UNIT– I:

METALS & ALLOYS:

Metals. General properties. Extraction and classification of metals
When the earth was formed the molten mass contained the many different metals which today, we extract and
use in huge quantities. Most of the metals combined with rock when molten, to form metallic ores. The most
common of these are bauxite, from which aluminium is extracted, and iron ore from which iron is extracted.
More than seventy different metals are extracted and used in the manufacturing industries today. Some, like
copper and lead for example, can be used in their pure state, to take advantage of their natural properties. But
often, we combine different metals, or metal with other materials to form alloys. By making alloys, we can
change the properties of a metal to suit our particular needs.
Metals and alloys can be used in many ways. They are important for the transport, telecommunications,
machinery, construction and manufacturing industries.
General properties in all metals
Physical Properties:
Metals are hard, non-adhesive, cold and smooth, they are very often shiny and strong. They are also ductile
and malleable, do not break easily. Metals are very good conductors of electricity, sound and heat. When
temperature rises, they expand, and when it falls, they always contract. They can be easily welded to other
metals.
Chemical Properties:
Metals react with oxygen in water and air. It's known as oxidation or rusting and it's a reddish- or yellowish-
brown flaky coating of iron oxide that is formed on iron or steel, especially in the presence of moisture.
Ecological Properties:
Most metal are recyclable and some metals such as lead, or mercury are toxic, and they are a danger for
humans being and for the environment.
Extraction of metals
There are two types of mines to obtain metals:
• Surface mining that is used when the mineral is near the surface.
• Underground mining that is used when the mineral is deep below the surface.
It's used excavators, drills, explosives for extracting minerals from the rock. The minerals are separated into
ore and gangue.
Classification of metals
Metals can be divided into two main groups: ferrous metals are those which contain iron and non-ferrous
metals that are those which contain no iron.
Ferrous Metals
Pure Iron is of little use as an engineering material because it is too soft and ductile. When iron cools and
changes from a liquid to a solid, most of the atoms in the metal pack, tightly together in orderly layers. Some,
however. become misaligned, creating areas of weaknesses called dislocations. When a piece of iron is put
under stress, layers of atoms in these areas slip over one another and the metal deforms. This begins to explain
the ductility of soft iron. By adding carbon to the iron however, we can produce a range of alloys with quite
different properties. We call these the carbon steels. An alloy is a mixture of two or more chemical elements
and the primary element is a metal.
Carbon Steels: their properties and uses
Mild Steel: carbon content between 0,1% and 0,3%. Properties: less ductile but harder and tougher than iron,
grey color, corrodes easily. Uses: girders or beams, screws, nut and bolts, nails, scaffolding, car bodies,
storage units, oil drums.
Medium carbon steel contains between 0,3% and 0,7% carbon. Properties: harder and less ductile than mild
steel, tough and have a high tensile strength. Uses: it's used for the manufacture of products which have to be
tough and hard wearing like gears, tools, keys, etc.
High carbon steel contains between 0,7% and 1,3% carbon. Properties: Very hard and brittle material. Uses:
It's used for cutting tools and products which have to withstand wear such as guillotine, springs, etc.
Stainless steels are iron and chromium alloys. A wide range of steels are available with chromium content
between 13% and 27%. Properties: Chromium prevents rusting with an oxide film. Ductility, hardness and
tensile strength. It's also a shiny attractive metal. Uses: Cutlery, sinks, pipes, car pieces, etc.
Grey Cast Iron is an alloy of iron (94%), carbon (3%) silicon (2%) and some traces of magnesium, Sulphur
and phosphorous. Properties: brittle but extremely hard and resistant, it corrodes by rusting, Uses: pistons,
machinery parts, streets lamps, drain covers, tools.
Other chemical elements can be added to steel, to improve or achieve certain properties. Here you are some
examples:
• Silicon makes the alloy magnetic and improves elasticity.
• Manganese makes the alloy harder and heat resistant. It's used to make stainless steel.
• Nickel improves strength and prevents corrosion.
• Tungsten makes the steel harder, more heat-resistant and prevents corrosion.
• Chromium makes the alloy harder and tougher and more rustproof.
Non-ferrous metals
They are metals that don't contain iron. They have a lot of uses but they are often expensive because they are
more difficult to extract.
Aluminium: It's the most abundant metal in the earth's crust and after steel, is the most widely used of all the
metals, today. Properties: Silvery white color, light, highly resistant to corrosion, soft, malleable and ductile,
low density, good conductor of both electricity and heat. Uses: high voltage power lines, planes, cars,
bicycles, light metal work. roofing and windows and doors units, decoration, kitchen tools and drink cans.
Copper: It's a pure metal that is the world's third most important metal, in terms of volume of
consumption. Properties: a reddish-brown metal, ductile and moderately strong, very good conductor of
electricity and heat, It corrodes very easily. Uses: electrical wire, telephone lines, domestic hot water cylinder
and pipes, car radiator core, decoration, architecture.
Brass: This term "brass" covers a wide range of copper-zinc alloys. Properties: It's gold in color. It has very
good anticorrosive properties and it's resistant to wear. Uses: Handicrafts, jewelry, plumbing, capacitors and
turbine.
Magnesium: It's shiny and silvery white. Properties: It's very light, soft and malleable, but not very ductile. It
reacts very strongly with oxygen. Uses: Fireworks, aerospace industry, car industry.
Tin: It's a shiny white metal. Properties: It doesn't oxidize at room temperatures, it's very soft. Uses: Soft-
soldering, tin foil and tin plate.
Lead: It's a silvery grey metal. Properties: Soft and malleable. It's toxic when its fumes are inhaled. Uses:
Batteries, it's use as an additive in glass for giving hardness and weight.
Bronze: It's an alloy of copper and tin. Properties: High resistant to wear and corrosion. Uses: Boat
propellers, filters, church bells, sculpture, bearings and cogs.
Zinc: It's a bluish grey shiny metal. Properties: Anticorrosive, not very hard, weak at low temperatures. Uses:
Roofing, plumbing because it stops corrosion.
Aluminium Based Alloys
An aluminum alloy is a composition consisting mainly of aluminum to which other elements have
been added. The alloy is made by mixing together the elements when aluminum is molten (liquid), which
cools to form a homogeneous solid solution. The other elements may make up as much as 15 percent of the
alloy by mass. Added elements include iron, copper, magnesium, silicon, and zinc. The addition of elements
to the aluminum gives the alloy improved strength, workability, corrosion resistance, electrical conductivity,
and/or density, compared with the pure metallic element. Aluminum alloys tend to be lightweight and
corrosion resistant.
List of Aluminum Alloys
This is a list of some important aluminum or aluminium alloys.
• AA-8000: used for building wire per the National Electrical Code
• Alclad: aluminum sheet made by bonding high-purity aluminum to a high strength core material
• Al-Li (lithium, sometimes mercury)
• Alnico (aluminum, nickel, copper)
• Birmabright (aluminum, magnesium)
• Duralumin (copper, aluminum)
• Hindalium (aluminum, magnesium, manganese, silicon)
• Magnalium (5% magnesium)
• Magnox (magnesium oxide, aluminum)
• Nambe (aluminum plus seven other unspecified metals)
• Silumin (aluminum, silicon)
• Titanal (aluminum, zinc, magnesium, copper, zirconium)
• Zamak (zinc, aluminum, magnesium, copper)
• Aluminum forms other complex alloys with magnesium, manganese, and platinum
Identifying Aluminum Alloys
Alloys have common names, but they may be identified using a four-digit number. The first digit of the
number identifies the class or series of alloy.
1xxx - Commercially pure aluminum also has a four-digit numerical identifier. Series 1xxx alloys are made of
99 percent or higher purity aluminum.
2xxx - The principal alloying element in the 2xxx series is copper. Heat treating these alloys improves their
strength. These alloys are strong and tough, but not as corrosion resistant as other aluminum alloys, so they
are usually painted or coated for use. The most common aircraft alloy is 2024. Alloy 2024-T351 is among the
hardest of the aluminum alloys.
3xxx - The main alloying element in this series is manganese, usually with a smaller amount of magnesium.
The most popular alloy from this series is 3003, which is workable and moderately strong. 3003 is used to
make cooking utensils. Alloy 3004 is one of the alloys used to make aluminum cans for beverages.
4xxx - Silicon is added to aluminum to make 4xxx alloys. This lowers the melting point of the metal without
making it brittle. This series is used to make welding wire. Alloy 4043 is used to make filler alloys for
welding cars and structural elements.
5xxx - The principal alloying element in the 5xxx series is magnesium. These alloys are strong, weldable, and
resist marine corrosion. The 5xxx alloys are used to make pressure vessels and storage tanks and for various
marine applications. Alloy 5182 is used to make the lid of aluminum beverage cans. So, aluminum cans
actually consist of at least two alloys!
6xxx - Silicon and magnesium are present in 6xxx alloys. The elements combine to form magnesium silicide.
These alloys are formable, weldable, and heat treatable. They have good corrosion resistance and moderate
strength. The most common alloy in this series is 6061, which is used to make truck and boat frames.
Extrusion products from the 6xxx series are used in architecture and to make the iPhone 6.
7xxx - Zinc is the principal alloying element in the series starting with the number 7. The resulting alloy is
heat-treatable and very strong. Important alloys are 7050 and 7075, both used to construct aircraft.
8xxx - These are aluminum alloys made with other elements. Examples include 8500, 8510, and 8520.
9xxx - Presently, the series starting with the number 9 is unused.
Strengthening Corrosion
e Alloying elements Cracking Finishing Joining
Process Resistance

1xx.x unalloyed Non-heat-treatable - 1 1 1

2xx.x Copper Heat-treatable 4 4 1-3 2-4

Silicon,
3xx.x Magnesium, Heat-treatable 1-2 2-3 3-4 1-3
Copper

4xx.x Silicon Heat-treatable 1 2-3 4-5 1

5xx.x Magnesium Non-heat-treatable 4 2 1-2 3

6xx.x NOT USED NOT USED - - - -

7xx.x Zinc Heat-treatable 4 4 1-2 4

Tin, Copper,
8xx.x Heat-treatable 5 5 3 5
Nickel
Magnesium, based alloys
Magnesium alloy developments have traditionally been driven by aerospace industry requirements for
lightweight materials to operate under increasingly demanding conditions. Magnesium alloys have always
been attractive to designers due to their low density, only two thirds that of aluminum. This has been a major
factor in the widespread use of magnesium alloy castings and wrought products.
A further requirement in recent years has been for superior corrosion performance, and dramatic
improvements in this regard have been demonstrated for new magnesium alloys. Improvements in mechanical
properties and corrosion resistance have led to greater interest in magnesium alloys for aerospace and other
specialized applications, and alloys are now being specified on projects like the McDonnell Douglas MD 500
helicopter.
Key properties of magnesium alloys
• Lightweight
• Low density (two thirds that of aluminum)
• Good high-temperature mechanical properties
• Good to excellent corrosion resistance
Applications of magnesium alloys
Aerospace
For many years, RZ5 alloy has been the preferred material for helicopter transmission casings due to the
combination of low density and good mechanical properties. However, more recently, the requirement for
longer intervals between overhauls and hence improved corrosion properties has caused manufacturers to
reconsider material choice.
In the past, RZ5 was generally used for gearbox casings, but many new projects will use WE43 instead,
including the main rotor gearbox casings. For this application, an aluminum transmission would have been
used but the exceptional corrosion resistance of WE43 makes it the preferred material. The Eurocopter EC120
and NH90 helicopters have also flown with WE43 transmission casings and WE43 is specified for the
Sikorsky S92. Further applications for WE43 will go ahead in the future both on new programmes and also
replace RZ5 on older helicopters.
RZ5, ZRE1, MSR and EQ21 alloys are widely used for aircraft engine and gearbox casings. This will
continue although it is likely that WE43 will be used increasingly for its corrosion and high-temperature
properties. Very large magnesium casings can be made, such as intermediate compressor casings for turbine
engines. These include the Rolls Royce Tay casing in MSR, which weighs 130 kg, and the BMW Rolls Royce
BR710 casing in RZ5.
Other aerospace applications include auxiliary gearboxes (F16, Eurofighter 2000, Tornado) in MSR or RZ5,
generator housings (A320 Airbus, Tornado, Concorde) in MSR or EQ21, and canopies, generally in RZ5.
Magnesium alloy forgings are also used in aerospace applications, including critical gearbox parts for the
Westland Sea King helicopter and aircraft wheels, both in ZW3. Forged magnesium parts are also used in
aircraft engine applications. In the future, magnesium forgings are most likely to be used in higher
temperature applications.
Automotive – motor racing
In motor racing, RZ5 is generally used for gearbox casings, although MSR and EQ21 alloys are also being
used increasingly due to their superior ambient temperature properties or because of increased operating
temperatures.
RZ5 wheels have been shown to have significantly better performance than Mg-Al-Zn alloy wheels under
arduous racing conditions. Due to the high operating temperature of racing engines, WE54 casings have been
used for a variety of Formula 1 engine parts and are used for engine components for a limited-edition road car.
Forged WE54 pistons offer great future potential for motor racing and other applications will exist for other
wrought products.
Bicycles
As mentioned above, the metal matrix composite Melram 072 is used in the bicycle industry due to its
excellent stiffness and reduced weight compared to aluminum.
Other Magnesium Alloy Applications
Magnesium alloys are also used in many other engineering applications where being lightweight is a
significant advantage. Magnesium-zirconium alloys tend to be used in relatively low-volume applications
where they are processed by sand or investment casting or wrought products by extrusion or forging.
Zirconium-free alloys, principally AZ91 but also other alloys, are used in automotive and various other high-
volume applications.
Other applications include electronics, sporting goods, nuclear applications, office equipment, flares,
sacrificial anodes for the protection of other metals, flash photography and tools.
Titanium Alloys
Titanium is a lustrous transition metal with a silver color, low density, and high strength. Titanium
is resistant to corrosion in sea water, aqua regia, and chlorine. In power plants, titanium can be used
in surface condensers. The metal is extracted from its principal mineral ores by the Kroll and Hunter
processes. Kroll’s process involved reduction of titanium tetrachloride (TiCl4), first with sodium and calcium,
and later with magnesium, under an inert gas atmosphere. Pure titanium is stronger than common, low-carbon
steels, but 45% lighter. It is also twice as strong as weak aluminium alloys but only 60% heavier. The two
most useful properties of the metal are corrosion resistance and strength-to-density ratio, the highest of any
metallic element. The corrosion resistance of titanium alloys at normal temperatures is unusually high.
Titanium’s corrosion resistance is based on the formation of a stable, protective oxide layer. Although
“commercially pure” titanium has acceptable mechanical properties and has been used for orthopedic and
dental implants, for most applications’ titanium is alloyed with small amounts of aluminium and vanadium,
typically 6% and 4% respectively, by weight. This mixture has a solid solubility which varies dramatically
with temperature, allowing it to undergo precipitation strengthening.
Titanium alloys are metals that contain a mixture of titanium and other chemical elements. Such alloys have
very high tensile strength and toughness (even at extreme temperatures). They are light in weight,
have extraordinary corrosion resistance and the ability to withstand extreme temperatures.
Pure titanium is strong and corrosive resistant.
Titanium alloys retain the same strength and corrosion resistance but takes on the greater flexibility and
malleability of the metal it is combined with.
Titanium alloys, therefore, have more applications than pure titanium.
There are six grades of pure titanium (grades 1,2,3,4,7 and 11) and 4 varieties of titanium alloys.
Titanium alloys typically contain traces of aluminum, molybdenum, vanadium, niobium, tantalum, zirconium,
manganese, iron, chromium, cobalt, nickel, and copper.
Types of Titanium Alloys
Titanium exists in two crystallographic forms. At room temperature, unalloyed (commercially pure) titanium
has a hexagonal close-packed (hcp) crystal structure referred to as alpha (α) phase. When the temperature of
pure titanium reaches 885 °C (called the β transus temperature of titanium), the crystal structure changes to
a bcc structure known as beta (β) phase. Alloying elements either raise or lower the temperature for the α-
to- β transformation, so alloying elements in titanium are classified as either α stabilizers or β stabilizers. For
example, vanadium, niobium, and molybdenum decrease the α-to-β transformation temperature and promote
the formation of the β phase.
• Alpha Alloys. Alpha alloys contain elements such as aluminum and tin and are preferred for high
temperature applications because of their superior creep characteristics. These α-stabilizing elements work by
either inhibiting change in the phase transformation temperature or by causing it to increase. The absence of a
ductile-to-brittle transition, a feature of β alloys, makes α alloys suitable for cryogenic applications. On the
other hand, cannot be strengthened by heat treatment because alpha is the stable phase and thus, they are not
so strength as beta alloys.
• Beta Alloys. Beta alloys contain transition elements such as vanadium, niobium, and molybdenum,
which tend to decrease the temperature of the α to β phase transition. Beta alloys have excellent hardenability
and respond readily to heat treatment. These materials are highly forgeable and exhibit high fracture
toughness’s. For example, ultimate tensile strength of high-strength titanium alloy – TI-10V-2Fe-3Al is about
1200 MPa.
• Alpha + Beta Alloy. Alpha + beta alloys have compositions that support a mixture of α and β phases
and may contain between 10 and 50% β phase at room temperature. The most common α + β alloy is Ti-6Al-
4V. The strength of these alloys may be improved and controlled by heat treatment. Examples include Ti-6Al-
4V, Ti-6Al-4V-ELI, Ti-6Al-6V-2Sn, Ti-6Al-7Nb.
Titanium Grades
Pure titanium and its alloys are commonly defined by their grades defined by ASTM International standard. In
general, there are almost 40 grades of titanium and its alloys. Following is an overview of the most frequently
encountered titanium alloys and pure grades, their properties, benefits, and industry applications.
Grade 1. Commercially pure titanium grade 1 is the most ductile and softest titanium alloy. It is a good
solution for cold forming and corrosive environments. It possesses the greatest formability, excellent
corrosion resistance and high impact toughness. Due to its formability, it is commonly available as titanium
plate and tubing. These include:
• Chemical processing • Marine industry
• Chlorate manufacturing • Automotive parts
• Architecture • Airframe structure
• Medical industry
Grade 2. Commercially pure titanium grade 2 is very similar to grade 1, but it has higher strength than grade
1 and excellent cold forming properties. It provides excellent welding properties and has excellent resistance
to oxidation and corrosion. This grade of titanium is the most common grade of the commercially pure
titanium industry. It is the prime choice for many fields of applications:
• Aerospace, • Desalination
• Automotive, • Power generation
• Chemical Processing &
Chlorate Manufacturing,
Grade 5 – Ti-6Al-4V. Grade 5 is the most commonly used alloy, and it is an alpha + beta alloy. Grade 5 alloy
accounts for 50% of total titanium usage the world over. It has a chemical composition of 6% aluminum, 4%
vanadium, 0.25% (maximum) iron, 0.2% (maximum) oxygen, and the remainder titanium. Generally, Ti-6Al-
4V is used in applications up to 400 degrees Celsius. It has a density of roughly 4420 kg/m 3. It is significantly
stronger than commercially pure titanium (grades 1-4) due to its possibility to be heat treated. This grade is an
excellent combination of strength, corrosion resistance, weld and fabricability It is the prime choice for many
fields of applications:
• Aircraft turbines • Aerospace fasteners
• Engine components • High-performance automatic parts
• Aircraft structural components • Marine applications
Grade 23 – Ti-6Al-4V-ELI. Ti-6Al-4V-ELI or TAV-ELI is the higher purity version of Ti-6Al-4V. ELI
stands for Extra Low Interstitial. The essential difference between Ti6Al4V ELI (grade 23) and Ti6Al4V
(grade 5) is the reduction of oxygen content to 0.13% (maximum) in grade 23. Reduced interstitial elements
oxygen and iron improve ductility and fracture toughness with some reduction in strength. It’s the top choice
for any sort of situation where a combination of high strength, light weight, good corrosion resistance and
high toughness are required. This grade of titanium, medical grade of titanium, is used in biomedical
applications such as implantable components due to its biocompatibility, good fatigue strength and low
modulus.
Application of Titanium Alloys – Uses
The two most useful properties of the metal are corrosion resistance and strength-to-density ratio, the
highest of any metallic element. The corrosion resistance of titanium alloys at normal temperatures is
unusually high. These properties determine application of titanium and its alloys. The earliest production
application of titanium was in 1952, for the nacelles and firewalls of the Douglas DC-7 airliner. High specific
strength, good fatigue resistance and creep life, and good fracture toughness are characteristics that make
titanium a preferred metal for aerospace applications. Aerospace applications, including use in both
structural (airframe) components and jet engines, still account for the largest share of titanium alloy use. On
the supersonic aircraft SR-71, titanium was used for 85% of the structure. Due to very high inertness,
titanium has many biomedical applications, which is based on its inertness in the human body, that is,
resistance to corrosion by body fluids.
Commercially Pure Titanium – Grade 1 in Steam Condensers
In nuclear power plants, the main steam condenser (MC) system is designed to condense and deaerate the
exhaust steam from the main turbine and provide a heat sink for the turbine bypass system. The exhausted
steam from the LP turbines is condensed by passing over tubes containing water from the cooling system.
These tubes are usually made of stainless steel, copper alloys, or titanium depending on several selection
criteria (such as thermal conductivity or corrosion resistance). Titanium condenser tubes are usually the
best technical choice; however, titanium is very expensive material, and the use of titanium condenser tubes is
associated with very high initial costs. Titanium in particular can bring major improvements such as higher
water velocities promoting better heat coefficients, excellent resistance to abrasion, erosion and corrosion
thereby improving resistance to fouling. Tubes are mostly welded tubes from ASTM SB 338 grade 1 made on
a continuous manufacturing line. This commercially pure titanium is the softest titanium and has the highest
ductility. It has good cold forming characteristics and provides excellent corrosion resistance. It also has
excellent welding properties and high impact toughness. All manufacturing operations (welding, annealing,
non-destructive testing) are fully automated to produce high quality tubes in large quantities.
Properties of Titanium Alloys
Material properties are intensive properties
Density of Titanium Alloys
Density of typical titanium alloy is 4.43 g/cm3 (Ti-6Al-4V).
Ultimate Tensile Strength
Ultimate tensile strengths vary from 50 MPa for some aluminum to as high as 3000 MPa for very high-
strength steels.
Ultimate tensile strength of commercially pure titanium – Grade 2 is about 340 MPa.
Ultimate tensile strength of Ti-6Al-4V – Grade 5 titanium alloy is about 1170 MPa.
Yield Strength
Yield strengths vary from 35 MPa for a low-strength aluminum to greater than 1400 MPa for very high-
strength steels.
Yield strength of commercially pure titanium – Grade 2 is about 300 MPa.
Yield strength of Ti-6Al-4V – Grade 5 titanium alloy is about 1100 MPa.
Young’s Modulus of Elasticity
Young’s modulus of elasticity of commercially pure titanium – Grade 2 is about 105 GPa.
Young’s modulus of elasticity of Ti-6Al-4V – Grade 5 titanium alloy is about 114 GPa.
Hardness of Titanium Alloys
Rockwell hardness of commercially pure titanium – Grade 2 is approximately 80 HRB.
Rockwell hardness of Ti-6Al-4V – Grade 5 titanium alloy is approximately 41 HRC.
Melting Point of Titanium Alloys
Melting point of commercially pure titanium – Grade 2 is around 1660°C.
Melting point of Ti-6Al-4V – Grade 5 titanium alloy is around 1660°C.
Thermal Conductivity of Titanium Alloys
The thermal conductivity of commercially pure titanium – Grade 2 is 16 W/ (m.K).
The thermal conductivity of Ti-6Al-4V – Grade 5 titanium alloy is 6.7 W/ (m.K).
Titanium is considered to be one of the strongest metals. Its strength, heat, water and salt resistance, and its
light weight make it the ideal metal for a variety of applications.
These applications range from jewelry, dental implants, airplanes and ships.
The four grades, or varieties of titanium alloys are Ti 6AL-4V, Ti 6AL ELI, Ti 3Al 2.5 and Ti 5Al-2.5Sn.
Ti 6Al-4V (Grade 5)
Ti-6AL-4V is the most commonly used of the titanium alloys. It is therefore commonly referred to as the
titanium alloy “workhorse.” It is believed to be used in half of the usage of titanium around the world.
These desirable properties make Ti-6AL-4V a popular choice in several industries including medical, marine,
aerospace and chemical processing. Ti 6AL-4V is commonly used to make:
 • Aircraft turbines • High-performance automatic parts
• Engine components • Marine applications
• Aircraft structural components • Sports equipment
• Aerospace fasteners
Ti 6AL-4V ELI (Grade 23)
Ti 6 AL-4V ELI is commonly referred to surgical titanium because of its use in surgery. It is a purer version
of Grade 5 (Ti 6AL-4V) titanium alloy. It can be easily molded, and cut into small strands, coils, and wires.
It has the same strength, and high corrosion resistance as Ti 6AL-4V. It is also light-weight and is highly
tolerant to damage by other alloys. Its use is highly desirable in the medical and dental fields for uses in
complex surgical procedures not only because of these properties but also because of the unique surgical
properties Ti 6AL-4V ELI has. It has superior biocompatibility making it easy to graft in and attach to bone
all the while being accepted by the human body. Some of the more common surgical procedures Ti 6AL-4V
ELI is used in include:
• Orthopedic pins and screws • Orthodontic appliances
• Orthopedic cables • In joint replacements
• Ligature clips • Cryogenic vessels
• Surgical staples • Bone fixation devices
• Springs
Ti 3Al 2.5 (Grade 12)
Ti 3 AI 2.5 is the titanium alloy with the best weldability. It is also strong at high temperatures like the other
titanium alloys. This grade 12 titanium alloy is unique in that it exhibits characteristics of stainless steel (one
of the other strong metals), such as being heavier than the other titanium alloys.
Ti 3 Al 2.5 is most commonly used in the manufacturing industry, specifically in equipment. It is highly
resistant to corrosion and can be formed by heat or cold. Grade 12 titanium alloy is used the most in the
following industries and applications:
• Shell and heat exchangers • Elevated temperature chemical manufacturing
• Hydrometallurgical applications • Marine and airfare components
Ti 5Al-2.5Sn (Grade 6)
Ti 5Al-2.5Sn is a non-heat treatable alloy that can achieve good weldability with stability. It also possesses
high temperature stability, high strength, and good corrosion resistance. It has a uniquely high creep (plastic-
like strain over long periods of time, usually caused by extreme temperatures) resistance. Ti 5Al-25. Sn is
mostly used in aircraft and airframe applications.
Titanium as a whole is a highly durable and strong metal. In its pure form it has many uses. It alloys add
greater malleability and flexibility to the already strong metal, opening up doors to many more applications.
Each titanium alloy shares the same strength and corrosion resistance. They vary on flexibility, making a
specific alloy ideal for specific industries and applications. At the Titanium Processing Center, you can find a
large selection of both pure and titanium alloy grades for your project. Call us today to schedule your order or
to ask a question.
Titanium has the following advantages:
1. Good strength
2. Resistance to erosion and erosion-corrosion
3. Very thin, conductive oxide surface film
4. Hard, smooth surface that limits adhesion of foreign materials
5. Surface promotes dropwise condensation
Other titanium alloys are designed for particular application areas. For example:
1. Alloys Ti-5Al-2Sn-2Zr-4Mo-4Cr (commonly called Ti-17) and Ti-6Al-2Sn-4Zr-6Mo for high
strength in heavy sections at elevated temperatures.
2. Alloys Ti-6242S, IMI 829, and Ti-6242 (Ti-6Al-2Sn-4Zr-2Mo) for creep resistance
3. Alloys Ti-6Al-2Nb-ITa-Imo and Ti-6Al-4V-ELI are designed both to resist stress corrosion in
aqueous salt solutions and for high fracture toughness
4. Alloy Ti-5Al-2,5Sn is designed for weldability, and the ELI grade is used extensively for cryogenic
applications
5. Alloys Ti-6Al-6V-2Sn, Ti-6Al-4V and Ti-10V-2Fe-3Al for high strength at low-to-moderate
temperatures.
Titanium and titanium alloys are heat treated for the following purposes:
1. To reduce residual stresses developed during fabrication
2. To produce an optimal combination of ductility, machinability, and dimensional and structural
stability (annealing)
3. To increase strength (solution treating and aging)
4. To optimize special properties such as fracture toughness, fatigue strength, and high-temperature
creep strength.
Alpha Alloys
Commercially pure titanium is, in fact, alloyed with small amounts of oxygen which increase the hardness and
tensile strength. By varying the amounts added it is possible to produce a range of commercially pure grades
of titanium with strength levels varying between 290 and 740 MPa These materials are nominally all alpha in
structure although small amounts of beta phase are possible if the impurity levels of beta stabilizers such as
iron are high. While the alpha alloys cannot be heat treated to increase strength, the addition of 2.5% copper to
titanium results in a material which responds to solution treatment and ageing in a similar way to aluminium-
copper alloys. Aluminium as an alloying addition to titanium is an alpha stabilizer and is found in many of the
commercially available alloys.
Alpha-Beta Alloys
Elements such as vanadium, molybdenum, iron and chromium stabilize the beta phase and many alpha-beta
alloys have been developed. These are generally medium to high strength materials with tensile strengths from
620 to 1250 MPa and having useful creep resistance up to 350 to 400°C. In addition to tensile properties, low
and high cycle fatigue and fracture toughness are now critical design parameters and so thermomechanical and
heat treatment procedures have been developed to ensure that the alloys provide an optimum balance of
mechanical properties for a wide range of applications.
For maximum creep resistance at temperatures above 450°C, alloys of the near alpha type are now used.
These offer acceptable creep strength at temperatures up to 600°C.
Beta Alloys
The other class of titanium materials is that of the beta alloys. When sufficient beta stabilizing elements are
added to titanium, all-beta alloys can be produced. These materials have been available for many years but
have come into prominence recently. They are generally more easily cold workable than the alpha-beta alloys,
are heat treatable to high strengths, and some have superior corrosion resistance to the commercially pure
grades.
International and national specifications exist for titanium materials used in aerospace but there is not similar
coverage for materials for non-aircraft applications. Generally, for this sector, the ASTM series of
specifications are used.
Nickel based alloys
Nickel is a versatile metal that is found in abundance in the earth’s crust and core. Nickel exhibits several
desirable properties that render it useful in industrial applications. Nickel is highly ductile and is valuable as
an alloying element to alter the properties of other metals.
The enhancements this material provides includes:
• Improved versatility • Improved strength at higher and lower
• Higher toughness temperatures
• Increased corrosion resistance • Magnetic properties
• Oxidation resistance • Electronic properties
For example, grades of stainless steel can be created by the addition of nickel to produce alloys that offer
corrosion resistance and high-temperature endurance, making them ideal for uses in chemical plants where
exposure to caustic substances may be expected.
Properties of Nickel
It has a silvery-white appearance with a face-cantered cubic crystalline structure. It is magnetic at room
temperature
Table 1 – Characteristics and Properties of Nickel (Ni)
Characteristic Value
Melting point 1453oC
Boiling Point 2730oC
Recyclable/Recoverable Yes
Density 8.90 g/cm3 @ 25oC
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion 13.4 μm/(m-oK)
Coefficient of Thermal Conductivity 90.9 W/(m-oK)
Electrical Resistivity 69.3 nΩ-m @20oC
Young’s Modulus 200 GPa
Bulk Modulus 180 GPa
Shear modulus 76 GPa
Poisson’s ratio 0.31
Mohs hardness & Vickers hardness 4.0 & 638 MPa
Nickel Alloys
Nickel will alloy easily with most metals such as copper, chromium, iron, aluminum, and molybdenum. The
addition of nickel to other metals alters the properties of the resulting alloy and can be used to produce desired
characteristics such as improved corrosion or oxidation resistance, increased high-temperature performance,
or lower coefficients of thermal expansion, exceptional high-temperature strength and other unique properties,
such as shape memory and low coefficient of expansion, quality weldability, workability, and ductility.
Many nickel-based alloys offer superior performances at temperatures above 1000°C
Approximately 3,000 nickel-based alloys are in use, forming products for numerous industries
The following is a simplistic categorization of the various nickel alloy types.
Nickel-Iron Alloys
Nickel-iron alloys function in applications where the desired property is a low rate of thermal expansion. Invar
36®, with 36% nickel and the remainder iron, is unique in having an almost zero coefficient of thermal
expansion around room temperature, it is about 1/10 that of carbon steel. This high degree of dimensional
stability renders nickel-iron alloys useful in applications such as precision measurement equipment or
thermostat rods. Alloys containing 72-83% nickel have the best soft magnetic properties and are used in
transformers, inductors, magnetic amplifiers, magnetic shields and memory storage devices, as glass-to-metal
seals. It is also used at cryogenic temperatures because of its very low thermal expansion rates.
Nickel-Copper Alloys
Nickel-copper alloys are very resistant to corrosion by salt water or seawater and thus find application in
marine applications. As an example, Monel 400, can find application in marine piping systems, pump shafts,
and seawater valves. This alloy as a minimum concentration of 63% nickel and 28-34% copper.
Nickel-Molybdenum Alloys
Nickel-molybdenum alloys offer high chemical resistance to strong acids and other reducers such as
hydrochloric acid, hydrogen chloride, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid. The chemical makeup for an alloy of
this type, such as Alloy B-2®, has a concentration of molybdenum of 29-30% and a nickel concentration of
between 66-74%. Applications include pumps and valves, gaskets, pressure vessels, heat exchangers, and
piping products.
Nickel-Chromium Alloys
Nickel-chromium alloys are characterised by their high corrosion resistance at both normal and high
temperatures, high-temperature strength, and high electrical resistance. For example, the alloy NiCr 70/30 has
a melting point of 1380oC and an electrical resistivity of 1.18 μΩ-m. Heating elements such as in toasters and
other electrical resistance heaters make use of nickel-chromium alloys.
There are three main groups of alloys:
Ni-Cr (and also Ni-Cr-Fe) alloys with high electrical resistance for heating elements, such as 70-30 (UNS
N06008) and C-Grade (UNS N06004)
Ni-Cr alloys (with Fe and other alloying elements) with good corrosion resistance. The best-known are Alloy
600 (UNS N06600) and Alloy 601 (UNS N06601)
Ni-Cr alloys with high-temperature strength and creep resistance, mostly age-hardenable, such as Alloy X-750
(UNS N07750)
Nickel-Chromium-Iron Alloys
Nickel-chromium-iron alloys combine these elements to produce alloys that resist oxidation and high-
temperature corrosion. Alloy 800 is used in furnace components such as petrochemical furnace cracker tubes,
and as a material for sheathing of electrical heating elements. These alloys generally are also valued for their
optimum creep and rupture properties at high temperatures. The composition of these alloys is typically 30-
35% Nickel, 19-23% Chromium and a minimum of 39.5% Iron. The high concentration of iron has led to the
reclassification of these alloys as stainless steel.
Nickel-Chromium-Molybdenum Alloys
With similar applications to nickel-molybdenum alloys, nickel-chromium-molybdenum alloys also provide
high corrosion resistance especially about reducing acids such as hydrochloric acid and sulfuric acid. One of
the best known of these alloys is Alloy C-276. This alloy is used in pollution control stack liners, ducts, and
scrubbers, as well as in chemical processing components such as heat exchangers, evaporators, or reaction
vessels. The composition of this alloy is primarily nickel with 15-17% molybdenum, 14.5-16.5% chromium,
4-7% Iron, 3-4.5% tungsten, and smaller concentrations of other elements such as manganese.
Nickel-Chromium-Cobalt Alloys
These alloys of nickel add chromium and molybdenum to add creep rupture strength to the alloy. Alloy 617 is
an example, sold under the trade names alloy 617, which has a composition of 20-24% chromium, 10-15%
cobalt, and 8-10% molybdenum with a minimum nickel content of 44.5%. Applications for these alloys
include industrial furnace components, gas turbines, catalyst grid supports to produce nitric acid, and fossil
fuel production facilities.
Nickel-Titanium Alloys
55% nickel-titanium alloy (UNS N01555) feature shape retention of shape memory properties. By forming a
shape from this alloy at a higher temperature and them deforming it from that formed shape at a lower
temperature, the alloy will remember the initial shape and reform to that shape once heated to this so-called
transition temperature. By controlling the composition of the alloy, the transition temperature can be altered.
These alloys have a super-elastic property that can be exploited to provide, among other uses, a shock
absorber against earthquake damage to help protect stone buildings.
Nickel Alloy Form Factors
Suppliers of nickel alloys offer them in a variety of form factors which commonly include:
• Angles • Ingots • Plate
• Balls • Channels • Strips
• Pipe • Coils • Flanges
• Tubing • Wire • Forgings
• Bars • Rods • Pipe fittings
• Billets • Sheets
Applications of Nickel based alloys
• Cell phones • Transportation turbines
• Food preparation • Aircraft • Nuclear power
equipment • Pharmaceuticals systems
• Medical equipment • Building materials
• Laboratory equipment • Aircraft and power
Inter-Metallics
MATERIALS FOR CRYOGENIC APPLICATION
Metals and materials for low temperatures and cryogenic applications
Many industries require materials that can withstand extreme cold. We do not only refer to installations in
polar regions, which easily reach -40 °C. Much lower temperatures are also often reached by equipment and
installations in sectors such as petrochemicals, refrigeration, and industry:
• -42 °C: liquid propane (industry, energy)
• -78 °C: solid carbon dioxide (agriculture, industry)
• -162 °C: liquid methane (energy)
• -183 °C: liquid oxygen (industry, health)
• -196 °C: liquid nitrogen (industry)
• -253 °C: liquid hydrogen (industry, energy)
• -270 °C: liquid helium (industry)
Certain materials, ductile at room temperature, abruptly lose their ductility when a given threshold is
exceeded. Common construction steels, ferritic or martensitic stainless steels (400 series), but also iron,
chromium and tungsten, become brittle even at relatively low temperatures. Metals such as copper, silver,
gold, aluminium and nickel, on the other hand, remain ductile even at very low temperatures. Austenitic steels
can also be added to the list.

