Birbirbastan

Islamic Psychology
Islamic Psychology or ilm an-nafs (science of the soul) is an important introductory textbook
drawing on the latest evidence in the sub-disciplines of psychology to provide a balanced and
comprehensive view of human nature, behaviour and experience. Its foundation to develop
theories about human nature is based upon the writings of the Qur’an, Sunnah, Muslim
scholars and contemporary research findings.
Synthesising contemporary empirical psychology and Islamic psychology, this book is
holistic in both nature and process and includes the physical, psychological, social and spiritual
dimensions of human behaviour and experience. Through a broad and comprehensive scope,
the book addresses three main areas: Context, perspectives and the clinical applications of
applied psychology from an Islamic approach.
This book is a core text on Islamic psychology for undergraduate and postgraduate students
and those undertaking continuing professional development courses in Islamic psychology,
psychotherapy and counselling. Beyond this, it is also a good supporting resource for teachers
and lecturers in this field.
Dr G. Hussein Rassool is Professor of Islamic Psychology, Consultant and Director for

the Riphah Institute of Clinical and Professional Psychology/Centre for Islamic Psychology,
Pakistan. He is accountable for the supervision and management of the four psychology
departments, and has responsibility for scientific, educational and professional standards, and
efficiency. He manages and coordinates the RICPP/Centre for Islamic Psychology programme
of research and educational development in Islamic psychology, clinical interventions and
service development, and liaises with the Head of the Departments of Psychology to assist
in the integration of Islamic psychology and Islamic ethics in educational programmes and
development of research initiatives and publication of research.
“Islamic Psychology is a fast-growing discipline. The present book is a pioneering effort
to create a bridge between the conventional psychology, which I regard as reductionist,
and the Islamic approach which is holistic and deals with the total human being. I strongly
recommend it as a text for graduate programmes in Psychology.” – Professor Dr Anis Ahmad,
Vice Chancellor, Riphah International University, Pakistan
“This pioneering work encompasses a variety of psychological topics from an Islamic

perspective and is an essential text for students as well as practitioners of Islamic psychology.
I congratulate the author for a job well done.” – Professor Dr Amber Haque, Professor of
Clinical Psychology, Doha Institute for Graduate Studies, Doha, Qatar
“Prof G. Hussein’s book on Islamic Psychology is a blend of contemporary psychology

and Islamic Psychology. The author has distinctively focused on the biological basis of
behaviour grounded in Islamic teachings. I presume the mentioning of clinical supervision
in this book is a unique contribution, which wasn’t mentioned in the Islamic psychology
books previously.” – Professor Dr Muhammad Tahir Khalily, Vice President Academics and
Professor of Clinical Psychology, International Islamic University Islamabad, Pakistan
Islamic Psychology
Human Behaviour and Experience from

an Islamic Perspective
G. Hussein Rassool
First published 2021
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2021 G. Hussein Rassool
The right of G. Hussein Rassool to be identifed as author of this work has been
asserted by him in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs
and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or
utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now
known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any
information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the
publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered
trademarks, and are used only for identifcation and explanation without intent
to infringe.
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
A catalog record has been requested for this book
ISBN: 978-0-367-37513-3 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-0-367-37515-7 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-0-429-35476-2 (ebk)
Typeset in Times New Roman
by Deanta Global Publishing Services, Chennai, India
Dedicated to Idrees Khattab ibn Adam Ibn Hussein Ibn Hassim Ibn Sahaduth
Ibn Rosool Ibn Olee Al Mauritiusy, Isra Oya,Asiyah Maryam, Idrees Khattab,
Adam Ali Hussein, Reshad Hassan,Yasmin Soraya, BeeBee Mariam, Bibi Safan
and Hassim.
Abu Hurayrah reported the Prophet Muhammad ( ) as saying:“If anyone

pursues a path in search of knowledge, Allah will thereby make easy for
him a path to paradise; and he who is made slow by his actions will not be
speeded by his genealogy” (Sunan Abi Dawud).
Contents
List of illustrations and tables x

Preface xv
Acknowledgements xvii
PART I
Islamic psychology 1
1 Islamic psychology: Context, definitions and perspectives 3
2 A brief history of Islamic psychology: Origins and heritage 27
3 Perspectives on human nature 53
PART II
Biological and developmental psychology 81
4 Biological bases of behaviour 83
5 Development and reproductive behaviours 103
6 Lifespan development: From conception to death 123
7 Learning, conditioning and modelling 146
PART III
Social and personality psychology 169
8 Social psychology: Social cognition, attitude and prejudice 171
9 Personality development 194

viii Contents
10 Affective behaviour: Emotion 221
11 Drive behaviour: Motivation 241
12 Prosocial behaviour: Altruism and helping behaviours 270
PART IV
Cognitive psychology 295
13 State of consciousness, sleep and dreaming 297
14 Memory: Nature, types, stages and memorisation 325
15 Reason, wisdom and intelligence 343
PART V
Health psychology 365
16 Health psychology: Models and perspectives 367
17 Health psychology model: An Islamic perspective 393
18 Health promotion: An effective tool for global health 410
19 Biological, psychological, social and spiritual aspects of aggression 440
20 Stress, coping strategies and interventions 461
PART VI
General and abnormal psychology 485
21 Psychology of addiction 487
22 Mental health, spirituality and possession 512
23 Models and approaches to disability 535
24 The anatomy of Islamic psychotherapy 560

Contents ix
PART VII
Postscript 581
25 Decolonising psychology and its (dis)contents: Educational development

and clinical supervision 583
26 Challenges and solutions in Islamic psychology 602
Index 607
Illustrations and tables
Figures
1.1 Stages in the study of psychology 6
1.2
Conceptual definition of Islamic psychology 16
4.1 Structure of a neuron 84
4.2
Division of the nervous system 87
4.3 central nervous system
The 88
4.4 Lobes of the brain 89
5.1
Human embryo (leech form) 108
5.2
Embryo and gum 109
7.1
Stages of observational spiritual modelling 160
10.1
James–Lange theory 223
10.2 The
Cannon–Bard theory 224
10.3 The
Schachter–Singer two-factor theory 225
11.1 Maslow’s
hierarchy of needs 248
11.2 Model
of knowledge and action 253
11.3 A
model of spiritual motivation 254
11.4 The
Islamic model of motivation 260
12.1 Latané
and Darley’s decision model of helping 282
14.1 Types
of memory 326
14.2 The
three types of sensory memory 328
14.3 Types
of long-term memory 329
14.4 Stages
of memory: Encoding storage and retrieval 330
16.1 Tri-locals:
Internal, external and spiritual loci of control 375
16.2 Health
belief model 378
16.3 Theory
of planned behaviour (TPB) 380
16.4 Transtheoretical
model of change 381
17.1 Model
of Islamic health psychology based on the Qur’an and Hadith paradigm 397
18.1 The
Ottawa Charter 424
18.2 Islamic
Charter for Health Promotion 425
20.1 Stress,
nervous and endocrine system 463
20.2 Three
stage-general adaptation syndrome 466
20.3 transactional model of stress
The 468
23.1 Barriers – social model of disability 540
25.1 Decolonising psychology 585
Illustrations and tables xi
25.2 Models of approaches in curriculum development in Islamic psychology 586

25.3
Rassool’s framework for the Islamisation of knowledge 588
25.4
Berghout’s model of Islamisation 589
25.5 The Tawhid Paradigm for the Islamisation of psychology 590
25.6 Rassool’s vertical and horizontal integration curriculum approach 591
26.1
Role Adequacy, Role Legitimacy and Role Conflict 604
Tables
1.1 Limitations of secular psychology 8
1.2 summary of the themes of Islamic psychology
A 17
3.1
Dimension of human nature 56
3.2 Al-Qayyim’s types of hearts and characteristics
Ibn 71
3.3 Trials and tribulations: Reactions of the heart 72
3.4 Companions’ four types of heart, characteristics and meaning 72
4.1 major neurochemical transmitters and their functions
The 86
4.2
Sympathetic system and the parasympathetic system 94
7.1
Pavlov’s classical conditioning 151
7.2
Comparison of classical and operant conditioning 153
7.3
Stages, process and action in spiritual modelling 161
9.1
Freud’s stages of psychosexual development 197
9.2 The five-factor model of personality 199
9.3 Biological basis of personality theory 201
11.1 Al-Syatibi’s levels of needs 251
13.1 Anatomy of sleep 303
13.2 Stages of sleep 304
13.3 Types of sleep in the Qur’an 307
13.4 Qailullah in Prophetic and other traditions 308
13.5 Some supplications and recitations of the Qur’an before sleeping 311
13.6 Examples of dream interpretation 316
16.1 The key variables of the HBM 377
16.2 Variables on the theory of reasoned action 378
17.1 Differences between health psychology and Islamic health psychology 394
17.2 Role of the Muslim health psychologist 396
18.1 Health promotion approaches and interventions 417
18.2 Application of the principles of harm and hardship for health promotion 424
18.3 Personal hygiene and health promotion 430
18.4 Nutrition and health promotion 430
18.5 General health prevention 431
20.1 Stress and anxieties faced by Muslims 469
20.2 Ways of dealing with stress and anxiety 476
21.1 A summary of models and theories of addiction 495
21.2 Cannabis 496
21.3 Characteristics of psychostimulants (amphetamines and cocaine) 497
21.4 Heroin 498
21.5 Ecstasy/methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) 499
21.6 Catha edulis-khat (contains cathinone and cathine) 499
xii Illustrations and tables
21.7 Hypno-sedatives 500

21.8
Volatile substances 500
21.9
Synthetic psychoactive substances 501
21.10 Alcohol:
Effects 501
22.1 Symptoms
of anorexia nervosa 522
22.2 Symptoms
of bulimia nervosa 523
22.3 Summary
of the typology, obsessions and compulsions of Waswâs al-Qahri 526
24.1 A
summary of some of the models of Islamic psychotherapy and counselling 570
25.1 Modules
of BSc. Islamic Psychology 593
25.2 Some
core contents on the integration of Islamic psychology 594
25.3 Effectiveness
model for curriculum development indicators 597
Praise be to Allah, we seek His help and His forgiveness. We seek refuge with Allah
from the evil of our own souls and from our bad deeds. Whomsoever Allah guides will
never be led astray, and whomsoever Allah leaves astray, no one can guide. I bear wit-
ness that there is no god but Allah, and I bear witness that Muhammad ( ) is His slave
and Messenger (Sunan al-Nasa’i: Kitaab al-Jumu’ah, Baab kayfiyyah al-khutbah).
• Fear Allah as He should be feared and die not except in a state of Islam (as Muslims)
with complete submission to Allah. (Ali ‘Imran 3:102)1
• O mankind! Be dutiful to your Lord, Who created you from a single person, and from
him He created his wife, and from them both He created many men and women, and fear
Allah through Whom you demand your mutual (rights), and (do not cut the relations of)
the wombs (kinship) Surely, Allah is Ever an All-Watcher over you). (Al-Nisā’ 4:1)
• O you who believe! Keep your duty to Allah and fear Him and speak (always) the truth).
(Al-Aĥzāb 33:70)
• What comes to you of good is from Allah, but what comes to you of evil, [O man], is from
yourself. (An-Nisā 4:79)
The essence of this book is based on the following notions:
• The foundation of Islam as a religion is based on the Oneness of God.

