values its inventories using a periodic weighted average price calculated at the end of
each quarter.

To the nearest £, the value of the inventory at the end of September is £........................................ .
Now go back to the Learning Objectives in the Introduction. If you are satisfied you have achieved these
objectives, please tick them off.

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Answers to Self-test

1 A, B It is possible to ascertain the cost of these two cost objects.

The other three items are costs that might be attributed to a particular cost object, but they are
not cost objects in themselves.
2 B, D The cost of overtime worked specifically to complete a one-off project (option A) is direct
labour.
Primary packing materials, eg cartons and boxes, (option C) are direct materials.
3 C The accountant's salary is an indirect cost because it cannot be traced to a specific cost unit. It
would be classified as an administration overhead.
All of the other costs can be traced to a specific cost unit.
The cost of sugar would be a direct ingredients cost of a specific batch of cakes.
The lease rental cost would be a direct cost of a construction project.
The cost of drinks served would be a direct cost of a particular train journey.
4 D Idle time is usually treated as an overhead; in this case it is within the production department and
is therefore a factory overhead.
5 D The FIFO method prices issues from inventory at the cost of the earliest delivery remaining in
inventory.
The closing inventory will therefore be valued at the higher prices paid.
The charge to cost of sales will be lower than with LIFO, therefore the gross profit will be
higher.
6 D
£
Weighted average cost per unit:
750 units × £80 60,000
180 units × £85 15,300
90 units × £90 8,100
1,020 83,400
Weighted average cost per unit = £83,400/1,020
= £81.76
Cost of units sold on 24 March = £81.76 × 852 units
= £69,660

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 CALCULATING UNIT COSTS (PART 1) 2

7 C Components issued on day 4 = 150 from week 8 receipts

Closing inventory week 10:
£
Remaining 90 Components from week 8 × £5.91 531.90
160 Components from week 9 × £5.55 888.00
120 Components from week 10 × £5.96 715.20
370 2,135.10
8 D The LIFO method uses the cost of the most recent batches first.
£
Cost of units sold on 24 April:
90 units × £186 16,740
180 units × £174 31,320
162 units × £168 27,216
432 75,276

Sales revenue = 432 units × £220 95,040

Less cost of units sold 75,276
Gross profit 19,764
9
True False

Using LIFO, managers are continually aware of recent costs when making
decisions, because the costs being charged to their departments or
products will be current costs
9
FIFO lets managers value issues at current prices in a period of high
inflation 9
The use of the cumulative average pricing method of inventory valuation is
easier to administer than FIFO and LIFO because there is no need to
identify each batch separately
9
FIFO lets managers value issues at current prices in a period of high inflation is incorrect. Under
FIFO, inventory issues are valued at the cost of the earliest delivery remaining in inventory. In
times of inflation, this will mean that issue prices will be lower than current prices.
10 To the nearest £, the value of the inventory at the end of September is £2,200.
Total inventory available during quarter:
Boxes Value
£
Opening inventory 400 1,000
Purchases: July 1,000 2,600
August 1,200 3,300
September 1,000 3,000
3,600 9,900
Periodic weighted average price = £9,900/3,600
= £2.75 per box
Closing inventory = 3,600 – (1,100 + 900 + 800)
= 800 boxes
Value of closing inventory = 800 × £2.75
= £2,200

43
 Management information

Answers to Interactive questions

Answer to Interactive question 1

Cost incurred Direct or indirect?

The salary of the garage's accountant Indirect

The cost of heating the garage Indirect
A can of engine oil used in the repair Direct. This cost can be directly attributed to this
particular repair.
A smear of grease used in the repair Indirect. This cost is negligible and would not be
recorded separately as a direct cost.
An overtime premium paid to the mechanic Indirect. The overtime is being worked due to a
carrying out the repair generally heavy work load. This particular repair
has not caused the overtime premium to be
incurred. The cost is indirect and must be shared
over all the repair jobs carried out.
An idle time payment made to the mechanic while Indirect. The cost cannot be identified with any
waiting for a delivery of parts for a number of jobs particular repair job.
The wages of the supervisor overseeing the Indirect. The supervisor is overseeing all repair
mechanic carrying out the repair jobs being undertaken.

Answer to Interactive question 2

Receipts Issues Inventory
Date Unit Unit Unit
price Amount price Amount price
Quantity £ £ Quantity £ £ Quantity £ Amount £

1.5.X6 100 2.00 200.00

3.5.X6 400 2.10 840.00 100 2.00 200.00

400 2.10 840.00
500 1,040.00

4.5.X6 100 2.00 200.00

100 2.10 210.00 300 2.10 630.00

9.5.X6 300 2.12 636.00 300 2.10 630.00

300 2.12 636.00
600 1,266.00

11.5.X6 300 2.10 630.00

100 2.12 212.00 200 2.12 424.00

18.5.X6 100 2.40 240.00 200 2.12 424.00

100 2.40 240.00
300 664.00

20.5.X6 100 2.12 212.00 100 2.12 212.00

100 2.40 240.00
31.5.X6 200 452.00

44
 CALCULATING UNIT COSTS (PART 1) 2

Answer to Interactive question 3

(a) A £27
B £54
C £15
D £135
WORKINGS
£
8 June Inventory balance = 30 units × £2.50 75
20 units × £3.00 60
50 135
Weighted average price = 135/50
= 2.70
10 June Issues = 10 units × £2.70 £27
14 June Issues = 20 units × £2.70 £54
18 June Inventory balance = remaining 20 units × £2.70 54
receipts 40 units × £2.40 96
60 150
Weighted average price = 150/60
= 2.50
20 June Issues = 6 units × £2.50 £15
Inventory balance = 54 units × £2.50 135

(b) A £30
B £55
C £14.40
D £131.60
WORKINGS
£
10 June 10 units × £3.00 30.00
14 June Issues 10 units × £3.00 = 30.00
10 units × £2.50 = 25.00
55.00
20 June Issues: 6 units × £2.40 = 14.40
Balance: 34 units × £2.40 81.60
20 units × £2.50 50.00
54 131.60

45
 Management information

46