Climate change and biodiversity

Interlinkages and policy options

Introduction Some policy measures are beneficial in both areas,
Climate change and biodiversity decline are major helping to mitigate and adapt to climate change as well
challenges of our time. Both are predominantly caused as conserve and restore biodiversity, while others can
by human activities, with profound consequences for be positive in one sphere but negative in the other. This
people and the ecosystems on which we depend. In briefing examines these interconnections and outlines
2021, major United Nations conferences on biodiversity how measures that benefit biodiversity have the potential
(COP15i) and on climate change (COP26ii) will be held, to support climate action, and how some aspects of climate
providing an opportunity for Governments to focus action can support biodiversity. It also discusses instances
international attention on the interconnectedness and where addressing one issue inappropriately can undermine
interdependence of climate change and biodiversity. efforts to enhance the other.

Image: Coral colonies growing in clear shallow waters surrounding a tropical islet in the Majuro Atoll of the Marshall Islands, Pacific Ocean © Tane Sinclair-Taylor

i Fifteenth meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity.

ii Twenty-sixth meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Framework Convention on Climate Change.

1 CLIMATE CHANGE AND BIODIVERSITY INTERLINKAGES AND POLICY OPTIONS

1. Understanding the interlinkages between climate change
and biodiversity

1.1 Background – key science concepts How do ecosystems affect the climate?
What is biodiversity and why is it important? Ecosystems affect the climate in several ways, and their
Biodiversity is the biological wealth of the Earth. The biodiversity secures these climate regulating functions.
United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) Biodiversity makes ecosystems more resilient to varying
defines biological diversity as “the variability among living and shifting climates and other disturbances.
organisms from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial,
marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological Ecosystems, through vegetation, sediments and soils are major
complexes of which they are part; this includes diversity reservoirs of carbon. The total amount of carbon stored in
within species, between species and of ecosystems”. the terrestrial biosphere is around three times that found in
the atmosphere as carbon dioxide. Changes in these carbon
Countless interactions between organisms sustain human reservoirs, whether caused by direct human activity, climate
life on the planet, providing physical, cultural, recreational change, or their interactions, can significantly affect the climate.
and spiritual benefits to society, often referred to as
‘ecosystem services’ or ‘nature’s contributions to people’. Ecosystems also influence the climate by altering the
Loss of biodiversity can threaten these key benefits, properties of the land surface and the flows of energy and
including some as essential as supplies of food and clean matter in the oceans and on land. For example, vegetation
water, or regulation of climate, pests and pathogens. increases the rate of water cycling to the atmosphere, which
lowers surface temperatures, increases atmospheric
How does climate change affect biodiversity? humidity and affects local cloud formation and, in some
Aspects of climate change, such as rising temperatures, cases, the rate or intensity of rainfall. At a larger scale, these
changing rain and snowfall patterns and extreme weather features affect atmospheric circulation and, hence, regional
events, have a range of impacts on biodiversity. In the marine and global climate patterns.
environment, climate change is causing intensified marine
heatwaves, loss of oxygen and sea level rise, which lead to 1.2 How is biodiversity changing and what role is climate
already observed alterations in biodiversity, ecosystem change playing?
functioning and livelihoods such as fishing, particularly for Wildlife worldwide has been influenced by human impacts
coastal ecosystems1. The impacts of climate change are with declines in abundance of many species in the last half-
compounded by ocean acidification, which is also caused by century4, 5, 6. Around one million animal and plant species are
increased atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations. Many now estimated to be threatened with extinction as a result of
terrestrial, freshwater and marine species have shifted their human activity7. Local species richness, the number of
geographic ranges, seasonal activities, migration patterns, different species in an ecosystem, is estimated to have fallen
abundances and way in which they interact with other species by around 14% on average due to human activity and more
in response to ongoing climate change2. than 75% in the worst affected habitats8.