The different properties of these materials at low temperatures depend on various factors, such as crystalline
structure, grain size, the propensity to absorb contaminants from the atmosphere, heat treatments, the
inclusion of slag, and processes such as melting, welding, chip removal, deformation.
Materials suitable down to -45 °C
This first threshold is important because, besides being typically the lower limit of the temperatures naturally
reached on the planet, it is also the temperature at which some industrial operations and some chemical
processes are carried out.
Unfortunately, common construction steels are no longer usable at this level, either because of their intrinsic
characteristics or because they are not usually tested for hardness and resistance to low temperatures. Some
steelworks, however, have special carbon steels for these applications. These are mainly quenched and
tempered low alloy steels.
Almost all aluminium alloys can be used at temperatures down to -45 °C, except series such as 7075-T6 and
7178-T6, and titanium alloys 13V-11Cr-3Al or 8Mn. Copper and nickel alloys can generally all be used at
these temperatures. PH stainless steels, i.e., precipitation hardening stainless steels, are not suitable for
temperatures below -20 °C because of embrittlement and cracks.
Materials suitable down to -75 °C
Some steels can be used at these temperatures, such as low alloy, quenched and tempered steels or ferritic
nickel steels. Most low carbon (0.20-0.35%) martensitic steels can be used with sufficient reliability. Many of
these alloys contain manganese, nickel, chromium, molybdenum and vanadium, and some zirconium and
boron.
Materials suitable down to -100 °C
Low carbon, 3.5%-nickel steels are often used in liquid gas storage tanks at temperatures down to -100°C.
Many aluminium, nickel, and titanium alloys are also suitable for these temperatures. Aluminium 7076-T6 can
also be used up to -128 °C, but not for critical applications.
Materials suitable down to -196 °C
The austenitic stainless steels of the 300 series are all suitable for working in this temperature range. Maraging
steels with nickel content between 20% and 25% and the addition of cobalt, molybdenum, titanium,
aluminium, and niobium are also suitable. Maraging steels have excellent malleability, toughness and
hardness characteristics, and must be hardened at a temperature of just 400 °C.
Many aluminium alloys, such as 2024-T6, 7039-T6 and 5456-H343 have excellent fracture resistance at -196
°C; also 2014-T6 but with the exception of welds. Other alloys resistant to even lower temperatures are the
5000 series aluminium-magnesium alloys, the 2219-T87 and the 6061-T6.
The nickel-based materials are almost all resistant to -196 °C. Titanium alloys such as 5Al-2.5Sn-Ti, 6A1-4V-
Ti and 8Al-2Cb-1Ta-TiY are also suitable but should be kept free of impurities such as oxygen, nitrogen,
carbon and iron as they cause embrittlement.
Materials suitable below -196 °C
These very low temperatures are of great interest to industry, as they correspond to the temperature at which
helium (-270 °C) and especially hydrogen (-253 °C), a promising element for energy storage and nuclear
fusion projects, liquefy.
Among steels, only high-alloy austenitic stainless steels are suitable for these temperatures, such as 304 and
310. If welds are required, the use of low carbon variants is recommended. These alloys generally contain
between 18% and 21% chromium and between 9% and 14% nickel.
The aluminium alloys that can be used at the temperatures involved are typically in the 2000 and 5000 series,
or the 6061-T6 alloy. In particular, welds on 2219-T87 have demonstrated excellent fracture resistance, while
5052-H38 and 5083-1138 have high crack resistance. The same applies to Monel, K-Monel, electroformed
nickel, hardened nickel for thorium dispersion, and nickel alloys such as Inconel X, Inconel 718, René 41, and
Hastelloy B. At these temperatures, only Ti45A and 5Al-2.5Sn-Ti titanium alloys can be used, both as base
metal and welded.
Copper alloys are generally also used in contact with liquid hydrogen and helium, such as 70-30 brass,
copper-beryllium, iron-silicon and aluminium bronzes. Magnesium alloys, on the other hand, tend to become
brittle but can be used in low stress applications with careful design.
Materials for space environment,
The Materials Used in Artificial Satellites and Space Structures
We rely on satellites and structures in space for communications more than ever before. They help provide us
with television pictures, telephone calls and a wide variety of communication signals, whilst surviving the
hostile environment of space. Artificial satellites are able to complete these tasks and endure in space thanks
to the unique materials used to create them.
The materials used in space are, more often than not, the most advanced materials that humans have created,
and we are constantly researching and creating new and improved materials. These materials need to possess a
number of unique properties to be effective in space.
The Properties Materials Need to Function in Space
An object that is continually moving in and out of the sun’s direct heat is in constant temperature flux, which
can cause it to expand and contract. As a result, scientists consider a material’s ability to maintain its size and
shape despite temperature changes, which is known as dimensional stability.
Structures in space also need to be able to withstand its uniquely harsh environment. This is considered a
material’s environment stability. In space this means that the material can remain stable in despite the
presence of radiation and the vacuum of space.
The most important properties of a new material which will be used in space are strength and stiffness. When
an object is in orbit around the Earth it will be subjected to incredible forces that will tear apart weaker
structures.
The launch alone can put a material under up to three times the force of gravity, meaning that each component
will weigh up to three times as much as it would on Earth. The material must maintain its integrity and not
break or bend under immense forces or the satellite will not function once it reaches space.
Once the satellite is in space, it must retain its functionality in microgravity where its component materials
will weigh even less than they would on the Earth. This variation in gravitational strength means that the
materials used must be incredibly versatile and unique in their integrity.
The structure must also be able to withstand the cabin pressure coming from within the satellite. On the
International Space Station, the oxygen within it can exert a force of up to 15 lbs per inch on a surface.
If the material is not strong enough to withstand that 15 lbs per inch force it could rupture and cause an air
leak, threatening the lives of everyone on-board.
Another threat to satellites to consider is the amount of projectiles which will come into contact with the
structure. The shrapnel of older defunct artificial satellites still orbits around the earth today as space junk.
These high velocity metal scraps could shred newer still functioning satellites if the materials used are not
strong enough to shrug off these projectiles.
In addition to these man-made threats to artificial satellites, meteoroids in space can reach speeds of 42km/s
(faster than a bullet) and pose a significant threat to satellites.
As launching an object into Earth orbit is already such an expensive venture, the materials under consideration
must be economically viable. Scientists must consider how expensive a material is to create and how
expensive it will test a material.
In many cases, scientists will be unable to pursue studying a material as funding the testing of the material
will be too expensive. In order for a material to be feasibly used in space it must also be incredibly
lightweight. A single kilogram of extra mass can increase the cost of the launch by thousands of dollars.
The Materials up to the Challenge
Kevlar
One of the materials that often is able to fit the bill is Kevlar. Kevlar, a material used in bulletproof vests and
armor, is an incredibly lightweight and strong material making it perfect for space travel.
In addition to its high strength, Kevlar also is incredibly resistant to temperature changes making it ideal for
the orbiting structures that move in and out of the sun’s direct heat as they orbit the Earth. Kevlar’s toughness
and durability also makes it ideal for protecting artificial satellites from dangerous orbital debris.
Materials Tested on the International Space Station