• The source of knowledge is the Qur’an and Hadith (Ahl as-Sunnah wa’l-Jamā’ah).
• Empirical knowledge from sense perception is also a source of knowledge through the
work of classical and contemporary Islamic scholars and research.
• Islam takes a holistic approach to health. Physical, psychological, social, emotional and
spiritual health cannot be separated.
• Muslims have a different worldview or perception of illness and health behaviour.
• There is wide consensus amongst Muslim scholars that psychiatric or psychological dis-
orders are legitimate medical conditions that are distinct from illnesses of a supernatural
nature.
• Muslims believe that cures come solely from Allah (God) but seeking treatment for psy-
chological and spiritual health does not conflict with seeking help from Allah.
It is a sign of respect that Muslims utter or repeat the words “Peace and Blessing Be Upon
Him” after hearing (or writing) the name of Prophet Muhammad ( ).
Note
1 The translations of the meanings of the verses of the Qur’an in this book have been taken, with
some changes, from Saheeh International, The Qur’an: Arabic Text with corresponding English
meanings.
Preface
This book on Islamic psychology is a synthesis of empirical psychology and Islamic psychol-
ogy. The Islamic nature of the human being is whole, comprehensive and complete according
to the Qur’an and Sunnah. It is holistic in both nature and process and includes the physical,
psychological, social and spiritual dimensions. In essence, Islamic psychology provides a
balanced and comprehensive view of human nature, behaviours and experiences. Islam pro-
vides a balanced focus between universal principles of human behaviours (with its universal
laws and Shar’iah or Divine laws) and individual differences. The universal laws may include
biological, social, psychological and economic dimensions based on empirical research. The
Qur’an and Hadith provide guidance and basis to the laws of human nature. These laws can
be used as the foundation to develop theories about human nature based upon the writings of
Muslim scholars and contemporary research findings.
The concept of this book, reflected in the context and scope, attempts to address three
main areas, these being the context, perspectives and applied psychology (clinical applica-
tions) from an Islamic approach. The aims of the book are to bring together both contem-
porary psychology and Islamic psychology, covering theories, application and providing a
framework in one volume. It also aims to provide essential knowledge and understanding
of the nature and psyche of human behaviour and the subdisciplines of psychology includ-
ing developmental, social, health, cognitive, biological and abnormal psychology from an
Islamic perspective. In addition, the contents of the book take this a step further by address-
ing existing issues from a more contemporary perspective by unravelling the topic and pro-
viding a parallel perspective from Islamic psychology. The book provides both theoretical
understanding and clinical applications of the approach, whilst also addressing how to work
with a wide range of psychological issues. The contents of the book expand on earlier texts
in Islamic psychology and are presented in light of more recent research evidence. The book
is, at least in part, a response to the questions posed by researchers, academics and clinicians,
concerning the nature and focus of Islamic psychology.
The book is organised into seven parts (Parts I to VII) according to the sub-disciplines of
psychology for easier reading, especially for those new to the topic of Islamic psychology.
Part I sets the context by examining the concept of psychology, history of Islamic psychol-
ogy origins and heritage and perspectives on human nature. Part II focuses on biological and
developmental psychology, with chapters on the biological basis of behaviour, biological
foundation, developmental and reproductive behaviours, lifespan development and learning
and conditioning. Part III examines social and personality psychology and includes chapters
on social psychology, personality development, emotion, motivation, altruism and helping
behaviours. Part IV covers cognitive psychology and includes chapters on consciousness,
xvi Preface
sleep and dreams, memory and reason, wisdom and intelligence. Part V is based on the sub-
discipline of health psychology including chapters on health psychology and the Islamic
model of health psychology. Part VI focuses on general and abnormal psychology with chap-
ters on the psychology of addiction, mental health, spirituality and possession, models and
approaches to disability and the anatomy of Islamic counselling and psychotherapy. Part VII
is a postscript and deals with decolonising psychology, curriculum development, clinical
supervision and challenges and solutions for Islamic psychology.
The features of the book include learning outcomes, summaries of key points and multi-
ple-choice questions based on the contents of each chapter (Chapters 1–24).
The topic of Islamic psychology has received a rapidly growing amount of interest. This
book is a core text on Islamic psychology for undergraduate and postgraduate students and
those undertaking continuing professional development in Islamic psychology, psychother-
apy and counselling. Beyond this, it would be a good supporting resource for teachers and
lecturers due to the broad and comprehensive nature of the contents.
Acknowledgements
All praise is due to Allah, and may the peace and blessings of Allah be upon our Prophet
Muhammad ( ), his family and his companions.
I would like to thank Eleanor Taylor and other supporting staff at Routledge for their valu-
able and constructive suggestions during the development of the proposal, and during the
process of writing. It is with immense gratitude that I acknowledge the support and help from
colleagues at Riphah Institute of Clinical and Professional Psychology/Centre for Islamic
Psychology (RICPP/CIP) and faculty members at the Department of Psychology, International
Open University, where I developed the undergraduate course in Islamic psychology.
I am thankful to my beloved parents who taught me the value of education. I am forever
grateful to Mariam for her unconditional support and encouragement to pursue my inter-
ests, and for her tolerance of my periodic quest for seclusion in my home office, during the
COVID-19 pandemic lockdown in Lahore, Pakistan, to make this book a reality. I owe my
gratitude to my family, including Idrees Khattab Ibn Adam Ali Hussein Ibn Hussein Ibn
Hassim Ibn Sahaduth Ibn Rosool Al Mauritiusy, Adam Ali Hussein, Reshad Hasan, Yasmin
Soraya, Isra Oya and Asiyah Maryam for their unconditional love and for providing unending
inspiration. Thank you, Nabila Akhrif, for taking care of me while in London.
The author and publishers would like to thank Oxford University Press, Evelyne De
Leeuw and Asim Abdelmoneim Hussein, (1999) for permission to use Figure 18.1, The
Ottawa Charter, “Islamic health promotion and interculturalization,” Health Promotion
International, 14(4), 347–353. We would also like to thank the Canadian Cancer Society
for the permission to use several figures including Figure 4.1, The structure of a neuron,
Figure 4.3, The central nervous system and Figure 4.4, Lobes of the brain, https://www.can
cer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-type/brain-spinal/brain-and-spinal-tumours/the-brain-
and-spinal-cord/?region=on (permission 10th June 2020). Thank you to Umair Mudassar,
Lecturer, Riphah Institute of Clinical and Professional Psychology, who designed some of
the figures in the book.
I would like to acknowledge the contributions of my teachers who enabled me, through
my own reflective practices, to understand Islam and from their guidance to follow the right
path. Finally, whatever benefits and correctness you find within this book are out of the Grace
of Allah, Alone, and whatever mistakes you find are mine alone. I pray to Allah to forgive
me for any unintentional shortcomings regarding the contents of this book and to make this
humble effort helpful and fruitful to any interested parties.
Whatever of good befalls you, it is from Allah; and whatever of ill befalls you, it is from
yourself. [An-Nisā' (The Women) 4:79]
Part I
Islamic psychology
Chapter 1
Islamic psychology
Context, defnitions and perspectives
Learning outcomes
• Define psychology from a secular perspective.
• Identify the contributions of the Islamisation of knowledge movement in the develop-
ment of Islamic psychology.
• Identify the problems and issues associated with the secularisation of psychology.
• Discuss the relationship of the Qur’an and psychology.
• Discuss the concept of Islamic psychology.
• Formulate your own definition of Islamic psychology.
• Discuss the different approaches to Islamic psychology.
Introduction
The past decades have seen a proliferation of literature on the soul-searching for an agreed
definition, theoretical or conceptual model of Islamic psychology, and its clinical applica-
tion. Various definitions and attempts to develop a theoretical model, organisational develop-
ment and a model of the soul have been met with a degree of success (Kaplick and Skinner,
2017; Al-Karam, 2018a,b; Rothman and Coyle, 2018; Keshavarzi et al., 2020). However
secular contemporary psychology has been promoted on a global scale, and its dominance
has remained unchallenged in most academic institutions in the developing world, especially
in majority-Muslim countries. Many Muslim psychologists have been educated in mostly
Western universities or even in their own countries have remained in a “psycho-secular
bubble.” It is apparent in many Muslim majority countries that the indigenous clinical and
counselling psychologists have not only been acculturated by the Orientalist approach to
psychology but also have internalised values which are alien to both their culture and Islamic
traditions. Some of them have turned into the Muslim Freud with all the psychobabble of the
Oedipus and Electra complexes and psychosexual development, and have followed blindly
their “master’s voice.” This state of affairs resonates with the experiences of Malik Badri
during his first lecture on Islamisation in 1963. Badri states that:
The lay audience liked it but my colleagues in the Department of Psychology were not
happy with it. They prided themselves as scientists being guided by a neutral value-
free scientific method in which there was no room for religious “dogma”. They used to
4 Islamic psychology
sarcastically ask me, “Is there a fasiq or evil physics or an un-Islamic chemistry? Then
why speak to us about an Islamic psychology? If you do not accept Freudian psychoa-
nalysis, then show us a better way to treat the emotionally disturbed.”
(Khan, 2015, p.161)
The emergence, current conceptualisations and the status of Islamic psychology should be
viewed in their broader context, namely, the Islamisation of knowledge (IOK) movement.
The Islamisation of knowledge movement gained momentum in the 1970s with the rise of the
plight of the Muslim Ummah, the secularisation of the educational system in Muslim major-
ity countries, the global re-awakening of Islamic consciousness and the concern of Muslim
scholars towards the adoption of Western-oriented values and life-styles by Muslims. The
concept of Islamisation of knowledge was proposed by Al-Attas (1978) who refers it to “The
liberation of man first from magical, mythological, animistic, national-cultural tradition, and
then from secular control over his reason and his language” (p.41). Al-Faruqi (1982) char-
acterises “Islamisation of knowledge” as “Recasting knowledge according to Islamic tenets.
It includes various activities including removing dichotomy between modern and traditional
systems of education and producing university level textbooks” (pp.13, 48). According to
Ragab (1999), Islamisation refers to the “Integration of Islamic revealed knowledge and the
human sciences.” In this context, Islamisation of knowledge also refers to the “Islamisation
of contemporary or present-day knowledge.” Yusuf (2015) argues that Islamisation of
knowledge
is an attempt to fashion out an Islamic paradigm of knowledge based on the Islamic

world view and its unique constitutive concepts and factors. This is because the knowl-
edge as conceived in the West is value laden and has detached itself from Tawhid (unic-
ity and sovereignty of God).
(p.69)
Dzilo (2012) maintains that the concept of “Islamisation of knowledge is not monosemous
but involves multiple approaches to the various forms of modern-world thought in the con-
text of the Islamic intellectual tradition, including metaphysical, epistemological, ethical and
methodological premises regarding the modern issue of knowledge” (p.247). This means
the integration of Islamic theology with scientific knowledge and evidence-based practice in
diverse disciplines including psychology, sociology, health and medical sciences, econom-
ics and finance. This would result in psychological knowledge based on an Islamic world-
view. Rassool (2019b; 2020) suggests that for psychology, the process of desecularisation
has begun, and efforts are being made to reconstruct psychology based upon an Islamic epis-
temological paradigm. Perhaps we need to be reminded of a takeaway message from Malik
Badri, the Father of contemporary Islamic psychology, that not all of Western psychology
needs to be Islamised. Badri (1979) comments
We do not need to Islamise psychophysics or the physiology of sight and hearing and
the anatomy of the eye and ear. Nor do we need to Islamise studies about the role of the
brain neurotransmitter serotonin in our sleep behaviour and in adjusting our body clock,
the role of the hormone noradrenalin in setting our energy level nor the influence of caf-
feine, alcohol or heroine on the human nervous system. We do not need to develop our
own Islamic statistical psychology or to raise an ethical battle against neutral theories of
learning. Such areas, as I said are “no man’s land” between psychology and other exact
sciences.
(p.9)
Contemporary psychology: Defnitions

Psychology is a multifaceted discipline and as a science deals with the study of the nature
of behaviour and experience. As a science, psychology attempts to study nature and nur-
ture; our cognitive process; emotional behaviour; normal behaviour and abnormal behaviour;
animal behaviour; social and collective behaviour; evolutionary behaviour; biological bases
of behaviour; developmental process; organizational behaviour; health behaviours and ill-
nesses; and how can we modify or change our behaviour. These are the objects of psycho-
logical investigation through research and the use of the scientific method, which entails
observation, experiment, cause and effect, comparison, generalisation and robust analysis
of data. The main goals of psychology are to describe, explain, predict and change human
behaviours and mental processes.
Psychology, etymologically, means the science of the soul, that is, “psyche” means “breath,
spirit, soul” and “logia” means “study of” or “research” (Online Etymology Dictionary,
2020).
Psychology is a new scientific discipline, though its origins can be traced back to ancient
Greece, 400–500 years bc, and the emphasis was a philosophical one. The intellectual dis-
course of philosophers including Socrates, Plato and Aristotle focuses on the nature, origin
and the destiny of the human soul, free will vs. determinism, nature vs. nurture, attraction,
memory and consciousness, etc. The question of nature and environment factors was hotly
debated, for example, Plato argued that certain kinds of knowledge are innate or inborn,
whereas Aristotle believed that each child is born as an “blank slate” (in Latin, tabula rasa)
and that knowledge is primarily acquired through learning and experience. The “tabula rasa”
phenomenon was the seed of a school later known as behaviourism or the behaviourist school
of psychology.
The label psychologia (or psychology) was first used by Marko Marulić in his book,
Psichiologia de Ratione Animae Humanae in the late 15th century or early 16th century
(Krstic, 1964). In the English language, the earliest known reference to the word psychol-
ogy was by Steven Blankaart in The Physical Dictionary which refers to “Anatomy, which
treats the Body, and Psychology, which treats of the Soul,” in 1694 (Colman, 2014). There
are several stages in the definition and study of psychology from a historical viewpoint (see
Figure 1.1).
• First stage: Psychology was defined as the “study of the soul or spirit.”
• Second stage: It was again defined as the “study of the mind” (Christian Wolff's
Psychologia Empirica, 1732).
• Third stage: William James (1890), psychology as the “Study of science of mental life,
both of its phenomena and their conditions.” John B. Watson (1913), psychology as the
acquisition of information useful to the control of behaviour.
• Fourth stage: Psychology as the study of human behaviour and experiences and the
“study of total behaviour” (consciousness and unconsciousness).
Fourth Stage
Second Stage
Study of Total Behaviour:
Study of the Study of the Study of Consciousness and
Soul Mind Consciousness Unconsciousness
First Stage Third Stage
Figure 1.1 Stages in the study of psychology.
The American Psychological Association (2020) defines psychology as “the study of the
mind and behaviour. Psychology is a diverse discipline, grounded in science, but with nearly
boundless applications in everyday life.” Another definition of psychology is that it is
the scientific study of the mind and how it dictates and influences our behaviour, from
communication and memory to thought and emotion. It’s about understanding what
makes people tick and how this understanding can help us address many of the problems
and issues in society today.
(British Psychological Society)
The definitions of psychology from the literature vary from the scientific study of the human
behaviour and experience, to the study of the human mind, its functions and behaviour, and
the study of consciousness and unconsciousness. However, some psychologists deny the
reality of the unconscious, and a significant majority deny the reality of the soul.
Secularisation of psychology: Whose problem is it anyway?

Historically, before the separation of science and religion and the emergence of the
Western scientific paradigm, the study of the soul held a prominent place in discussions
related to psychology. The formal separation of science and religion is the result, in part,
of the secularisation of Western contemporary societies. This alienation of religion within
the paradigm of “soulless” psychology means that “religious ideas, practice, and organiza-
tions lose their influence in the face of scientific and other knowledge” (McLeish, 1995,
p.668). The emphasis on the secularisation of modern psychology is based on the premise
that religion is based upon faith which cannot be evaluated by objective methods, whereas
science is based on empiricism and experimentation in order to establish facts that are
verifiable.
According to this philosophy, “the universe is self-sufficient, without supernatural cause or
control, and that in all probability the interpretation of the world given by sciences is the only
satisfactory explanation of reality” (Honer et al., 2015). Heiman (1998) maintains that “Faith
is the acceptance of the truth of a statement without questions or needing proof,” and scien-
tists, “question and ask for proof” (p.7). Reber (2006) asserts that “although secularisation
has changed the nature and quality of the relationship between psychology and religion it
has not undone the relationship altogether. Religion still matters for many people, including
psychologists, at some level” (p.194).
What is of interest here is the work of William James (1902/1999) in The Varieties of
Religious Experience, because he warned about the separation of religious experience from
the academic pursuit of understanding human behaviour. James argued that,
to describe the world with all the various feelings of the individual pinch of destiny, all
the various spiritual attitudes, left out from the description—they being as describable as
anything else—would be something like offering a printed bill of fare as the equivalent
for a solid meal.
(p.543)
He made three cardinal points: There is a variety of feelings, attitudes and experience that
are religious in nature and significant to human life; religious experiences are as describable
as any other human experience; and any description of human life that excludes religious
experience will be incomplete in understanding human behaviour.
The problem with secular psychologists including Muslim psychologists in the “lizard’s
hole” (see below) is the failure to include ethical behaviours or ethical intelligence within
the paradigm of secular psychology. However, despite their recognition of the inclusion
of a “Code of Ethics” for therapy or research involving animals or human participants,
they still reject that human ethics and values form part of the dimensions of psychology. A
more integrated psychology of the 21st century, rather than being stuck in its colonial and
Orientalist past, would have ethics and human values of what is right or wrong, good or evil,
“as philosophical and religious issues like ethics, human values, aesthetics, and the nature
of life have everything to do with psychology” (Reber, 2006, p.200). In summary, Badri
(1979) makes this position clear in relation to the “soullessness of Western psychology” by
stating that
There is no mention at all of the other aspects of man. The religious, the spiritual or at
least the transcendental … Criteria which fail to include the spiritual side of man can
only find anchorage in a society blinded by materialism. In such a society, the behaviour
of spiritually motivated practising individuals may brand them as misfits, eccentrics or
abnormal.
(p.24)
The main limitations of contemporary secular psychology are presented in Table 1.1.
Despite the claim that psychology is a science, Kuhn (1962) argues as a science emerges
and develops, it progresses through four distinct stages: Pre-paradigm, normal science/para-
digm, crisis and revolution. Since psychology is in the initial pre-paradigm stage, it is some-
what fragmented and characterised by eclecticism (Kuhn, 1962; Sankey, 2002). That is, the
theoretical and conceptual framework and approaches, methodologies and techniques are
eclectic and derived from a broad and diverse range of sources. Others believe that psychol-
ogy has already experienced scientific revolutions. Whether it is pre-paradigm or not should
not distract from the fact that the source of psychology is based on philosophical discourse
and the study of the human soul.
Table 1.1 Limitations of secular psychology
Authors Limitations of secular psychology
Badri (1979) p.24 “Criteria which fail to include the spiritual side of man can only fnd
anchorage in a society blinded by materialism. In such a society, the
behaviour of spiritually motivated practising individuals may brand
them as misfts, eccentrics or abnormal.”
D’Souza and Rodrigo Lack of cultural sensitivity and competence in dealing with clients’
(2004) religious beliefs and practices.
James (1902/1999) Any description of human life that excludes religious experience will be
incomplete and will fail to provide a full and rich understanding of
human life.
Plato (trans by Jowett, “The cure of the part should not be attempted without treatment of
1982) the whole. No attempt should be made to cure the body without
the soul. Let no one persuade you to cure the head until he has frst
given you his soul to be cured, for this is the great error of our day,
that physicians frst separate the soul from the body.”
Reber (2006) p.200 Exclusion of ethics, human values and the nature of life. What is right
or wrong, good or evil?
Reber (2006) p.196 “Modern secularism results in an incomplete psychology of human life
because it excludes many religious aspects of life that are widespread
and important to many people, including many psychologists.”
Richards and Bergin, Scientifc naturalism provides an impoverished view of human nature
(2005) p.37 and does not adequately account for the complexities and mysteries
of life and of the universe.
Zaraboso (2002) p.49 Humans are viewed as independent of their Creator and Lord.
Zaraboso (2002) p.49 Theories are based upon human intellect alone, while
discounting revelation from the Creator.
Zaraboso (2002) p.49 Knowledge and research focus only on the tangible aspects
of humans, while ignoring the spiritual and unseen elements.
Zaraboso (2002) p.49 Behaviours are generally seen to be determined solely by
drives, refexes, conditioning and social infuences.
Zaraboso (2002) Dangers of fabricated or secular theories: Leading people to the wrong
pp.44–45 path for spiritual purifcation.
People are duped into thinking theories that are supported by false but
cleverly stated arguments are true and benefcial.
The end result is that people can become blind to their misguidedness.
Utz (2011) p.29 The secular defnition of psychology “assumes that we were put in this
world and left to our own devices, without any divine intervention.”
The Qur’an and psychology