The rapid pace of twenty-first century climate change – The main driver of biodiversity change in the past 50 years
currently, the world is on track for a temperature rise in has been alteration in land and sea use (including, prominently,
excess of 3°C this century3 – could mean that many species tropical deforestation, the largest single cause of recent
fail to adapt or migrate at sufficient speed, particularly in biodiversity loss), followed by direct exploitation of
more fragmented landscapes. Some plant and animal organisms, such as fisheries; climate change; pollution;
populations will decline whilst others will increase, changing and the invasion of species, especially on islands7.
species interactions such as predation, competition and the
spread of disease.

2 CLIMATE CHANGE AND BIODIVERSITY INTERLINKAGES AND POLICY OPTIONS

While climate change has yet to cause major species decline 1.3 How can biodiversity support climate adaptation and
in some ecosystems, in others it has already resulted in mitigation efforts?
severe falls in population size and changes in composition9. Biodiversity can support climate action in many ways,
For example, warming-induced coral bleaching has caused particularly through well-designed ‘Nature-based solutions’
declines of up to 90% in coral populations in some regions, (NbS)16. These actions are intended to protect, sustainably
leading to shifts to alternative types of organisms such as manage, and restore ecosystems that address societal
macroalgae, or broad-scale transformations in coral species challenges such as climate change, while providing human
composition10, 11. A 2°C warming is expected to cause a decline well-being and biodiversity benefits. These are reasonably
of greater than 99% of coral reefs. On land, the impacts of well understood and available for deployment in terrestrial
climate change on the diversity of plants and vertebrates are systems, but less so in marine systems17.
predicted to exceed those of land-use by 205012, 13.
NbS supporting both climate change mitigation and adaptation
As for the UK, a study of nearly 700 terrestrial and freshwater include protecting and restoring ecosystems such as peatlands
species showed that 41% of species had declined in average and seagrass meadows, and reforesting woodlands and
abundance since 197014. Key drivers of this and associated mangroves, thus enhancing soil carbon sequestration whilst
trends include intensive management of agricultural land increasing resilience to climate change impacts17.
as well as climate change itself, which is causing range
and population changes in sensitive species, alongside Scaling up nature-based mitigation actions to their maximum
landscape-scale alteration to vulnerable habitats. possible extent has been estimated to result in a potential net
absorption of around 11 billion tonnes CO2-equivalent per year
Species decline and other impacts of warming would be until the mid-century at least, equivalent to c.27% of current
significantly lessened by limiting warming to 1.5°C. For fossil-fuel carbon dioxide emissions, through enhanced sinks
example, a recent study suggests that whereas 4% of and reduced sources of greenhouse gas emissions (GHGs)18, 19.
vertebrates, 8% of plants and 6% of insects have been However, NbS will allow us to meet climate targets only in
projected to lose over half of their climate-determined tandem with strict decarbonisation of the economy; the carbon-
geographic range at 1.5°C of warming, at under 3°C warming holding capacity of the biosphere is limited compared to
this rises dramatically to 26% of vertebrates, 44% of plants, current and potential fossil fuel emissions.
and 49% of all insects. Under 3°C of warming, there may
also be critical declines in some whole habitats, such as While some NbS, such as soil carbon sequestration, can be
alpine, mountain, and high-latitude ecosystems and some applied without changing land use, a key consideration for
tropical forests2, 15. others is how much land conversion is required and potential
trade-offs against existing uses and biodiversity.

Image: Appropriate nature-based solutions can help tackle climate change whilst also providing an opportunity for biodiversity protection and recovery.
Bluebell wood at dawn © iStock / simonbradfield

3 CLIMATE CHANGE AND BIODIVERSITY INTERLINKAGES AND POLICY OPTIONS

 FIGU R E 1

Climate change impacts biodiversity through interactions with the Earth System.