Aluminum
Another material that often used in space is Aluminum as it is light in weight. On its own, aluminum is not
incredibly strong but when combined into alloys with other metals into it becomes much stronger.
Aluminum alloys are often strong and lightweight enough to be functional in space structures and satellites.
Aluminum is used for the shutters on the windows of the International Space Station in order to protect the
windows from impacts.
These windows already are made with glass thicker than panes of glass on earth and often with twice as many
panes. However, the additional aluminum shutters guarantee the safety of the astronauts within.
The Materials of the Future
The materials of the future are going to need to pass even more rigorous testing in order to be functional in
more ambitious endeavors.
NASA Langley is working on a structure that will allow a telescope to remain focused and steady on a distant
object without moving more than four millionths of an inch. This must be done by counteracting the small
vibrations that may be caused by scientific sensors and other attachments on satellites.
Future artificial satellites and space structures must be able to counteract these vibrations and maintain the
precision and accuracy that more advanced scientific devices require. These new materials and experiments
will allow us to further explore and expand into space.
Evaluation of materials for extreme environment,
Extreme habitats
Many different habitats can be considered extreme environments, such as the polar ice caps, the driest spots in
deserts, and abysmal depths in the ocean. Many different places on the Earth demand that species become
highly specialized if they are to survive. In particular, microscopic organisms that can't be seen with the naked
eye often thrive in surprising places.
Polar regions
Owing to the dangerously low temperatures, the number of species that can survive in these remote areas is
very slim. Over years of evolution and adaptation to this extremely cold environment, both microscopic and
larger species have survived and thrived no matter what conditions they have faced. By changing their eating
patterns and due to their dense pelt or their body fat, only a few species have been capable of adapting to such
harsh conditions and have learned how to thrive in these cold environments.
Deserts
A desert is known for its extreme temperatures and extremely dry climate. The type of species that live in this
area have adapted to these harsh conditions over years and years. Species that are able to store water and have
learned how to protect themselves from the Sun's harsh rays are the only ones that are capable of surviving in
these extreme environments.
Oceans
The oceans depths and temperatures contain some of the most extreme conditions for any species to survive.
The deeper one travels, the higher the pressure and the lower the visibility gets, causing completely blacked
out conditions. Many of these conditions are too intense for humans to travel to, so instead of sending humans
down to these depths to collect research, scientists are using smaller submarines or deep-sea drones to study
these creatures and extreme environments.
Introduction to metallic foams.
Metal foam is a cellular structure made up of a solid metal containing a large volume fraction of gas-filled
pores. These pores can either be sealed (closed-cell foam), or they can be an interconnected network (open-
cell foam). The closed-cell foam is referred to as metal foams, while the open-cell foam is referred to simply
as porous metal.
Metals that Can Be Used
The metal that is commonly used to make metal foams is aluminium. However, other varieties of metals can
be used to make the foam, such as titanium and tantalum.
Properties of Metal Foam
The key properties of metal foam are as follows:
• Ultralight material (75–95% of the volume consists of void spaces)
• Very high porosity
• High compression strengths combined with good energy absorption characteristics
• Thermal conductivity is low
• High strength
Metal Foam - Science Nation
Production Method
Metallic melts can be foamed by creating gas bubbles in the liquid. These gas bubbles in the metallic melt
tend to rise to the surface due to the high buoyancy forces in the high-density liquid. In order to prevent this
from happening, the viscosity of the molten metal has to be increased. This can be done by adding fine
ceramic powders or alloying elements to form stabilizing particles in the melt.
Three ways of foaming metallic melts are listed below:
• Injecting gas into the liquid metal from an external source
• Causing the precipitation of gas that had just been dissolved in the liquid
• Causing an in-situ gas formation in the liquid by admixing gas-releasing blowing agents to the melt
Foaming of Metallic Melts using Gas Injection
Foaming aluminium and aluminium alloys is used by Cymat Aluminium Corporation in Canada and Hydro
Aluminium in Norway. Silicon carbide, aluminium oxide, or magnesium oxide particles can be used to
enhance the viscosity of the melt.
The mixing techniques should be consistent to ensure uniform distribution of particles throughout the melt.
The melt is then foamed by injecting gases, namely, air, nitrogen, and argon into it using rotating impellers or
vibrating nozzles.
Foaming of Melts with Blowing Agents
A second method for foaming melts directly is to add a blowing agent to the melt instead of injecting gas into
it. Gas is introduced into the melt by using compounds such as hydrides or carbonates.
The compound tends to decompose and forms gas bubbles when heated in a liquid metal or semi-solid pellet.
The resulting foam has to be stable so that the porous metals will have uniform pore sizes and densities.
Shinko Wire Company, Amagasaki, Japan, has been producing foams using this method. About 1.5 wt.%
calcium metal is added to an aluminium melt at 680°C (1256F°). The melt is mixed well, and the viscosity
starts to increase due to the formation of calcium oxide, calcium aluminum oxide, or Al4Ca intermetallic. This
aids in thickening of the liquid metal.
Once the viscosity reaches the desired value, titanium hydride as a blowing agent is added serving to release
hydrogen gas in the hot viscous liquid. The melt then begins to expand slowly and gradually, filling the
foaming vessel. The foaming has to take place at constant pressure. When the vessel is cooled below the
melting point of the alloy, the liquid foam turns into solid aluminium foam and can be taken out of the mold
for further processing.
Solid-Gas Eutectic Solidification
Porous materials formed by solid-gas eutectic solidification are called ‘gasar’, meaning ‘gas-reinforced.’ It has
been a known fact that certain liquid metals form a eutectic system with hydrogen gas.
When one of these metals is melted in a hydrogen atmosphere under high pressure of up to 50 atm, the
resultant melt is homogeneous and charged with hydrogen. The melt will have a eutectic transition to a
heterogeneous solid+gas system when the temperature is lowered. The solid+gas system should have a
eutectic concentration, and then a segregation reaction will occur at a specific temperature.
The melt begins to solidify causing gas pores to precipitate and become entrapped in the metal. Mostly
elongated pores oriented in the direction of solidification are formed.
Applications
The main applications of metal foams and porous metals are listed below:
• The closed variety is used for structural applications requiring load-bearing features, and for weight-
saving and impact-absorbing structures in vehicles
• The open variety is ideal for vibration and sound absorption, filtration and catalysis at high
temperatures, for heat exchange and in medical devices.
• The open variety is also useful in functional applications such as filtration and damping.
• Foam metal is being used as an experimental prosthetic in animals.
• Metal foams with high strengths can act as high-capacity impact-energy absorbers.
• Automotive industry - the foams reduce the number of parts in the car frame, facilitate assembly,
thereby reducing costs and improving performance.
 UNIT– II:
POLYMERS:
Natural Polymers-
Polymers, a broad category of materials, are made up of many small molecules called monomers that are
bonded together to form long chains and are utilized in a wide range of products and goods. People have been
using polymers in their lives for a long time, but they did not fully understand them until World War II. For
the fabrication of the article required for civilized life, there were relatively few resources accessible.
The term “Polymer” has its origin in the Greek word “polus meros” which means many (polus) parts (meros).
Accordingly, Polymers are materials produced by a repeated chain of molecules.
Plastics, which are manufactured polymers, are frequently referred to as polymers. On the other hand, natural
polymers exist; rubber and wood, for example, are natural polymers made up of isoprene, a simple
hydrocarbon, according to Encyclopedia Britannica. Proteins are polymers of amino acids, while nucleic acids
(DNA and RNA) are polymers of nucleotides, which are complicated compounds made up of nitrogen-
containing bases, sugars, and phosphoric acid, among other things.
Types of Polymers
Polymers can be classified in various ways due to their large quantity and diverse behaviors and the fact that
they can be found naturally or synthesized.
1. Polymer Types Based on Sources of Availability
Natural polymers, synthetic polymers, and semi-synthetic polymers are the three types of polymers included
in this category.
Natural Polymers
Polymers can be found in nature or created in a laboratory. Long before they understood in the chemistry lab,
natural polymers were employed for their chemical properties: Clothing was made from wool, leather, and
flax fibers, and animal bone cooked down to form glues. Natural polymers include- i) proteins such as hair,
nails, and tortoiseshell ii) Cellulose is found in both paper and trees iii) DNA iv) pitch v) Starches in plants vi)
wool vii) silk and viii) natural rubbers.
Synthetic Polymers
Human-made polymers are known as synthetic polymers. They are divided into four categories based on their
utility:
i. Thermoplastics,
ii. Thermosets,
iii. Elastomers, and
iv. Synthetic fibers.
Thermoplastics are polymers that become moldable and malleable after reaching a particular temperature then
harden when cooled. On the other hand, Thermosets harden and can’t change shape once they’ve set, which is
why they’re commonly employed in adhesives.
An elastomer is a flexible polymer that is used interchangeably with rubber. Synthetic fibers are a large
polymer category that improves natural plant and animal fibers. Fully synthetic polymers include-
Bakelite Neoprene Polystyrene
 Nylon, polyester, rayon Teflon Silly putty and
polyethylene (plastic Epoxy resins slime.
bags and storage
Silicone Semi-Synthetic
containers),
Polymers
They are made from naturally existing polymers that have been chemically modified. Examples of semi-
synthetic polymers are cellulose nitrate, cellulose acetate, etc.
2. Types of Polymers Based on the Structure of the Polymer
Depending on the structure, there are three types of polymers as mentioned below:
Linear structure polymers
The structure of these polymers resembles a long straight chain with similar links linking them. These are
made up of monomers bonded together to form a lengthy chain. The melting temperature and density of these
polymers are higher than those of other polymers. PVC is a good example of this (Poly-vinyl chloride). This
polymer is commonly utilized in the manufacture of electrical cables and pipes.
Cross-linked Polymers
Monomers are joined together to form a three-dimensional network in this type of polymer. Because they are
made up of bi-functional and tri-functional molecules, the monomers have strong covalent bonds. These
polymers are hard to work with because they are brittle.
Branch Chain Polymers
The structure of these polymers is similar to branches arising at random locations from a single linear chain,
as the label suggests. Monomers unite to form a long straight chain with various-length branching chains.
Because of their branches, the polymers are not closely packed together. They have a low melting point and a
low density. Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) is a common example used in plastic bags and general-
purpose containers.
3. Classification of Polymers Based on Mode of Polymerization
Polymerization is a chemical reaction in which monomer molecules are combined to form a polymer chain (or
three-dimensional networks). Polymers are classed as follows based on the type of polymerization:
Condensation Polymers:
These polymers combine monomers and remove tiny molecules such as water and alcohol. In these types of
condensation processes, the monomers are bi-functional or tri-functional. The polymerization of
hexamethylenediamine and adipic acid to produce Nylon – 66 is a common example in which water
molecules are removed throughout the process.
4. Types of Polymers Based on Molecular Forces
Strong covalent bonds connect atoms in individual polymer molecules in polymers. Polymer molecules are
drawn together by intermolecular interactions (forces between molecules). It’s worth noting that the intensity
of the interactions between molecules determines the properties of solid materials like polymers. Polymers can
be classified into four types using this method.
i) Elastomers:
Rubber-like solid polymers with a high degree of elasticity are known as elastomers. When we say elastic,
we’re referring to the fact that a modest amount of force may easily stretch the polymer. Rubber bands are the
most common examples (or hair bands). Applying a little pressure on the band lengthens it.
The weakest intermolecular forces hold the polymer chains together, allowing the polymer to be stretched.
However, as you can see, reducing the stress causes the rubber band to revert to its natural shape. This occurs
when we insert crosslinks between the polymer chains, which aid in the polymer’s retraction and return to its
original shape. Vulcanized rubber is used to make our car tires. This is when sulfur is introduced to crosslink
the polymer chains.
ii) Thermosetting:
Thermosetting plastics are semi-fluid polymers with low molecular weights. When heated, they cause cross-
linking between polymer chains, making them stiff and infusible. They form a three-dimensional structure
when heat is applied. This reaction is irreversible in nature. The most popular thermosetting polymer is
Bakelite, which is used to produce electrical insulation.
iii) Thermoplastics:
Thermoplastic polymers are long-chain polymers held together by intermolecular interactions. When heated,
these polymers soften (like a thick fluid) and stiffen when allowed to cool, forming a rigid mass. They don’t
have any cross bonds and may be molded using heat and molds. Polystyrene, also known as PVC, is a popular
example (which is used in making pipes).
iv) Fibers:
According to polymer classification, these are polymer types that resemble a natural thread and can be easily
woven. They have low elasticity and high tensile strength due to strong inter-molecule tensions between the
chains. Hydrogen bonds or dipole-dipole interactions could be the intermolecular forces. The melting point of
fibers is both high and acute. Nylon-66, which is extensively used in carpets and clothing, is an excellent
example.
Properties of Polymers
Polymers do not melt; rather, they change from a crystalline to a semi-crystalline
state tensile strength of the polymer improves as the chain length and crosslinking increase.
The polymer is enabled with hydrogen bonding and ionic bonding, improving crosslinking strength compared
to ordinary molecules with distinct side molecules.
The dipole-dipole bonding side chains
Give the polymer a lot of flexibility. They are utilized in lasers for spectroscopic and analytical applications
because of their capacity to vary their refractive index with temperature,
Uses of Polymers
Applications of polymers are multi-dimensional. Some of the common uses of polymers are listed below:
Polystyrene is a popular plastic that is used extensively in the packaging sector. Polystyrene is utilized in
everyday items such as bottles, toys, containers, trays, disposable glasses and plates, television cabinets, and
lids. It’s also a great insulator.
The most common application for polyvinyl chloride is the production of sewage pipes. It’s also utilized in
electric wires as an insulator.
Textiles, packaging, stationery, plastics, aircraft, construction, rope, and toys are a few industries that use
polypropene.
Polyvinyl chloride is utilized in the manufacture of clothing and furnishings, and it has recently gained
popularity in the manufacture of doors and windows. It’s also a component of vinyl flooring.
Adhesives, molds, laminated sheets, unbreakable containers, and other products are made with urea-
formaldehyde resins.
Paints, coatings, and lacquers are made with glyptal.
Bakelite is used to manufacture electrical switches, food items, toys, jewelry, guns, insulators, and computer
discs, among other things.
Synthetic polymers-
Synthetic polymers are those which are human-made polymers. Polymers are those which consist of repeated
structural units known as monomers. Polyethylene is considered to be one of the simplest polymers, it has
ethene or ethylene as the monomer unit whereas the linear polymer is known as the high-density
polyethylene-HDPE. Many of the polymeric materials have chain-like structures which resemble
polyethylene.
Synthetic Polymers
Synthetic polymers are sometimes referred to as “plastics”, of which the well-known ones are nylon and
polyethylene. The polymers which are formed by linking monomer units, without any change of material, are
known as addition polymers or also called chain-growth polymers. All these are said to be synthetic polymers.
Some synthetic polymers which we use in our everyday life include nylons used in fabrics and textiles, teflon
used in non-stick pans, and polyvinyl chloride used in pipes. The PET bottles we use are commonly made up
of synthetic polymer called polyethylene terephthalate. The covers and plastic kits comprise synthetic
polymers such as polythene, and the tyres of vehicles are manufactured from the buna rubbers. But on the
other side, there also arises environmental issues by the use of these synthetic polymers such as the bio
plastics and those made from petroleum as they are said to be non-biodegradable.
Types of Synthetic Polymers with Examples-
There are various synthetic polymers developed so far. Let us study in brief about a few of the synthetic
polymers used in everyday life-
Nylon-
Nylon belongs to the synthetic polymers family and is also known as polyamides. It was produced on
February 28 in the year 1935 by a person named as Wallace Carothers at the DuPont’s research facility. Nylon
is a widely used polymer. The backbone of it called as amide causes it to become hydrophilic than other
polymers. Nylon gets engaged in hydrogen bonding with water, not like the pure hydrocarbon polymers which
make most of the plastics.
Polyvinyl Chloride –
Polyvinyl chloride or PVC is the third-most majorly produced plastic coming after polypropylene and
polyethene. This PVC is used for construction purposes as it is known to be stronger and cheaper than other
alternatives like copper or iron. PVC is also used in clothing, electrical cable insulation including many other
applications replacing rubber.
Low-Density Polyethylene–
Low-density polyethene polymers are the most common kind of synthetic polymers, which are widely used in
households. LDPE is a kind of thermoplastic which is prepared from the monomer called ethylene.
Polypropylene–
Polypropylene also called polypropene is a kind of thermoplastic synthetic polymer which is used in a variety
of applications such as packaging, labelling, stationery, textiles, plastics and in reusable containers, laboratory
equipment’s etc.
Some other examples include thermoplastic polyurethane, teflon, polystyrene, high-density polyethene,
neoprene, etc.
Uses Of Synthetic Polymers
Some uses are given below-
The polymer called polyethylene is used in plastic bags and film wraps.
Polyethylene is utilized in bottles, electrical insulation, toys, etc.
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is used in siding, pipes, and flooring purposes.
The synthetic polymer polystyrene is used in cabinets and in packaging.
Polyvinyl acetate is used in adhesives and latex paints.
Physical structure,
Basic Polymer Structure
There are four basic polymer structures which are shown in the figure below. In practice, some polymers
might contain a mixture of the various basic structures. The four basic polymer structures are linear, branched,
crosslinked, and networked.

Diagrams of linear, branched, crosslinked, and networked polymer structures.

Linear polymers resemble ‘spaghetti’ with long chains. The long chains are typically held together by the
weaker van der Waals or hydrogen bonding. Since these bonding types are relatively easy to break with heat,
linear polymers are typically thermoplastic. Heat breaks the bonds between the long chains allowing the
chains to flow past each other, allowing the material to be remolded. Upon cooling the bonds between the
long chains reform, i.e., the polymer hardens.
Branched polymers resemble linear polymers with the addition of shorter chains hanging from the spaghetti
backbone. Since these shorter chains can interfere with efficient packing of the polymers, branched polymers
tend to be less dense than similar linear polymers. Since the short chains do not bridge from one longer
backbone to another, heat will typically break the bonds between the branched polymer chains and allow the
polymer to be a thermoplastic, although there are some very complex branched polymers that resist this
‘melting’ and thus break up (becoming hard in the process) before softening, i.e., they are thermosetting.
Crosslinked polymers resemble ladders. The chains link from one backbone to another. So, unlike linear
polymers which are held together by weaker van der Waals forces, crosslinked polymers are tied together via
covalent bonding. This much stronger bond makes most crosslinked polymers thermosetting, with only a few
exceptions to the rule: crosslinked polymers that happen to break their crosslinks at relatively low
temperatures.
Networked polymers are complex polymers that are heavily linked to form a complex network of three-
dimensional linkages. These polymers are nearly impossible to soften when heating without degrading the
underlying polymer structure and are thus thermosetting polymers.
Monomers do not have to be of a single atom type, but when referring to a specific monomer it is understood
to be of the same composition structure. When building a polymer from two distinct monomers, those
polymers are referred to as copolymers. Next, we will look at how copolymers are classified.
Properties of Polymers
Physical Properties
• As chain length and cross-linking increase, the tensile strength of the polymer increases.
• Polymers do not melt, and they change state from crystalline to semi-crystalline.
Chemical Properties
• Compared to conventional molecules with different side molecules, the polymer is enabled by
hydrogen bonding and ionic bonding resulting in better cross-linking strength.
• Dipole-dipole bonding side chains enable the polymer for high flexibility.
• Polymers with Van der Waals forces linking chains are known to be weak but give the polymer a low
melting point.
Optical Properties
• Due to their ability to change their refractive index with temperature, as in the case of PMMA and
HEMA: MMA, they are used in lasers for applications in spectroscopy and analytical applications.
Some Polymers and their Monomers
• Polypropene, also known as polypropylene, is made up of monomer propene.
• Polystyrene is an aromatic polymer, naturally transparent, made up of monomer styrene.
• Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is a plastic polymer made of monomer vinyl chloride.
• The urea-formaldehyde resin is a non-transparent plastic obtained by heating formaldehyde and urea.
• Glyptal is made up of monomers ethylene glycol and phthalic acid.
• Bakelite or polyoxybenzylmethylenglycolanhydride is a plastic which is made up of monomers
phenol and aldehyde.
Glass Transition Temperature
What does Tg stand for?
When an amorphous polymer is heated, the temperature at which the polymer structure turns “viscous liquid
or rubbery" is called the Glass Transition Temperature, Tg. It is also defined as a temperature at which
amorphous polymer takes on characteristic glassy-state properties like brittleness, stiffness and rigidity (upon
cooling).
This temperature (measured in °C or °F) depends on the chemical structure of the polymer and can therefore
be used to identify polymers.
• Amorphous polymers only exhibit a Tg.
• Crystalline polymers exhibit a Tm (melt temperature) and typically a Tg since there is usually an
amorphous portion as well (“semi”-crystalline).
The value of Tg depends on the mobility of the polymer chain, and for most synthetic polymers lies between
170 K to 500 K.
The transition from the glass to the rubber-like state is an important feature of polymer behavior, marking a
region of dramatic changes in the physical properties, such as hardness and elasticity.

At Tg, changes in hardness, volume, percent elongation to break and Young’s modulus of solids are mainly
seen.
Some polymers are used below their Tg (in glassy state) like polystyrene, poly(methyl methacrylate) etc.,
which are hard and brittle. Their Tgs are higher than room temperature.
Some polymers are used above their Tg (in rubbery state), for example, rubber elastomers like polyisoprene,
polyisobutylene. They are soft and flexible in nature; their Tgs are less than room temperature.
Applications include:
Identifying the Tg of polymers is often used for quality control and research and development. Also, it is an
important tool used to modify physical properties of polymer molecules.
Further, improvement in handling characters, solubility and reproducibility in dissolution of solids can be
achieved by increasing the Tg of solids.
Amorphous Polymers and Crystalline Polymers
Polymers (plastics, elastomers or rubber) are made up of long chains of molecules and may be amorphous or
crystalline. The structure of a polymer is defined in terms of crystallinity.
Amorphous polymers have a random molecular structure that does not have a sharp melting point. Instead,
amorphous material softens gradually as temperature rises. Amorphous materials are more sensitive to stress
failure due to the presence of hydrocarbons. E.g. PC, GPPS, PMMA, PVC, ABS.
Crystalline or Semi-crystalline polymers have a highly ordered molecular structure. These do not soften as the
temperature rises, but rather have a defined and narrow melting point. This melting point is generally above
that of the upper range of amorphous thermoplastics. E.g. Polyolefins, PEEK, PET, POM etc.
How to Measure Glass Transition Temperature
The most usual test method to determine Glass Transition Temperature of plastics is ASTM E1356. This test
method covers the assignment of the glass transition temperatures of materials using differential scanning
calorimetry or differential thermal analysis.
This test method is applicable to amorphous materials or to partially crystalline materials containing
amorphous regions, that are stable and do not undergo decomposition or sublimation in the glass transition
region.
Both methods, DTA and DSC, yield peaks relating to endothermic and exothermic transitions with thermal
input and show phase changes or occurrence of reactions.
• In DTA, the difference in temperature between the sample and a reference material is monitored
against time or temperature while the temperature rise/fall of the sample, in a specified atmosphere, is
programmed.
• In DSC, the difference in heat flow to a sample and to a reference is monitored against time or
temperature while the temperature rise/fall of the sample, in a specified atmosphere, is programmed.

Glass Transition Temp. Measurements of Different Polymers Using DSC

Glass Transition Temperature Vs Melting Temperature
At the molecular level, at Tg, the chains in amorphous (i.e., disordered) regions of the polymer gain enough
thermal energy to begin sliding past one another at a noticeable rate. The temperature where entire chain
movement occurs is called the melting point (Tm) and is greater than the Tg
1. Glass Transition is a property of the amorphous region while melting is the property of crystalline region
2. Below Tg, there exists disordered amorphous solid where chain motion is frozen, and molecules start
wiggling around above Tg. The more immobile the chain, the higher the value of Tg.
3. While, below Tm it is an ordered crystalline solid which becomes disordered melt above Tm
Factors Affecting Tg
Chemical Structure
• Molecular Weight – In straight chain polymers, increase in MW leads to decrease in chain end
concentration resulting in decreases free volume at end group region – and increase in Tg
• Molecular Structure - Insertion of bulky, inflexible side group increases Tg of material due to
decrease in mobility,
 • Chemical cross-linking - Increase in cross-linking decreases mobility leads to decrease in free volume
and increase in Tg
• Polar groups - Presence of polar groups increases intermolecular forces; inter chain attraction and
cohesion leading to decrease in free volume resulting in increase in Tg.
Addition of Plasticizers
Addition of plasticizer increases the free volume in polymer structure (Plasticizer gets in between the polymer
chains and spaces them apart from each other)
This results in polymer chains sliding past each other more easily. As a result, the polymer chains can move
around at lower temperatures resulting in decrease in Tg of a polymer
Water or moisture content
Increase in moisture content leads formation of hydrogen bonds with polymeric chains increasing the distance
between polymeric chains. And hence increases the free volume and decreases Tg.
Effect of entropy and enthalpy
The value of entropy for amorphous material is higher and low for crystalline material. If value of entropy is
high, then value of Tg is also high.
Pressure and free volume
Increase in pressure of surrounding leads to decrease in free volume and ultimately high Tg.

Other factors like branching, alkyl chain length, bond interaction, flexibility of polymer chain, film thickness
etc. also has significant impact on glass transition temperature of polymers.
Glass Transition Temperature Values of Several Plastics
Min Value Max Value
Polymer Name
(°C) (°C)
ABS - Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene 90.0 102.0
ABS Flame Retardant 105.0 115.0
ABS High Heat 105.0 115.0
ABS High Impact 95.0 110.0
Amorphous TPI, Moderate Heat, Transparent 247.0 247.0
Amorphous TPI, Moderate Heat, Transparent (Food
247.0 247.0
Contact Approved)
Amorphous TPI, Moderate Heat, Transparent (Mold
247.0 247.0
Release grade)
Amorphous TPI, Moderate Heat, Transparent
247.0 247.0
(Powder form)
CA - Cellulose Acetate 100.0 130.0
CAB - Cellulose Acetate Butyrate 80.0 120.0
Cellulose Diacetate-Pearlescent Films 120.0 120.0
 Min Value Max Value
Polymer Name
(°C) (°C)
Cellulose Diacetate-Gloss Film 120.0 120.0
Cellulose Diacetate-Integuard Films 113.0 113.0
Cellulose Diacetate-Matt Film 120.0 120.0
Cellulose Diacetate-Window Patch Film (Food 120.0 120.0
Grade)
Cellulose Diacetate-Clareflect metallized film 120.0 120.0
Cellulose Diacetate-Colored Films 120.0 120.0
Cellulose Diacetate-Flame retardant Film 162.0 162.0
Cellulose Diacetate-High Slip Film 120.0 120.0
Cellulose Diacetate-Semitone Films 120.0 120.0
CP - Cellulose Proprionate 80.0 120.0
COC - Cyclic Olefin Copolymer 136.0 180.0
CPVC - Chlorinated Polyvinyl Chloride 100.0 110.0
EVOH - Ethylene Vinyl Alcohol 15.0 70.0
HDPE - High Density Polyethylene -110.0 -110.0
HIPS - High Impact Polystyrene 88.0 92.0
HIPS Flame Retardant V0 90.0 90.0
LCP Glass Fiber-reinforced 120.0 120.0
LCP Mineral-filled 120.0 120.0
LDPE - Low Density Polyethylene -110.0 -110.0
LLDPE - Linear Low-Density Polyethylene -110.0 -110.0
PA 11 - (Polyamide 11) 30% Glass fiber reinforced 35.0 45.0
PA 11, Conductive 35.0 45.0
PA 11, Flexible 35.0 45.0
PA 11, Rigid 35.0 45.0
PA 12 (Polyamide 12), Conductive 35.0 45.0
PA 12, Fiber-reinforced 35.0 45.0
PA 12, Flexible 35.0 45.0
PA 12, Glass Filled 35.0 45.0
PA 12, Rigid 35.0 45.0
PA 46, 30% Glass Fiber 75.0 77.0
 Min Value Max Value
Polymer Name
(°C) (°C)
PA 6 - Polyamide 6 60.0 60.0
PA 66 - Polyamide 6-6 55.0 58.0
PA 66, 30% Glass Fiber 50.0 60.0
PA 66, 30% Mineral filled 50.0 60.0
PA 66, Impact Modified, 15-30% Glass Fiber 50.0 60.0
Polyamide semi-aromatic 115.0 170.0
PAI - Polyamide-Imide 275.0 275.0
PAI, 30% Glass Fiber 275.0 275.0
PAI, Low Friction 275.0 275.0
PAR - Polyarylate 190.0 190.0
PBT - Polybutylene Terephthalate 55.0 65.0
PC (Polycarbonate) 20-40% Glass Fiber 150.0 150.0
PC (Polycarbonate) 20-40% Glass Fiber Flame 150.0 150.0
Retardant
PC - Polycarbonate, high heat 160.0 200.0
PCL - Polycaprolactone -60.0 -60.0
PE - Polyethylene 30% Glass Fiber -110.0 -110.0
PEEK - Polyetheretherketone 140.0 145.0
PEEK 30% Carbon Fiber-reinforced 140.0 143.0
PEEK 30% Glass Fiber-reinforced 143.0 143.0
PEI, Mineral Filled 215.0 215.0
PEI, 30% Glass Fiber-reinforced 215.0 215.0
PEI, Mineral Filled 215.0 215.0
PESU - Polyethersulfone 210.0 230.0
PESU 10-30% glass fiber 210.0 230.0
PET - Polyethylene Terephthalate 73.0 78.0
PET, 30% Glass Fiber-reinforced 56.0 56.0
PETG - Polyethylene Terephthalate Glycol 79.0 80.0
PFA - Perfluoroalkoxy 90.0 90.0
PGA - Polyglycolides 35.0 40.0
PHB-V (5% valerate) - Poly (hydroxybutyrate - co- 3.0 5.0
valerate)
 Min Value Max Value
Polymer Name
(°C) (°C)
PI - Polyimide 250.0 340.0
PLA, Fiber Melt Spinning 55.0 65.0
PLA, Heat Seal Layer 52.0 58.0
PLA, Injection molding 55.0 60.0
PLA, Spunbond 55.0 60.0
PLA, Stretch blow molded bottles 50.0 60.0
PMMA - Polymethylmethacrylate/Acrylic 90.0 110.0
PMMA (Acrylic) High Heat 100.0 168.0
PMMA (Acrylic) Impact Modified 90.0 110.0
PMP - Polymethylpentene 20.0 30.0
PMP 30% Glass Fiber-reinforced 20.0 30.0
PMP Mineral Filled 20.0 30.0
POM - Polyoxymethylene (Acetal) -60.0 -50.0
PP - Polypropylene 10-20% Glass Fiber -20.0 -10.0
PP, 10-40% Mineral Filled -20.0 -10.0
PP, 10-40% Talc Filled -20.0 -10.0
PP, 30-40% Glass Fiber-reinforced -20.0 -10.0
PP (Polypropylene) Copolymer -20.0 -20.0
PP (Polypropylene) Homopolymer -10.0 -10.0
PP, Impact Modified -20.0 -20.0
PPE - Polyphenylene Ether 100.0 210.0
PPE, 30% Glass Fiber-reinforced 100.0 150.0
PPE, Impact Modified 130.0 150.0
PPE, Mineral Filled 100.0 150.0
PPS - Polyphenylene Sulfide 88.0 93.0
PPS, 20-30% Glass Fiber-reinforced 88.0 93.0
PPS, 40% Glass Fiber-reinforced 88.0 93.0
PPS, Conductive 88.0 93.0
PPS, Glass fiber & Mineral-filled 88.0 93.0
PPSU - Polyphenylene Sulfone 220.0 220.0
PS (Polystyrene) 30% glass fiber 90.0 120.0
 Min Value Max Value
Polymer Name
(°C) (°C)
PS (Polystyrene) Crystal 90.0 90.0
PS, High Heat 90.0 90.0
PSU - Polysulfone 187.0 190.0
PSU, 30% Glass fiber-reinforced 187.0 190.0
PSU Mineral Filled 187.0 190.0
PVC (Polyvinyl Chloride), 20% Glass Fiber- 60.0 100.0
reinforced
PVC, Plasticized -50.0 -5.0
PVC, Plasticized Filled -50.0 -5.0
PVC Rigid 60.0 100.0
PVDC - Polyvinylidene Chloride -15.0 -15.0
PVDF - Polyvinylidene Fluoride -42.0 -25.0
SAN - Styrene Acrylonitrile 100.0 115.0
SAN, 20% Glass Fiber-reinforced 100.0 115.0
SMA - Styrene Maleic Anhydride 110.0 115.0
SMA, 20% Glass Fiber-reinforced 110.0 115.0
SMA, Flame Retardant V0 110.0 115.0
SRP - Self-reinforced Polyphenylene 150.0 168.0
Classification of Polymers
The classification of polymers has three elements: Thermoplastic (TP) polymers, thermosetting (TS)
polymers, and elastomers(E). We make the categorization characteristics of polymers according to their
physical natures generally.
• Thermoplastic Polymers (TP): Thermoplastic polymers are a polymer class, that that is solid at
room temperature. When they are heated up to several hundred degrees, they become liquid after some
liquification phases. When we cool the thermoplastics to room temperature, they become the same solid
structure again. This cycle is valid limitlessly for thermoplastics without significant degradation. This property
of thermoplastics makes them very economical, that we can process them again and again. Thermo sets have
the biggest market among other polymer types, which is around 70% of the polymer market. Polyethylene,
polystyrene, polyvinylchloride, polypropylene, and nylon are the most known thermoplastic materials.
Nylon roll.
• Thermosetting Polymers (TS): The cycle explained above for thermoplastics, does not apply to
thermosetting. Cooling after heating a thermosetting material changes the original molecular structure of the
thermosetting polymer characteristics. Other chains occur after solidification which turns the thermosetting
materials into ‘char’. Because of that, they use thermosetting materials only for one, such as molding. The
most known thermosetting materials are phenolics and epoxies.
Epoxy resin floor application (C: armorpoxy).
• Elastomers(E): Elastomers show a very specific physical property that they are very elastic materials.
They can elongate up to 10x of their original shape by the effect of low mechanical loadings. After the
withdrawal of this load, elastomers can return to their original shape. Because of this property of elastomers,
they can find very specific applications in engineering and daily life. The most known natural rubber is
vulcanized rubber. But synthetic rubber’s market is bigger than the natural one.
Elastomer application.
Properties of Thermosetting Polymers
Thermosetting polymers are one of three main groups of polymer materials. Specific properties of
thermosetting find very important application areas in engineering and daily life.
The most important property of thermosetting characteristics polymers is the cross-linked molecular
structure. Because of this cross-linked structure, we make the products from thermosetting materials that have
one large macromolecule. They obtain the cross-linked structure in various ways for thermosetting.
We make the production process of the thermosetting polymer by mixing two or more chemicals. These
chemicals create cross-linking between themselves that obtain a thermosetting polymer. They use heat
generally to accelerate the chemical reaction. One of the most important examples of this group is epoxies.
We make the second form to produce some thermosetting polymer properties by the addition of catalysts to
accelerate the cross-linked structure creation in liquid form. Without catalysts, these properties of
thermosetting polymers stay stable for a long time.
In the shaping processes in thermosetting, they supply heat to melt the starting granular thermosetting
material. Then we give the shape by moulding it at high temperatures. In solidification, they create cross-
linking’s.
The physical and mechanical characteristics of thermosetting that because of cross-linking’s.