• Indeed, We sent down to you the Book for the people in truth. So, whoever is guided - it
is for [the benefit of] his soul; and whoever goes astray only goes astray to its detriment.
And you are not a manager over them. (Az-Zumar 39:41)
The Qur’an is a guidance for the whole of mankind, not just the believers. The message of
the Qur’an has reference to individual self-care, relationships, family, marriage, social wel-
fare, embryological and developmental stages, emotional behaviours, prosocial behaviours,
spiritual and ethical intelligence, personality, need for learning and knowledge and many
other holistic facets of human behaviours and experiences. In addition, there are proscribed
behaviours including suicide, sexual perversions, gambling, alcohol and drug misuse, crime
and racial discrimination. Though the Qur’an is not an encyclopaedia of health, it is a spir-
itual, social, psychological and economic guide in the understanding of human behaviours
and experiences. The messages of the Qur’an that Allah has revealed are crystal clear, and
these messages are to be implemented as a complete way of life for all mankind. The verses
of the Qur’an encourage us to repeatedly “reflect” on its contents, and to understand, think
and put into practice its messages and commands. From its teachings, we discover that at
the core, we are both physical and spiritual beings who are in need of the purification of the
soul and to sustain a connection with our Creator, Allah. The psychological language of the
Qur’an depicts all kinds of human behaviours and psychological experiences. Utz (2011)
suggested that
Our thoughts, emotions, will and behaviour must focus on attaining the pleasure of
Allah. The key to sound mental health and well-being from the Islamic perspective is
submission to Allah, the Exalted, the Almighty and His commandments, and to subse-
quently purifying the soul.
(p.25)
Allah states in the Qur’an (interpretation of the meaning):
• We have not neglected in the Register a thing. (Al-An'am 6:38)
In the above verse, Allah mentions that nothing has been neglected in this Register (Qur’an)
and that the knowledge about all things is with Allah. According to the Islamic perspec-
tive, the primary source of knowledge and authority in Islam is divine knowledge from the
Qur’an, and guidance from the Traditions (Sunnah) of Prophet Muhammed ( ). Allah, the
Almighty, has the knowledge of everything and knows us better than we know ourselves.
Allah says in the Qur’an (interpretation of the meaning):
• And with Him are the keys of the unseen; none knows them except Him. And He knows
what is on the land and in the sea. Not a leaf falls but that He knows it. And no grain is
there within the darknesses of the earth and no moist or dry [thing] but that it is [written]
in a clear record. (Al-An'am 6:59)
• And We have already created man and know what his soul whispers to him, and We are
closer to him than [his] jugular vein. (Qaf 50:16)
So, Allah knows what is in our heart and soul. According to Ibn Kathir, the above verse (Qaf
50:16) means that “Allah the Exalted affirms His absolute dominance over mankind, being
their Creator and the Knower of everything about them. Allah the Exalted has complete
knowledge of all thoughts that cross the mind of man, be they good or evil.” It has been sug-
gested that
Revelation is the foundation upon which all knowledge is built; it is perfect and complete.
This reflects the Muslims’ firm and unwavering belief in their scripture (the Qur’an) as
the final revealed word of Allah, a conviction that is unique to Islam.
(Utz, 2011, p.39)
One of the first verses of the Qur’an notes this fact (interpretation of the meaning):
• This is the Book about which there is no doubt, a guidance for those conscious of Allah.
(Al-Baqarah 2:2)
The divine knowledge of the Qur’an is knowledge of an infinite nature. Allah says in the
Qur’an (interpretation of the meaning):
• Say, “If the sea were ink for [writing] the words of my Lord, the sea would be exhausted
before the words of my Lord were exhausted, even if We brought the like of it as a sup-
plement.” (Al-Kahf 18:109)
This means, according to Ibn Kathir, “Say, O Muhammad, if the water of the sea were ink for
a pen to write down the words, wisdom and signs of Allah, the sea would run dry before it
all could be written down. (even if We brought like it) means, another sea, then another, and
so on, additional seas to be used for writing. The Words of Allah would still never run out.”
Knowledge is also gained from sense perception and rationalism (logical reasoning), and
these sources should not be neglected. Giving priority to revelation does not debase science,
knowledge from empiricism, intuition and reason. However, scientific evidence would be
judged and evaluated according to the criteria of divine revelation. Muslim psychologists
should attempt to put Islamic ethical considerations before rationality, and empirical evi-
dence, and these should become secondary to the primary source. Enquiring or probing is
permissible in Islam so as to arrive at the truth (Leaman, 2006, p.571). This is reflected in the
following verse (interpretation of the meaning):
• And [mention] when Abraham said, “My Lord, show me how You give life to the dead.”
[Allah] said, “Have you not believed?” He said, “Yes, but [I ask] only that my heart may be
satisfied.” [ Allah ] said, “Take four birds and commit them to yourself. Then [after slaugh-
tering them] put on each hill a portion of them; then call them – they will come [flying] to
you in haste. And know that Allah is Exalted in Might and Wise.” (Al-Baqarah 2:260)
From the verse shown above, it has been suggested that it is evident that Allah entertained
the query [from Prophet Abraham] (Leaman, 2006, p.572). In fact, mankind has been asked
repeatedly in the Qur’an to contemplate and reflect on the working of nature, paying attention
to the signs that they can find within themselves or in the universe and find out the truths. The
following two verses illustrate the contemplation and reflection of the universe. Allah says in
the Qur’an (interpretation of the meaning):
• Say, “Observe what is in the heavens and earth.” But of no avail will be signs or warners
to a people who do not believe. (Yunus 10:101)
• We will show them Our signs in the horizons and within themselves until it becomes
clear to them that it is the truth. But is it not sufficient concerning your Lord that He is,
over all things, a Witness? (Fussilat 41:53)
It is important to note that
the Qur’an was revealed “to the heart” of the Prophet Muhammad ( ) by [Angel]
Gabriel (Al-Baqarah 2.97). At (Ash-Shu’ara 26.193–194) we read that it was transmitted
by the faithful spirit (Ruh) “upon your heart”, thus cementing the links between the
heart (Qalb) of humanity and the spirit (Ruh) or [Angel] Gabriel. The psychology of
the Qur’an takes seriously the idea that we are in between the material and the spiritual.
(Leaman, 2006, p.441)
Evolution of Islamic psychology: Context

During the 20th century, there was an awakening of the Muslim Ummah regarding the
encroaching secular ideologies in education and the social sciences. The evolution or the
“Dodo Bird Revival” (coined by Rassool, 2019) of Islamic psychology did not material-
ise in a vacuum. Several Islamic movements, including the Association of Muslim Social
Scientists (AMSS), scholars, theologians and revivalists had a significant influence on the
“Islamisation of knowledge.” One of the fundamental question of the First World Conference
on Muslim Education, held in 1977, was whether partial acceptance of the “Western” mode
of secular thought in the field of the social sciences is actually possible without a detrimental
impact on the Islamic way of life and thinking. The recommendation made for the social sci-
ences was that the disciplines should be reformulated from an Islamic perspective regarding
man and society. Further developments arose as Professor Ismail Raji al-Faruqi founded the
International Institute of Islamic Thought (IIIT) in the USA, 1981, with the aim of launching
a programme of activities concerned with the integration of the revealed Islamic sciences and
secular sciences under the rubric of Islamisation of knowledge. Professor Syed Muhammad
Naquib Al-Attas founded the International Institute of Islamic Thought and Civilisation with
the aim to uphold the vision of the First World Conference on Muslim Education. There
are several scholars and polymaths, who had contributed to the spiritual development and
Islamic perspective on psychology, who directly or indirectly had a significant influence on
the Islamisation of knowledge. These include Aḥmad al-Fārūqī al-Sirhindī, Shāh Walīullāh
Dehlawī (also Shah Wali Allah), Allama Muhammad Iqbal, and Maulana Abul A’la Maududi
and Sayyed Hossein Nasr. Despite four decades of achievements in the recommendations of
the World Conferences on Muslim Education in various projects, “the task of Islamisation of
Social Sciences and Social Studies has not proceeded as desired” (Saqeb, 2000, p.64).
It is against this background in the late 1970s that Badri (1979) in The Dilemma of Muslim
Psychologists cautioned Muslim psychologists of blind copying (psychological Taqleed) of
Western, non-Islamic ideas and practices. The book was based on a paper entitled: “Muslim
Psychologists in the Lizard’s Hole” read in 1975 at the fourth annual convention of the
Association of Muslim Social Scientists (AMSS) of the United States and Canada. The “liz-
ard’s hole” is a Prophetic Hadith. It was narrated from Abu Hurairah that the Messenger of
Allah ( ) said:
You will most certainly follow the ways of those who came before you, arm’s length by
arm’s length, forearm’s length by forearm’s length, hand span by hand span, until even
if they entered a hole of a mastigure (lizard) you will enter it too.
They said: “O Messenger of Allah, (do you mean) the Jews and the Christians?” He said:
“Who else?” (Ibn Majah).
In the sphere of Islamisation, it has been reported that “Badri was greatly influenced by
the writings of Mohammad Qutb, particularly his book titled Islam: ‘The Misunderstood
Religion’ and by the writings of Mawdudi [Abul A’la Maududi]” (Khan, 2015, p.160). In the
psychological field, he was influenced by both Hans Eysenck, of the Institute of Psychiatry,
Maudsley and Bethlem Hospital, London, and Joseph Wolpe, a South African psychiatrist
and one of the most influential figures in behaviour therapy, and Victor Meyer, behaviour
therapist at the Middlesex Hospital Medical School. Badri’s (1979) warning was to save
Muslim psychologists from being trapped in the “lizard’s hole” that is implicit in other dis-
ciplines of human life and thoughts. However, five decades have passed since the cautionary
observations from Badri about the blind following of secular psychology and the develop-
ment of an Islamic paradigm of psychology. Since then, there have been some significant
world-wide developments, slowly but surely, in Islamic psychology and psychotherapy.
Haque et al. (2016) in a review of literature identified five themes that have emerged over a
period of nine years. The five themes emerged are:
1) Unification of western psychological models with Islamic beliefs and practices; 2)

Research on historical accounts of Islamic Psychology and its rebirth in the modern
era; 3) Development of theoretical models and frameworks within Islamic Psychology;
4) Development of interventions and techniques within Islamic psychology; and 5)
Development of assessment tools and scales normed for use with Muslims.
(p.78)
More recently, the literature has been augmented with Islamic Counselling: An Introduction
to Theory and Practice (Rassool, 2016); an Islamic theory of human psychology has been
developed through empirical research (Rothman and Coyle, 2018); integrating the Islamic
faith with modern psychotherapy (Al-Karam ed., 2018a); and the clinical application of
Traditional Islamically Integrated Psychotherapy (TIIP) (Keshavarzi et al., 2020). In sum,
what is at stake is the percolation of the theoretical or conceptual framework of Islamic psy-
chology, and the application of integrated psychotherapeutic techniques down to the grass-
root levels, to become available to practitioners in the field for use in their clinical practice,
remains distant. The biggest disappointment after more than five decades of the “evolution
of Islamic psychology” is that there is a dearth of educational framework and curriculum
development in the integration of Islamic ethics in psychology. Despite the absence of edu-
cational philosophy and curriculum approaches in Islamic psychology, this has not deterred
some institutions from developing professional continuing courses in Islamic psychology,
psychotherapy and counselling.
Concept of Islamic psychology

In the literature, the use of the concept of Islamic psychology also denotes Islamic psycho-
therapy and counselling. Islamic psychology or ʿilm al-Nafs or the science of the Nafs (soul
or self) is the philosophical study of the soul from an Islamic perspective. Muslim scholars
have used various terms to describe the concept of Islamic psychology and psychotherapy
including Tibb al-nufus, Ilaj al-nafs, al-Tibb al-ruhaniy, Tahdhib al-nufus, Tathir al-nufus,
Tazkiyat al-nafs, Tasfiyat al-nufus and Mudawat al-nufus, etc. (Sham, 2015). Other scholars
labelled Islamic psychology (or purification of the soul or refinement of the soul) in the fol-
lowing ways:
• Miskawayh in ‘Tahdhib al-akhlaq’: Tib al-nufus; Atibba’ al-nufus; or c Ilaj al-nafs in

the same book.
• Abu Bakar al-Razi in al-Tibb al-ruhani: al-Tibb al-ruhani.

• Ibn Bajjah’s 'Ilm al-nafs: Ibn Bajjah’s Psychology.
• Ibn al-Qayyim al-Jawziyya in ‘Risalat fi amrad al-qulub’: c Ilaj al-nafs.
• Shaykh ibn Ata Allah 'Sakandari in ‘Taj Al-Arus Al-Hawi Li Tahdhib Al-Nufus’: Tahdhib
al-nufus.
• Muhammad c Uthman Najati in ‘A1-Hadith al-Nabawi wa ilm al-Nafs’: c Ilaj al-nafs.
In contemporary times, Islamic psychology has been defined according to the author’s orien-
tation to the “Islam and psychology movement” (Kaplick and Skinner, 2017). Some defini-
tions are clearly defined, at times too comprehensively to be operationally used, and others
are an amalgam of psychology and Islam. A few definitions can easily be labelled as “old
wine in a new bottle.” Al-Karam (2018b) argues that
A review of a number of publications that have the term “Islamic Psychology” [IP] in
the title reveals two basic trends: scholars either talk about IP without defining it, as if
the reader is supposed to know what the author means by the term or as if it some clearly
defined and well-understood concept, or they define it, but provide no discussion of the
methodology used to come up with the definition. Both trends are problematic.
(pp.99–100)
Let us examine some definitions of Islamic psychology. Although there is no single standard
definition, if one examines the many definitions that have been proposed, there are some sim-
ilarities between definitions. In some cases, different definitions, suitably interpreted, actually
say the same thing but in different words. This is purely a subjective selection.
One comprehensive definition of Islamic psychology is from the International Association
of Islamic Psychology (2018).
Psychology, as it is generally practiced, only represents a part of the whole. Often the
soul is not taken into account. Islamic psychology is a holistic approach that endeav-
ours to better understand the nature of the self and the soul and the connection of the
soul to the Divine. It conceptualizes the human being with a focus on the heart as the
centre of the person more so than the mind and is grounded in the teachings of the
Qur’an, Prophetic teachings, and the knowledge of the soul from the Islamic tradition.
Islamic psychology embraces modern psychology, traditional spirituality, metaphysics
and ontology.
The definition from International Association of Islamic Psychology is an explanation of

what is lacking with contemporary psychology but provide some elements of Islamic psy-
chology based on al-Ghazâlî’s concept of the soul. The definition incorporates the science
of contemporary psychology. Another comprehensive definition is from Al-Karam (2018b).
An interdisciplinary science where psychology subdisciplines and/or related disciplines