Climate change induced factors such as earlier springs and changing ocean currents have consequences for all life on Earth. In
turn, changes in biodiversity can impact the Earth System responses through changes to balanced cycles which further amplify
climate change. Nature-based solutions (NbS) can help disrupt this cycle through the creation, restoration, management and
protection of ecosystems to promote mitigation of and adaptation to climate change by altering the feedbacks between climate
impacts and biodiversity, and Earth System responses. Examples of such NbS are outlined in the centre of the figure.

C L I M AT E C
OF H AN
KEY NS
G

G
Marine environment
SI

E
Land environment Warming

Rainfall change

Heat waves

Extreme weather

Conserve
existing
Biodiversity wetlands Protect and
Altered friendly restore Altered
TEM RES OF C
L I MATE
SYS
carbon PO agriculture woodlands CH
T H N C TS carbon A
A Rcycling and storage S A cycling and storage N

GE
E

Planting Marine
Changing surface
Altered carbon seagrass protected IM Changing surface
Droughts
reflectance reflectance
cycling and storage meadows NATURE areas Floods
Hydrology changes Hydrology changes
Changing surface BASED Fires
reflectance
SOLUTIONS Protect and Changing ocean currents
Hydrology changes Rotate crops restore Earlier spring seasons
greenlands

Protect
Restore
and restore
natural
mangrove
waterways Expand urban forests
green areas

ON BIODIVE
C TS RS
FE Shifting
IT
EF

species ranges

Population declines
and increases

Novel species compositions

Ecosystem regime shifts

Changing ecosystem
functions

4 CLIMATE CHANGE AND BIODIVERSITY INTERLINKAGES AND POLICY OPTIONS

2. Integrated policy options for climate change and biodiversity

What is needed to mount a coordinated effort to combat What policies are in place in the UK to address biodiversity
both climate change and biodiversity decline? First, this decline?
section introduces the UK policy context and the scope for UK biodiversity policy is currently based on a ‘Post-2010
increasing integration in policy-making on both issues. Biodiversity Framework’ designed to achieve the global
Second, it proposes five principles that could guide the Aichi Biodiversity Targets, agreed in 2010 by 196 countries
policy response. Third, it presents climate mitigation and to halt the loss of biodiversity globally by 2020, at a UK
adaptation measures that should be encouraged or level. The framework is supported by the Joint Nature
discouraged based on their impacts on biodiversity. Lastly, Conservation Committee. Each of the UK’s four nations
it looks at what the UK can do at a global level to address has set out a biodiversity strategy with a common factor
climate and biodiversity issues in a mutually beneficial way. being an emphasis on integration of the strategy into a
broad range of policies that have a direct or indirect link
2.1 UK policy context with biodiversity23, 24, 25, 26. As Northern Ireland’s strategy,
What policies are in place in the UK to address Valuing Nature, says: “A more integrated approach is
climate change? required which recognises the need for sustaining
Climate change policy is framed by the 2008 Climate ecosystems that are resilient to change.”
Change Act, under which carbon budgets are set 12 years
ahead by Parliament on the advice of the independent In 2018, the UK Government published a broad 25-year
Committee on Climate Change (CCC). In December 2020, plan called Our Green Future, with priority areas such as
the CCC recommended that the UK sets a Sixth Carbon using land and seas sustainably and restoring nature27.
Budget (i.e. the legal limit for UK net emissions of
greenhouse gases over the years 2033 – 2037) at 965 The policy response to biodiversity decline has so far been
MtCO2e (million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent) to inadequate at both international and national levels. The
achieve the net zero 2050 target, implying a 78% reduction Fifth Global Biodiversity Outlook, published in September
from 1990 to 2035. The budget should cover all GHG 2020, found that none of the 20 Aichi Biodiversity Targets
emissions, including those from international aviation and had been fully achieved28. According to the UK
shipping. This requires that emissions will have to fall more Government’s own assessment of performance, the UK has
quickly than foreseen by the existing carbon budgets (i.e. the also failed in its contribution towards these targets. The UK’s
fourth and fifth, covering 2023 – 2027 and 2028 – 2032)20. Sixth National Report, published in March 2019, showed the
UK will miss most of its commitments for nature made in
The UK Government has already set net zero as its statutory 2010. Particular challenges have been encountered in
target for 2050, requiring a 100% reduction of UK GHG net relation to targets on pollution, vulnerable ecosystems,
emissions compared to 1990 levels, with any remaining conservation status of species and restoring degraded
gross emissions needing to be offset by removal of GHGs ecosystems where continuing pressures and other issues
from the atmosphere or by trading in carbon units21. On 12 have counteracted progress29.
December 2020, the UK communicated its new Nationally
Determined Contribution (NDC) under the Paris Agreement In terms of marine policies, the UK has, since 2016,
which commits the UK to reducing economy-wide GHG established some of the world’s largest marine conservation
emissions by at least 68% by 2030, compared to 1990 levels22. areas with its 4 million km2 ‘Blue Belt’ network in the seas
around some of its Overseas Territories30. These protected
areas aim to safeguard biodiversity from the impacts of
fishing, but the level of protection is not always very high,
and investment in enforcement and management is limited.
The UK ranks 94th out of 152 countries in the illegal
unregulated and unreported fishing index (with the
first country being the worst, and the last one the best)31.