Illustration of cross-linking’s in thermosets.

Other Important Properties
• Thermosetting materials are less soluble in common solvents than thermoplastics, because of their
cross-linked molecular structure.
• We can use thermosetting materials in much higher temperatures. But there is no chance of re-melt
thermosetting materials because of cross-linked structures.
• Thermosets are generally in brittle structure, there are no apparent ductile characteristics
as thermoplastics.
• Thermosets have rigidity and better mechanical characteristics than thermoplastics because of their
cross-linked molecular structure. The modulus of elasticity of thermosetting materials is 2-3 times higher
generally than thermoplastics.
Properties of Thermoplastic Polymers
Thermoplastic materials have lower mechanical properties generally; lower stiffness, hardness, and greater
ductility compared with ceramics and metals. These mechanical properties of thermoplastics depend on
temperature.
As you know that thermoplastics can have crystalline or amorphous molecular forms. So mechanical
properties of a thermoplastic material change according to its molecular form. If we consider amorphous
thermoplastics, they have a very critical property called ‘glass-transition temperature (Tg)’. Below the glass
transition temperature, amorphous thermoplastics show solid characteristics. If we heat the amorphous
thermoplastics around Tg, they will start to show rubbery characteristics. We call this rubbery characteristic of
thermoplastics viscoelasticity. At the melting temperature of these thermoplastic materials, they show
completely liquid characteristics called a viscous state.
But for crystalline thermoplastics, do not have any Tg that show rubbery characteristics. Crystalline
thermoplastics are completely solid up to their melting temperature. After melting temperature, crystalline
thermoplastics become completely liquid abruptly.
But there is a degree of crystallinity for most thermoplastic materials. So, they can have both crystalline
molecular structures and amorphous structures. So, these kinds of thermoplastics show mechanical and
physical characteristics between complete crystalline and complete amorphous thermoplastic materials.
Also, the degree of polymerization and molecular weight of thermoplastics are very important parameters for
properties. If the degree of polymerization and molecular weight increases for thermoplastics, they become
more strong and harder mechanically. But their flowability reduce. This makes it hard to process these high
DP and MW of thermoplastics.
Characteristics of Elastomers
The most important characteristic of elastomers is that we can stretch them extensively if we compare them
with thermoplastics and thermosetting. This stretching property of elastomers comes from the very
long molecular chains and some degree of cross-linking in molecular structure. But this cross-linked structure
is not high as thermosets, in elastomers. The kinked long molecular chains of elastomers give the ability of
stretching. And they return to the original shape by cross-linking structure.
We can make the classification of elastomers as.
• Inorganic elastomers that we produce with conventional polymer production characteristics.
• Organic elastomers originated from natural sources.
Molecular structure representation of elastomers.
Very low forces can stretch the elastomer materials extensively. But with the increasing force, stretching
decreases, but in the meantime, mechanical properties increase in stretched form.
To show elastomeric characteristics as stated above, the elastomer material must be above the glass transition
temperature(Tg). At below these temperatures, elastomer polymer will be much more rigid characteristics,
which will not show any elastomeric characteristics.
Thermal Properties of These Polymers
There is a difference between elastomers and thermoplastics in that their temperatures are above the glass
transition temperature. Elastomers can return their original shape after we take the force, but thermoplastics do
not turn. This is because there is a low degree of cross-linked molecular structure which provides this ability
for elastomers. But thermoplastics, there is no cross-linked structure. Because of that, thermoplastics show
‘viscoelastic’ behaviour which is special for this situation.
We call elastomeric materials also ‘rubbers’ in the market. We adjust their level of cross-linking with some
processes. Crude natural rubbers are very elastic that we can stretch with very low forces. With the process
called ‘vulcanization’, we can increase the number of cross-linked structures. With that increased cross-linked
structure of natural rubber, we obtain much more stiff ‘vulcanized rubber. Also, if we increase the cross-
linking, much harder rubbers. After a level, that we cannot call rubber, they are properties of thermoset
polymers.
The general cross-linking density for rubbers can range from 1 to 10 in 100 carbon atoms in their molecular
structure.
Linear, Branched, And Cross-linked Structures In Polymers
Polymers have different structural properties and because of this, have different properties. These molecular
structures are Linear branched and cross-linked structures.
• Linear structure in polymer molecules: In general, linear molecular structures occur in
thermoplastics. In this molecular structure, molecules have occurred in linear alignments, and there is nearly
no cross-linking or branched structure.
• Branched structure in polymer molecules: Branched structures in polymer molecules occur with
the replacement of ‘H’ atoms with ‘C’ atoms in linear molecules, and because of this replacement with ‘C’,
this ‘C’ makes additional and same chemical reactions with other ‘C’ atoms. Because of this phenomenon in
polymer molecules, branched structures occur. Polyethylene is an example of this branched structure.
• Cross-linked structure in polymer molecules: This structure is the main type of structure that
affects the polymer properties. Cross-linking occurs in polymer structures with the same logic as the branched
structure explained above. When the branches created by ‘C’ atoms are linked with each other, as shown in
the illustration, a cross-linked structure occurs.
Thermosets show different levels of cross-linking structures, and this affects their properties of thermosets.
With the application of heat and light, cross-linking structures increase in thermoset molecular structure. A
cross-linked structure makes polymer harder and brittle. Also, when cross-linking has occurred in a polymer,
there is no turn back for that material. Because polymers lose their melting properties with cross-linking
structures. When you heat a cross-linked thermoset, it will not melt, just burn. Curing is the application of heat
and light to create a much more cross-linked molecular structure in thermosets to be much harder and
stronger.
Also, elastomers have cross-linked structures, but at a very low level compared with thermosets. Because of
this low level of cross-linked structure, elastomers have very high ductility and resilience.
What is the Degree Of Polymerization?
Macromolecule chains that they produce with polymerization processes have ‘n’ repeating units. These units
are the same as each other, and these same units constitute macromolecule chains of polymer properties. We
call the of ‘n’ the ‘degree of polymerization (DP)’ of that polymer. Material properties of polymers change
according to the degree of polymerization. The higher degree of polymerization provides more mechanical
strength in the solid state of polymers, but in a liquid state, viscosity increases which make the processing of
polymer more difficult. So, the degree of polymerizations of different polymer characteristics are adjusted
according to this basis.
What is the Molecular Weight (MW) Of Polymers?

DP And MW values of some polymers (Fundamentals of modern manufacturing)

As you know, molecules of polymers are the repeating structures of mers. We obtain these repeating
structures with the de-bonding of carbon structures in monomers and attach these released bonding to other
mers to obtain polymers. This most known structure of polymers is called ‘homopolymers’. But in copolymer
structures, there are two types of mers to bond themselves. With the mixing and bonding of these two types of
mers, we obtain different types of polymers. For example, they use ethylene and propylene to obtain a
copolymer molecular structure that has elastomeric nature. There are types of copolymer structures according
to their physical arrangements.
• Alternating copolymer structure: Constituent mers that form copolymer structures align in
alternating structures.
• Random copolymer structure: Constituent mers align in the form of a random structure.
• Blocked structure of copolymers: The same group of constituent members bonds with themselves in
the copolymer structure.
• Graft structure of copolymers: One type of mers attaches as branches to other mer that creates the
main chain structure.
Like alloying metals in different percentages, they mix different polymers to obtain copolymer structures.
Percentages are very important to obtain different properties just like in metal alloys. Also, ternary polymers
are also available in the market that is synthesized with three different constituent mers. Plastic ABS
(acrylonitrile–butadiene–styrene) is an important example of ternary polymers.
Polymer Production
In general, there are two most common processes in polymer production. These processes are.
• Step polymerization.
• Addition polymerization.
Step Polymerization
It has nearly the same logic as addition polymerization. But there are some kinds of differences in the process
itself. In step polymerization, two monomers are brought together to obtain a new mer. All these new mers are
brought together again and again at each step. They call all these steps n1, n2, n3… And with sufficient time
and steps, we obtain long-chained polymers. Also, it depends on the number of steps, that number of steps
also depends on time.
Unlike addition polymerization, by-products can occur. In such polymerization processes, water (H2O) occurs
as a by-product. That water comes with condensation, which gives another name to this polymerization
process ‘condensation polymerization’. In some step polymerization processes, ammonia (NH3) can be also
produced as a by-product.
Also, in step polymerization or condensation polymerization, we produce both thermoplastics and
thermosetting. More specifically, nylon 6-6, and polycarbonate polymers are examples of thermoplastic
polymers that they produce with step polymerization. Phenol formaldehyde and urea formaldehyde are
examples of thermosetting polymers that are produced with step polymerization.
Addition Polymerization
Addition polymerization is a special process to produce long-chained polymers. In addition to polymerization,
there are special steps to obtain special long-chained polymer groups. Starting molecules that we call
‘monomers’, which we used to obtain polymer molecules from them. To do it, we must open bonding between
carbon atoms in monomer molecules to react with other monomer molecules. Opening carbon bonding take
place by a catalyst which we call an ‘initiator’. After the addition polymerization process starts, single
monomers are tied up between themselves to become short-chained polymers. With the ‘addition’ of
monomers to these short-chained polymers, we obtain long-chained polymers.
All the processes of addition polymerization take place in seconds. But in industrial production and large
serial production of polymers, all the addition polymerization processes can take minutes, even hours.
In general, we produce thermoplastics with the addition polymerization process. Also, a polymer we call
‘polyisoprene’ is a kind of natural rubber, we can produce with an additional polymerization process. In such
processes, the replacement of H atoms with other atoms is a special application. For example, in the
production of polytetrafluoroethylene, all the four H atoms bonding with Carbon are replaced with F atoms.
They use polypropylene generally in this H atom replacement process to obtain other kinds of polymers such
as polyvinylchloride and polystyrene.
Stereoregularity Properties of Polymers
Stereoregularity is a very important parameter in polymer chemistry that defines the properties of polymers. It
is about the arrangement of atom groups in the unit of long-chain polymers. As you know that with the
replacement of ‘H’ atoms from mers with another atom, different types of polymers are produced.
Stereoregularity concerns the alignment of these different atom groups of individual types of polymers. For
example, in polypropylene, ‘H’ atoms are replaced with ‘CH3’ molecules. And alignment of these ‘CH3’
molecules affects the properties of polypropylene material. Alignment types for stereoregularity are.
• Isotactic: All the substituted atoms are on the same side of the long-chain structure in the polymer.
• Syndiotactic: Alternating alignments of substitution atoms at opposite sides on the long-chain
structure.
• Atactic: Random alignment of substitution atoms on the long-chain structure.
Propylene’s melting point is around 175 celsius degrees in isotactic form for example. The syndiotactic form
of propylene is 131 celsius degrees and the atactic is 75 celsius degrees. This can be a very good example of
the effects of tactics of stereoregularity in polymers’ properties.
Crystallinity Properties of Polymers
Polymers have a lower tendency to be a crystalline structure than other materials. Because of this reason, the
degree of crystallinity of polymers is always less than 100%. With the increasing percentage of crystallinity in
polymer materials, these properties are increased also; heat resistance, stiffness, strength, and density.
Polymers can be transparent if they are partially crystalline. This partially crystalline structure depends on a
glassy(amorphous) structure.
Crystallinity occurs folding of linear long chains of molecules upon themselves on regular basis. For
crystalline polymers, there is no situation of 100% crystallinity. There are always non-crystallized long chains
that are dispersed around crystallized long-chained molecules in polymers. Lamellar structure occurs with that
folding phenomenon.
Various polymers have various levels of crystallinity. This level of crystallinity depends on such parameters.
• Copolymers do not form crystalline structures because of their irregular molecular structure.
• Plasticizers that are promoted to soften polymers, reduce the crystallinity.
• The deformation of thermoplastics in a heated situation increases the crystallinity.
• Like in metals and ceramics, slower cooling rates promote crystalline structure in polymers.
• Linear characteristics of polymers can make crystal structures.
• The Stereoregularity of a polymer affects crystallinity; From atactic, syndiotactic to isotactic, the
formation of crystalline structures in polymers increases. Atactic polymers generally never form crystalline
structures.
Thermal Characteristics of Polymers
As we stated above, the crystalline structure or amorphous structure of polymer materials gives specific
properties. For crystalline characteristics of polymers, the melting point is very high, and with the increasing
temperature, it gets higher and higher. Also, the change of physical structure of the material from solid to
liquid state is very abrupt.
But for amorphous structure characteristics of polymers, there is no abrupt change of physical structure like
crystalline one. When the temperature decreases from liquid to solid state, amorphous characteristics of
polymers show a gradually changing physical appearance from liquid to solid. Thermal expansion of
amorphous polymer lowers and lowers with the decreasing temperature. There is a specific point called ‘glass-
transition temperature (Tg)’. At this point, the thermal expansion of amorphous polymer lowers abruptly upon
lowering the temperature.
At the level of crystallinity between these two extremes, characteristics of polymers show thermal
characteristics between these extremes again. Above melting point (Tm), polymers show viscous
characteristics and, between Tg and Tm, they show viscoelastic properties.
As you know from the formation of crystalline structures in materials, upon slow cooling, crystalline structure
formation is induced. It is valid for polymers also. With the increasing crystalline structure, Tm also increases.
If we take a look at the thermal characteristics of thermosets and elastomers, they show amorphous
characteristics by decreasing temperature from the liquid state. But with the decreasing temperature, cross-
linking’s also occurred. These cross-linking’s inhibit the formation of crystalline structures. Also, they cannot
be melted and liquified again because of these cross-linked structures.
Recycling Properties of Polymers is Tough
The first reason of it, general polymer materials include additives, dyes, and fillers to obtain specific
properties. And decomposition of these additives is very hard and requires various kinds of processes in the
recycling phase characteristics of polymers.
The second reason, if we consider the number of metals that are recycled, they are much higher in tonnage
compared with plastics. Metals that are used in big structures such as bridges, ships, etc. recycling of them is
much more profitable because of their higher tonnage. But recycling plastics is not profitable compared with
metals, because gathering the same types of plastics to recycle is much harder. Products produced from
plastics are smaller than metals to be recycled generally.
Another important reason for this, the plastics that they came for recycling can have various kinds of chemical
structures, which makes them very hard to mix, and fuse to obtain a new product. For example, recycling
glass waste is much easier compared with plastics, because all glass products depend on silicon dioxide.
We stated that there are different kinds of thermoplastic characteristics of polymers, and because of that, the
decomposition of different kinds of characteristics of polymers is hard. To overcome this situation, the Society
of Plastics Industry developed the Plastic Identification Code (PIC) which refers to the type of thermoplastic
of produced plastic products to separate them into same groups to recycle them. You can see this code on
plastic products in the shape of a triangle the corners are arrows. And inside these arrows, there is a number
states the type of that thermoplastic.
Also…
With this code, people can separate the plastic parts into the same types. Here we give the meaning of these
numbers to separate the thermoplastics.
1: Polyethylene terephthalate that is used in beverage containers.
2: High-density polyethylene that is generally used in shopping bags and milk containers.
3: Polyvinyl chloride that is used in juice beverage bottles and PVC pipes.
4: Low-density polyethylene which has the acronym LDPE used in compressible bottles and container lids.,
5: Polypropylene is generally used in yogurt containers and margarine containers.
6: Polystyrene is used in disposable plates, egg cartons, and cups, and as foamed packing materials.
7: Other: such as ABS or polycarbonate.
This system makes the decomposition of plastics much easier. Despite this system to decompose
thermoplastics, the use of recycled thermoplastics is around 6% in the United States.
This separation system is valid for only thermoplastics. Recycling thermosetting and elastomers is almost
impossible. Because of the cross-linked molecular structure in elastomers and thermosetting, melting of these
materials to recycling them is not easy. But they can be recycled as filler material for other applications. Also,
recycled elastomers can be used as granules, chunks, and nuggets in various applications.
Conclusion on Properties of Polymers
These are the main and the most important points about the characteristics of polymers. So, you can learn lots
of things here about the properties of polymer materials.
In general, there are three classes of polymer materials. There are various properties of these polymer
materials in general.
Polymer production methods are also very important to know about this material.
Finally, do not forget to leave your comments and questions below about the properties of glass.
Processing of plastics.
Plastics Extrusion
Plastics extrusion is a normally high-volume manufacturing process where a polymer material, enriched with
the desired additives, is melted and formed in a continuous process.
The raw material (polymer) in the form of granulates, is gravity fed into the hopper and through the feed
throat, drops on a rotating screw. Screw rotation is provided by an electric motor. The screw design varies and
is dependent on the material and final product design. The rotation of the screw forces the plastic forward
through a heated barrel. As the plastic is conveyed through the barrel the channel or thread of the screw
decreases, thus compressing the plastic. Three or more independent Proportional Integral Derivative PID
controllers, creating zones of gradually increasing temperature, heat the barrel. The plastic melt temperature is
normally higher than the set temperature for the controllers. This additional heat is generated through a
combination of compressive force and shear friction (shear heat). When the plastic melt reaches the end of the
screw the plastic melt is well mixed and pushed through a screen pack, supported by a breaker plate, filtering
contaminants and removing the materials rotational memory. Finally, the filtered melt is then pushed through
the die. The die gives the final product the desired profile and shape. After exiting the extruder, the extrudate
is pulled and cooled. The cooling method is dependent on the profile and shape of extrudate.
What are the Different Types of Plastic Extrusion?
Depending on the die shape, different products can be formed using various available extrusion processes
listed below:
1. Tubing Extrusion
This extrusion type is used for the extrusion of tubes and pipes. In this process, air with positive internal
pressure may also be applied. The tubes or pipes after exiting the die are pulled into a cooling tank where they
are normally water-cooled.
2. Blow Film Extrusion
This type is used for the production of plastic films tubes through a continuous sheeting. In this process the
film tube melt is cooled before leaving the die, producing a semi-solid tube and blown to expand to a desired
size and film thickness. This process is used for manufacturing of products such as shopping bags.
3. Sheet Film Extrusion
This type is used for the extrusion of plastic sheets or films that are too thick to be blown. After exiting the
die, the sheets are pulled and cooled through a series of cooling rolls, which also regulate the sheet thickness.
4. Over Jacket Extrusion
This extrusion type is used for wire coating. In this process the wire is pulled through the centre of the die. If
adhesion is required between the wire and the coating, pressure tooling is used. In this method the wire is
covered in molten plastic whilst in the die and is pressurized when exiting the die. If adhesion is not required,
jacketing tooling is used. In this method, the wire is covered by the melt as it exits the die.
Meaning of Ceramic
A ceramic is a solid material comprising an inorganic compound of metal or metalloid and non – metal with
ionic or covalent bonds.
Common examples are earthenware, porcelain, and brick. The crystallinity of ceramic materials ranges from
highly oriented to semi – crystalline, vitrified.
Introduction
• A ceramic material is an inorganic, non – metallic material and is often crystalline.
• Traditional ceramics are clays.
• The earliest application was in pottery.
• Most recently, different types of ceramics used are alumina, silicon carbide etc.
• Latest advancements are in the bio-ceramics with examples being dental implants and synthetic bones
Properties of ceramic
➢ High wear, heat, pressure, and chemical attack resistance (gas and liquids)
➢ Extreme hardness.
➢ Excellent electrical insulation.
➢ Relatively lightweight.
What are the advantages of ceramic?
➢ Advantages: Harder than conventional structure metals.
➢ Low coefficient of friction.
➢ Extremely high melting point.
➢ Corrosion resistance.
➢ Low density.
➢ Extreme hardness.
➢ Inexpensive.
➢ Easily available.
➢ Glazed ceramic does not stain.

Disadvantages:
 ➢ Dimensional tolerances difficult to control during processing.
➢ Weak in tension.
➢ Poor shock resistance.
➢ Can crack when hit with heavy items.
Applications
• Pottery products, sanitary ware, floor and roof tiles.
• Crucibles, kiln linings, other refractories.
• High end applications such as in ceramic matrix composites, tiles in space shuttle, bullet proof
jackets, disk brakes, ball bearing applications, bio-ceramics.