engage scientifically about a particular topic and at a particular level with various Islamic
sects, sources, sciences, and/or schools of thought using a variety of methodological
tools.
(pp.101–102)
The above definition is based on “The Multilevel Interdisciplinary Paradigm” and
This structure serves as a template for how to think about complex and multidimensional
disciplines, such as Islamic Psychology, that are inherently interdisciplinary. The tem-
plate then serves as a methodology for defining the discipline because it is the structure
of the model itself that provides it.
(Al-Karam, 2018b, p.101)
In doing so Al-Karam incorporates all the psychology disciplines and their application to
all Islamic sects, despite cultural and religious differences, under the umbrella of Islamic
psychology. Though this is a comprehensive definition by Al-Karam, the main concern
is its fuzziness in contents and approach. The definition focuses on a “one-size-fits-all”
paradigm and reads more like the principles of Islamic psychology rather than a defini-
tion. However, Al-Karam (2020) has provided a refined vision of Islamic psychology. She
maintains that “That vision portrays IP [Islamic psychology] as having an inner [batin]
dimension and an outer [dhahir] dimension and that we should think about it as an integral
part of the psychology mainstream.” More refinement is needed for this to be fully accepted
as a valid definition. In the same tone, Kaplick and Skinner (2017) did not define Islamic
psychology but “Islam and psychology” (referring to the broader movement that relates
Islam to psychology in general), is “the interdisciplinary field that explores human nature in
relation to Islamic sources and which uses this knowledge to bring human beings into their
best possible state, physically, spiritually, cognitively, and emotionally” (p.199). This is a
holistic definition of Islam and psychology involving all the dimensions of human nature
using knowledge from Islamic sources. Does this mean that knowledge from other sources
will not be entertained?
The next categories are definitions of Islamic psychology focusing on the Qur’an, Sunnah,
Shari’ah, etc. For instance, Begum (2016) states that
Islamic psychology (Ilm Ul Nafs) is the study of the “self” (nafs) or the “psyche” from an
Islamic perspective with concepts that are not included in Western forms of studying the
field i.e. the unseen influences, the impact of destiny, the sway of the Shaytaan [devil]
and the inclusion of the soul.
This definition has themes such as the self (Nafs), unseen influences (Ghayb), destiny
(Qadar) and control of the devil. This definition is like a mini encyclopaedia of the Qur’an
and implicit in the “definition” is that the Nafs is not perceived as the soul. Other authors like
Siddiqui and Malek (1996) view Islamic psychology as the application of Shar’iah. They sug-
gest that Islamic psychology is “the study of persons who have complete surrender and sub-
mission and obey the laws of God.” It is quite a surprising definition, and it is totally unclear
how they arrived at that definition. Perhaps what they mean is that by submission to Allah by
obeying His command and laws, people may be able to purify themselves. In a similar tone,
Vahab (1996) defines Islamic psychology as “the study of the manifestation of God in nature
as reflected in the behavioural patterns of all living and non-living organisms in all walks of
their lives using the Islamic paradigms.” Yet again, it is unclear what the author’s intention
is in his definition.
Betteridge (2012) views Islamic psychology as relating
to all aspects of Islamic teaching from the Holy Qur’an, Hadith and Sunnah which
directly mention or relate to aspects of the human psyche, with particular emphasis on
maintaining a healthy mental state or causes and treatments of an unhealthy mental state.
(p.6)
Abdul Aziz (2018) views Islamic psychology as
the psychology of Self (al-Nafs) and specifically, it is the psychology of spirituality

Islamic psychology stresses the idea of spiritual psychology as being the foundation to
the development of human personality. In Islamic psychology, the Self conforms to its
fitrah and it is consistent with the teachings of the Qur’an) and Hadith (s).
Alizi (2017) defines Islamic psychology as “The scientific study of manifestation of the soul
in the form of behaviour and mental process.” Alizi’s definition has the dual components of
using scientific methodologies (Qur’anic sciences and scientific method) and also the inclu-
sion of the soul. According to Alizi, the “definition will make Muslim psychologists use soul
as the general framework in interpreting psychological data (behaviour and mental processes)
instead of the limited approach of biological, psychodynamic, behavioural, humanistic, and
cognitive perspectives in psychology.”
One of the classical and operational definitions of psychology is from Utz (2011). She
defined Islamic psychology as “the study of the soul; the ensuing behavioural, emotional,
and mental processes; and both the seen and unseen aspects that influence these elements”
(p.34). For Utz, it is the soul that drives human behaviour, emotions and mental processes.
The essence of man is spiritual and metaphysical. According to Utz (2011),
since its [the soul] true nature is spiritual, the soul requires a spiritual connection to its
source, the Creator, just as the body requires food and water to survive. In the Islamic
conceptualisation of psychology, aspects of both the seen and unseen world may influ-
ence humans. Islamic psychology incorporates additional aspects of the unseen world to
explain human nature.
(p.35)
However, this definition has been criticised by Muslim secular psychologists on the grounds
that it deals with the soul or the unseen aspects that influence behaviours and experiences.
The current scientific paradigm with its secular approach fails to recognise this spiritual
dimension of life. However, Utz’s definition has been very popular with students of Islamic
psychology because of its simplicity, and because it is easy to comprehend and can be related
to the real work. It encapsulates what Islamic psychology is and should be without the verbi-
age that accompanies most definitions in the current literature.
This final definition of Islamic psychology was generated at a workshop on “Islamic
Psychology Curriculum Development” at the Riphah Institute of Clinical and Professional
Psychology and the Centre for Islamic Psychology, Riphah International University, Pakistan,
in February 2020. Small groups of participants were formed, and their task was to come up
Figure 1.2 Conceptual defnition of Islamic psychology.
with a number of definitions of Islamic psychology. Through the process of elimination, a

final definition was selected by the 20 participants. The definition is that
Islamic Psychology is the study of the soul, mental processes and behaviour according to
the principles of psychology and Islamic sciences.
(Rassool et al., 2020)
In the conceptualisation of Islamic psychology, aspects of the soul and cognitive, affective
and behavioural processes are studied within the evidence-based paradigm (compatible with
Islamic beliefs and practices) and Islamic sciences. This definition and its conceptual frame-
work are still under construction. Figure 1.2 depicts the conceptual definition of Islamic
psychology.
The above section has demonstrated that definitions of Islamic psychology are not a homo-
geneous academic entity. In reality, there will be multiple definitions of Islamic psychology
based on the school of thought, orientation and worldview of the author(s). If Islamic psy-
chology is considered to be holistic in approach, thus diversity in definitions and approaches
will be on the agenda of both academics and clinicians. Table 1.2 presents a summary of the
themes of Islamic psychology from the literature.
Whither psychology?
There is already a divergence of opinions of what constitutes Islamic psychology, and the
same is applicable to Islamic psychotherapy and counselling. A number of schools of thought
have emerged in the midst of this knowledge gap. However, before examining the differ-
ent schools of thought, it is valuable to consider the different kinds of Islamic psychology.
Since the 20th century many kinds of “Islamic psychology” have been developed. Ashraf Ali
Thanvi (1873–1943), referred to as the “Physician of the Muslims” [Hakim al-ummat], can
be regarded as “Hakim-Psychologist.” He used various psychosocial and spiritual interven-
tions in the treatment of psychological and spiritual disorders. There is Muslim psychology,
developed in Pakistan in the late 1970s by A. A. Rizvi and the establishment of the Institute
of Muslim Psychology. Muslim psychology is also taught as a module in the undergraduate
Table 1.2 A summary of the themes of Islamic psychology
Authors Themes of Islamic psychology
Mohamed (1995, 2009) Fitra

Shafi (1985); Skinner (1989); Haeri (1989) Sufsm (Tasawwuf)
Khalil (2014) Rida
Koshravi and Bagheri (2006) Action
Siddiqui and Malek (1996) Complete surrender and submission and obey
the laws of God
Vahab (1996) Manifestation of God in nature. Behavioural
patterns of all living. Islamic paradigm
Al-Karam (2018a,b) Tazkiyat al-nafs
Inner [batin] dimension and an outer [dhahir]
dimension
Haque and Keshavarzi (2013); York Al-Karam Islamic concepts or spiritual therapies: Dhikr,
(2015) Ruqya etc., psychotherapy
Haque (2004); Awaad and Ali (2014, 2015) Synonymous with the works: Al-Kindi, Al-Razi,
Al-Balkhi, Al-Ghazali
York Al-Karam (2018a); Keshavarzi et al. (2020) Islamically integrated psychotherapy
Utz (2011); Badri (2000) Western psychology and Islamic theology
Abu-Raiya (2012, 2014); Haque and Keshavarzi Ruh, Qalb, Aql, Nafs, Ihsas, Irada
(2013); Keshavarzi and Khan (2018); Rothman
and Coyle (2018)
Bonab and Kooshar (2011); Bonab et al. (2013) Tawheed, Taqwa, Tawba, Jihad al-Nafs
Rassool (2016); Rassool (2020) Islamic counselling
Soul, mental processes and behaviour:
Principles of psychology and Islamic sciences
Kaplick and Skinner (2017); Abu Raiya (2012) Islam and psychology
Bakhtiar (2019) Quranic psychology
Betteridge (2012) Teaching from the Holy Qur’an, Hadith and
Sunnah. Human psyche. Healthy mental
state
Younos (2017) Theo-ethics, socio-ethics and psycho-ethics
Spiritual diseases of the heart
Islamic personality theory
Muslim mental health
Psychology about Muslim, by Muslims or for
Muslims
Equate to Western conceptions (such as
Freud’s)
Reliance and attachment to God
Source: Adapted from Al-Karam (2018b, p.98).
psychology programme in four universities in Pakistan. In India, there is the Indian Council
on Islamic Perspective in Psychology (ICIPP).
Recently we have a new psychology on the scene called Quranic Psychology (Bakhtiar,
2019). It is stated in the description of the book that
Quranic Psychology has a goal—to prepare us for our return to whence we came—
to strengthen or return to our fitrat [Fitra] Allah as the monotheist we were created
to be through engaging our moral intelligence (MI). We do this, according to Quranic

Psychology, by strengthening our Nafs al-mutma’innah (’Aql, reason, intellect, spirit) to
dominate over our Nafs al-ammarah (affect-behaviour) through our reasoning, adhering
to our mind (Sadr) and Nafs al-lawwamah, bringing awareness and consciousness to
our Nafs al-mulhamah (Qalb, “heart”) of God-consciousness (Taqwa) and the constant
Presence of God in our lives.
What is of great interest and challenging is the identification of a fourth Qur’anic aspect of
the soul, the Nafs al-mulhamah (the inspired soul that fluctuates).
During the past four decades, the emergence of the “Islam and psychology” movement
(Kaplick and Skinner, 2017) has nudged Muslim psychologists, clinicians and academics to
redefine psychology and its clinical applications in order to meet the psychosocial needs of
the Muslim Ummah. Within this movement, there was a growth of a diversity of approach
in shaping a valid Islamic psychology discipline. Long (2014) suggests that approaches to
Islamic psychology “have taken one of two forms: a critical revision of Western psychol-
ogy—involving the exegesis of relevant passages from the Qur’an—or an elaboration of the
classical Islamic legacy. A theocentric-individualistic outlook marks both strands” (p.15).
This is similar to the “Filter and Islamic psychology” approaches as illustrated by Kaplick and
Skinner (2017). Kaplick and Skinner (2017) identified three broad approaches to the literature:
The Islamic filter approach, the Islamic psychology approach and the comparison approach.
• Islamic filter approach: Critical review of Western psychology paradigm but operating
within the framework of Western psychology. Incorporation of “Indigenous” psychology.
• Comparison approach: Finding a common ground between Western psychological con-
cepts and matching those concepts in Islamic sources.
• Islamic psychology approach: Emphasis on traditional Islamic thought at the foundation
of the discipline. The classical Muslim scholars as secondary sources and conceptualis-
ing Islamic psychology as being derived from Islamic sources
Seedat (2020) commented that
Both the comparison approach, attempting to demonstrate convergences, and the filter
approach, aspiring to incorporate “indigenous” Islamic psychological practices into con-
temporary psychology, seem to be referenced primarily against Western psychological
theory and thought. Whether and how knowledge from subaltern cultures may be trans-
posed to dominant ones is highly contested.
(p.2)
In contrast Rassool (2019b; 2020) has identified three schools of thoughts that have emerged
in the “Islam and psychology movement”: The Orientalist approach, Integrationist approach
and the “Tawhid Paradigm” approach. The Orientalist group, with minimalist Islamic tradi-
tions embedded within their framework, are, instead of decolonising psychology (Seedat,
2020), globalising Islamic psychology. The Integrationist group, with a mixture of orthodox
psychology, mixed with Sufi ideologies and practice, use a mixture of Islamic traditions and
folk psychology; and the “Tawhid Paradigm” approach is based on the Qur’an and Sunnah
embedded with the framework of the theory and practice of secular psychology that are con-
gruent with Islamic beliefs and practices. However all three approaches claim that they are
in line with the traditions of Ahl al-Sunnah wa’l-Jamaa’ah (those who adhere to the Sunnah
and who unite upon it, not turning to anything else, whether that be in matters of belief
(‘Aqeedah) or matters of actions which are subject to shar’i [Shari’ah] rulings) (Islam Q&A,
2001). These indicated approaches are reflected in their conceptual framework and clinical
and educational practices.
Long (2014) argues about the attempts to indigenise psychology “from within” or “from
without” are problematic. That is, it becomes apparent that attempts to indigenise psychol-
ogy are between “Scylla and Charybdis.”1 Long (2014) maintains that “indigenisation from
without” is a paradox because “Western psychology is saturated in a secular metatheory that
cannot accommodate the Islamic worldview, any attempted revision must remain, in spirit,
no different from the original articulation” (p.17). The other alternative, “indigenisation from
within,” necessitates an expansion of the work of classical Muslim scholars. Long regards
this as problematic as well. He asserts that
Early Muslim contributions to the field of psycho-spirituality were suitable for the social
constellations of the pre-modern Muslim world. In light of the present-day homogenisa-
tion of world culture, one may well ask whether Muslim societies consider traditional
forms of social organisation to be desirable any longer.
Long (2014) articulates the “indigenisation from within” approach from
Muslim apologists – many of whom have never received professional training in psy-
chology and have focused consequently on the details of Islamic spirituality to the vir-
tual exclusion of the secular discipline. In these cases, it is not psychology that is being
Islamicised but Islamic spirituality that is being advocated.
(p.17)
Whether we are able to develop a unified Islamic theoretical framework from “indigenisation
from within” and from “indigenisation from without” remains a challenge. However, in order
to have a valid and robust Islamic psychology, it must meet all the criteria to be considered
“Islamic.” That means it must adhere to authentic sources and proofs that are employed to
understand human nature and behaviour from an Islamic perspective.
Summary of key points