5 CLIMATE CHANGE AND BIODIVERSITY INTERLINKAGES AND POLICY OPTIONS

For several decades, the UK followed EU environment Additionality
legislation, but with the decision to leave the EU, the UK Where NbS are employed to help mitigate climate change,
Government is developing new environment and agriculture they should not delay or lower ambition to reduce carbon
legislation and is establishing a new Office for Environmental dioxide emissions from fossil fuels or reduce energy use
Protection for England, while the devolved administrations of through more energy efficient technologies40. Early
Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales create their projections indicate that even ambitious deployment of
own counterparts32, 33, 34. NbS worldwide can only provide 0.1 – 0.3°C of lowered
global peak temperatures, a significant contribution but
2.2 Five principles to guide a joined-up climate and not a solution to climate change in the absence of fossil
biodiversity policy response fuel emissions reductions41.
Transformation
Modelling demonstrates that mitigation at the scale needed Best practice
to keep the rise in global temperatures to 1.5°C, or to reverse The success or failure of NbS is dependent on the adoption
global biodiversity decline, requires transformative change in of best practice. In many cases best practice will involve
the way our societies consume and produce resources35. place-based NbS: the appropriate solution for a specific
Such change would include rapid and far-reaching location. The spread of best practice requires a well-defined
transitions in consumption supply chains, energy production framework for NbS that includes evidence-based standards
and use, land use, infrastructure, and lifestyle2. The 2021 and guidelines42, 43 to avoid unintended or maladaptive
Dasgupta Review and recent international climate change outcomes44, 45.
and biodiversity assessments have highlighted the need to
transform the economic system, for example by: 2.3 Guidance on policy measures through which the five
complementing GDP with measures that include multiple principles can be applied
values for nature by reducing and redirecting some of the This section sets out policy measures that are beneficial for
subsidies for, and financial investment in, fossil fuel, both biodiversity and climate change, and should therefore
agriculture, fisheries, forestry, transportation, and mining be encouraged, and measures which are harmful and should
towards sustainable policies and practices; internalising therefore be discouraged.
environmental and social externalities (according to IMF
Policy measures to encourage:
these amount to about US $5 trillion in 201736); and
Dietary shift and food waste reduction
embracing a circular economy2, 5, 37, 38.
In the UK, 38% of the total UK crop supply in 2010 was used
Collaboration for animal feed, with a significant footprint overseas46, and
Governments alone cannot achieve the transformations 20 – 25% of food purchased by consumers in the UK is
needed – coordinated climate actions from multiple wasted47. Globally, animal agriculture is a major contributor to
stakeholders, including the private sector and civil society global biodiversity loss48. A reduction in meat and dairy
are indispensable. Cross-government collaboration, for consumption and a significant reduction in food loss and
example between the ministries of treasury, energy, waste would not only significantly reduce greenhouse gas
environment, agriculture, transportation, and harmonised emissions, which itself benefits biodiversity through limiting
policies are also necessary. climate change49, it would also reduce pressure for
deforestation and on other natural habitats abroad, and free
Integration land and resources for the wider use of NbS in the UK46. As
Greater understanding of the biodiversity-climate such, dietary shifts and reduction in food loss and waste
relationship may end the separation between the national create the enabling conditions that make other actions
and international policy frameworks that currently address outlined below more feasible.
climate change and biodiversity decline. It is important for
policymakers to look at impacts in both areas when Peatland restoration
considering any intervention. Such integration will be Peatland restoration has multiple benefits for amenity, water
furthered in the UK by environmental and agricultural resources, flood protection, biodiversity and climate. For
legislation in line with CCC’s recommendations on land use example, restored peatlands show renewed growth of
and measures to protect marine systems as set out in the sphagnum moss species and attract invertebrates and
UK’s 25-Year Environment Plan39. birds50. The CCC has proposed restoring at least 50% of
upland peat and 25% of lowland peat, which would reduce
annual peatland emissions by 5 MtCO2e per year by 205051.