Classification based
on composition

Silicate ceramics

Oxide ceramics

Non-oxide ceramics

The main types of silicate ceramics are: Glass ceramics

o Clay-based ceramic
o Tale-based technical ceramics.
o Special groups are zircon and mullite based fine ceramics.
Oxide ceramics:
o Oxide ceramics include alumina, zirconia.
o Properties: High melting points and a wide range of electrical properties.
o For example, glazes and protective coatings seal porosity, improve water or chemical resistance, and
enhance joining to metals or other materials.
Non-oxide ceramics:
o In past three to four decades, many severe material problems and difficulties.
o Problems: Corrosion, erosion, wear, temperature, electrical insulation etc.
o It can be overcome by the correct selection from a range of materials categorized as oxide or non-
oxide ceramics.
Glass ceramics:
o A material processed through the controlled crystallization of base glass.
o Amorphous phase and more than one crystalline phase and are produced by a controlled
crystallization procedure.
 o 30% to 90% crystallinity and yield an array of materials.
Glass ceramics:
o Glass-ceramics holds the processing advantage of glass and has special characteristics of ceramics.
o Properties of material zero porosity, high strength, toughness, translucency or opacity,
superconductivity etc.
o Properties can be altered by controlling heat treatment of the base glass.
Glasses:
o Glasses are based on silicon (SiO2) along with other additives to shrink the melting point and to
impart special characteristic properties.
o Mainly used in the manufacturing of the following products.
(a) Containers
(b) Households
(c) Optical glasses etc.
High performance advanced ceramics:
o They are basically special ceramics having outstanding measures in terms of toughness, wear
resistance, electrical properties, etc.
o Their applicative demand has rose to a larger extent in the last decade & they find their need in cutting
tool, grinding, bearing, sensor, laser, superconductor etc.
Traditional vitreous ceramics:
o All the clay-based products within ceramics comes under this category.
o Application is easily noticeable in porcelain, sanitary ware, tiles, bricks,
refractories etc.
Cement and concrete:
o Which are multiphase in nature i.e., they exist in more than one phase.
Natural ceramics:
o This includes rocks, minerals, orcs that are extracted from the earth and are produced by the laws of
nature.
o They also include bones.
Introduction:
The metallic and nonmetallic materials are not suitable for certain engineering applications for example
➢ An electrical insulator to be used at high temperature
➢ Floor tiles to resist spills, scuffing and abrasion
➢ A transparent baking dishes
For such applications we need materials that have properties such as high temperature strength. Hardness,
inertness to chemicals, food, resistance to wear and corrosion. Few of such materials are ceramics, glass,
graphite, diamond etc.
Shaping Ceramics:
Usual steps in traditional ceramics processing: (1) preparation of raw materials;(2) shaping, (3) drying, and (4)
firing. Part(a) shows the work part during the sequence, whereas Shows the condition of the powders.
Preparation of Powder:

Crushing operations: (a) jaw crusher, (b) gyratory crusher, (c) roll crusher, and (d) hammer mill

Mechanical methods of producing ceramic powder: (a) ball mill, (b) roller mill, (c) impact grinding
Introduction:
▪ The raw materials for powder preparation are generally natural minerals need to be processed in order
to convert them into the desired products with special characteristics.

▪ The type and nature of processing may be different for different products and applications.
Ball Milling:
▪ Ball Mill grinds a material by rotating a cylinder with hard balls, causing them to fall back into
the cylinder and into the material to be ground.
▪ The impact of balls is important for reduction in size of the particle.
▪ Mostly used for brittle materials.
Milling/Crushing/Grinding:
▪ Involves crushing, milling in a ball mill or grinding ceramic raw materials into small particles.
▪ A ball mill is a machine with a rotating hollow cylinder partly filled with steel or white cast iron balls.
▪ Depending on the powder amount, the powder properties, different types of mills are used for dry and
wet grinding.
▪ The diameter of the mill decides the speed of the mill. Generally, the rotational speed does not exceed
20 RPM.
▪ Diameter of cylinder is inversely proportional to the rotational speed. The larger the diameter, the
slower the rotation.
▪ If the speed is too high, to begins to act like a centrifuge and the balls do not fall back but stay on
perimeter of the mill.
Shaping Process:
The shaping processes can be divided according to the consistency of the mixture
(1) Slip Casting, in which the is slurry with 25% to 40 % water.
(2) Plastic-forming, methods that shape the clay in plastic condition at 15% to 25% water.
(3) Semi-dry pressing, in which the clay is moist (10% to 15% water) but has low plasticity; and
(4) Dry pressing, in which the clay the clay is basically dry, containing less than 5% water. Dry clay has
no plasticity.

Slip Casting:
➢ A suspension of ceramic powder in water, called a slip, is poured into a porous plaster of Paris mold
so that water from the mix is absorbed into the plaster to form a firm layer of clay at the mold surface.
➢ The slip composition is 25% to 40% water.
➢ Two principles variations:
 ➢ Drain casting – the mold is inverted to drain excess slip after a semi- solid layer has been formed,
thus producing a hollow product.
➢ Solid casting – to produce solid products, adequate time is allowed for entire body to become firm.
➢ Used for large parts, complex shapes; low equipment cost.\
➢ Low production rate limited dimensional accuracy.

Sequence of steps in drain casting, a form of slip casting:

(1) Slip is poured into mold cavity.

(2) Water is absorbed into plaster mold to form a firm layer.
(3) Excess slip is poured out; and
(4) Part is removed from mold and trimmed
Plastic Forming:
➢ Plastic forming, also called soft, wet forming, can be carried out by various methods, such as
extrusion, injection molding, or molding and jiggering.

Semi dry pressing:

(1) Depositing moist powder into die cavity,
(2) Pressing, and
(3) Operating the die sections and ejection.
Dry Pressing:
➢ Process sequence in similar to semi-dry pressing – the main distinction is that the water
content of the starting mix is typically below 5%.
➢ Dies must be made occurs, so drying time is eliminated, and good dimensional accuracy is
achieved in the final product.
➢ No drying shrinkage occurs, so drying time is eliminated, and good dimensional accuracy is
achieved in the final product.
➢ Typical products: bathroom tile, electrical insulators, refractory brick, and other simple
geometries.
 UNIT– III:
COMPOSITE MATERIALS:
1 INTRODUCTION TO COMPOSITE MATERIALS
After making and controlling fire and inventing the wheel, spinning of continuous yarns is probably the most
important development of mankind, enabling him to survive outside the tropical climate zones and spread
across the surface of the Earth. Flexible fabrics made of locally grown and spun fibers as cotton; flax and jute
were a big step forward compared to animal skins. More and more natural resources were used, soon resulting
in the first composites; straw reinforced walls and bows and chariots made of glued layers of wood, bone and
horn. More durable materials as wood and metal soon replaced these antique composites.
Composite is a combination of two or more chemically and physically distinct and insoluble phases which are
combined at macroscopic level to forma a useful product. Constituent materials or phases must have
significantly different properties for it to combine them: thus, metals and plastics are not considered as
composites although they have a lot of fillers and impurities. The properties and performance of composites
are far superior to those of the constituents. Composites consists of one or more discontinuous phases called
as reinforcement embedded in a continuous phase called as matrix
Examples:
• Cemented carbides (WC With Co binder)
• Concrete (cement + Gravel + sand)
• Rubber Mixed With Carbon Black
• Wood (a Natural Composite As distinguished from a synthesized composite)
The reinforcements can be fibers, particulates, or whiskers, and the matrix materials can be metals, plastics, or
ceramics. The reinforcements can be made from polymers, ceramics, and metals. The fibers can be
continuous, long, or short. Composites made with a polymer matrix have become more common and are
widely used in various industries.

Formation of a composite material using fibers and resin

Why we need these materials?

There is unabated thirst for new materials with improved desired properties. All
the desired properties are difficult to find in a single material. For example, a
material which needs high fatigue life may not be cost effective. The list of the
desired properties, depending upon the requirement of the application, is given
below.
 1. Strength 9. High fatigue life
2. Stiffness 10. Thermal insulation or conductivity
3. Toughness 11. Electrical insulation or conductivity
4. High corrosion resistance 12. Acoustic insulation
5. High wear resistance 13. Radar transparency
6. High chemical resistance 14. Energy dissipation
7. High environmental degradation 15. Reduced cost
resistance 16. Attractiveness
8. Reduced weight

Advantages of composites
Composites have been routinely designed and manufactured for applications in which high performance and
light weight are needed. They offer several advantages over traditional engineering materials as discussed
below.
1. Composite materials provide capabilities for part integration. Several metallic components can be
replaced by a single composite component.
2. Composite materials have a high specific stiffness (stiffness-to-density ratio).
3. The specific strength (strength-to-density ratio) of a composite material is very high. Due to this,
airplanes and automobiles move faster and with better fuel efficiency.
4. The fatigue strength (endurance limit) is much higher for composite materials.
5. Composite materials offer high corrosion resistance.
6. Composite materials offer increased amounts of design flexibility.
7. Net-shape or near-net-shape parts can be produced with composite materials.
8. Complex parts, appearance, and special contours, which are sometimes not possible with metals.
9. Composite materials offer greater feasibility for employing design for manufacturing (DFM) and
design for assembly (DFA) techniques.
10. Composites offer good impact properties. Glass and Kevlar composites provide higher impact strength
than steel and aluminum.
11. Noise, vibration, and harshness (NVH) characteristics are better for composite materials than metals.
12. By utilizing proper design and manufacturing techniques, cost-effective composite parts can be
manufactured.
Specific stiffness and specific strength:
The composite materials have high specific stiffness and strengths. Thus, these material offer better
properties at lesser weight as compared to conventional materials. Due to this, one gets improved
performance at reduced energy consumption.
Tailorable design:
A large set of design parameters are available to choose from. Thus, making the design procedure more
versatile. The available design parameters are:
Choice of materials (fiber/matrix), volume fraction of fiber and matrix, fabrication method, layer
orientation, no. of layer/laminae in a given direction, thickness of individual layers, type of layers
(fabric/unidirectional) stacking sequence.
A component can be designed to have desired properties in specific directions.
Fatigue Life:
The composites can with stand more number of fatigue cycles than that of aluminum. The critical
structural components in aircraft require high fatigue life. The use of composites in fabrication of such
structural components is thus justified.
Dimensional Stability:
 Strain due to temperature can change shape, size, increase friction, wear and thermal stresses. The
dimensional stability is very important in application like space antenna. For composites, with proper
design it is possible to achieve almost zero coefficient of thermal expansion.
Corrosion Resistance:
Polymer and ceramic matrix material used to make composites have high resistance to corrosion from
moisture, chemicals.
Cost Effective Fabrication:
The components fabricated from composite are cost effective with automated methods like filament
winding, pultrusion and tape laying. There is a lesser wastage of the raw materials as the product is
fabricated to the final product size unlike in metals.
Conductivity:
The conductivity of the composites can be achieved to make it a insulator or a highly conducting material.
For example, Glass/polyesters are non conducting materials. These materials can be used in space ladders,
booms etc. where one needs higher dimensional stability, whereas copper matrix material gives a high
thermal conductivity.
Drawbacks of Composites
Although composite materials offer many benefits, they suffer from the following disadvantages:
1. The materials cost for composite materials is very high compared to that of steel and aluminum.
2. Classical ways of designing products with metals depend on the use of machinery and metals
handbooks, and design and data handbooks. Large design databases are available for metals. Designing parts
with composites lacks such books because of the lack of a database.
3. The temperature resistance of composite parts depends on the temperature resistance of the matrix
materials. Because a large proportion of composites uses polymer-based matrices, temperature resistance is
limited by the plastics’ properties.
4. Solvent resistance, chemical resistance, and environmental stress cracking of composites depend on
the properties of polymers. Some polymers have low resistance to solvents and environmental stress cracking.
5. Composites absorb moisture, which affects the properties and dimensional stability of the composites.

What are the disadvantages of Composites?

1. Some fabrics are very hard on tooling.
2. Hidden defects are difficult to locate.
3. Inspection may require special tools and processes.
4. Filament-wound parts may not be repairable. Repairing may introduce new problems.
5. High cost of raw materials.
6. High initial cost of tooling, production set-up, etc.
7. Labour intensive.
8. Health and safety concerns.
9. Training of the labour is essential.
10. Environmental issues like disposal and waste management.
11. Reuse of the materials is difficult.
12. Storage of frozen pre-pregs demands for additional equipments and adds to the cost of production.
13. Extreme cleanliness required.
14. The composites, in general, are brittle in nature and hence easily damageable.
15. The matrix material is weak and hence the composite has low toughness.
16. The transverse properties of lamina or laminate are, in general, weak.
17. The analysis of the composites is difficult due to heterogeneity and orthotropy.
2 Classification
Composite materials are commonly classified at following two distinct levels:
• The first level of classification is usually made with respect to the matrix constituent. The major composite
classes include Organic Matrix Composites (OMCs), Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs) and Ceramic Matrix
Composites (CMCs). The term organic matrix composite is generally assumed to include two classes of
composites, namely Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs) and carbon matrix composites commonly referred to
as carbon-carbon composites.
• The second level of classification refers to the reinforcement form - fiber reinforced composites, laminar
composites and particulate composites. Fiber Reinforced composites (FRP) can be further divided into those
containing discontinuous or continuous fibers.
• Fiber Reinforced Composites are composed of fibers embedded in matrix material. Such a composite is
considered to be a discontinuous fiber or short fibre composite if its properties vary with fibre length. On the
other hand, when the length of the fibre is such that any further increase in length does not further increase,
the elastic modulus of the composite, the composite is considered to be continuous fibre reinforced. Fibres are
small in diameter and when pushed axially, they bend easily although they have very good tensile properties.
These fibres must be supported to keep individual fibres from bending and buckling.
• Laminar Composites are composed of layers of materials held together by matrix. Sandwich structures fall
under this category.
• Particulate Composites are composed of particles distributed or embedded in a matrix body. The particles
may be flakes or in powder form. Concrete and wood particle boards are examples of this category.
Classification Based on Reinforcements
Introduction to Reinforcements
Reinforcements for the composites can be fibers, fabrics particles or whiskers. Fibers are essentially
characterized by one very long axis with other two axes either often circular or near circular. Particles have no
preferred orientation and so does their shape. Whiskers have a preferred shape but are small both in diameter
and length as compared to fibers. Figure shows types of reinforcements in composites.

Figure Reinforcements
Reinforcing constituents in composites, as the word indicates, provide the strength that makes the composite
what it is. But they also serve certain additional purposes of heat resistance or conduction, resistance to
corrosion and provide rigidity. Reinforcement can be made to perform all or one of these functions as per the
requirements.
A reinforcement that embellishes the matrix strength must be stronger and stiffer than the matrix and capable
of changing failure mechanism to the advantage of the composite. This means that the ductility should be
minimal or even nil the composite must behave as brittle as possible.
Fiber Reinforced Composites/Fibre Reinforced Polymer (FRP) Composites
Fibers are the important class of reinforcements, as they satisfy the desired conditions and transfer strength to
the matrix constituent influencing and enhancing their properties as desired.
Glass fibers are the earliest known fibers used to reinforce materials. Ceramic and metal fibers were
subsequently found out and put to extensive use, to render composites stiffer more resistant to heat.
Fibers fall short of ideal performance due to several factors. The performance of a fiber composite is judged
by its length, shape, orientation, and composition of the fibers and the mechanical properties of the matrix.
The orientation of the fiber in the matrix is an indication of the strength of the composite and the strength is
greatest along the longitudinal directional of fiber.
Unidirectional loading is found in few structures and hence it is prudent to give a mix of orientations for fibers
in composites particularly where the load is expected to be the heaviest.
Monolayer tapes consisting of continuous or discontinuous fibers can be oriented unidirectional stacked into
plies containing layers of filaments also oriented in the same direction. More complicated orientations are
possible too and nowadays, computers are used to make projections of such variations to suit specific needs.
In short, in planar composites, strength can be changed from unidirectional fiber-oriented composites that
result in composites with nearly isotropic properties.
Properties of angle-plied composites which are not quasi-isotropic may vary with the number of plies and
their orientations. Composite variables in such composites are assumed to have a constant ratio and the
matrices are considered relatively weaker than the fibers. The strength of the fiber in any one of the three axes
would, therefore, be one-third the unidirectional fiber composite, assuming that the volume percentage is
equal in all three axes.
However, orientation of short fibers by different methods is also possible like random orientations by
sprinkling on to given plane or addition of matrix in liquid or solid state before or after the fiber deposition.
Even three-dimensional orientations can achieve in this way.
It goes without saying that fiber composites may be constructed with either continuous or short fibers.
Experience has shown that continuous fibers (or filaments) exhibit better orientation, although it does not
reflect in their performance. Fibers have a high aspect ratio, i.e., their lengths being several times greater than
their effective diameters. This is the reason why filaments are manufactured using continuous process. This
finished filaments.
Mass production of filaments is well known, and they match with several matrices in different ways like
winding, twisting, weaving and knitting, which exhibit the characteristics of a fabric.
Short-length fibers incorporated by the open- or close-mold process are found to be less efficient, although
the input costs are considerably lower than filament winding.
Most fibers in use currently are solids which are easy to produce and handle, having a circular cross-section,
although a few non-conventional shaped and hollow fibers show signs of capabilities that can improve the
mechanical qualities of the composites.
Laminar Composites
Laminar composites are found in as many combinations as the number of materials. They can be described
as materials comprising of layers of materials bonded together. These may be of several layers of two or more
metal materials occurring alternately or in a determined order more than once, and in as many numbers as
required for a specific purpose.
Clad and sandwich laminates have many areas as it ought to be, although they are known to follow the rule
of mixtures from the modulus and strength point of view. Other intrinsic values pertaining to metal-matrix,
metal-reinforced composites are also fairly well known.
Powder metallurgical processes like roll bonding, hot pressing, diffusion bonding, brazing and so on can be
employed for the fabrication of different alloys of sheet, foil, powder or sprayed materials. It is not possible to
achieve high strength materials unlike the fiber version. But sheets and foils can be made isotropic in two
dimensions more easily than fibers. Foils and sheets are also made to exhibit high percentages of which they
are put. For instance, a strong sheet may use over 92% in laminar structure, while it is difficult to make fibers
of such compositions. Fiber laminates cannot over 75% strong fibers.
The main functional types of metal-metal laminates that do not possess high strength or stiffness are single
layered ones that endow the composites with special properties, apart from being cost-effective. They are
usually made by pre-coating or cladding methods.
Pre-coated metals are formed by forming by forming a layer on a substrate, in the form of a thin continuous
film. This is achieved by hot dipping and occasionally by chemical plating and electroplating. Clad metals
are found to be suitable for more intensive environments where denser faces are required.
There are many combinations of sheet and foil which function as adhesives at low temperatures. Such
materials, plastics or metals, may be clubbed together with a third constituent. Pre-painted or pre-finished
metal whose primary advantage is elimination of final finishing by the user is the best-known metal-organic
laminate. Several combinations of metal-plastic, vinyl-metal laminates, organic films and metals, account for
up to 95% of metal-plastic laminates known. They are made by adhesive bonding processes.
Particulate Reinforced Composites (PRC)
Microstructures of metal and ceramics composites, which show particles of one phase strewn in the other, are
known as particle reinforced composites. Square, triangular and round shapes of reinforcement are known, but
the dimensions of all their sides are observed to be more or less equal. The size and volume concentration of
the dispersoid distinguishes it from dispersion hardened materials.
The dispersed size in particulate composites is of the order of a few microns and volume concentration is
greater than 28%. The difference between particulate composite and dispersion strengthened ones is, thus,
oblivious. The mechanism used to strengthen each of them is also different. The dispersed in the dispersion-
strengthen materials reinforces the matrix alloy by arresting motion of dislocations and needs large forces to
fracture the restriction created by dispersion.
In particulate composites, the particles strengthen the system by the hydrostatic coercion of fillers in
matrices and by their hardness relative to the matrix.
Classification Based On Matrices
The matrix is the monolithic material into which the reinforcement is embedded and is completely continuous.
This means that there is a path through the matrix to any point in the material, unlike two materials
sandwiched together. In structural applications, the matrix is usually a lighter metal such as aluminum,
magnesium, or titanium, and provides a compliant support for the reinforcement. In high temperature
applications, cobalt and cobalt-nickel alloy matrices are common.
The composite materials are commonly classified based on matrix constituent. The major composite classes
include Organic Matrix Composites (OMCs), Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs) and Ceramic Matrix
Composites (CMCs). The term organic matrix composite is generally assumed to include two classes of
composites, namely Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs) and carbon matrix composites commonly referred to
as carbon-carbon composites.
These three types of matrixes produce three common types of composites.
1. Polymer matrix composites (PMCs), of which GRP is the best-known example, use ceramic fibers in a
plastic matrix.
2. Metal-matrix composites (MMCs) typically use silicon carbide fibers embedded in a matrix made from an
alloy of aluminum and magnesium, but other matrix materials such as titanium, copper, and iron are
increasingly being used. Typical applications of MMCs include bicycles, golf clubs, and missile guidance
systems; an MMC made from silicon-carbide fibers in a titanium matrix is currently being developed for use
as the skin (fuselage material) of the US National Aerospace Plane.
3. Ceramic-matrix composites (CMCs) are the third major type and examples include silicon carbide fibers
fixed in a matrix made from a borosilicate glass. The ceramic matrix makes them particularly suitable for use
in lightweight, high-temperature components, such as parts for airplane jet engines.
3 Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC)
Polymers make ideal materials as they can be processed easily, possess lightweight, and desirable mechanical
properties. It follows, therefore, that high temperature resins are extensively used in aeronautical applications.
Two main kinds of polymers are thermosets and thermoplastics. Thermosets have qualities such as a well-
bonded three-dimensional molecular structure after curing. They decompose instead of melting on hardening.
Merely changing the basic composition of the resin is enough to alter the conditions suitably for curing and
determine its other characteristics. They can be retained in a partially cured condition too over prolonged
periods of time, rendering Thermosets very flexible. Thus, they are most suited as matrix bases for advanced
conditions fiber reinforced composites. Thermosets find wide ranging applications in the chopped fiber
composites form particularly when a premixed or molding compound with fibers of specific quality and aspect
ratio happens to be starting material as in epoxy, polymer and phenolic polyamide resins.
Thermoplastics have one- or two-dimensional molecular structure and they tend to at an elevated temperature
and show exaggerated melting point. Another advantage is that the process of softening at elevated
temperatures can reversed to regain its properties during cooling, facilitating applications of conventional
compress techniques to mold the compounds.
Resins reinforced with thermoplastics now comprised an emerging group of composites. The theme of most
experiments in this area to improve the base properties of the resins and extract the greatest functional
advantages from them in new avenues, including attempts to replace metals in die-casting processes. In
crystalline thermoplastics, the reinforcement affects the morphology to a considerable extent, prompting the
reinforcement to empower nucleation. Whenever crystalline or amorphous, these resins possess the facility
to alter their creep over an extensive range of temperature. But this range includes the point at which the
usage of resins is constrained, and the reinforcement in such systems can increase the failure load as well as
creep resistance. Figure M1.2.4.1 shows kinds of thermoplastics.
A small quantum of shrinkage and the tendency of the shape to retain its original form are also to be
accounted for. But reinforcements can change this condition too. The advantage of thermoplastics systems
over thermosets are that there are no chemical reactions involved, which often result in the release of gases or
heat. Manufacturing is limited by the time required for heating, shaping and cooling the structures.
Thermoplastics resins are sold as molding compounds. Fiber reinforcement is apt for these resins. Since the
fibers are randomly dispersed, the reinforcement will be almost isotropic. However, when subjected to
molding processes, they can be aligned directionally.
There are a few options to increase heat resistance in thermoplastics. Addition of fillers raises the heat
resistance. But all thermoplastic composites tend lose their strength at elevated temperatures. However, their
redeeming qualities like rigidity, toughness and ability to repudiate creep, place thermoplastics in the
important composite materials bracket. They are used in automotive control panels, electronic products
encasement etc.
Thermosets are the most popular of the fiber composite matrices without which, research and development in
structural engineering field could get truncated. Aerospace components, automobile parts, defense systems
etc., use a great deal of this type of fiber composites. Epoxy matrix materials are used in printed circuit
boards and similar areas. Figure M1.2.4.2 shows some kinds of thermosets.
Direct condensation polymerization followed by rearrangement reactions to form heterocyclic entities is the
method generally used to produce thermoset resins. Water, a product of the reaction, in both methods, hinders
production of void-free composites. These voids have a negative effect on properties of the composites in
terms of strength and dielectric properties. Polyesters phenolic and Epoxies are the two important classes of
thermoset resins.
Epoxy resins are widely used in filament-wound composites and are suitable for molding prepress. They are
reasonably stable to chemical attacks and are excellent adherents having slow shrinkage during curing and no
emission of volatile gases. These advantages, however, make the use of epoxies rather expensive. Also, they
cannot be expected beyond a temperature of 140ºC. Their use in high technology areas where service
temperatures are higher, as a result, is ruled out.
Polyester resins on the other hand are quite easily accessible, cheap and find use in a wide range of fields.
Liquid polyesters are stored at room temperature for months, sometimes for years and the mere addition of a
catalyst can cure the matrix material within a short time. They are used in automobile and structural
applications.
The cured polyester is usually rigid or flexible as the case may be and transparent. Polyesters withstand the
variations of environment and stable against chemicals. Depending on the formulation of the resin or service
requirement of application, they can be used up to about 75ºC or higher. Other advantages of polyesters
include easy compatibility with few glass fibers and can be used with verify of reinforced plastic accoutrey.
Aromatic Polyamides are the most sought-after candidates as the matrices of advanced fiber composites for
structural applications demanding long duration exposure for continuous service at around 200-250ºC.
4 Metal Matrix Composites (MMC)
Metal matrix composites, at present though generating a wide interest in research fraternity, are not as widely
in use as their plastic counterparts. High strength, fracture toughness and stiffness are offered by metal
matrices than those offered by their polymer counterparts. They can withstand elevated temperature in
corrosive environment than polymer composites. Most metals and alloys could be used as matrices, and they
require reinforcement materials which need to be stable over a range of temperature and non-reactive too.
However, the guiding aspect for the choice depends essentially on the matrix material. Light metals form the
matrix for temperature application and the reinforcements in addition to the aforementioned reasons are
characterized by high moduli.
Most metals and alloys make good matrices. However, practically, the choices for low temperature
applications are not many. Only light metals are responsive, with their low density proving an advantage.
Titanium, Aluminium and magnesium are the popular matrix metals currently in vogue, which are particularly
useful for aircraft applications. If metallic matrix materials have to offer high strength, they require high
modulus reinforcements. The strength-to-weight ratios of resulting composites can be higher than most alloys.
The melting point, physical and mechanical properties of the composite at various temperatures determine the
service temperature of composites. Most metals, ceramics and compounds can be used with matrices of low
melting point alloys. The choice of reinforcements becomes more stunted with increase in the melting
temperature of matrix materials.
5 Ceramic matrix composites
Ceramics can be described as solid materials which exhibit very strong ionic bonding in general and in few
cases covalent bonding. High melting points, good corrosion resistance, stability at elevated temperatures and
high compressive strength, render ceramic-based matrix materials a favorite for applications requiring a
structural material that doesn’t give way at temperatures above 1500ºC. Naturally, ceramic matrices are the
obvious choice for high temperature applications.
High modulus of elasticity and low tensile strain, which most ceramics possess, have combined to cause the
failure of attempts to add reinforcements to obtain strength improvement. This is because at the stress levels at
which ceramics rupture, there is insufficient elongation of the matrix which keeps composite from transferring
an effective quantum of load to the reinforcement and the composite may fail unless the percentage of fiber
volume is high enough. A material is reinforcement to utilize the higher tensile strength of the fiber, to
produce an increase in load bearing capacity of the matrix. Addition of high-strength fiber to a weaker
ceramic has not always been successful and often the resultant composite has proved to be weaker.
The use of reinforcement with high modulus of elasticity may take care of the problem to some extent and
presents pre-stressing of the fiber in the ceramic matrix is being increasingly resorted to as an option.
When ceramics have a higher thermal expansion coefficient than reinforcement materials, the resultant
composite is unlikely to have a superior level of strength. In that case, the composite will develop strength
within ceramic at the time of cooling resulting in micro cracks extending from fiber to fiber within the matrix.
Micro cracking can result in a composite with tensile strength lower than that of the matrix.