• The emergence, current conceptualisations and the status of Islamic psychology should
be viewed in their broader context, namely, the Islamisation of knowledge (IOK)
movement.
• Islamisation of knowledge is not monosemous but involves multiple approaches to the
various forms of modern-world thought in the context of the Islamic intellectual tra-
dition, including metaphysical, epistemological, ethical and methodological premises
regarding the modern issue of knowledge.
• Psychology is the scientific study of human behaviour and experience.
• The emphasis on the secularisation of modern psychology is based on the premise that
religion is based upon faith which cannot be evaluated by objective methods, whereas
science is based on empiricism and experimentation in order to establish facts that are
verifiable.
• The message of the Qur’an has reference to individual self-care, relationships, family,
marriage, social welfare, embryological and developmental stages, emotional behav-
iours, spiritual and ethical intelligence, personality, need for learning and knowledge and
many other holistic facets of human behaviours and experiences.
• Several Islamic movements, including the Association of Muslim Social Scientists
(AMSS), scholars, theologians and revivalists, have had significant influence on the
“Islamisation of knowledge.”
• Badri’s warning was to save Muslim psychologists being trapped in the “lizard’s hole”
that is implicit in other disciplines of human life and thoughts.
• Islamic psychology is the study of the soul, mental processes and behaviour according to
the principles of psychology and Islamic sciences.
• Whether we are able to develop a unified Islamic theoretical framework from “indigeni-
sation from within” and from “indigenisation from without” remains a challenge.
Multiple-choice questions
Identify the choice that best completes the statement or answers the question.
1. Which statement is not correct? Malik Badri, during his first lecture on Islamisation in
1963, stated that:
A. The lay audience liked the lecture.
B. His colleagues in the Department of Psychology were not happy with it.
C. Then why speak to us about an Islamic psychology? If you accept Freudian psy-
choanalysis, then show us a way to treat the emotionally disturbed.
D. They prided themselves as scientists being guided by a neutral value-free scientific
method in which there was no room for religious “dogma.”
E. They used to sarcastically ask me, “Is there a fasiq or evil physics or an un-Islamic
chemistry?”
2. The emphasis on the secularisation of modern psychology is based on the premise that
A. Religion is based upon faith which cannot be evaluated by objective methods.
B. Science is based on empiricism and experimentation in order to establish facts that
are verifiable.
C. Science is based on objectivity and experimentation in order to establish facts that
are verifiable.
D. Religion is based upon faith which can be evaluated by objective methods.
E. A and B.
3. The emergence, current conceptualisations and the status of Islamic psychology should
be viewed in their broader context, namely,
A. Islam and psychology movement
B. Islamisation of knowledge movement
C. Anti-Freudian movement
D. Indigenous psychology movement
E. Psychology and Islam movement
4. The concept of Islamisation of knowledge was proposed by
A. Al- Faruqi
B. Al-Kindi
C. Al-Qayyim
D. Al-Attas
E. Al-Rushd
5. Psychology, etymologically, means the
A. Science of the soul
B. Scientific study of human behaviour and experience
C. Study of the mind
D. Science of the spirit
E. Science of evolution
6. The second stage of the evolution of the definition of psychology is
A. Psychology was defined as the “study of the soul or spirit.”
B. William James, psychology as the “Study of science of mental life.”
C. The “study of the mind” (Christian Wolff’s “Psychologia empirica”).
D. John B. Watson, psychology as the acquisition of information useful to the control
of behaviour.
E. Study of total Behaviour (consciousness and unconsciousness).
7. The scientific study of the mind and how it dictates and influences our behaviour, from
communication and memory to thought and emotion. It is about understanding what
makes people tick and how this understanding can help us address many of the problems
and issues in society today. This definition is from the
A. Islam and psychology movement
B. Association of British Counsellors
C. American Psychological Association
D. British Psychological Society
E. International Association of Islamic Psychology
8. This psychologist warned about the separation of religious experience from the aca-
demic pursuit of understanding human behaviour.
A. B. F. Skinner
B. W. James
C. J. B. Watson
D. S. Freud
E. Al-Atas
9. Despite the claim that psychology is a science, Kuhn (1962) argues that, as a science
emerges and develops, it progresses through distinct stages. Which one is not a stage?
A. Post-paradigm
B. Pre-paradigm
C. Normal science/paradigm
D. Crisis
E. Revolution
10. “Our thoughts, emotions, will and behaviour must focus on attaining the pleasure of
Allah. The key to sound mental health and well-being from the Islamic perspective is
submission to Allah, the Exalted, the Almighty and His commandments, and to subse-
quently purifying the soul.” Who made this statement?
A. Al-Atas
B. Al-Faruqi
C. Utz
D. Al-Karam
E. Badri
11. The verse of the Qur’an “This is the Book about which there is no doubt, a guidance for
those conscious of Allah.” is from
A. Qaf 50:16
B. Al-Kahf 18:109
C. Al-An’am, 6:38
D. Al-Baqarah 2: 2
E. Al-An’am 6:59
12. This scholar founded the International Institute of Islamic Thought (IIIT) in the USA.
A. Syed Muhammad Naquib Al-Attas
B. Ismail Raji al-Faruqi
C. Sayyed Hossein Nasr
D. Malik. B. Badri
E. Shāh Walīullāh Dehlawī
13. The Dilemma of Muslim Psychologists cautioned Muslim psychologists of blind copying
(psychological Taqleed) of Western, non-Islamic ideas and practices.
A. Malik B. Badri
B. Syed Muhammad Naquib Al-Attas
C. Ismail Raji al-Faruqi
D. Sayyed Hossein Nasr
E. Shāh Walīullāh Dehlawī
14. In the sphere of Islamisation, it has been reported that Badri was greatly influenced by
the writings of
A. Mohammad Qutb
B. Abul A’la Maududi
C. Sayyed Hossein Nasr
D. A and C
E. A, B and C
15. In the sphere of psychology and behaviour therapy, Badri was greatly influenced by
A. Joseph Wolpe
B. Hans Eysenck
C. Victor Meyer
D. A, B and C
E. A and C
16. Haque et al. (2016), in a review of literature, identified themes that have emerged over a
period of nine years. Which one is not a theme?
A. Unification of Western psychological models with Islamic beliefs and practices.
B. Research on historical accounts of Islamic psychology and its rebirth in the
modern era.
C. Development of educational models and frameworks within Islamic psychology.
D. Development of interventions and techniques within Islamic psychology.
E. Development of assessment tools and scales normed for use with Muslims.
17. This definition of Islamic psychology “An interdisciplinary science where psychology
subdisciplines and/or related disciplines engage scientifically about a particular topic
and at a particular level with various Islamic sects, sources, sciences, and/or schools of
thought using a variety of methodological tools.” is from
A. C. Al-Karam
B. A. Utz
C. M. Badri
D. G. Hussein Rassool
E. R. Skinner
18. The Islam and psychology movement includes:
A. Islamic psychology
B. Muslim psychology
C. Qur’anic psychology
D. A and C only
E. All of the above
19. Indigenisation psychology from without is a paradox because
A. Western psychology is saturated in a secular metatheory that cannot accommodate
the Islamic worldview.
B. It necessitates an expansion of the work of classical Muslim scholars.
C. Eastern psychology is saturated in a secular metatheory that can accommodate the
Islamic worldview.
D. A and B.
E. A, B and C.
20. Rassool (2020) has identified schools of thoughts that have emerged in the “Islam and
psychology movement.” Which one has not?
A. Orientalist approach
B. Qur’anic approach
C. Integrationist approach
D. “Tawhid Paradigm” approach
E. None of the above
Note
1 An idiom deriving from Greek mythology, which has been associated with "to choose the lesser of
two evils."
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Chapter 2
A brief history of Islamic psychology

Origins and heritage
Learning outcomes
• Briefly explain what is meant by the Islamic Golden Age.
• Describe the contributions of the classical philosophers in the development of Islamic
psychology and therapies.
• Describe the contributions of the classical physicians in the development of Islamic psy-
chology and therapies.
• Describe the contributions of the classical theologians in the development of Islamic
psychology and therapies.
Introduction
Islam’s heritage and socio-cultural-scientific achievements is a period in the history of Islam,
traditionally dated from the 8th century to the 13th century, and known as the Islamic Golden
Age (c.786 ce to 1258 ce). The phrase “Islamic Golden Age” was coined by the 19th-century
“Orientalist” movement (Said, 1978). This Golden Age period started with the reign of the
Abbasid Caliph Harun al-Rashid (c. 786 to 809) and ended with the collapse of the Abbasid
Caliphate following the Mongol invasions and the sack of Baghdad in 1258 ce. Three main
dynasties shaped the development of the Islamic Golden Age: (1) the Abbasids in Baghdad
(750 ce-1258 ce); (2) the Fatimids in Cairo (909 ce–1171 ce); and (3) the Umayyads in
Córdoba (929 ce–1031 ce) in the west (Renima et al., 2016). This is a truly remarkable
period in human history with the inauguration of the House of Wisdom (Bait-al-Hikmah) in
Baghdad, which was a public academy, intellectual centre and library. What is remarkable,
in the annals of history, is “The accomplishments made by Islamic scholars, philosophers,
humanists, and scientists in all areas of the arts and humanities, the physical and social sci-
ences, medicine, astronomy, mathematics, finance, and Islamic and European monetary sys-
tems over a period of many centuries” (Renima et al., 2016, p.25). During the period of the
Islamic Golden Age, Europe was still in darkness and contributed comparatively little to
human intellectual discourse until a period of awakening for Europe with the emergence of
the Renaissance (period from the 14th to 17th centuries ce), and the flourishing of philoso-
phy, the arts, sciences and new political systems.
At the House of Wisdom, there were scholars from diverse communities and religio-cul-
tural backgrounds from various parts of the world who were assembled and mandated to
gather and translate all of the world’s classical knowledge, including the works of Greek
philosophers, to Syriac and then to Arabic. All these scholars made significant and lasting
contributions to Islamic intellectual and scientific achievements. In addition to Bagdad, other

Islamic capital cities, like Cairo (Egypt), and Córdoba (Spain-Andalusia), became the main
intellectual centres for the arts, science, philosophy, medicine and education. It is within this
context that Muslim scholars excelled in the areas of health, medicine and psychiatry. The
polymath scholars, including philosophers, physicians and theologians, developed theories
and various therapeutic techniques, including psychotherapy and a form of cognitive behav-
iour therapy and humane treatment for the mentally ill during this period, centuries before
the introduction of “humane” therapeutic treatment in the West. From the Judeo-Christian
tradition, medieval intellectual discourse was based largely on theology and hence tended
to be opposed to science. There have been claims made that medieval medical practitioners
were afraid to look into either normal or abnormal psychology (Zilboorg and Henry, 1941),
and that demonic possession was held to be a cause of insanity (Kemp, 1985).
The birth and evolution of ʿIlm al-Nafs, or “knowledge of the soul,” were mooted during
the period of the Islamic Golden Age. It has been suggested that
Muslim philosophers considered the quest for knowledge as a divine command, and
knowledge of the soul, and particularly of the intellect, as a critical component of this
quest. Mastery of this subject provided a framework within which the mechanics and
nature of our sensations and thoughts could be explained and integrated and offered the
epistemological foundation for every other field of inquiry.
(Ivry, 2012)
Thus, many of these classical scholars were driven by Islamic theological sources, in addition
to intuitive and rational sources, in their quest for the study of the soul and for their contribu-
tions to psychology. That is
Muslim scientists went beyond this [Deductive method] and based their investigations
on observation and experimentation. Muslim scientists Jabir Ibn Hayyan, al-Biruni,
Umar Khayyam, Ibn Sina, Ibn Yunus, al-Tusi and others all worked in their own or in
state laboratories. This had to do with their belief in the reality of this world and that
knowledge of it was possible and that knowledge of it pointed to the Creator.
(Alatas, 2006, p.120)
However, the philosophical paradigm shifted from its dualistic (mind–body problem) meta-
physical mould and were replaced by physicalism (the thesis that everything is physical) and
eventually with positivism (excluding metaphysical assumption). However, it is argued that
“psychologists do not provide scientific explanations, but rather theory-dependent interpreta-
tions” (Teo, 2018, p.103). The evolution or the resurgence of Islamic psychology has been
due to several factors, and this renewal has been coined by Rassool (2019) as the “Dodo
Bird” revival. The factors that facilitated the emergence of the Islamic Golden Age include
the emergence of a political system, economic development and trade, language and educa-
tion (Arabic was the functioning lingua franca of the period) (Renima et al., 2016); and the
emergence of “Islamic psychology” as a result of Muslim religious motivation, the quest for
knowledge and socio-political factors (Haque, 2004; Ivry, 2012).
An understanding of the origins and historical contributions of the study of Islamic psy-
chology would provide an orientation of where Islamic psychology came from, its present
status quo and where it is going. According to Awaad et al. (2020), scholars whose academic
A brief history of Islamic psychology 29
work “has contributed or may contribute to Islamic psychology reveals three main areas of
scholarship from which modern attempts at developing an integrated Islamic psychology
may draw: philosophy, physiology, and theology/spirituality” (p.66). The categorisation of
Awaad et al. (2020) will be followed. The bulleted style will be used for the next sections of
this chapter to highlight the contributions of the Islamic classical scholars to the development
of Islamic psychology.
The philosophers’ perspective

Context
In order to understand the philosophical perspective and the contributions of Muslim philosophers
to the development of psychology, it is valuable to have an overview of the state of philosophy at
this particular period in time. During the Hellenistic period, scholarly work was in the Syriac and
Greek languages. Many classic works of antiquity might have been lost if Muslim scholars had
not translated them into Arabic and Persian and later into Turkish, Hebrew and Latin. It has been
suggested that “philosophy (falsafa) in the Islamic Golden Age was elaborated as a systematic
investigation of problems connected with society, life, nature and sciences in a global religious
vision” (Renima et al., 2016, p.31). Under the Abbasid dynasty in the 9th century, two main
approaches in intellectual discourses have been identified: Kalam (examination of Islamic theo-
logical questions, using logic and reflections), and Falsafa (interpretations of Aristotelianism
and Neoplatonism philosophies in Arabic). There was also the school of Mu’tazilism which is
viewed as the rationalist school of Islamic theology. The Mu’tazilites’ basic premise is that the
injunctions of God are accessible to rational thought and inquiry. One of the most contentious
questions in Islamic theology is the notion of the Mu’tazilites that the Qur’an, albeit the word of
God, was created rather than uncreated. According to Valiuddin (2003),
The Mu’tazilites and the Sunnites differ mostly from one another in five important mat-
ters: The problem of attributes; The problem of the beatific vision; The problem of prom-
ise and threat; The problem of creation of the actions of man; and The problem of the
will of God.
The Ash’arism philosophico-religious school of thought was developed as a response to the

Mu’tazilites as
an attempt not only to purge Islam of all non-Islamic elements which had quietly crept
into it but also to harmonise the religious consciousness with the religious thought of
Islam. It laid the foundation of an orthodox Islamic theology or orthodox Kalam [science
of discourse], as opposed to the rationalist Kalam of the Mu’tazilites. (Abdul Hye, 2003)
It is within this context that came the contributions of some of the Muslim philosophers, with
their Mu’tazilite’ background, embedded in the Aristotelian and Neoplatonic traditions in
their inspirations, visions and intellectual discourse.
Al-Kindī (D.259 AH/873 CE)

Abu-Yusuf Ya‘qub ibn Ishaq ibn as-Sabbah ibn ‘Omran ibn Isma‘il al-Kindi was known as the
“Philosopher of the Arabs.” His theological orientation was from the school of Mu’tazilism.
Al-Kindī is known in the West as “Alkindus.” It is reported that “Al-Kindī’s father Ishaq
ibn al-Sabah, was governor of Kufa under al-Mahdi and al-Rashid and his great-grandfather,
al-Ash’at ibn Qays, vas a companion of the Prophet ( ). Thus al-Kindī was of noble origin
and belonged to the ruling classes” (Qadi Sa’id ibn Ahmad al-Andalüsi).
• Born: about 801 ce in Kufa, Iraq.