6 CLIMATE CHANGE AND BIODIVERSITY INTERLINKAGES AND POLICY OPTIONS

Expanded and improved forest cover Biodiversity-friendly renewables
Expansion of cover of native woodland, through woodland Upscaling of renewable energy production should avoid
restoration and natural regeneration, in a network that negative impacts on biodiversity where possible. For example,
facilitates connectivity and species migration, will enhance engineers can design offshore wind farms to be biodiversity
biodiversity and carbon storage in UK ecosystems. The friendly and attract species under water65. Techniques include
CCC has proposed increasing UK forest cover from 13% to structures on which new reefs can grow along with fish
at least 17% by 2050 by planting at least 30,000 hectares habitats and sea grass settlements. Overall, marine sites
of woodland each year. With improved forest management, where renewable energy technologies are being deployed
this is estimated to sequester 14 MtCO2e per year by 2050  should be managed to optimise the potentially positive
in forests plus a further 14 MtCO2e per year from effects, by adopting exclusion zones from other destructive
harvested materials52. activities such as bottom trawling and dredging and support
the colocation of other industries such as mariculture that
Climate and biodiversity friendly agriculture support wider benefits from nature66. On land, solar farms
Farmers can be offered financial incentives in the form of need to avoid fragmenting habitats or becoming barriers to
‘public money for public goods’, such as peatland restoration the movement of wildlife species67. It is also important to
on their lands, or protection of pollinators that have an source raw materials for renewables in a way that ensures
estimated value of £1 billion to UK farmers53. Such measures minimal damage to biodiversity.
are included in the current Agriculture Bill in England, while
Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have each made When using the policy measures listed above, the UK should
commitments to supporting sustainable farming54, 55, 56, 57. Other adopt a holistic strategy. Multiple mechanisms can be used
measures are also positive for biodiversity, such as protecting simultaneously to provide multi-layered benefits for
hedgerows that store carbon, provide wildlife habitats and biodiversity and climate, while enhancing environmental and
greatly increase habitat connectivity58, 59. A next step could be socio-economic benefits. These benefits could be achieved
to set targets for take-up of such incentives. through public time-bound incentives or through investment
and trading mechanisms that reward emissions reduction
Marine protected areas through natural or engineered solutions. However, with many
The UK has a network of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs)60 options available, more needs to be done on evaluating
including more than 90 Marine Conservation Zones that what constitutes success.
protect a range of important, rare or threatened habitats and
species61. For example, because of the overseas territories, Policy measures to discourage:
the UK is ranked the 12th largest coral reef custodian out of 80 Monocultures
nations62. As well as protecting biodiversity, many MPAs Planting trees, either for bioenergy or as long-term carbon
support climate resilience, either by protecting the coastline sinks, should focus on restoring and expanding native
from severe weather events, for example through sandbanks woodlands and avoid creating large monoculture plantations
or seaweed, or by absorbing carbon dioxide, seagrasses, salt that do not support high levels of biodiversity. Simple targets
water reedbeds and muddy habitats61. To be effective, MPAs such as ‘numbers of trees planted’ ignore biodiversity
should be extended with new investment in their management considerations, such as long-term survival of trees or
and enforcement of protection rules63. stewardship, and can be misleading, potentially contributing
to policy failure and misuse of carbon offsets68.
Green spaces in cities
Increasing green spaces in cities is vital for adaptation Unsustainable energy crops
as they have a cooling effect, support biodiversity and The modelled benefits of Bioenergy with Carbon Capture
its connectivity, and enable many biodiversity-associated and Storage to mitigate climate change (the use of crops to
mental, physical and cultural welfare benefits to people generate power and fuel while capturing CO2), for reducing
living in urban areas, as well as making a contribution to emissions are significant. However, the scale of some
carbon storage and climate change mitigation64. modelled deployments would either take up large amounts
of land now used for food production or have negative
effects on the amount of land available for preservation or
restoration of natural ecosystems. Policy should also limit
use of fuelwood pellets and other feedstocks for bioenergy
where it might intensify pressure on semi-natural ecosystems.