Properties of CMCs
I. High strength-to-weight ratio
2. Wear resistance
3. Corrosion resistance
4. Greater Fatigue life
5. Low Electrical conductivity
6. Anisotropic
7. Lower Cost
8. Easy Processing
9. The matrix is relatively hard and brittle
10. The reinforcement must have high tensile strength to arrest crack growth
11 The reinforcement must be free to pull out as a crack extends, so the reinforcement-matrix bond must be
relatively weak
Advantages of CMC's
1. Excellent wear and corrosion resistance in a wide range of environments and temperature
2. Higher strength to weight ratio
3. Higher strength retention at elevated temperature
4. Higher chemical stability
5. Non-catastrophic failure
6. High hardness
7. Lightweight
Disadvantages of CMC's
1. Processing routes for CMCs involve high temperatures — can only be employed with high
temperature reinforcements.
2. CMCs are designed to improve toughness of monolithic ceramics, the main disadvantage of which is
brittleness.
3. High processing temperature results in complexity in manufacturing and hence expensive processing.
4. Difference in the coefficients of thermal expansion between the matrix and the reinforcement lead to
thermal stresses on cooling from the processing temperatures.
Role and Selection of fibers
The points to be noted in selecting the reinforcements include compatibility with matrix material, thermal
stability, density, melting temperature etc. The efficiency of discontinuously reinforced composites is
dependent on tensile strength and density of reinforcing phases. The compatibility, density, chemical and
thermal stability of the reinforcement with matrix material is important for material fabrication as well as end
application. The thermal discord strain between the matrix and reinforcement is an important parameter for
composites used in thermal cycling application. It is a function of difference between the coefficients of
thermal expansion of the matrix and reinforcement. The manufacturing process selected, and the
reinforcement affects the crystal structure.
Also, the role of the reinforcement depends upon its type in structural Composites. In particulate and whisker
reinforced Composites, the matrix are the major load bearing constituent. The role of the reinforcement is to
strengthen and stiffen the composite through prevention of matrix deformation by mechanical restraint. This
restraint is generally a function of the ratio of inter-particle spacing to particle diameter. In continuous fiber
reinforced Composites, the reinforcement is the principal load-bearing constituent. The metallic matrix serves
to hold the reinforcing fibers together and transfer as well as distribute the load. Discontinuous fiber
reinforced Composites display characteristics between those of continuous fiber and particulate reinforced
composites. Typically, the addition of reinforcement increases the strength, stiffness and temperature
capability while reducing the thermal expansion coefficient of the resulting MMC. When combined with a
metallic matrix of higher density, the reinforcement also serves to reduce the density of the composite, thus
enhancing properties such as specific strength.
Matrix Materials
Although it is undoubtedly true that the high strength of composites is largely due to the fibre reinforcement,
the importance of matrix material cannot be underestimated as it provides support for the fibres and assists the
fibres in carrying the loads. It also provides stability to the composite material. Resin matrix system acts as a
binding agent in a structural component in which the fibres are embedded. When too much resin is used, the
part is classified as resin rich. On the other hand, if there is too little resin, the part is called resin starved. A
resin rich part is more susceptible to cracking due to lack of fibre support, whereas a resin starved part is
weaker because of void areas and the fact that fibres are not held together, and they are not well supported.
Matrix Selection
Thermodynamically stable dispersoids are essential for the use of metal matrix composites for high
temperature applications. This can be done by using an alloy dispersoid system in which solid state
diffusivity, interfacial energies and elemental solubility are minimized, in turn reducing coarsening and
interfacial reactions. Aluminium and magnesium alloys are regarded as widely used matrices due to low
density and high thermal conductivity. Composites with low matrix alloying additions result in attractive
combinations of ductility, toughness and strength. In discontinuous reinforced metal matrix composites minor
alloying elements, used in wrought alloys as grain refiners, are not required. These additions should be
avoided since coarse inter-metallic compounds get formed during consolidation, thus, reducing the tensile
ductility of the composite.
Role of matrix materials
The choice of a matrix alloy for an MMC is dictated by several considerations. Of particular importance is
whether the composite is to be continuously or discontinuously reinforced. The use of continuous fibers as
reinforcements may result in transfer of most of the load to the reinforcing filaments and hence composite
strength will be governed primarily by the fiber strength. The primary roles of the matrix alloy then are to
provide efficient transfer of load to the fibers and to blunt cracks in the event that fiber failure occurs and so
the matrix alloy for continuously reinforced composites may be chosen more for toughness than for strength.
On this basis, lower strength, more ductile, and tougher matrix alloys may be utilized in continuously
reinforced composites. For discontinuously reinforced composites, the matrix may govern composite strength.
Then, the choice of matrix will be influenced by consideration of the required composite strength and higher
strength matrix alloys may be required.
What are the functions of a reinforcing agent?
The functions of a reinforcing agent are:
1. These are the main load carrying constituents.
2. The reinforcing materials, in general, have significantly higher desired properties. Hence, they
contribute the desired properties to the composite.
3. It transfers the strength and stiffness to the matrix material.
Functions of a Matrix
In a composite material, the matrix material serves the following functions:
• Holds the fibres together.
• Protects the fibres from environment.
• Distributes the loads evenly between fibres so that all fibres are subjected to the same amount of strain.
• Enhances transverse properties of a laminate.
• Improves impact and fracture resistance of a component.
• Helps to avoid propagation of crack growth through the fibres by providing alternate failure path along
the interface between the fibres and the matrix.
• Carry interlaminar shear.
The matrix plays a minor role in the tensile load-carrying capacity of a composite structure. However,
selection of a matrix has a major influence on the interlaminar shear as well as in-plane shear properties of the
composite material. The interlaminar shear strength is an important design consideration for structures under
bending loads, whereas the in-plane shear strength is important under torsion loads.
Desired Properties of a Matrix
The needs or desired properties of the matrix which are important for a composite structure are as follows:
• Reduced moisture absorption.
• Low shrinkage.
• Low coefficient of thermal expansion.
• Good flow characteristics so that it penetrates the fibre bundles completely and eliminates voids during
the compacting/curing process.
• Reasonable strength, modulus and elongation (elongation should be greater than fibre).
• Must be elastic to transfer load to fibres.
• Strength at elevated temperature (depending on application).
• Low temperature capability (depending on application).
• Excellent chemical resistance (depending on application).
• Should be easily processable into the final composite shape.
• Dimensional stability (maintains its shape).
Some of the physical properties of the matrix which influence the behavior of composites are:
• Shrinkage during cure,
• Modulus of elasticity,
• Ultimate elongation,
• Strength (tensile, compressive and shear), and
• Fracture toughness.
Factors considered for Selection of Matrix
In selecting matrix material, following factors may be taken into consideration:
• The matrix must have a mechanical strength commensurate with that of the reinforcement i.e., both should
be compatible. Thus, if a high strength fibre is used as the reinforcement, there is no point using a low strength
matrix, which will not transmit stresses efficiently to the reinforcement.
• The matrix must stand up to the service conditions, viz., temperature, humidity, exposure to ultra-violet
environment, exposure to chemical atmosphere, abrasion by dust particles, etc.
• The matrix must be easy to use in the selected fabrication process.
• Smoke requirements.
• Life expectancy.
• The resultant composite should be cost effective.
The fibres are saturated with a liquid resin before it cures to a solid. The solid resin is then said to be the
matrix for the fibres.
6 Carbon–carbon composites
Carbon fibre reinforced carbon [n 1] (CFRC), carbon–carbon (C/C), or reinforced carbon–carbon (RCC) is a
composite material consisting of carbon fiber reinforcement in a matrix of graphite. It was developed for the
nose cones of intercontinental ballistic missiles and is most widely known as the material for the nose cone
and wing leading edges of the Space Shuttle orbiter. Carbon-carbon brake disc and brake pad have been the
standard component of the brake systems of Formula One racing cars since 1976.
Carbon–carbon is well-suited to structural applications at high temperatures, or where thermal shock
resistance and/or a low coefficient of thermal expansion is needed. While it is less brittle than many other
ceramics, it lacks impact resistance; Space Shuttle Columbia was destroyed during atmospheric re-entry after
one of its RCC panels was broken by the impact of a piece of foam insulation from the Space Shuttle External
Tank.
The strength of carbon–carbon with unidirectional reinforcement fibres is up to 700 MPa. Carbon–carbon
materials retain their properties above 2000 °C. This temperature may be exceeded with the help of protective
coatings to prevent oxidation.[6] The material has a density between 1.6–1.98 g/cm3.

6.1.1 Advantages of Carbon–carbon composites

1）High intensity (five times stronger than steel).

2）High temperature resistance (still maintain excellent mechanical and electrical properties at 2000 ℃).
3) Thermal shock resistance.
4) Low thermal expansion coefficient.
5) Small heat capacity.
6) Low density (1.7).
 7) Excellent corrosion resistance and radiation performance.

6.1.2 Disadvantages of carbon fiber

Carbon fiber is a very nice material to work with and has several advantages but like any other product is also
has some disadvantages. The first disadvantage of using carbon fiber is that you need a mold if you want to
make a decent product, making a mold is not always easy and you often need the help of some specialist.
Another disadvantage is the price of carbon fiber, it is very expensive. The material is very light and strong,
but you have to pay a big amount of money to be able to use it in your products.
Once a carbon structure is dint or cracked you cannot fix it like you can fix a steel structure. Once the
structure is damaged the fibres are broken and the structure is probably not strong enough anymore. In most of
the cases the structure had to be removed and thrown away and be replaced by a new one.
Carbon fiber is not easy recyclable yet, like you can recycle steel and other materials. So, when you have to
replace a piece of carbon fiber you have a lot of waste. There is already done a lot of research into this topic
but until now there is no easy way of recycling carbon fiber.
6.1.3 Applications of Carbon–carbon composites

It can be mainly used in industries such as aerospace、autoindustry、chemical, textile and machinery

manufacturing and medical field etc.
7 Fiber reinforced composites
A fiber-reinforced composite (FRC) is a composite building material that consists of three components: (i) the
fibers as the discontinuous or dispersed phase, (ii) the matrix as the continuous phase, and (iii) the fine
interphase region, also known as the interface. This is a type of advanced composite group, which makes use
of rice husk, rice hull, and plastic as ingredients. This technology involves a method of refining, blending, and
compounding natural fibers from cellulosic waste streams to form a high-strength fiber composite material in
a polymer matrix. The designated waste or base raw materials used in this instance are those of waste
thermoplastics and various categories of cellulosic waste including rice husk and saw dust.
FRC is high-performance fiber composite achieved and made possible by cross-linking cellulosic fiber
molecules with resins in the FRC material matrix through a proprietary molecular re-engineering process,
yielding a product of exceptional structural properties.
Through this feat of molecular re-engineering selected physical and structural properties of wood are
successfully cloned and vested in the FRC product, in addition to other critical attributes to yield performance
properties superior to contemporary wood.
This material, unlike other composites, can be recycled up to 20 times, allowing scrap FRC to be reused again
and again.
The failure mechanisms in FRC materials include delamination, intralaminar matrix cracking, longitudinal
matrix splitting, fiber/matrix debonding, fiber pull-out, and fiber fracture.
Advantages of FRP
1. Increase in toughness. this means more energy absorption ability making it suitable for airport
pavements, blast resistant structures etc.
2. Increase in shear capacity when used in beams.
 3. Modest increase in flexural strength
4. It is good for specialized applications. For example, in preparing shrinkage reducing concrete
mixtures that resist cracking.
5. Disadvantages are higher cost, difficulty in finishing and working with it. Difficulty in repairs. This is
a very well researched material and when used properly very helpful in specialized uses. All the best
in your quest for knowledge.
Applications of Fiber Reinforced Polymers
Automotive
The automotive industry has adopted composites slowly due to their higher costs. Particulate reinforced
plastics have been used for some time, but fiber reinforced composites have only really been used in high end
sports cars but are starting to make their way into traditional vehicles. Race cars have used carbon fiber
materials for many years.
Aerospace
Carbon fiber composites are now quite common in commercial and military aviation. The Boeing 787 and
Airbus A350 XWB have roughly 50% of their structure from composite materials. Carbon fiber materials are
also common in helicopter systems, rocket motors, satellite systems, and turbine engines.
Marine
Fiberglass has been the common material for recreational boats and yachts for many years. These are not
traditional laminated composites, rather the glass fibers are oriented randomly giving the structure more
uniform material properties. Being fairly cheap, glass fiber can be used in large structures, whereas carbon
fiber would be too expensive.
Sporting Goods
Golf clubs and tennis rackets have used carbon fiber for many years as it provides light weight and high
stiffness.
8 Nature-made composites
Natural composites exist in both animals and plants. Wood is a composite – it is made from long cellulose
fibres (a polymer) held together by a much weaker substance called lignin. Cellulose is also found in cotton,
but without the lignin to bind it together it is much weaker. The two weak substances – lignin and cellulose –
together form a much stronger one.
The bone in your body is also a composite. It is made from a hard but brittle material called hydroxyapatite
(which is mainly calcium phosphate) and a soft and flexible material called collagen (which is a protein).
Collagen is also found in hair and fingernails. On its own it would not be much use in the skeleton, but it can
combine with hydroxyapatite to give bone the properties that are needed to support the body.
9 Applications of Composites
There are many reasons for the growth in composite applications, but the primary impetus is that the products
fabricated by composites are stronger and lighter. Today, it is difficult to find any industry that does not utilize
the benefits of composite materials. The largest user of composite materials today is the transportation
industry, having consumed 1.3 billion pounds of composites in 2000. Composite materials have become the
materials of choice for several industries.
In the past three to four decades, there have been substantial changes in technology and its requirement. This
changing environment created many new needs and opportunities, which are only possible with the advances
in new materials and their associated manufacturing technology. In the past decade, several advanced
manufacturing technology and material systems have been developed to meet the requirements of the various
market segments. Several industries have capitalized on the benefits of composite materials. The vast
expansion of composite usage can be attributed to the decrease in the cost of fibers, as well as the
development of automation techniques and high-volume production methods.
This decrease in cost was due to the development of low-cost production methods and increased industrial
use.
Broadly speaking, the composites market can be divided into the following
Industry categories: aerospace, automotive, construction, marine, corrosion resistant equipment, consumer
products, appliance/business equipment, and others. U.S. composite shipments
1.8.1 The Aerospace Industry
The aerospace industry was among the first to realize the benefits of composite materials. Airplanes, rockets,
and missiles all fly higher, faster, and farther with the help of composites. Glass, carbon, and Kevlar fiber
composites have been routinely designed and manufactured for aerospace parts.
The aerospace industry primarily uses carbon fiber composites because of their high-performance
characteristics. The hand lay-up technique is a common manufacturing method for the fabrication of
aerospace parts; RTM and filament winding are also being used.
Composite Components
TABLE 1.3Composite Components in Aircraft Applications
F-14 Doors, horizontal tails, fairings, stabilizer skins
Fins, rudders, vertical tails, horizontal tails, speed brakes, stabilizer
F-15
skins
Vertical and horizontal tails, fin leading edge, skins on vertical fin
F-16
box
B-1 Doors, vertical and horizontal tails, flaps, slats, inlets
Doors, rudders, vertical and horizontal tails, ailerons, flaps, fin box,
AV-8B
fairings
Boeing 737 Spoilers, horizontal stabilizers, wings
Boeing 757 Doors, rudders, elevators, ailerons, spoilers, flaps, fairings
Boeing 767 Doors, rudders, elevators, ailerons, spoilers, fairings
Typical composite structures used in military aircraft. (Courtesy of Composites Horizon, Inc.)

Composite components used in engine applications. (Courtesy of Composites Horizon, Inc.)

Passenger aircrafts such as the Boeing 747 and 767 use composite parts to lower the weight, increase the
payload, and increase the fuel efficiency. The components made out of composites for such aircrafts are
shown in Table 1.3.
1.8.2 The Automotive Industry
Composite materials have been considered the “material of choice” in some applications of the automotive
industry by delivering high-quality surface finish, styling details, and processing options. Manufacturers are
able to meet automotive requirements of cost, appearance, and performance utilizing composites. Today,
composite body panels have a successful track record in all categories — from exotic sports cars to passenger
cars to small, medium, and heavy truck applications. In 2000, the automotive industry used 318 million
pounds of composites.
1.8.6 Construction and Civil Structures
The construction and civil structure industries are the second major users of composite materials. Construction
engineering experts and engineers agree that the U.S. infrastructure is in bad shape, particularly the highway
bridges. Some 42% of this nation’s bridges need repair and are considered obsolete, according to Federal
Highway Administration officials. The federal government has budgeted approximately $78 billion over the
next 20 years for major infrastructure rehabilitation. The driving force for the use of glass- and carbon-
reinforced plastics for bridge applications is reduced installation, handling, repair, and life-cycle costs as well
as improved corrosion and durability. It also saves a significant amount of time for repair and installation and
thus minimizes the blockage of traffic. Composite usage in earthquake and seismic retrofit activities is also
booming. The columns wrapped by glass/epoxy, carbon/epoxy, and aramid/epoxy show good potential for
these applications.
1.8.7 Industrial Applications
The use of composite materials in various industrial applications is growing. Composites are being used in
making industrial rollers and shafts for the printing industry and industrial drive shafts for cooling-tower
applications. Filament winding shows good potential for the above applications. Injection molded, short fiber
composites are used in bushings, pump and roller bearings, and pistons. Composites are also used for making
robot arms and provide improved stiffness, damping, and response time.
What are the applications of the composite materials?

The applications of the composites are given in the following as per the area of application.

Aerospace:

Aircraft, spacecraft, satellites, space telescopes, space shuttle, space station, missiles, boosters rockets,
helicopters (due to high specific strength and stiffness) fatigue life, dimensional stability. All composite
voyager aircraft flew nonstop around the world with refueling.
Carbon/carbon composite is used on the leading edges nose cone of the shuttle.
B2 bomber - both fiber glass and graphite fibers are used with epoxy matrix and polyimide matrix.
The indigenous Light Combat Aircraft (LCA - Tejas) has Kevlar composite in nose cone, Glass composites in
tail fin and carbon composites form almost all part of the fuselage and wings, except the control surfaces of
the wing.
Further, the indigenous Light Combat Helicopter (LCH – Dhruvh) has carbon composites for its main rotor
blades. The other composites are used in tail rotor, vertical fin, stabilizer, cowling, radome, doors, cockpit,
side shells, etc.
Missile:

Rocket motor cases Nozzles

Igniter
Inter stage structure Equipment section Aerodynamic fairings
Launch Vehicle:

Rocket motor case Interstage structure

Payload fairings and dispensers High temperature Nozzle
Nose cone Control surfaces
Composite Railway Carrier:

Composite railway auto carrier Bodies of Railway Bogeys Seats

Driver’s Cabin
Stabilization of Ballasted Rail Tracks Doors
Sleepers for Railway Girder Bridges
7/25/2019 Objectives_template
Gear Case Pantographs
Sports Equipments

Tennis rockets, golf clubs, base-ball bats, helmets, skis, hockey sticks, fishing rods, boat hulls, wind surfing
boards, water skis, sails, canoes and racing shells, paddles, yachting rope, speed boat, scuba diving tanks, race
cars reduced weight, maintenance, corrosion resistance.
Automotive

Lower weight and greater durability, corrosion resistance, fatigue life, wear and impact resistance.
Drive shafts, fan blades and shrouds, springs, bumpers, interior panels, tires, brake shoes, clutch plates,
gaskets, hoses, belts and engine parts.
Carbon and glass fiber composites pultruted over on aluminum cylinder to create drive shaft. Fuel saving –
braking energy can be stored in to a carbon fiber super flywheels.
Other applications include: mirror housings, radiator end caps, air filter housing, accelerating pedals, rear
view mirrors, head-lamp housings, and intake manifolds, fuel tanks.
Infrastructure Structures:

Corrosion is a major design consideration such as in the chemical and on off- shore oil plate forms
Skeletal Structures Walls and Panels
Doors, Windows, Ladders, Staircases Chemical and Water Tanks
Cooling Towers Bridge Decks Antenna Dishes Bridge enclosures Aerodynamic fairings

Industrial:

Drive, conveyer belts, hoses,

tear and puncture resistant fabrics, rotor vanes,
mandrels, ropes, cables.

Medical:

Wheelchairs, Crutches, Hip joints, Heat valves, Dentistry,

Surgical equipments

Electronic:
Chips in electronic computing devices are laminated hybrid systems composed of a number of layers
(materials) which serve different functions.
Chip must have good heat transfer properties and must be able to withstand induced thermal stresses without
delaminating.
The composite finds a vast usage in electronic packaging materials. The Styrofoam, particle bonded materials
formed from paper pulp, air-bubble cushioned plastic sheets, etc. are some of the popular materials used in the
packing.

Military:

Helmets,
bullet proof vests,
impact resistant vehicles,
lighter and less detectable ships, portable bridges.