• He was acclaimed as the father of Arab philosophy for his synthesis, adaptation and pro-
motion of Greek and Hellenistic speculative philosophies in the Muslim world.
• Philosopher, physician, pharmacist, psychologist, ophthalmologist, physicist, mathema-
tician, geographer, astronomer and chemist.
• He was also concerned with music, logogriphs, the manufacturing of swords and even
the art of cookery.
• Ibn abi Usaybi‘ah speaks of the prominent position in the court of al-Maʾmūn and later
Abū Isḥāq Muḥammad ibn Hārūn al-Rashīd, being in fact tutor to the latter’s son Ahmad.
• Al-Kindī was appointed by the Abbasid caliphs to the “House of Wisdom” to oversee the
translation of Greek works into Arabic (Najātī, 1993).
• One of Al-Kindī’s main contributions to Islamic philosophy was in the field of the for-
mation of an Arabic philosophical terminology.
• Al-Kindī held firm views on the nature and value of divine revelation as a source of
knowledge.
• He clearly expressed that revelation from God was superior to human knowledge and
reason (Ivry, 2012).
• His ideas on psychology can be traced to Greek sources.
• He refused to completely subordinate his Islamic beliefs to reason and attempted to
maintain a balance between revelation and philosophy.
• He talked about revelation (al-’Ulum al-Naqliyyah aw al-Shar’iyyah) – transmitted
knowledge; and reason: (al-’Ulum al-’Aqliyyah) – rational or intellectual sciences.
Al-Kindī’s books on psychology include:
• Risalah Fī al-ʿAql: An analysis of the nature and divisions of the intellect written in the
Aristotelian tradition.
• Māhiyyat al-Nawm wa al-Ruʾyah: A treatise on dreams and vision.
• Fī al-Qawl fī-al Nafs al-Mukhtasar min Kitab Aristü wa Flatun wa sa’ir al-Falasifah:
Discourse on the soul.
• Kalām fī al-Nafs Mukhtasar Wajiz: Discourse on the soul , written in the Neoplatonic
tradition.
• Al-Ḥīlah li Dafʿ al-Aḥzān: The Strategy for Repelling Sorrow.
Al-Kindī on psychology:
• Al-Kindī addressed, amongst other diseases, epilepsy: Physiological reasons for the
causes of epilepsy.
• Al- Kindī, in his book ‘Aqrabadhin of al- Kindī (Levey, 1996), states in the introduc-
tion: “May God surround you with salvation and establish you in its paths and aid you
to attain the truth and enjoy the fruits thereof! You have asked me – may God direct you
to all things profitable! – that I should outline to you the disease called Sar’ [the falling-
sickness, epilepsy].”
• He proposed several theories on perception, sleeping and dreams, and emotional pro-
cesses (Awaad et al., 2019).
• He was the first to use the method of experiment in psychology, which led to his discov-
ery that sensation is proportionate to the stimulus.
• He was also the earliest scholar to realise the therapeutic value of music.
• Al-Kindī suggested the use of cognitive strategies in the treatment of depression (Awaad
et al., 2020).
• In his The Strategy to Repelling Sorrows, al- Kindī described sorrow as “a spiritual
(Nafsani) grief caused by loss of loved ones or personal belongings, or by failure in
obtaining what one lusts after” and then added: “If causes of pain are discernible, the
cures can be found” (Tahir, 2009).
It has been suggested that
Al-Kindī is the first of a galaxy of great Muslim thinkers whose humanistic and scientific
work helped establish the relations of Arab Muslim philosophy with earlier philosophies
and with the following generations of Muslim thinkers who deal with metaphysical and
scientific problem.
(Atiyeh, 1966, p.viii)
For a more comprehensive account, see Fitzmaurice (1971).
Ibn Miskawayh (D.421 AH/1030 CE)

Abu Ali Ahmad b. Muhammad b. Ya’kub Ibn Miskawayh (also known as Ibn Miskawayh)
Miskawayh was born in Rey, Persia (now Iran). He was a philosopher, theologian, physician
and historian, and his influence on Islamic philosophy is primarily in the area of ethics.
• Miskawayh worked as a librarian for a number of the ministers (viziers) of the Buwayhids
during the Abbasid rule.
• He was very much attracted to Aristotle’s and Plato’s philosophy.
• He did not aim for a reconciliation between religion and philosophy or attempt to com-
bine them (Abd al-‘Aziz Izzat, 1946, p.349).
• He was the author of the first major Islamic work on philosophical ethics entitled The
Refinement of Character (Tahdhīb al-Akhlāq), focusing on practical ethics, conduct and
refinement of character.
• Miskawayh’s development of ethics and moral values is directly related to the education
(ta’lim) of the individual.
Ibn Miskawayh’s books on psychology:
• al-Saʿādah fī Falsafit al-Akhlāq (Happiness from the Perspective of Ethical Philosophy)

• Tahdhīb al-Akhlāq (Refinement of Ethics)
• al-Fawz alAṣghar (The Minor Victory)
• al-Saʿādah (Happiness)
• Risālah fī al-Lazzāt wa al-Ālām (ATreatise on Pleasures and Pains)
• Risālah fī Jawhar al-Nafs (On the Essence of the Soul)
• Ajwibah wa Asʾilah fī al-Nafs wa al-ʿAql (On the Soul and Mind)
• Questions and Answers on the Soul
• Ṭahārat al-Nafs (Purity of the Soul)
Ibn Miskawayh’s psychology:
• Ibn Miskawayh introduced what is now known as “self-reinforcement” and response

cost (Haque, 2004).
• He examined the soul and its virtues.
• His work on moral and positive psychology laid the foundation for many following theo-
ries surrounding altering behaviours, attitudes and manners in gradual, concrete steps
(Awaad et al., 2019; Leaman, 2001).
• He could also be regarded as an educational, cognitive psychologist for his treatise on
Tahdhīb al-Akhlāq (Refinement of Ethics or Characters).
• Ibn Miskawayh’s book on Tahdhīb al-Akhlāq (Refinement of Ethics) is related to posi-
tive psychology and how to reach supreme happiness.
• He stated that “The knowledgeable one who reaches this degree of supreme happiness
is called ‘the one completely happy’, and the pleasure he attains, in this case, is an intel-
lectual pleasure” (Ibn Miskawayh, 1959, p.7).
• To realise happiness and its virtues, some internal and some external conditions have to
be met. According to Ibn Miskawayh, the internal conditions include health and tem-
perament. The external conditions are to overcome his weaknesses by having the psy-
chological conditions to achieve happiness that are centred on the human’s will, and his
ability to raise his inclinations (Jamal al-Din, 1994).
• Ibn Miskawayh also discuss the need for self-awareness and a method of treating the
illnesses of the souls.
• The development of our ethical intelligence is influenced by self- and emotional control.
• He narrated that “a Muslim, who feels guilty about doing something pleasurable to his
al-nafs al-ammarah, should learn to punish himself by psychological, physical or spir-
itual ways such as paying money to the poor, fasting, etc.” (Haque, 2004, p.365).
Ibn Rushd (Averroes) (D.594 AH/1198 CE)

Abu’al Walid Ibn Rushd (Averroes) born in Córdoba, Spain, has been acknowledged as one
of the greatest thinkers and scientists of history. In contrast with Ibn Miskawayh, he integrated
Aristotelian philosophy with Islamic discourse. For Ibn Rushd, there is no incongruity between
religion and philosophy when both are properly grasped. He excelled in philosophy and juris-
prudence and was nicknamed “the jurisprudent philosopher” (Famous Scientist, 2020).
• Ibn Rushd’s education comprised of studies in Hadith, linguistics, jurisprudence and

scholastic theology.
• He was the chief Islamic jurist (Qadi) of Córdoba, Caliph Abu Yaqub Yusuf’s personal
doctor, a philosopher and a scientist (Hillier (n.d.); Urvoy, 2015).
• He wrote on logic, Aristotelian and Islamic philosophy, Islamic theology, the Maliki
school of Islamic jurisprudence, psychology, political theory, the theory of Andalusian
classical music, geography and mathematics, as well as the medieval sciences of medi-
cine, astronomy, physics and celestial mechanics.
• The 13th-century philosophical movement in the Latin Christian and Jewish tradition
based on Ibn Rushd’s work is called Averroism.
• Ibn Rushd was a defender of Aristotelian philosophy against Ash’ari theologians led by al-
Ghazâlî. Although highly regarded as a legal scholar of the Maliki school of Islamic law,
Ibn Rushd’s philosophical ideas were considered controversial in Ash’arite Muslim circles.
• In philosophy, his most important work, Tuhafut al-Tuhafut, was written in response to
al-Ghazâlî’s work.
• Ibn Rushd was criticised by many Muslim scholars for this book Tuhafut al-Tuhafut but
had a significant influence on European thought in modern philosophy and experimental
science.
• However, in his late years, Ibn Rushd was accused of heresy, and his trial ended in his
exile and the burning of his books.
Ibn Rushd’s books on psychology/philosophy:
• al-Nafs (The Soul)

• alʿAql wa al-Maʿqūl (The Mind and the Rational)
• Talkbis Kitab al-Nafs (Aristotle on the Soul)
• Tahāfut al-Tahāfut (Incoherence of the Incoherence): A polemical response to al-
Ghazâlî’s Tahāfut al-Falāsifah (Incoherence of the Philosophers)
Ibn Rushd on psychology:
• Ibn Rushd’s views on psychology are most fully discussed in his Talkbis Kitab al-Nafs
(Aristotle on the Soul).
• Ibn Rushd believed in the existence of faculties of the mind, which are intended to accept
intelligible forms from the active intellect (Haque, 1998).
• He divided the soul into five faculties: The nutritive, the sensitive, the imaginative, the
appetitive and the rational (Fakhry, 2001).
• He argued there are three different types of intellect: The receiving intellect, the produc-
ing intellect and the produced intellect (Norager, 1998).
• In his discussions of cognition, he argued that both sensation (perception) and imagina-
tion must be used to perceive it objectively (Haque, 2004).
• Ibn Rushd described a three-fold hierarchy of learning. One of the hierarchy of learn-
ing comes to assent through dialectical argument (Jadali). Another comes to assent
through demonstration (Burhan). The third comes to assent through rhetorical argument
(Khatabi).
• On the different types of intellectual discourse, he argued about the understanding each
of these forms of arguments to enable individuals to interact with revealed Islamic scrip-
ture on two levels: The scripture’s apparent (ẓāhir) and hidden (bāṭin) levels of meaning
(Haque, 2004).
• Ibn Rushd argued that we know from our everyday experience that there exist health
and illness, and that religious texts contain important information as to how we should
behave (Leaman, 1998).
• In his educational philosophy, the learning and knowledge acquisition strategies sug-
gested by Ibn Rushd include reflection (i‘tibār), examination (faḥṣ), deduction and
discovery (istinbāṭ), demonstrative study (naẓarburhānī), naẓarburhānī (qiyās ‘aqlī),

comparison and analogy (tamthīl), allegorical interpretation (ta’wīl), dialectical reason-
ing (aqāwīljadalīya), demonstrative reasoning (aqāwīlburhānīya) and rhetorical reason-
ing (aqāwīlkhiṭābīya) (Günther, 2012).
Al-Fārābī (D.340 AH/951 CE)

Abū Naṣr Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad Al-Fārābī, known in the West as Alpharabius. He was
Fārāb on the Jaxartes (Syr Darya) in modern Kazakhstan or Faryāb in Khorāsān (modern-day
Afghanistan).
• Philosopher, jurist, scientist, cosmologist, mathematician and music scholar.

• In the Arabic philosophical tradition, he is known with the honorific “the Second Master”
(al-Mou’allim al-Thani), after Aristotle.
• He made contributions to physics, logic, philosophy, music, political philosophy and
social and educational psychology.
• Al-Fārābī produced more than 100 works in his lifetime and is recognised as a peripa-
tetic or rationalist.
• He wrote on political philosophy and made commentaries on the ideal state of Plato.
• His most influential work shaped the discipline of social psychology. In his well-known
treatise, Ārāʾ Ahl al-Madīnah al-Fāḍilah (Opinions of the People of the Righteous City)
he describes several principles of social psychology using invented exemplars (Achoui,
1998; Soueif and Ahmed, 2001).
Al-Fārābī’s psychological treatises:
• Ārāʾ Ahl al-Madīnah al-Fāḍilah (Opinions of the People of the Righteous City)
• Taḥṣīl al-Saʿādah (Attaining Happiness)
• Kitāb al-Tanbīh ʿalā Sabīl al-Saʿādah (A Guide to the Path of Happiness)
• Risālah fī al-ʿAql (Epistle on the Intellect)
• ʿUyūn al-Masāʾil (The Depth of Matters)
• al-Siyāsāh al-Madaniyyah (Civil Policies)
• Fuṣūṣ al-Ḥikmah (The Cloves of Wisdom)
• al-Daʿāwī al-Qalbiyyah (Internal Claims)
• Kitāb iḥṣāʾal-ʿulūm (On the Introduction of Knowledge)
Al-Fārābī on psychology:
• The influence of Aristotelian philosophy is seen in his treatment of the human soul:
Appetitive (the desire for, or aversion to an object of sense), sensitive (the perception
by the senses), imaginative (the faculty which retains images of sensible objects) and
rational (the faculty of intellect).
• Al-Fārābī suggested that the perfect human being (al insan al kamil) has both theoretical
virtue (intellectual knowledge) and practical moral virtues (moral behaviour).
• According to Al-Fārābī, perfection is achieved by an individual with the help of other
people (social relationship and network) (Norager, 1998).
• Al-Fārābī specifies that a person’s innate psychological dispositions drive them to main-
tain social cohesion (Haque, 2004).
• At the heart of Al-Fārābī’s political philosophy is the concept of happiness in which

people cooperate to gain contentment (Tiliouine, 2014).
• Cohesion, according to Al-Fārābī, is achieved by small groups through sharing inter-
personal contact, experiences of conflict, sharing food and drink, confronting threats
together and the distribution of pleasure. In contrast, large group cohesion is achieved
through sharing personality characteristics, language, speech and living in close proxim-
ity to one another (Soueif and Ahmed, 2001).
• Al-Fārābī wrote on dreams and explained the distinction between dream interpretation
and the nature and trigger of dreams.
• His writings on the therapeutic effect of music on the soul later influenced modern men-
tal health and treatment (Haque, 1998).
The physicians’ perspective

Context
During the Islamic Golden Age, one of the branches of science in which Muslims most
excelled was Islamic medicine. Knowledge of the medical sciences and techniques was part
of the medical curriculum throughout the world until about a century ago (Nasr, 1968). The
issue of education was at the forefront in the minds of the Muslims since the establishment
of the first Islamic State in Madinah. The House of Abbasids supported research develop-
ments, especially medical research. The Caliph Harun al-Rashid established the first hospital
in Baghdad, and by the 9th century, several other hospitals had been reputable in Cairo, Mecca
and Medina, as well as mobile medical units for rural areas. Hospitals known as Bimaristans
(Persian word “hospital”) were built throughout the Islamic state. These Bimaristans treated
males and females, had outpatient facilities and offered services for the poor. The medical
treatment was free, supported by waqf endowments and government patronage (Sonn and
Williamsburg, 2004, p.52). The Islamic state had a pioneering approach concerning mental
health and psychiatry. The first psychiatric hospitals were founded in Arabic countries, in
Baghdad in 705 ad (during the kingship of the Caliph El Waleed ibn Abdel Malek), Cairo
800 in ad and Damascus in 1270 ad. Many of the hospitals housed libraries, classrooms and
a central courtyard with a pool, and the patients were benevolently treated using baths, drugs,
music and activities. In contrast, the first psychiatric asylum in Western Europe, the Bethlem
Hospital in Bishopsgate, London, was founded in the 13th century (Forshaw and Rollin, 1990).
The important Islamic figures in medicine are Abū Bakr Muḥammad ibn Zakariya al-Rāzī,
Abū Zayd Aḥmad ibn Sahl al-Balkhī and Abū Alī al-Ḥusayn ibn Sīnā. Those physicians
produced rich, authoritative, multivolume medical books. It has been suggested that they
adopted Hippocratic organic psychiatry (biological psychiatry), but they also applied psycho-
social therapeutic methods (Dubovsky, 1983).
Al-Rāzī (D.313 AH/925 CE)