7 CLIMATE CHANGE AND BIODIVERSITY INTERLINKAGES AND POLICY OPTIONS

Peatland forestry Other possibilities for UK action beyond the UK include:
One specific challenge for the UK is to roll back the trend
Sustainable trade
towards planting trees on peatlands. Such planting releases
The UK should lead by example in accounting for embodied
carbon from long-term soil reservoirs that have absorbed
carbon emissions and biodiversity impacts of its imported
carbon for millennia and can continue to do so as wood is a
goods, and encourage action to avoid the destruction of
shorter-term biomass store which is more likely to be
natural habitats and biodiversity loss in supply chains;
converted back to carbon dioxide within years to decades.
establish certification standards; and hold businesses to
Nonetheless, estimates indicate that 18% of UK peatlands
account who have said they will do this73, 74. When assessing
have been converted to forestry, according to the
both climate and biodiversity impacts, it is critical to take into
International Union for the Conservation of Nature. There is
account the whole life cycle of a product.
therefore a need to enforce the UK Forestry Standard’s
specific presumption against the conversion of priority Forests and other ecosystems
habitats such as deep peat or active raised bogs69. The UK could lead, for example through the Commonwealth
Charter, in supporting sustainable forest protection and
2.4 What can the UK do at a global level?
expansion across the world, favouring ecologically intact
The UK’s role in environmental issues embraces both its own
forests, and avoiding planting trees in inappropriate
domestic policy and its influence over global policies. As
landscapes. This should be complemented by additional
well as acting nationally, the UK can become a leader in
focus on protection and restoration of non-forest
linking biodiversity and climate change policy as well as
landscapes, including peatlands, savannas, natural
contributing to global agreements and initiatives. It has an
grasslands, freshwater and marine systems.
opportunity to take the lead in bringing about the systemic
change required to address the underlying drivers of
biodiversity decline and climate change.

Connect biodiversity and climate policy

Given the growing focus on the interconnectedness of
climate and biodiversity and the forthcoming United Nations
conferences on both issues, the UK could prioritise the
importance of systemic change to integrate policy making
at the global level17, 70.