Marine:

The Glass reinforced fibre plastics are used in:

Ship and Boat Hulls Masts

Instrument Panels Hydrofoils Hovercrafts Propellers Propulsion shafts Rudders
Heat exchangers Flywheel
Piping Ventilation ducts
Engine and equipment foundations

Wind Power Engineering:

Rotor blades including blade shell, integral webs, spars or box structure. Mast
Generator housing
REINFORCEMENTS:
Fibres- glass
Glass Fiber is one of the most common fibers in the composites industry. The main reason for its use
is the relatively low costs involved as glass fiber is significantly cheaper than carbon fiber, for
example. This makes glass fiber attractive for the production of large composite structures like boats,
wind turbines and so on. Additionally, glass fiber is available in various grades. The E grade is the
most common one, but also R and S are available. Both R and S grades have better mechanical
properties but are more expensive compared to the E grade.
Advantages & Disadvantages
The material is fairly cheap, which can be very beneficial for large structures. Another benefit is the
good chemical resistance to acids and solvents. Furthermore, glass fiber is electrically insulating, has
a higher elongation at break compared to, for example, carbon fiber and has a high temperature
resistance. Combining the properties of glass fiber, i.e. low moisture absorption, high strength, heat
resistance and low dielectric constant makes the material ideal for various markets. The material is
moisture resistant and has a high strength to weight ratio. Glass fiber can be processed in various
ways and in combination with many resin systems: it is easy to trim after curing and processes such
as wet layup and resin infusion are as well available and do not require high investments.
However, glass fiber also has some minor disadvantages: the material is not as strong as other
materials or as stiff as many other materials such as carbon fiber.
How are glass fibers made?
🠶 Raw material: sand, limestone, alumina
🠶 Raw materials are melted in a hopper and the molten glass is fed into the electrically heated
platinum crucibles; each crucible contains about 200 holes at its base.
🠶 The molten glass is flows by gravity through the holes, forming fine continuous filaments; these
are gathered together into a strand and a size is applied before it is a wound on a drum.
🠶 The final diameter is a function of crucible orifice
Glass Fiber Future Outlook
Due to economic reasons, the material will remain the main choice in many sectors due to the
significant price advantage in relation to higher performing fibers. The low stiffness issue can be
easily overcome by designing sandwich structures where a lightweight core can be sandwiched
between two glass skins and thereby making the end result stiffer. This kind of construction is
already used in numerous market sectors. A typical example for the sandwich construction with glass
fiber is the hull of many large boats.
Glass Fiber In Summary
Summarizing, glass fiber is a common fiber which is used in many businesses based on its
properties:
• Cost (relatively cheap)
• Lightweight
• Moisture resistance
• Chemical resistance
• Thermal conductivity
• Electrical properties
• High strength
Silica
Silica fibers are fibers made of sodium silicate (water glass). They are used in heat protection
(including asbestos substitution) and in packings and compensators. They can be made such that they
are substantially free from non-alkali metal compounds.
Sodium silicate fibers may be used for subsequent production of silica fibers, which is better than
producing the latter from a melt containing SiO2 or by acid-leaching of glass fibers. The silica fibers
are useful for producing wet webs, filter linings and reinforcing material.
They can also be used to produce silicic acid fibers by a dry spinning method. These fibers have
properties which make them useful in friction-lining materials.
• Silica has a wide wavelength range with good optical transparency. In the near-infrared
spectral region, particularly around 1.5 μm wavelength, silica can have extremely low absorption and
scattering losses of the order of 0.2 dB/km (see Figure 1), when the fiber preform is fabricated in
very pure form with certain methods (→ fiber fabrication). Whereas a high transparency in the 1.4-
μm region is achieved by keeping the concentration of hydroxyl groups (OH) low, a high OH
concentration is better for good transparency in the ultraviolet region. For wavelength from ≈1.8 μm
on, the multiphoton absorption leads to steeply rising absorption (infrared absorption edge).
• Silica can be drawn into fibers at reasonably high temperatures and has a conveniently broad
glass transition (a relatively shallow viscosity curve).
• Cleaving and fusion splicing of silica fibers works fairly well.
• A silica fiber has an amazingly high mechanical strength against pulling and even bending,
provided that the fiber is not too thick and that the surfaces are well prepared. The mechanical
strength of a fiber can be further improved with a suitable polymer jacket. Even simple cleaving
(breaking) of silica fiber ends can provide nicely flat surfaces with sufficient optical quality.
• Silica is chemically very stable. In particular, it is not hygroscopic.
• Silica glass can be doped with various materials. One purpose of doping can be to raise the
refractive index (e.g. with GeO2 or Al2O3) or to lower it (e.g. with fluorine or B2O3). Doping is
also possible with laser-active ions (→ rare-earth-doped fibers) in order to obtain active fibers, to be
used e.g. in fiber amplifiers or fiber lasers. The fiber core and sometimes the fiber cladding are
doped, so that the material is effectively e.g., an aluminosilicate, germanosilicate, phosphosilicate or
borosilicate glass. Particularly for active fibers, pure silica is usually not a very suitable host glass,
because it exhibits a low solubility for rare earth ions. This leads to quenching effects due to
clustering of dopant ions, even for moderate doping concentrations. Aluminosilicates are much better
in this respect.
• Silica has a high damage threshold, i.e., a low tendency for phenomena such as laser-induced
breakdown. This is important for, e.g., fiber amplifiers when applied for the amplification of short
pulses.
• Silica has a particularly low Kerr nonlinearity, which is beneficial in many cases where
nonlinear effects can be detrimental. Nevertheless, silica can be quite suitable for exploiting the Kerr
effect since the ratio of χ(3) and the absorption coefficient is rather large (particularly for
wavelengths around 1.5 μm) due to the very weak absorption: the weak nonlinearity can be used over
a long length.
Kevlar
Kevlar is a heat-resistant and strong synthetic fiber, related to other aramids such as Nomex and
Technora. Developed by Stephanie Kwolek at DuPont in 1965, this high-strength material was first
commercially used in the early 1970s as a replacement for steel in racing tires. Typically, it is spun
into ropes or fabric sheets that can be used as such or as an ingredient in composite material
components.
Kevlar has many applications, ranging from bicycle tires and racing sails to bulletproof vests,
because of its high tensile strength-to-weight ratio; by this measure it is five times stronger than
steel. It is also used to make modern marching drumheads that withstand high impact. When used as
a woven material, it is suitable for mooring lines and other underwater applications.
A similar fiber called Twaron with the same chemical structure was developed by Akzo in the 1970s;
commercial production started in 1986, and Twaron is now manufactured by Teijin.
Special features
high resistance to Abrasion
high resistance to organic solvents
Non – conductive
No melting point (Start degrading at 500 °C)
low flammability
Applications:
Bullet Proof jackets
Ballistic protection

Several grades of Kevlar are available:

Kevlar K-29 – in industrial applications, such as cables, asbestos replacement, brake linings, and
body/vehicle armor.
Kevlar K49 – high modulus used in cable and rope products.
Kevlar K100 – colored version of Kevlar
Kevlar K119 – higher-elongation, flexible and more fatigue resistant
Kevlar K129 – higher tenacity for ballistic applications
Kevlar AP – 15% higher tensile strength than K-29
Kevlar XP – lighter weight resin and KM2 plus fiber combination
Kevlar KM2 – enhanced ballistic resistance for armor applications
The ultraviolet component of sunlight degrades and decomposes Kevlar, a problem known as UV
degradation, and so it is rarely used outdoors without protection against sunlight.
Structure and properties
Molecular structure of Kevlar: bold represents a monomer unit, dashed lines indicate hydrogen
bonds.
When Kevlar is spun, the resulting fiber has a tensile strength of about 3,620 MPa,[14] and a relative
density of 1.44. The polymer owes its high strength
Thermal properties
Kevlar maintains its strength and resilience down to cryogenic temperatures (−196 °C); in fact, it is
slightly stronger at low temperatures. At higher temperatures the tensile strength is immediately
reduced by about 10–20%, and after some hours the strength progressively reduces further. For
example: enduring 160 °C (320 °F) for 500 hours, reduces strength by about 10%; and enduring 260
°C (500 °F) for 70 hours, reduces strength by about 50%.
Applications
Protection
Cryogenics
Kevlar is often used in the field of cryogenics for its low thermal conductivity and high strength
relative to other materials for suspension purposes. It is most often used to suspend a paramagnetic
salt enclosure from a superconducting magnet mandrel in order to minimize any heat leaks to the
paramagnetic material. It is also used as a thermal standoff or structural support where low heat leaks
are desired.
Armor
Pieces of a Kevlar helmet used to help absorb the blast of a grenade
Kevlar is a well-known component of personal armor such as combat helmets, ballistic face masks,
and ballistic vests. The PASGT helmet and vest used by United States military forces, use Kevlar as
a key component in their construction. Other military uses include bulletproof face masks and spall
liners used to protect the crews of armoured fighting vehicles. Nimitz-class aircraft carriers use
Kevlar reinforcement in vital areas. Civilian applications include: high heat resistance uniforms worn
by firefighters, body armour worn by police officers, security, and police tactical teams such as
SWAT.
Personal protection
Kevlar is used to manufacture gloves, sleeves, jackets, chaps and other articles of clothing designed
to protect users from cuts, abrasions and heat. Kevlar-based protective gear is often considerably
lighter and thinner than equivalent gear made of more traditional materials.
Sports
Kevlar is a very popular material for racing canoes.
Personal protection
It is used for motorcycle safety clothing, especially in the areas featuring padding such as shoulders
and elbows. In fencing it is used in the protective jackets, breeches, plastrons and the bib of the
masks. It is increasingly being used in the peto, the padded covering which protects the picadors'
horses in the bullring. Speed skaters also frequently wear an under-layer of Kevlar fabric to prevent
potential wounds from skates in the event of a fall or collision.
Equipment
In kyudo, or Japanese archery, it may be used as an alternative to more expensive hemp for bow
strings. It is one of the main materials used for paraglider suspension lines.[20] It is used as an inner
lining for some bicycle tires to prevent punctures. In table tennis, plies of Kevlar are added to custom
ply blades, or paddles, in order to increase bounce and reduce weight. Tennis racquets are sometimes
strung with Kevlar. It is used in sails for high performance racing boats.
Shoes
In 2013, with advancements in technology, Nike used Kevlar in shoes for the first time. It launched
the Elite II Series,[21] with enhancements to its earlier version of basketball shoesby using Kevlar in
the anterior as well as the shoe laces. This was done to decrease the elasticity of the tip of the shoe in
contrast to nylon used conventionally as Kevlar expanded by about 1% against nylon which
expanded by about 30%. Shoes in this range included LeBron, HyperDunk and Zoom Kobe VII.
However these shoes were launched at a price range much higher than average cost of basketball
shoes. It was also used in the laces for the Adidas F50 adiZero Prime football boot.
Cycle tires
Several companies, including Continental AG, manufacture cycle tires with Kevlar to protect against
punctures.
Folding-bead bicycle tires, introduced to cycling by Tom Ritchey in 1984, use Kevlar as a bead in
place of steel for weight reduction and strength. A side effect of the folding bead is a reduction in
shelf and floor space needed to display cycle tires in a retail environment, as they are folded and
placed in small boxes.

Automobiles
Chassis and bodywork
Kevlar is sometimes used in structural components of cars, especially high-value performance cars
such as the Ferrari F
Brakes
The chopped fiber has been used as a replacement for asbestos in brake pads. Dust produced from
asbestos brakes is toxic, while aramids are a benign substitute.
Frying pans
Kevlar is sometimes used as a substitute for Teflon in some non-stick frying pans.[33]
Rope, cable, sheath
The fiber is used in woven rope and in cable, where the fibers are kept parallel within a polyethylene
sleeve. The cables have been used in suspension bridges such as the bridge at Aberfeldy in Scotland.
They have also been used to stabilize cracking concrete cooling towers by circumferential
application followed by tensioning to close the cracks. Kevlar is widely used as a protective outer
sheath for optical fiber cable, as its strength protects the cable from damage and kinking. When used
in this application it is commonly known by the trademarked name Parafil.[citation needed]
Electricity generation
Kevlar was used by scientists at Georgia Institute of Technology as a base textile for an experiment
in electricity-producing clothing. This was done by weaving zinc oxide nanowires into the fabric. If
successful, the new fabric will generate about 80 milliwatts per square meter.[34]
Building construction
A retractable roof of over 60,000 square feet (5,575 square metres) of Kevlar was a key part of the
design of Montreal's Olympic stadium for the 1976 Summer Olympics. It was spectacularly
unsuccessful, as it was completed 10 years late and replaced just 10 years later in May 1998 after a
series of problems.[35][36]
Expansion joints and hoses
Kevlar can be found as a reinforcing layer in rubber bellows expansion joints and rubber hoses, for
use in high temperature applications, and for its high strength. It is also found as a braid layer used
on the outside of hose assemblies, to add protection against sharp objects.[37][38][39]
Smartphones
The Motorola RAZR Family, the Motorola Droid Maxx, and the OnePlus 2 have a Kevlar backplate,
chosen over other materials such as carbon fiber due to its resilience and lack of interference with
signal transmission.[40]
Marine current turbines and wind turbines
The Kevlar fiber/epoxy matrix composite materials can be used in marine current turbines (MCT) or
wind turbines due to their high specific strength and light weight compared to other fibers.[41]
Composite materials
Aramid fibers are widely used for reinforcing composite materials, often in combination with carbon
fiber and glass fiber. The matrix for high performance composites is usually epoxy resin. Typical
applications include monocoque bodies for F1 racing cars, helicopter rotor blades, tennis, table
tennis, badminton and squash rackets, kayaks, cricket bats, and field hockey, ice hockey and lacrosse
sticks.
Kevlar is an alternative in certain parts of light aircraft construction. The wing leading edge is one
application, Kevlar being less prone than carbon or glass fiber to break in bird collision.
- Various forms of composite materials - Ropes and cables
- Sail cloth - Optical fiber cable systems
- Snowboards - Jet engine enclosures
- Protective gloves, helmets, body armor - Tennis strings and hokey sticks
- Filament wound pressure vessels - Wind instrument reeds
- Flame and cut resistant clothing - Reinforcement for tyres and rubber goods
- Asbestos replacement - Circuit board reinforcement
CARBON FIBER
Carbon fiber is a material consisting of fibers about 5–10 μm in diameter and composed mostly
of carbon atoms. The carbon atoms are bonded together in crystals that are aligned parallel to the
long axis of the fiber. The crystal alignment gives the fiber high strength-to-volume ratio (makes it
strong for its size). Several thousand carbon fibers are bundled together which can then be woven
into a fabric.
Advantages & Disadvantages
The advantages of carbon fiber materials are significant. First of all, carbon fibers are very light
fibers resulting in lightweight structures. Furthermore, one can chose between stiff or strong fibers
depending on the composite part being produced and the type of carbon fiber material required. The
exceptional impact properties make carbon fiber advantageous in various industry segments. During
an impact carbon fiber disintegrates (metal instead would simply deform) which can make it is a very
efficient energy dissipation mechanism. Although carbon fiber is fairly expensive compared to other
more common fibers like fiberglass, the price is steadily decreasing due to the progress of production
technology. Another major advantage is its thermal expansion is basically zero – this means that a
metal for instance is expanding when heated, carbon fiber remains in its basic form. For specific
projects where thermal stability is required carbon fiber can be a tremendous benefit. Moreover, the
material can resist very high temperatures (1000 Celsius). Carbon fiber composite structures do not
suffer any fatigue issues if designed and dimensioned properly. Finally, carbon fiber is permeable to
X-ray and does not corrode, which is a huge issue with metals.
The material also has disadvantages that need to be taken into consideration when planning a project.
For instance, carbon fiber is fairly expensive compared to other materials. Moreover, carbon fiber is
an electric conductor and as such can reflect radio waves which can be a disadvantage in some cases.
also, when the material brakes, the parts disintegrate which can cause some unpredictable results. For
example, in Formula One racing, debris from an impact can fly in multiple directions which could
have safety implications for the driver. Finally, the manufacturing process for composite components
can be more labor intensive than metallic parts.
Carbon Fiber Future Outlook

The manufacturing processes for fiber reinforced composites are improving steadily;
however,it is still far away from the volume production achievable with metals or plastic. This holds
true not only for carbon fibers but also for other kinds of fibers. The amount of carbon fiber used in
various markets will simultaneously grow with the development of automated manufacturing
techniques. A common view is that carbon fiber is a very stiff and brittle material that breaks when a
certain load is reached. Even though this might be true to a certain extent, carbon fiber should be
known as carbon component structures that can be designed to work in an elastic and flexible way. In
order to make the best use of the material and take advantage of its inherent properties, expertise in
designing and manufacturing with carbon fiber is vital.
Carbon Fiber In Summary
Summarizing, carbon fiber is one of the most used fibers in many businesses simply because one of
the lightest and strongest fiber available:
• High stiffness to weight ratio
• High strength
• Corrosion resistant
• Fatigue resistant
• Energy Absorption on Impact
• Tailored material properties
Boron
Boron is an inherently brittle material. It is commercially made by chemical vapour deposition
(CVD) of boron on a substrate, that is, boron fiber as produced is itself a composite fiber.
In view of the fact that rather high temperatures are required for this deposition process, the choice of
substrate material that goes to form the core of the finished boron fiber is limited. Generally, a fine
tungsten wire is used for this purpose.
A carbon substrate can also be used. The first boron fibers were obtained by Weintraub (1911) by
means of reduction of a boron halide with hydrogen on a hot wire substrate.
The real impulse in boron fiber fabrication, however, came in 1959, when Talley (Talley
1959; Talley et al. 1960) used the process of halide reduction to obtain amorphous boron fibers of
high strength. Since then, interest in the use of strong but light boron fibers as a possible structural
component in aerospace and other structures has been continuous, although it must be admitted that
this interest has periodically waxed and waned in the face of rather stiff competition from other so
called advanced fibers, in particular, carbon fibers.
Many researchers have investigated the mechanical properties of boron fibers (Krukonis
1977; Vega-Boggio and Vingsbo 1978; Galasso et al. 1967; Galasso and Paton 1966; DeBolt 1982;
Wawner 1967; DiCarlo 1985). Due to the composite nature of the boron fiber, complex internal
stresses and defects such as voids and structural discontinuities result from the presence of a core and
the deposition process. Thus, one would not expect boron fiber to show the intrinsic strength of
boron. The average tensile strength of boron fiber is 3–4 GPa, while its Young’s modulus is between
380 and 400 GPa.
Boron has a density of 2.34 g/cm3 (about 15 % less than that of aluminum). Boron fiber with a
tungsten core has a density of 2.6 g/cm3 for a fiber with 100 mm diameter. Its melting point is 2,040
"C, and it has a thermal expansion coefficient of 8.3 $ 10#6 "C#1 up to 315 "C.
• Thermal coefficient mismatch between boron and tungsten results in thermal residual stresses
during fabrication cool down to room temperature
• When coated with Sic or B4C can be used to reinforce light alloys
• Strong in both tension and compression
• Exhibit linear axial stress-strain relationship up to 650ºC
• High cost of production

Silicon carbide
Silicon carbide (SiC), also known as carborundum, is a semiconductor containing silicon and
carbon. It occurs in nature as the extremely rare mineral moissanite. Synthetic SiC powder has been
mass-produced since 1893 for use as an abrasive. Grains of silicon carbide can be bonded together
by sintering to form very hard ceramics that are widely used in applications requiring high
endurance, such as car brakes, car clutches and ceramic plates in bulletproof vests. Electronic
applications of silicon carbide such as light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and detectors in early radios
were first demonstrated around 1907. SiC is used in semiconductor electronics devices that operate
at high temperatures or high voltages, or both. Large single crystals of silicon carbide can be grown
by the Lely method and they can be cut into gems known as synthetic moissanite.
Properties of silicon carbide
The characteristics of the elastic modulus and thermal expansion are given by the
characteristics of the SiC crystal itself, and the thermal conductivity or thermal diffusivity of the
silicon carbides tends to be substantially higher than those of the other structural ceramics. The
combination of a high elastic modulus and moderate coefficient of thermal expansion makes the SiC
susceptible to thermal shock damage. The resistance to thermal shock is significantly lower than that
of silicon nitride, but higher than the structural zirconia ceramic. The behavior before thermal shock
is also very dependent on the application. For example, very rapid temperature changes can lead to a
preference for Si3N4 over SiC, while for moderate rates of temperature change the high thermal
conductivity of SiC can lead to better performance.
Applications of silicon carbide
They are used more for operation with wear at low temperature than for high temperature
behavior. SiC applications are such as sandblasting injectors, automotive water pump seals, bearings,
pump components, and extrusion dies that use high hardness, abrasion resistance, and corrosion
resistance of carbide of silicon.
 High-temperature structural uses extend from the rocket injector grooves to the furnace
rollers and the combination of high thermal conductivity, hardness and high temperature stability
makes the components of the exchanger tubes of silicon carbide heat.
Boron carbide fibres
Boron carbide (chemical formula approximately B4C) is an extremely hard boron–carbon
ceramic, and covalent material used in tank armor, bulletproof vests, engine sabotage powders,[1] as
well as numerous industrial applications. With a Vickers Hardness of >30 GPa, it is one of the
hardest known materials, behind cubic boron nitride and diamond.
Types of Boron Carbide
Henri Moissan, by reacting and fusing Boric Oxide and Carbon first synthesized Boron Carbide in
1899 in an electric arc furnace. The molten material becomes very carbon rich and it is composed of
boron carbide and graphite as it solidifies. In commercial use, Boron Carbide powders are milled and
purified to remove any residual metallic impurities.
It is difficult to sinter pure Boron Carbide to high densities and the sintering process requires the use
of sintering aids. To achieve a density of greater than 95% of theoretical density, hot pressing or
sinter HIPing is required, but even using these processes small quantities of dopants like fine carbon
or silicon carbide are required to achieve full densification.
Key Properties of Boron Carbide
The physical and chemical properties of Boron Carbide make it ideal for several industrial uses.
These include.
• High Hardness
• High Melting point
• High Young’s Modulus (it’s a very stiff material)
• Relatively low thermal expansion and conductivity
However, one of the drawbacks of Boron Carbide is that it begins to oxidise at temperature above
500°C unlike Silicon Carbide where the formation of an oxide layer of Silicon dioxide, retards high
temperature oxidation. In addition, due to the relatively low thermal conductivity of Boron Carbide it
displays poor thermal shock resistance.
As it is often considered for application alongside Silicon Carbide it is useful to contrast the typical
properties of Boron Carbide with Silicon Carbide in the hot-pressed pore-free condition as shown in
the table below;
Table 1. Property comparison of boron carbide and silicon carbide.
Property Unit SiC B4 C
Density g/cm3 3.21 2.51
Melting Point °C 2,760 2,450
Hardness Vickers 2,600 3,000
Compressive Strength MPa 2,200 2,800
Young’s Modulus GPa 410 450
Fracture Toughness K IC MPam 1/23.2 3.0
Electrical Resistivity ohm.m 10 3-10410-103
Thermal Expansion Coefficient 10 -6 K -1 4.0 4.6
Thermal Conductivity Wm-1K-1 110 35
Thermal Shock Resistance - Good Poor
Temperature of Application (in Air)° C Max 1,600 500
Source: Product Development with SiC and B4C Ceramics, P Feinle, H Knoch, 3 rd European
Symposium on Engineering Ceramics, Ed. FL Riley, Elsevier, 1991
Major Applications of Boron Carbide
The key properties of Boron Carbide, which are of interest to the designer or engineer, are hardness
and the related abrasive wear resistance.
A typical example of the optimum use of these properties is in the field of abrasive blasting and
water jet cutting, where Boron Carbide nozzles are used to withstand the harsh wear regime
generated by blasting media such as alumina or silicon carbide grits and slurries. Several tests have
shown that under similar blasting conditions a Boron Carbide nozzle will outlast a typical hard metal,
Tungsten Carbide nozzle by a factor of 100.
These qualities also lead to Boron Carbide being used in high precision tooling dies and similar
engineering components.
Boron Carbide is also found in personal and vehicle anti-ballistic armor plating where the
combination of low density and a high Young’s modulus are attractive qualities, providing high
specific stopping power to defeat high velocity projectiles.
In the nuclear field, the ability of Boron Carbide to absorb neutrons makes it popular as a material
for absorbing neutron radiation in nuclear power plants. Boron Carbide is used to shield, as a control
rod in the nuclear reactor and as shut down pellets in a nuclear power plant.
What are the thermoplastic matrix materials? What are their key features?
The following are the thermoplastic materials:
1. polypropylene,
2. polyvinyl chloride,
3. nylon,
4. polyurethane,
5. poly-ether-ether ketone (PEEK),
6. polyphenylene sulfide (PPS),
7. polysulpone.

The key features of the thermoplastic matrix materials are:

1. HIGHER TOUGHNESS
2. HIGH VOLUME
3. LOW COST PROCESSING
4. THE USE TEMPERATURE RANGE IS UPTO 225 .
What are the thermoset matrix materials? What are their key features?
The thermoset matrix materials are:
1. POLYESTERS,
2. EPOXIES,
3. POLYIMIDES
The key features of these materials are given for individual material in the following.
Polyesters
1. Used extensively with glass fibers
2. Inexpensive
3. Light weight
4. Temperature range upto 100 .
5. Resistant to environmental exposures
Epoxy
1. Expensive
2. Better moisture resistance
3. Lower shrinkage on curing
4. Use temperature is about 175
Polyimide
1. Higher use temperature about 300
2. Difficult to fabricate
What are the problems with the use of polymer matrix materials?
1. Limited temperature range.
2. Susceptibility to environmental degradation due to moisture, radiation, atomic oxygen (in space)
3. Low transverse strength.
4. High residual stress due to large mismatch in coefficients of thermal expansion between fiber and
matrix.
5. Polymer matrix cannot be used near or above the glass transition temperature.
 UNIT– IV:
SHAPE MEMORY ALLOYS
Introduction
Shape Memory Alloys are materials that “remember” their original shape. If deformed, they recover their
original shape upon heating. They can take large stresses without undergoing permanent deformation. They
can be formed into various shapes like bars, wires, plates and rings thus serving various functions.
Example: Human bone
The human bone consists of compact and cancellous bones.
Compact bone, which is the surface part of human bone. On the other hand, the cancellous
bone is sponge- like with many small pores.
The compact bone with a high bone density contributes to the hardness and strength of the
human bone. The cancellous bone is light weighted because of its honeycomb structure. This is a
graded structure.
WORKING OF SMA’S
SMAs have two stable phases :
i. The high-temperature phase, called Austenite and
ii. The low-temperature phase, called Martensite.
The martensite can be in one of two forms:
• Twinned
• Detwinned
A phase transformation which occurs between these two phases upon heating/cooling is the basis for the
unique properties of the SMAs. Upon cooling in the absence of applied load the material transforms from
austenite into twinned martensite. (no observable macroscopic shape change occurs). Upon heating the
material in the martensitic phase, a reverse phase transformation takes place and as a result the material
transforms to austenite. If mechanical load is applied to the material in the state of twinned martensite (at low
temperature) it is possible to detwin the martensite. Upon releasing of the load, the material remains
deformed. A subsequent heating of the material to a temperature above the austenite finish temperature (Af)
will result in reverse phase transformation and will lead to complete shape recovery. SMA remembers the
shape when it have austenitic structure. So if we need SMA to remember and regain/recover certain shape, the
shape should be formed when structure is austenite. Reheating the material will result in complete shape
recovery
Shape Memory Effect
i. One-way memory effect
ii. Two-way memory effect
One-way memory effect
When a shape-memory alloy is in its cold state (below As) The metal can be bent or stretched and will hold
those shapes until heated above the transition temperature. Upon heating, the shape changes to its original.
When the metal cools again, it will retain the shape, until deformed again. With the one-way effect, cooling
from high temperatures does not cause a macroscopic shape change. A deformation is necessary to create the
low-temperature shape. On heating, transformation starts at As and is completed at Af. As is determined by
the alloy type and composition and can vary between −150 °C and 200 °C.