Abū Bakr Muḥammad ibn Zakariya al-Rāzī, known as Rhazes in the West, was one of the great-
est Islamic physicians and perhaps second only to Ibn Sīnā in his endeavours. Al-Rāzī was born
at Rey, Iran, and became a student of Hunayn ibn Ishaq and later a student of Ali ibn Rabban.
• He studied medicine under the celebrated polymath Abū Jaʿfar Muḥammad ibn Jarīr
al-Ṭabarī (Amr and Tbakhi, 2007).
• Al-Rāzī was appointed Director of the first Royal Hospital at Rey and had a similar posi-
tion in Baghdad.
• He originated a treatment for kidney and bladder stones, and clarified the nature of vari-
ous infectious diseases (Afridi, 2013).
• He also established research on smallpox and measles (Alphen and Aris, 2003; Afridi,
2013).
• He was the first to announce the usage of alcohol for medical purposes, and the use of
mercurial ointments (Afridi, 2013).
• He developed instruments used in apothecaries (pharmacies) such as mortars and pes-
tles, flasks, spatulas, beakers and glass vessels (Amr and Tbakhi, 2007).
• Part of his treatment package is through accurate and controlled nutrition intake (Afridi,
2013).
• He was also an expert surgeon and the first to use opium for anaesthesia (Afridi, 2013).
• Al-Rāzī advocated the use of honey as a simple drug and as one of the essential sub-
stances included in composed medicines (Katouzian-Safadi and Bonmatin, 2003).
• The fame of Al-Rāzī as one of the greatest Muslim physicians is mainly due to the case
records and histories written in his book entitled Kitab Al Mansuri Fi al-Tibb (Amr and
Tbakhi, 2007).
• Al-Rāzī established qualifications and ethical standards for the practice of medicine
(Modanlou, 2008).
• The Bulletin of the World Health Organization of May 1970 pays tribute to Al-Rāzī
by stating “His writings on smallpox and measles show originality and accuracy, and
his essay on infectious diseases was the first scientific treatise on the subject” (cited in
Modanlou, 2008).
Al-Rāzī’s selected books:
• Kitāb al-Ḥāwī fī al-Ṭibb (The Comprehensive Book of Medicine) is a 23-volume work in

which he described many mental illnesses, their symptoms and their cures (Husayn and
al-‘Uqbi, 1977; Tibi, 2006).
• Kitab Al-Hawi (Liber Continens), is a ten-volume treatise on Greek and Roman medicine.
• Kitab Al Mansuri Fi al-Tibb (Liber Medicinalis ad Almansorem) is a concise handbook
of medical science.
• Kitab Man la Yahduruhu Al-Tabib (Book of Who is Not Attended by a Physician or A
Medical Advisor for the General Public). This is equivalent to a modern health education
booklet on services and treatment interventions.
• The book Kitab Man la Yahduruhu Al-Tabib is dedicated to the poor, the traveller and
the ordinary citizen who could consult or refer to it for the treatment of common ailments
when a doctor was not available (Amr and Tbakhi, 2007).
• Kitab Būr’ al-Sā’ah (Cure in an Hour). A short essay on the treatment of ailments includ-
ing headache, toothache, earache, colic, itching, loss of feeling in numb extremities and
aching muscles to be cured within an hour’s time (Amr and Tbakhi, 2007).
• Kitab al-Ṭibb al-Rūhānī (Book of Spiritual Medicine). Al-Rāzī focuses on the soul (or
psyche, mind) and its remedy, spiritually, morally and psychologically (Najātī, 1993).
• Kitab al-Judari wa al-Hasbah (The Book of Smallpox and Measles).
• Kitab al-Murshid (The Guide) is a short introduction to basic medical principles that was
intended as a lecture to students (Amr and Tbakhi, 2007).
On psychology/psychopathology:
• Al-Rāzī was a pioneer in the treatment of mental illnesses.

• As the director of the hospital in Baghdad, he established special wards for the treatment
of the mentally ill and treated his patients with respect, care and empathy (Daghestani,
1997, p.1602).
• He emphasised the importance of the client–practitioner relationship (Farooqi, 2006).
• Al-Rāzī describes memory problems, disturbed thinking, mood disorders (including
both melancholic and manic symptoms) and anxiety (Mohamed, 2012).
• He differentiated between the exposure of intrinsic positive reinforcement with extrinsic
positive reinforcement when learning new behaviours (Al-Rāzī, 1978).
• Al-Rāzī provided psychiatric aftercare as part of his discharge planning (Daghestani,
1997).
Abū Zayd al-Balkhī (D.322 AH/934 CE)

Abū Zayd Al-Balkhī was born in Shamistiyan in Balkh, Khorasan (present-day Afghanistan).
He was a student of al-Kindi, who was known as the “Philosopher of the Arabs.” Like most of
the classical Islamic scholars, he was a polymath: A geographer, mathematician, physician,
psychologist and scientist.
• Al-Balkhī introduced concepts of mental health and “mental hygiene” related to spiritual
health.
• He criticised many doctors for placing too much emphasis on physical illnesses and
neglecting the psychological or mental illnesses of patients (Awaad et al., 2019).
• He was the first to successfully discuss diseases related to both the body and the soul.
• Al-Balkhī stated in one of his poems, “Religion is the greatest of philosophies; therefore,
man cannot be a philosopher until he becomes a worshipper” (cited in Badri, 2013).
Al-Balkhī’s book on psychology:
• Masalih al-Abdan wa al-Anfus (Sustenance for Body and Soul).

• In this book, Al-Balkhī argues that “since man’s construction is from both his soul and
his body, therefore, human existence cannot be healthy without the ishtibak (interweav-
ing or entangling) of soul and body” (Al-Balkhī, cited in Deuraseh and Abu Talib, 2005,
p.76). That is, the psychosomatic interaction between the soul and the body.
• Al-Balkhī states that “if the body gets sick, the Nafs [psyche] loses much of its cognitive
and comprehensive ability and fails to enjoy the desirous aspects of life” and that “if the
Nafs gets sick, the body may also find no joy in life and may eventually develop a physi-
cal illness” (Al-Balkhī, cited in Deuraseh and Abu Talib, 2005, p.76).
• Throughout his book, Al-Balkhī offers “Do it yourself” cognitive and spiritual therapies
(Awaad and Ali, 2015).
Al-Balkhī’s psychology and pathology:
• Al-Balkhī used the term al-Tibb al-Ruhani to describe spiritual and psychological health,
and the term Tibb al-Qalb to describe mental medicine.
• He was the first to define medical psychology.

• He was a pioneer of psychotherapy, psychophysiology and psychosomatic medicine.
• He suggested that psychological symptoms of anxiety, anger and sadness are common
among “normal people,” most of which are learned behaviour and reactions to emotional
stress (Awaad et al., 2019).
• Al-Balkhī believed in the interaction of body and mind and the interaction between
physical and psychological disorders which resulted in psychosomatic disorders
(Mohamed, 2012).
• He systematically distinguished between psychosis and neurosis (Haque, 2004).
• He categorised neuroses into four emotional disorders: Anxiety, fear, aggression and
anger, depression and sadness, and obsessions (Haque, 1998).
• Al-Balkhī categorised depression into sadness, normal depression, reactive depression
and endogenous depression (Haddad, 1991).
• He is likely to have been the earliest in history to describe, classify and distinguish the
illnesses now known as obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) and phobias from other
mental illnesses (Awaad and Ali, 2015).
• “The description of obsessional disorders found in al-Balkhī’s manuscript [Masalih al-
Abdan wa al-Anfus] echoes the description of Obsessive–Compulsive Dis-order (OCD)
found in modern diagnostic manuals of psychiatry such as the Diagnostic and Statistical
Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5) (American Psychiatric Association.,
2013)” (Awaad and Ali, 2015, p.187).
• Al-Balkhī observes that: “Obsessive whispers are among the most intrusive psychologi-
cal symptoms that linger deep within the core of the human being, triggering echoing
thoughts that cage the person within themselves” (Al-Balkhī, 2007, p.127).
• He is the father of modern cognitive behaviour therapy (Badri, 2013; Awaad et al., 2019).
• He developed the techniques of reciprocal approaches with respect to imbalance. Later
Joseph Wolpe (1968) introduced this idea as “reciprocal inhibition” (Shapiro et al., n.d.).
• He demonstrated in detail the importance of using rational and spiritual therapies to cure
specific disorders (Haque, 1998).
• For the treatment of a phobia, Al-Balkhī suggests a technique he calls riyāḍat al-nafs
(psyche-training) (Al-Balkhī, Misri, and al-Hayyat, 2005; Awaad and Ali, 2016). That is
known as systematic desensitisation or exposure therapy.
• Al-Balkhī promoted the preventive approach which encouraged individuals to keep
positive “cognition sets” to use in times of trials and tribulations (stress), comparable to
contemporary “rational cognitive therapy” (Badri, 2013).
Ibn Sīnā/Avicenna (D.428 AH/1037 CE)

• Abu Ali al-Husayn Ibn Abdullah Ibn Sīnā was born at Afsana near Bukhara, Samanid
Empire (now in present-day Uzbekistan), in August 23, 980. He is known as Ibn Sīnā,
and in the West as Avicenna. Ibn Sīnā was one of the most celebrated physicians, astron-
omers, thinkers and writers in the Golden Age of the Islamic Empire. Ibn Sīnā memo-
rised the entire Qur’an by the age of 10 and became a knowledgeable physician at the
age of 16. He introduced new methods of treatments by the age of 18. During his medi-
cal career he treated many patients including some governors, politicians and ordinary
people without asking for payment. His friends advised him to slow down in his work,
but he remained steadfast and answered, “I prefer a short life with width to a narrow one
with length” (cited in Roudgari, 2018).
• Ibn Sīnā is called the most significant philosopher in the Islamic tradition and arguably
the most influential philosopher of the pre-modern era (Rizvi, n.d.).
• Ibn Sīnā tried to merge rational philosophy with Islamic theology, and his main goal in
that regard was to prove the existence of God and His creation of the world by science
and logic (Roudgari, 2018).
• As a physician, his major work The Canon of Medicine (al-Qanun fi’l-Tibb) continued to
be taught as a medical textbook in Europe and in the Islamic world until the early modern
period (Rizvi, n.d.).
• In the Islamic sciences (‘ulum), he wrote a series of short commentaries on selected
Qur’anic verses and chapters that reveal a trained philosopher’s hermeneutical method
and attempt to come to terms with revelation (Rizvi, n.d.).
• The Canon of Medicine (Al-Qanun fi’t-Tibb) is a five-volume medical encyclopaedia that
was used as the standard medical textbook in the Islamic world and Europe up to the 18th
century (McGinnis, 2010), for example, in the University of Montpellier, France (1650).
The Canon of Medicine still plays an important role in Unani medicine [Perso-Arabic
traditional medicine] (Rahman, 2003).
• “Medicine is the science by which we learn the various states of the human body, in
health, when not in health, the mean by which health is likely to be lost, and when lost,
is likely to be restored to health” (Ibn Sīnā, Al-Qanun fi’t-Tibb).
• Ibn Sīnā is considered as a father of modern medicine, a pioneer of neuropsychiatry.
• He first recognised “physiological psychology” for the treatment of illness involving
emotions.
Ibn Sīnā’s books on medicine and psychology:
• Al-Qanun fi’t-Tibb (The Canon of Medicine). Encyclopaedia of medicine.

• Maqala fi’l-nafs (Compendium on the Soul).
• Kitab al-shifa (The Book of Healing) on philosophy and existence, the mind–body rela-
tionship, sensation, perception, etc. (Haque, 2004).
• Kitab al-najat (The Book of Deliverance).
• Andar Danesh-e Rag (On the Science of the Pulse) contains nine chapters on the sci-
ence of the pulse. This is the “most detailed clinical description on the characteristics
of the pulse that had been ever written. The pulse section consists of techniques for
feeling the pulse. In this book he explained the certain types of arrhythmias such as
atrial fibrillation, premature and dropped beats and more than fifty different pulse”
(Roudgari, 2018).
Ibn Sīnā’s psychology/psychopathology:
• Ibn Sīnā first described numerous neuropsychiatric conditions, including insomnia,

mania, hallucinations, nightmare, dementia, epilepsy, stroke, paralysis, vertigo, melan-
cholia and tremors (Abbasi et al., 2007).
• He called melancholia (depression) a type of mood disorder in which the person may
become suspicious and develop certain types of phobias (Majeed and Jabir, 2017).
• Ibn Sīnā identified a condition that seems like schizophrenia and defined as junun Mufrit
(severe madness) with symptoms including agitation, sleep disturbance, giving inappro-
priate answers to questions and occasional inability to speak (Majeed and Jabir, 2017,
p.70).
• Ibn Sīnā’s strategy in assessing his patient is to identify the source of the client’s emo-
tional conflict, sometimes using crude bio-feedback techniques (Awaad and Ali, 2016;
Farooqi, 2006).
• His therapeutic interventions include meditation, self-awareness, dialogue, reflection,
imagery and conditioning to treat mental illnesses (Farooqi, 2006).
• He was a pioneer in psychophysiology and psychosomatic medicine, developing a sys-
tem for associating changes in the pulse rate with inner feelings. This idea was in antici-
pation of the word-association test attributed to Carl Jung (Syed, 2002; Mohamed, 2012).
• Ibn Sīnā used both a relaxation method and a form of systematic desensitisation (hier-
archy of anxiety-inducing words) with pulse-checking to identify anxiety-provoking
words. This was used in the treatment of a prince suffering from anorexia nervosa
(Haque, 2004; Awaad and Ali, 2016).
According Ibn Sīnā,
ordinary human mind is like a mirror upon which a succession of ideas reflects from
the active intellect. Before the acquisition of knowledge that emanates from the active
intellect the mirror was rusty but when we think, the mirror is polished and it remains to
direct it to the sun (active intellect) so that it could readily reflect light.
(cited in Haque, 2004, pp.365–366)
The theologians’ perspective

Context
Many Islamic theologians were instrumental in the development of the nature of Islamic
psychology because the discipline of Ilm an Nafs was linked to Islamic theology and the
religiosity of the soul. Awaad et al. (2020) suggested that “Muslim theologians contributed
to the development of an ‘Islamic psychology’ through their work in three fields: (1) Islamic
creed, (2) Islamic law, and (3) Islamic spirituality” (p.74). There are many polymaths, schol-
ars and theologians who made significant contributions to Islamic sciences and directly and
indirectly enabled the development of Islamic psychology. It is not within the scope of this
chapter to include all of them. Some Islamic scholars and theologians include Al-Ghazālī,
Ibn Taymiyyah, Ibn Qayyim al Jawiyyah, Al-Raghib al-Asfahaani, Ibn Rajab al-Hanbali,
Shāh Walī Allāh and Abul A’la Maududi. Only three theologians’ contributions, those of
Al-Ghazālī, Ibn Taymiyyah and Ibn Qayyim al Jawiyyah, will be addressed in the next
sections.
Al-Ghazâlî (D.510 AH/1111 CE)