Practical steps to this end could include:

• advocating for alignment of climate and biodiversity
targets and identified actions;
• increasing collaboration between the Intergovernmental
Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem
Services (IPBES) and the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change (IPCC) which includes joint work programs;
• p
 romoting that the new global biodiversity goals to
be adopted by the CBD for the next decade are holistic
and ambitious71;
Image: Many ecosystems are naturally low tree cover systems. Increasing
• e
 xploring funding for NbS, particularly via the United tree cover in such systems to meet climate mitigation goals is likely to
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change lead to poor biodiversity outcomes. Aerial view over Okavango Delta
© iStock / Gfed
(UNFCCC)’s planned forum on ‘Finance for nature-based
solutions’72; and
• s trengthening the role of the Joint Liaison Group on
the Rio Conventionsiii.

iii The mandate of the Joint Liaison Group, which comprises the Executive Secretaries of the CBD, UNCCD and UNFCCC, is to enhance coordination
among the three Rio Conventions and explore options for further cooperation.

8 CLIMATE CHANGE AND BIODIVERSITY INTERLINKAGES AND POLICY OPTIONS

Conclusion

Climate change and biodiversity are inherently connected To create a fully sustainable future, the UK needs a rapid
and addressing them is central to achieving the UN transition towards clean energy, large-scale ecological
Sustainable Development Goals. While a warming planet restoration of degraded ecosystems, a continued ramping up
leads to biodiversity decline, biodiversity-based solutions of biological conservation, and transformation of supply chains
can contribute to both climate change mitigation and to reduce resource extraction and environmental impacts.
adaptation. However, climate change and biodiversity tend
to be governed separately at home and internationally, These actions, in turn, require transformation of economic and
hindering solutions that could address both issues. political structures and societal norms, including subsidies,
incentives and international trade regulations, confirmation
By better integrating climate and biodiversity policies of the effectiveness and direction of interventions, and a
at national and international levels, the full potential of significant shift in public opinion and lifestyles.
biodiversity to support climate action could be leveraged,
while at the same time helping to reverse the ongoing
decline in biodiversity.

Image: Valley view below the mountains of Glencoe, Scotland, UK © iStock / FedevPhoto

9 CLIMATE CHANGE AND BIODIVERSITY INTERLINKAGES AND POLICY OPTIONS

Dedication to Dame Georgina Mace FRS (1953 – 2020)

This publication is dedicated to Dame Georgina Mace FRS A second area of her research concerns ecosystem services
who worked tirelessly through her research and advocacy and natural capital accounting, which she became interested
for the causes of biodiversity and the environment. in through her work on the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment
and the UK’s National Ecosystem Assessment. Georgina
Georgina Mace’s research covered a range of topics that had been especially concerned with evaluating the links
related to the trends and consequences of biodiversity between biodiversity and ecosystem services, incorporating
loss and ecosystem change. She developed the criteria ecosystem services into biodiversity targets and examining
for measuring species extinction risk that are now used by trade-offs amongst ecosystem services. Most recently, she
the International Union for Conservation of Nature for their developed a new approach to measuring the loss of natural
regular Red Lists of Threatened Species. Georgina also capital, using a risk register.
identified the factors that cause different species to be more
or less vulnerable to extinction. She developed approaches For her services to environmental science, Georgina was
to understanding climate change impacts and how this awarded an OBE in 1998, a CBE in 2007 and made a DBE
varies between species and in different ecosystems. in 2016.

At the time of her death on 19 September 2020, Georgina

was fully committed to contributing to this briefing. She is
greatly missed by all those involved with this project and
the wider environmental science communities.

10 CLIMATE CHANGE AND BIODIVERSITY INTERLINKAGES AND POLICY OPTIONS

Annex A

Working group members

Chair: Professor Yadvinder Malhi FRS, University of Oxford
Professor Sebsebe Demissew ForMem, Addis Ababa University
Professor Sandra Diaz ForMem, Córdoba National University
Professor Nick Graham, Lancaster University
Professor Dame Georgina Mace FRS, University College London
Dr Isla Myers-Smith, University of Edinburgh
Professor Colin Prentice FRS, Imperial College London
Professor Nathalie Seddon, University of Oxford
Professor Pete Smith FRS, University of Aberdeen
Professor Martin Solan, University of Southampton

11 CLIMATE CHANGE AND BIODIVERSITY INTERLINKAGES AND POLICY OPTIONS

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