Figure 1 One Way Memory Effect

Figure 2 Two Way Memory Effect
Two-way memory effect
The two-way shape-memory effect is the effect that the material remembers two different shapes:
one at low temperatures, and one at the high temperature.
A material that shows a shape-memory effect during both heating and cooling is said to have two-way
shape memory. This can also be obtained without the application of an external force. The reason the material
behaves so differently in these situations lies in training. Training implies that a shape memory can "learn" to
behave in a certain way. Under normal circumstances, a shape-memory alloy "remembers" its low-
temperature shape. But upon heating to recover the high-temperature shape, immediately "forgets" the low-
temperature shape. However, it can be "trained" to "remember" to leave some reminders of the deformed low-
temperature condition in the high-temperature phases. A shaped, trained object heated beyond a certain point
will lose the two-way memory effect.
Advantages of SMA
• Property of shape memory
• Compatibility with biological systems
• Weight is very less
• High strength-to-weight ratio
• The strength-to-weight ratio is extremely high.
• Resistance to wear
• Resistance to fatigue
• Exceptional elasticity
• Extremely strong
• High strength
• Good elasticity
• Fatigue Resistance
• Wear resistance
• Easy fabrication
• Easy to sterilize
• High Power/weight ratio
• Light weight
• Shape memory
• Grab tiny foreign objects for removal from the body
• Facilitates access to intricate regions of the body
• Micro assembly for MEMS devices
• Bio-compactibility
• Simplicity
• Safety mechanism
• High corrosion resistance
• Diverse field of application
Disadvantages of SMA
• Initial Expensive
• Sensitivity of material properties in fabrication.
• Residual Stress’s developed in thin films.
• Nonlinearity of actuation force.
• Lower maximum frequency compared to other micro actuator devices.
• Poor fatigue Property.
 • Complex control
• Heat dissipation
• Force of non-linear actuation
• Actuators with a lower maximum frequency
• Stress in the long run
• A sensitive fabrication
• The initial outlay
Composition
Nickel-titanium alloys In-Ti 18/23 at.% Ti
Copper-base alloys such as CuZnAl and Ni-Al 36/38 at.% Al
CuAlNi
Ni-Ti 49/51 at.% Ni
Ag-Cd 44/49 at.% C
Fe-Pt approx. 25 at.% Pt
Au-Cd 46.5/50 at.% Cd
Mn-Cu 5/35 at.% Cu
Cu-Al-Ni 14/14.5 wt.% Al and 3/4.5 wt.% Ni
Fe-Mn-Si
Cu-Sn approx. 15 at.% Sn
Pt alloys
Cu-Zn 38.5/41.5 wt.% Z
Properties
• The yield strength is lesser than conventional steel, but some SMAs have a higher yield strength than
plastic or aluminum
• The yield stress for Ni Ti can reach500MPa.
• Exhibit the super elastic properties
• High level of recoverable plastic strain can be induced.
• The maximum recoverable strain SMAs can hold without permanent damage is up to8 %for some
alloys. ( For conventional steels it is only 0.5 % only)
• The cost of the metals are high & therefore effective processing is required
• The processing is difficult and expensive to implement SMAs into a design.
Applications of shape memory alloys
• Medicine
• Optometry
• Engines
• Aerospace
• Robotics
• Automotive
• Piping’s
• Civil Structures
• Water sprinklers
• Textile
• Aeronautic coupling
• Eyeglass frame
• A stent that expands on its own
• Applications in transportation, communication, and medicine
• Temperature-sensitive safety devices
 • Stents
• Actuators (especially prosthetic hands or airplane flaps)
• Motors (not really, but it’s theoretically possible)
When I say applications of SMAs, I really mean applications of NiTi. This alloy has excellent mechanical
properties, is relatively cheap and easy to make, is non-toxic and can be used for biomedical applications, has
good corrosion resistance and also has the SME and pseudoelasticity.
If you have ever seen a metal that was extremely flexible–that’s probably NiTi. This alloy is used in glasses
frames, bra clips, and wiring for braces.
The stress-induced transformation (pseudoelasticity) also absorbs energy without moving, so SMAs can be
used for vibration dampening. It would be similar to the way that a half-melted ice cube would stabilize
temperature fluctuations around 0 °C, because the ice would freeze or melt slightly while still staying the
same temperature.
By utilizing the shape memory effect, doctors can use them as stents to open up blood vessels and help clear
clogged arteries.
SMAs can be used in safety devices like shower heads. Imagine that the hot water was accidentally too hot,
and you could accidentally burn yourself (or a child). An SMA could be built into the showerhead which
would instantly close off the water if the temperature was too high.
As I mentioned earlier, the most promising application of the shape memory effect is in actuators. Actuators
are small parts that move, like fingers in a robotic hand or flaps on an airplane. Current actuators are usually
electric motors, hydraulics, or pneumatics, which are complex (and therefore heavy). These actuators need
increasing complexity for 3D motion, while SMAs can actuate equally easily in 2D or 3D.
Shape memory alloys are a single piece of material which can save weight and possibly be less likely to fail
than complicated motor systems with intricate pieces that fit together. Currently SMAs are not ready to do this
yet because they are limited by fatigue life, but this is a promising potential application.
FUNCTIONALLY GRADED MATERIALS:
Pure metals have limited applications in engineering due to the demand for contradictory properties due to
functionality requirements [1]. In engineering applications there is a need for materials with different
properties which will enable them to perform optimally under service conditions. Such properties are non-
existent or difficult to obtain in a pure metallic material. Therefore, two or more different metals, each of
which possess one of the required properties for optimum performance, are combined to produce what is
known as alloys. The importance of metals in day-to-day life and particularly in engineering cannot be over
emphasised. These range from domestic to industrial applications, such as manufacturing and construction.
The working condition of the metal during service as well as expected performance informs the choice of the
metal to be selected for any engineering application. Owing to the less desirable properties of pure metals,
metal alloys, such as aluminium alloys are generally preferred for engineering applications.
Aluminium in its raw form is abundant in nature, comprising about 8% of the earth’s crust. Pure aluminium is
of low strength and easily deforms under load. In engineering applications such as automobile components
and aerospace designs, the use of aluminium alloys are employed due to their light weight and lower density
compared to steel. Good thermal and electrical conductivity are also desirable properties of aluminium for
electrical cable production and kitchenware. Alloying elements such as magnesium, manganese, copper, zinc,
tin and silicon, when added to aluminium, enhance its properties thereby making it suitable for use in
industrial as well as domestic applications. One of the most essential alloying elements for aluminium is
silicon as it improves the cast-ability of aluminium metal. Alloys provide enhanced properties that are unique
compared to those which are present in parent materials on their own. However, conventional alloys face
constraints such as thermodynamic equilibrium limitations and thermal dissimilarities between alloying
materials [1, 2]. These challenges, among others, have led to the development of unique materials known as
functionally graded materials (FGMs).
Functionally graded materials are specialized types of advanced materials developed to withstand severe
service conditions while performing at optimum during service. They are developed such that the properties,
composition and features of the constituent elements of the material varies with respect to the location and
dimension along the material [3, 4] as shown in Fig. 1. The composition, microstructure or the porosity
gradient of the FGM can vary either continuously or discontinuously and can be specifically designed to
provide specific functionality during service [5].

Fig. 1. Profile of FGM

Similar to conventional composite materials, the properties and characteristics of FGMs are different from
those of the individual elemental materials which form the FGM. The property(ies) of the FGM are graduated
across the volume of the material because of the dependability of the chemical composition, microstructure or
atomic order of atoms, and of their position within the material [4, 6].
The need for FGMs arises from the desire to have materials which possesses the ability to retain their
structural integrity during service when exposed to opposing conditions simultaneously from different ends.
Interest in FGMs has increased over the years due to the advantages of FGMs over single component
materials or alloys. One example of an advantage is the elimination of sharp boundaries which serve as stress
concentrator regions that trigger failure in conventional composite materials, and substituting it with the
gradient type boundaries, while also eliminating the thermodynamic limitations encountered in alloy
applications [1, 7]. Furthermore, FGMs are unique in that they can be designed specifically for predefined
applications [3, 4]. The ability to influence and manipulate the properties of composite materials for a specific
engineering application makes the research into FGMs of immense importance
Special Features of FGM
▪ FGM provide capabilities for part integration. Several metallic components can be replaced by a
single FGM component.
▪ FGM structures provide in-service monitoring or online process monitoring with the help of
embedded sensors.
▪ The matrix material binds the fibers together and transfers the load to the fibers.
▪ The matrix isolates the fibers so that individual fibers can act separately.
▪ This stops or slows the propagation of a crack.
▪ The matrix provides a good surface finish quality and aids in the production of net-shape or near-net-
shape parts.
Advantages
▪ Reduced Weight
▪ Low thermal expansion
▪ High specific strength
▪ High specific stiffness
▪ Solution for incompatible material combinations
▪ Ability to tailor a material for specific application
▪ Improve material efficiency
▪ Improve part lifetime
Disadvantages
▪ Expensive techniques
▪ Process hard to control
▪ Complex phenomenon occurs like shrinkage, distortions, dilution…..
Types of functionally graded materials
1. Chemical Composition Gradient FGM
2. Porosity gradient FGM
3. Microstructure gradient FGM
Chemical Composition Gradient FGM
 As the composition of material is varied from one material into the other, it will result in
different phases with different chemical compositions.
 The different phases that are produced are dependent on the compositional quantity and
manufacturing conditions of the reinforcing material.

Porosity gradient
 Functionally the porosity in the material is made to change with the change in the spatial
position in the bulk material.
  The pore size gradation can be achieved by varying the powder particle sizes that are used at
different locations in the bulk material during the gradation process.

Microstructure gradient FGM

 It can be achieved during the solidification process, such that the surface of the material is
quenched.
 The core of the same material is allowed to cool down slowly, which would help to produce
different microstructures from those on the surface of the material to the innermost part.

classification different systems-

Process of Manufacturing
According to process of manufacturing
Thin FGM and Bulk FGM
 Thin FGM: It consists of relatively thin sections or thin surface coating
 Bulk FGM: Bulk FGMs are those with thickness greater than 1 mm, this require more labor
intensive.
Processing techniques
Thin FGM
 Vapour Deposition Technique(i.e., CVD,PVD)
 Plasma spraying
 Self-propagating high temperature synthesis(SHS)
 Ion beam assisted deposition(IBAD)
Bulk FGM
 Powder Metallurgy
 Centrifugal Method
 Solid Freeform fabrication method
Chemical Vapour Deposition(CVD)
 Film is formed by chemical reaction between gaseous compounds.
 Chemical Vapour Deposition (CVD) is a chemical process used to produce high purity, high
performance solid materials.
 In a typical CVD process, the substrate is exposed to one or more volatile precursors which
react and decompose on the substrate surface to produce the desired deposit.
 During this process, volatile by-products are also produced, which are removed by gas flow
through the reaction chamber

Physical Vapour Deposition(PVD)

 PVD is characterized by a process in which the material goes from a condensed phase to a
vapor phase and then back to a thin film condensed phase.
 Physical Vapour Deposition (PVD) is fundamentally a vaporization coating technique,
involving transfer of material on an atomic level.
 The process is similar to Chemical Vapour Deposition (CVD) except that the raw
materials/precursors,
 i.e. the material that is going to be deposited starts out in solid form, whereas in CVD, the
precursors are introduced to the reaction chamber in the gaseous state.

Plasma Spraying
 The Plasma Spray Process is basically the spraying of molten or heat softened material onto a surface
to provide a coating.
 Material in the form of powder is injected into a very high temperature plasma flame, where it is
rapidly heated and accelerated to a high velocity.
 The hot material impacts on the substrate surface and rapidly cools forming a coating.

SELF PROPAGATAING HIGH TEMP. SYNTHESIS (SFS)

 In its usual format, SHS is conducted starting from finely powdered reactants that are intimately
mixed.
 In some cases, the reagents are finely powdered whereas in other cases, they are sintered to minimize
their surface area and prevent uninitiated exothermic reactions, which can be dangerous.
 The synthesis is initiated by point-heating of a small part (usually the top) of the sample. Once started,
 a wave of exothermic reaction sweeps through the remaining material.

(a) Electro deposition process

Electro deposition is a process for depositing a mixed film of metals and ceramics on the electrode from a
plating solution containing ceramics powders. The volume fraction of ceramics in the deposited film is
controlled in the range from 0 % to approximately 25% by concentration of ceramic powders in the plating
solution. The FGM can be obtained by changing the concentration of the ceramic powders in the solution
during the deposition process.
Powder metallurgy method
Centrifugal method
 In centrifugal casting, a permanent mold is rotated continuously about its axis at high speeds (300 to
3000 rpm) as the molten metal is poured.
 The molten metal is centrifugally thrown towards the inside mold wall, where it solidifies after
cooling. The casting is usually a fine-grained casting with a very fine grained outer diameter, owing to
chilling against the mould surface.
 Casting machines may be either horizontal or vertical axis. Horizontal axis machines are preferred for
long, thin cylinders, vertical machines for rings.
Solid free form fabrication(SFF)
 SFF refers to a category of manufacturing process in which parts are built by deposition of one cross
sectional layer of material on top of the next.

SFF involves five basic steps:

 Generation of CAD data from the software like AutoCAD, Solid edge etc.
 Conversion of the CAD data to Standard Triangulation Language (STL) file
 Slicing of the STL into two dimensional cross section profiles
 Building of the component layer by layer
 Removal and finishing.
 
Applications of FGL composites
 Aerospace
 Medicine
 Defense
 Energy
 Optoelectronics
 Cutting tool insert coating
 Automobile engine components
 Nuclear reactor components
 Turbine blade
 Heat exchanger
 Fire retardant doors
 Sensors
Aerospace and aeronautics
 Advanced aircraft and aerospace engineering
 Rocker heat shields
 Many defense applications now relyon unique properties delivered by modern composite materials.

Biomaterials
 UNIT– V
NANO MATERIALS
Introduction
 The materials having at least one dimensions in nanometric scale are called nanomaterials
 Nanotechnology is the understanding and control of matter at dimensions of roughly 1 to 100
nanometers,
 Nanomaterials exhibit unique mechanical, thermal, electrical and optical properties
 It is feasible and easy to scale to any desired structure
 Particles having sizes in the range of 1 to 100 nm are termed as nano particles and the application of
nano- sized particles is what we call ‘nanotechnology’.
 At the nano scale, the physical, chemical and biological properties of materials differ in fundamental
and valuable ways from the properties of individual atoms and molecules or bulk matter.
 With the reduction in size, the surface area of materials and surface energy increase tremendously
Difference between Nano materials and Bulk materials

Bulk Materials Nano Materials

Bulk materials are the materials whose size is above Nano materials are the materials whose size lies
100nm in all dimensions between 1-100 nm atleast in one dimension

These materials can be seen through the naked eye These materials cannot be seen through naked eye

Sand, gravel, cement, slag etc., are some of the Carbon nano tubes, graphene, nanozymes etc., are
examples some of the examples

Difference between Composites and Nano composites

Composites Nano Composites

Composites are the materials that are produced Nano composites are the materials that are
from two or more constituents with different produced from two or more constituents very
physical or chemical properties small size

Surface to volume ratio is less compared to nano Surface to volume ratio is high
composites

Aspect ratio is less compared to nano composites Aspect ratio is high

Nanomaterials are divided into three category
One dimension — It has only one parameter either length (or) breadth (or) height ( example: very thin
surface coatings)
Example: Thin Films Dyers and Comings

Two dimensions- it has only length and breadth (for example, nanowires and nanotubes)

Example: Nanotubes Nano fibers and Nanowdes

Three dimensions -it has all parameter of length, breadth and height. (for example, Nano Particles).

Example: Nanoparticles, Nano shells, Nano rings etc

CLASSIFICATION
■ 0-dimensional: nanoparticles and nanocrystals
■ 1-dimensional: nanotubes, nanowires, and nanobelts
■ 2-dimensional: nanosheets
■ Dimensionless: nanostructured materials and nanopores
Properties of Nano Materials
 The nanomaterials have high strength, hardness, formability and toughness.
 These materials exhibit super plasticity even at lower temperatures.
 Size of the grains controls the mechanical, electrical, optical, chemical and magnetic properties. High
thermal and chemical stability
 The melting point of namomaterials gets reduced on reducing the grain size.
 Ductility increases with out effecting strength and scratch resistance
 Good catalytic activity
Mechanical Properties of Nano Materials
 Nano materials posses very high tensile strength and resistivity.
 This is due to the restriction of nanograins through boundaries that prevent the propagation of defects
through materials
 Due to nano size, the interface area for the material is large. This enhances the strength of material
 At high temperatures, nano materials behaves as super plastic materials exhibiting huge tensile
deformation involving no cracking or fracture
 A reduction in size of particle, decreases the transition temperature in steel from ductile to brittle
 Nano materials are slightly brittle with reduced ductile behaviour under tension or strain
 Depending on the phase transformation, stress, density and grain boundaries the hardness of
nanomaterials differ for different materials
Advantages of nano materials
 Volume to mass ratio is higher in case of nano materials, that results in great mechanical, optical and
electrical properties
 Electron density is higher in case of nanomaterials. This property plays a predominant role in nano
electronics
  Manufacturing process can be controlled in a better way i.e precise and target oriented
 In case of nano materials, due to thin increased interfaces, their will be an increase in overall surface
area by increasing the interacting faces that leads to change in the properties
Disadvantages of nano materials
 Safe disposal policies of nano materials are not yet developed
 Nano silver particles kill good non-bacterial cells (or) good bacteria if inhaled or ingested
 Production cost of nano materials is high
 Plant growth and soil fertility may be affected due to the presence of chemicals in the form of tiny
nano particles

Preparation of Nano materials

The methods of producing nanoparticles are classified into two main categories, “top-down” and “bottom-up”
approaches.
Top down Approach:
The top-down method involves the systematic breakdown of a bulk material into smaller units
using some form of grinding mechanism. This is
beneficial and simple to execute and avoids the use of volatile and poisonous compounds frequently found in
the bottom-up techniques. However, the quality of the nanoparticles formed by grinding is accepted to be poor
in comparison with the material produced by modern bottom up methods. The main drawbacks include defect
problems from grinding equipment, low particle surface areas, asymmetrical shape and size distributions and
high energy needed to produce relatively small particles. Apart from these disadvantages, it must be
distinguished that the nano-material produced from grinding still finds use, due to the simplicity of its
manufacture, in applications including magnetic, catalytic and structural properties.
Bottom up Approach:
The bottom-up approach uses atomic or molecular feed-stocks as the source of the material to be chemically
transformed into larger nanoparticles. This has the advantage of being potentially much more convenient than
the top down approach. By controlling the chemical reactions and the environment of the growing
nanoparticle, then the size, shape and composition of the nanoparticles may all be affected. For this reason
nanoparticles produced by bottom up, chemically based and designed, reactions are normally seen as being of
higher quality and having greater potential applications. This has led to the growth of a host of common
bottom up strategies for the synthesis of nanoparticles. Many of these techniques can be tailored to be
performed in gas, liquid, solid states, hence the applicability of bottom-up strategies to a wide range of end
products. Most of the bottom up strategies requires suitable organometallic complexes or metal salts to be
used as chemical precursors, which are decomposed in a controlled manner resulting in particle nucleation and
growth.
Carbon Nano Tubes

• CNT can be described as a sheet of graphene rolled into a cylinder • Constructed from hexagonal rings of
carbon • Can have one layer or multiple layers • Can have caps at the ends making them look like pills

Structure and morphology

• The bonding in carbon nanotubes is sp2, with each atom joined to three neighbors, as in graphite. • The tubes
can therefore be considered as rolled-up graphene sheets (graphene is an individual graphite layer) • This
bonding structure, which is stronger than the sp3 bonds found in diamond. provides the molecules with their
unique strength. • Under high pressure. nanotubes can merge together, giving the possibility of producing
strong, unlimited length wires through high-pressure nanotube linking.

Classification of carbon nanotubes

Carbon nanotubes are classified in following two types. •

• SWNTs- Single walled carbon nanotubes •

• MWNTs- Multiple walled carbon nanotubes

CNT properties

• The strongest and most flexibleonolecular material because of C'-C' covalent bonding and hexagonal
network architecmre

• Strength to weight ratio -500 times greater than Al, steel, titanium •

Maximum strain -10%; much higher than any material •

Very high current carrying capacity •

Other chemical groups can be attached to the tip or sidewall (called 'ftutctionalization')

• "CNT is 100 times stronger than stainless steel but six times lighter..." • "

CNT is as hard as diamond and its thermal capacity is twice that of pure diamond..."

• "C NT's current-carrying capacity is 1000 times higher than that of copper.

• "CNT is thermally stable up to 4000 K..." "CNT can be metallic or semiconducting, depending on their
diameter and atomic arrangement..."

Limitations of CNTs

• Difficulty of mass production for industrial purposes •

Secondly is the solubility of CNTs in the water •

The production of structurally and chemically reproducible batches of CNTs with identical characteristics.

• Difficulty in maintaining high quality and minimal impurities.

Applications in comparison with bulk materials (nanostructure, wires, tubes, composites).
1. Nanotechnology Applications in Medicine

• Because of their small size, nanoscale devices can readily interact with biomolecules on both the
surface of cells andinside of cells.

• By gaining access to so many areas of the body, they have the potential to detect disease and the
deliver treatment.

• Nanoparticles can can deliver drugs directly to diseased cells in your body. Nanomedicine is the
 medical use of molecular-sized particles to deliver drugs, heat, light or other substances to specific
cells in the humanbody.

• Quantum dot- that identify the location of cancer cells in the body.

• Nano Particles - that deliver chemotherapy drugs directly to cancer cells to minimize damage to
healthy cells.

• Nanoshells - that concentrate the heat from infrared light to destroy cancer cells with minimal damage
to surrounding healthy cells.

• Nanotubes- used in broken bones to provide a structure for new bone material to grow.

Nano shells as Cancer Therapy

Nano shells are injected into cancer area and they recognize cancer cells. Then by applying near-infrared light,
the heat generated by the light-absorbing Nano shells has successfully killed tumor cells while leaving
neighboring cells intact.

1. Sunscreens and Cosmetics

• Nanosized titanium dioxide and zinc oxide are currently used in some sunscreens, as they absorb and
reflect ultraviolet (UV) rays.

• Nanosized iron oxide is present in some lipsticks as a pigment.

2. Fuel Cells

The potential use of nano-engineered membranes to intensify catalytic processes could enable higher-
efficiency, small-scale fuelcells.

3. Displays

Nanocrystalline zinc selenide, zinc sulphide, cadmium sulphide and lead telluride are candidates for the next
generation of light-emitting phosphors.

CNTs are being investigated for low voltage field-emission displays; their strength, sharpness, conductivity
and inertness make them potentially very efficient and long-lasting emitters.

4. Batteries

• With the growth in portable electronic equipment (mobile phones, navigation devices, laptop
computers, remote sensors), there is great demand for lightweight, high-energy density batteries.

• Nanocrystalline materials are candidates for separator plates in batteries because of their foam-like
(aerogel) structure, which can hold considerably more energy than conventional ones.
• Nickel–metal hydride batteries made of nanocrystalline nickel and metal hydrides are envisioned to
require less frequent recharging and to last longer because of their large grain boundary (surface) area.

5. Catalysts

In general, nanoparticles have a high surface area, and hence providehigher catalytic activity.

6. Magnetic Nano Materials applications

• It has been shown that magnets made of nanocrystalline yttrium– samarium–cobalt grains possess
unusual magnetic properties due to their extremely large grain interface area (high coercivity can be
obtained because magnetization flips cannot easily propagate past the grain boundaries).

• This could lead to applications in motors, analytical instruments like magnetic resonance imaging
(MRI), used widely in hospitals, and microsensors.

• Nanoscale-fabricated magnetic materials also have applications in data storage.

• Devices such as computer hard disks storage capacity is increased with Magnetic Nano material.

7. Medical Implantation

• Unfortunately, in some cases, the biomedical metal alloys may wear out within the lifetime of the
patient. But Nano materials increases the life time of the implant materials.

.Nanocrystalline zirconium oxide (zirconia) is hard, wear resistant,

bio-corrosion resistant and bio-compatible.

• It therefore presents an attractive alternative material for implants.

• Nanocrystalline silicon carbide is a candidate material for artificial heart valves primarily because of its
low weight, high strength and inertness.

8. Water purification

Nano-engineered membranes could potentially lead to more energy- efficient water purification
processes, notably in desalination process.

9. Military Battle Suits

Enhanced nanomaterials form the basis of a state-of- the-art ‘battle suit’ that is being developed.

A short-term development is likely to be energy-absorbing materials that will withstand blast waves;

longer-term are those that incorporate sensors to detect or respond to chemical and biological weapons (for
example, responsive nanopores that ‘close’ upon detection of a biological agent).