Abu Ḥāmid Muḥammad Al-Ghazâlî was born in 1058 ce at Tûs, Greater Khorasan, Seljuq
Empire and died on the 19th December 1111. Al-Ghazâlî received his early education in
his hometown and went on to study with the influential Ash’arite theologian al-Juwaynî
(1028–1085) at the Nizâmiyya Madrasa in nearby Nishapur.
• Al-Ghazâlî was one of the most prominent and influential philosophers, theologians,
jurists and mystics of Sunni Islam.
• He was in close contact with the court of the Grand-Seljuq Sultan Malikshâh and his
grand-vizier Nizâm al-Mulk.
• In 1091 Nizâm al-Mulk appointed Al-Ghazâlî to the prestigious Nizâmiyya Madrasa in
Baghdad.
• In 1095, Al-Ghazâlî suddenly gave up his posts in Baghdad and left the city.
• Under the influence of Sufi literature, Al-Ghazâlî had begun to change his life-style two
years before his departure from Bagdad (Griffel, 2009, p.67).
• After performing the pilgrimage in 1096, Al-Ghazâlî returned via Damascus and
Baghdad to his hometown Tûs, where he founded a small private school and a Sufi con-
vent (khânqâh) (Griffel, 2020).
• He was active at a time when Sunni theology had just entered a period of intense chal-
lenges from Shiite Ismâ’îlite theology and the Arabic tradition of Aristotelian philoso-
phy (falsafa).
• His religious work Tahāfut al-Falāsifa (Incoherence of the Philosophers) favours
Muslim faith over philosophy and was extremely influential in turning medieval Muslim
thought away from Aristotelianism, philosophical debate and theological speculation.
• For Al-Ghazâlî “the purpose of society is to apply the Shari‘ah, and the goal of man is
to achieve happiness close to God. Therefore, the aim of education is to cultivate man so
that he abides by the teachings of religion and is hence assured of salvation and happi-
ness in the eternal life hereafter” (Nofal, 1993, p.524).
• Al-Ghazâlî “reinstated the ‘principle of fear’ in religious thinking and emphasised the
role of the Creator as the centre around which human life revolves, and an agent inter-
vening directly and continuously in the course of human affairs (once the ‘principle of
love’ had gained supremacy among the Sufis)” (Nofal, 1993, p.531).
al-Ghazâlî’s books:
• Iḥyāʾ ʿUlūm alDīn (Revival of the Religious Sciences)

• Kīmiyā -e-Saʿādat (Alchemy of Happiness)
• Tahāfut al-Falāsifah (Incoherence of the Philosophers)
• Fayṣal al-Tafriqah bayna al-Islām wa al Zandaqah (The Decisive Criterion for
Distinguishing Islam from Clandestine Unbelief ).
Al-Ghazâlî’s psychology:
• Al-Ghazâlî, as a Sufi, was an advocate of introspection and self-analysis to understand

the psyche and psychological issues.
• Al-Ghazâlî describes how the concept of the self is expressed by four terms in Arabic (as
conceived by the Qur’an).
• These terms are Qalb (heart), Ruh (soul), Nafs (desire-nature) and Aql (intellect, reason).
Each of these terms signifies a spiritual entity.
• Al-Ghazâlî prefers to use the term Qalb for the self in his work. One is essentially
required to know this Qalb in order to discover ultimate reality (Amer, 2015).
• Al-Ghazâlî believes that our focus should shift from “treating diseases of the body, such
diseases compromise an already fleeting life. More attention should be directed to treat-
ing diseases of the heart [psyche], which has an infinite lifetime” (Al-Ghazālī, 2005,
p.929).
• Al-Ghazâlî believed in the use of therapeutic interventions including negative reinforce-

ment, modelling, labelling and shaping (Farooqi, 2006).
• Al-Ghazâlî discusses the spiritual diseases of the heart, including arrogance, miserli-
ness, ignorance, envy and lust (Haque, 2004), and encourages purification of the soul
(Tazkiyat al-nafs) (including its cognitions and behavioural inclinations) to cure these
diseases (Awaad et al., 2020).
In Iḥyā ʿUlūm al-Dīn, Al-Ghazâlî describes six steps for self-purification (Keshavarzi and
Haque, 2013):
• Mushāraṭah (self-contract with goals)
• Murāqabah (self-monitoring)
• Muḥāsabah (self-examination; holding oneself accountable)
• Mujāhadah (self-penalisation; implementing, consequences for breaking the self-
contract [lapse and relapse])
• Muʿāqabah (self-struggle; working diligently to overcome sinful inclinations)
• Muʿātabah (self-admonition; regretting breaking and recommitting to upholding the
contract). (p.242)
Ibn Taymiyyah (D.728 AH/1328 CE)

Taqī al-Dīn Abū al-ʿAbbās Aḥmad bin ʿAbd al-Ḥalīm al-Ḥarrānī, known as Ibn Taymiyyah,
was born on January 22, 1263 ce (10 Rabi’ al-awwal 661 ah) Harran, Sultanate of Rum. He
died on September 26, 1328 (aged 64–65) in Damascus, Sham. During his time, Islamic phi-
losophers and theologians had introduced various innovations within the Islamic creed. Ibn
Taymiyyah rebutted all the innovations that were prevalent during this period. He rejected
innovations, including the veneration of saints and the visitation to their tomb-shrines, which
made him unpopular with many scholars and rulers of the time, under whose orders he was
imprisoned several times (Laoust, 2012).
• Ibn Taymiyyah was a Sunni Muslim scholar, muhaddith (a scholar of Hadiths), theolo-
gian, judge, jurisconsult and logician.
• He has been acknowledged by some as the mujaddid (one who reforms in society and
gives a new spirit to Islam when it is in danger) of the 7th century of the Islamic calendar
(Ansar, 2019).
• A member of the Hanbali school, he is considered to be one of the leading scholars of the
Ahlus Sunnah wal Jamaa and has been accepted as Sheikh-ul-Islam by all major Sunni
schools.
• Ibn Taymiyyah maintains that the Qur’an and the Sunnah are not only the sources of
Islamic law; they are also the sources of Islamic faith and belief (Ansar, 2019).
• His criticism of “Ash’ari kalam, Greek logic and philosophy, monistic sufism, Shi’i doc-
trines, and Christian faith have proved great obstacles to appreciating his contribution”
(Ansari, 2019, p.xvii).
• He was critical of the Aristotelian and Neoplatonist philosophers, including al-Fārābī,
al-Kindī and Ibn Sīnā, for “breaking away from the fundamentals of Islam in their pur-
suit of knowledge, saying that they were dressing up Greek thought in Islamic clothing”
(Awaad et al., 2020, p.76).
• It is through divine revelation, not rationality and emotions, that we can examine the
world in order to acquire ultimate truths (An-Najār, 2004).
• Ibn Taymiyyah authored more than 500 manuscripts and short treatises on various
branches of the Islamic sciences, 3 of which are related to psychology (Awaad et al.,
2020).
• It is reported that Ibn Taymiyyah was a prolific writer. He wrote 40 pages in 1 sitting and
was able to produce a complete volume of work in 1 day (Bazzano, 2015).
Ibn Taymiyyah’s books:
• ʿilm al-sulūk. A chapter on the diseases and treatments of the heart. This was published
his encyclopaedic fatwa collection Majmūʿ al-Fatāwā.
• Risālah fī al-ʿAql wa al-Rūḥ. A treatise on the soul and intellect.
• al-ʿ Ubūdiyyah. On obedience.
Ibn Taymiyyah on psychology:
• Ibn Taymiyyah’s psychological work is his discussion of moral emotion and the merit of
an empathetic sadness (Awaad et al., 2020).
• He examined the relationship between cognitive and affective states and the influence of
emotional nuances in the rational thinking process (Awaad et al., 2020).
• Ibn Taymiyyah highlighted constructive and unproductive sadness, urging people to use
constructive sadness for a purpose. This is illustrated in the following quote.
• “As for sadness that does not bring about a benefit nor displace a harm, there is no benefit
in it, and God does not command that which has no benefit … However, some forms of
sadness are divinely rewarded … including sorrow over the calamities of the Muslims in
general” (Ibn Taymiyyah, 2004, pp.13–14).
Ibn Al-Qayyim (D.751 AH/1350 CE)

Abu ‘Abd Allah Shams al-Dīn Abū ʿAbd Allāh Muḥammad ibn Abī Bakr ibn Ayyūb ibn Sa‘d
ibn Harz ibn Makki Zayn al-Din al-Zurʿī al-Dimashqī al-Hanbali, or more commonly known
for short as Ibn al-Qayyim, or reverentially as Imam Ibn al-Qayyim in the Sunni tradition.
• Ibn Al-Qayyim was the son of Abu Bakr who was the head of the Jawziyya school in
Damascus (Krawietz, 2006).
• Ibn Al-Qayyim received extensive training in the traditional fields of Islamic scholarship
including Aqeeda (Islamic creed), Fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence), Tafsir (Qur’an exege-
sis), Ilm al Kalam (Islamic theology) and Arabic grammar (Al-Mubarak, 2015).
• Having access to the most elite scholars of the time, Ibn Al-Qayyim was given a thor-
ough education in a number of fields, becoming a prolific student of Ahmad bin Àbdil
Halim Ibn Taymiyyah and an expert Hanbali scholar.
• Ibn Al-Qayyim wrote more than 60 books in various areas of Islam and compiled a large
number of studies.
• Ibn Rajab (n.d.) observed about Ibn Al-Qayyim hat “he was extremely (ilá al-ghayah al-
quswá) dedicated to divine devotion (‘ibadah), spending the night in prayer (tahajjud)
as well as prolonging ritual prayer, and he invoked the name of God (ta’allaha), was
eager to recall him (lahija bi-al-dhikr), articulated affection, repentance, and petitions
of forgiveness and longing directed to God (shaffafa bi-al-mahabbah, wa-al-inabah
wa-al-istighfar, wa-al-iftiqar ilá Allah), and expressed that he could be broken by him
(wa-al-inkisar lahu) and that he is cast into his hands (wa-al-itrah bayna yadayhi),
[all] while entering or leaving prayer (‘alá ‘atabat ‘ubudiyatihi)—to which I never
witnessed anything comparable therein [the prayer] (lam ushahid mithlahu fidhalik)”
(p.xiii).
The famous students of Ibn Al-Qayyim al Jawziyya include:
• Al Hafidh Abul Faraj ibn Rajab: Hanbali legal scholar.

• Al Hafidh Ismail ibn Kathir: Shafi‘i traditionalist and historian.
• Al Hafidh Muhammad bin Abdul Hadi.
Ibn Al-Qayyim’s selected books:
• Tahthib Sunan Abi Dawud (Emendation of Sunan Abu Dawud).

• Al-Kalam al-Tayyib wa-al-’Amal al-Salih (The Essence of Good Words and Deeds).
• Commentaries on the book of Shaikh Abdullah al-Ansari: Manazil-u Sa’ireen (Stations
of the Seekers).
• The book on the ‘Medicine of the Prophet’ ( ) is extracted from Zad al-Ma’ad
(Provisions of the Hereafter).
Ibn Al-Qayyim on psychology:
• On psychology, Ibn Al-Qayyim highlighted the importance of meditation, reflection and

introspection in the pursuit of happiness (Awaad et al., 2020).
• Ibn Al-Qayyim also highlighted his categorisation of schemes of pleasure in its rela-
tion to human experience. This enabled psychologist to understand motivational factors
(Hitto, n.d.).
• Ibn Al-Qayyim identified three categories of pleasure: Necessity for survival includ-
ing food, shelter and procreation; advancing in social and professional circumstances to
attain a position of power or authority; and living a life of virtue and dedication to God
(Abdul-Rahman, 2017).
• Based on the categories, the first one is meeting basic needs and the two others are more
related to achieving high status and being more spiritual, respectively.
• Ibn Al-Qayyim indicates that there are positive and negative kinds of pleasure seeking.
• Illegitimate pleasure is pleasure that results in pain whereas legitimate pleasure is in the
worship of God (Abdul-Rahman, 2017).
• In another significant contribution is the act of contemplation. In his work, Miftah Dar
As-Sa’adah or the Key to the House of Happiness, Ibn Al-Qayyim offers a description
of the different types and process of thinking, now known as metacognition, the study of
how people think (Metcalfe and Shimamura, 1994).
• Ibn Al-Qayyim’s types of thinking include tafakkur (thinking), tadhakkur (remember-
ing), i’tibaar (realising) and tadabbur (deliberating) (Ibn Al-Qayyim, 2011a; Abdul-
Rahman, 2017).
• Ibn Al-Qayyim developed a stage theory of cognition and behaviour. “An individual first
has an involuntary thought. If the individual chooses to deliberate over this thought, it
becomes an emotional motivation to act. If the individual continues to feed the emotional
inclination, it will turn into a firm decision to act, and then into an action, and then finally
into a habit” (Abdul-Rahman, 2017; Badri, 2013) (cited by Awaad et al., 2020, p.77).
• Ibn Al-Qayyim went on to discuss the issue of satanic whispering or “waswasa al qahri,”
and he favoured the use of cognitive or conscious interventions to treat this disorder.
That is, the individual has to resist the illegitimate pleasure which will enable their resil-
ience (firasah) to overcome these negative pleasures and eventually bring the individual
closer to God (Abdul-Rahman, 2017).
• It is stated that “The domain of satanic whispering in the unconscious can be tempered
through conscious interventions. It is possible that through breaking free of distractions
and attaining knowledge and consciousness of God a person can transform the entire
dynamic of the unconscious. This struggle between the individual and Satan is a key
dimension of the unconscious and the conscious that Ibn Al-Qayyim also speaks about”
(Abdul-Rahman, 2017).
• Ibn Al-Qayyim advocated for the importance of mental health as “the second category
of diseases of the heart are based on emotional states such as anxiety, sadness, depres-
sion, and anger. This type of disease can be treated naturally by treating the cause or with
medicine that goes against the cause … and this is because the heart is harmed by what
harms the body and vice versa” (Ibn Al-Qayyim, 2011b, p.26).
Conclusion
This is an overview of the contributions of theologians, philosophers and physicians to the
evolution and development of Islamic psychology through the classical Golden Age and
beyond. Of course, there are many other scholars like Ibn Tufayl, Ibn Al-Ayn Zarbi, Ibn
Bajjah, Al-Majusi, At-Tabari, Ibn Khaldun and others. There are others who may or may not
be directly related to the psychology field but who had significant influence on the Islamisation
of knowledge and Islamic psychology. These scholars include Allama Muhammad Iqbal,
Sayyid Abul A’la Maududi, Ashraf Ali Thanvi, Syed Muhammad Al Naquib Bin Ali
Al-Attas, Isma’il Raji Al-Faruqi, Anis Ahmad and many others. The list would be incom-
plete without the names of contemporary prolific scholars and authors including Malik Badri,
Amber Haque, Aisha Utz, the “Malaysian Group” and others. It is evident that the history
of Islamic psychology has been greatly influenced by many other Islamic scholars who have
further established a foundation for contemporary Islamic academics and clinicians.
1. The Islamic Golden Age was

A. A period of darkness in the Islamic world.
B. When prominent Muslim scholars and philosophers emerged, producing profound
works that revolutionised the social sciences, natural sciences, philosophy, math-
ematics and medicine.
C. The renaissance of the Western civilisation.
D. For inspiration, the Persians and Greeks were greatly influenced by the Islamic Empire,
and they translated a lot of classical works of Persian and Greek origin into Arabic.
E. None of the above.
2. This scholar who introduced what is now known as “self-reinforcement” and response
cost is
A. Al-Kindī
B. Ibn Miskawayh
C. Ibn Rushd
D. Shah Abdul Aziz
E. Ashraf Ali Thanwi
3. The main dynasties that shaped the development of the Islamic Golden Age
A. The Abbasids in Baghdad (750 ce1258 ce)
B. The Fatimids in Cairo (909 ce–1171 ce)
C. The Umayyads in Córdoba (929 ce–1031 ce)
D. A and C
E. A, B and C
4. His most influential work shaped social psychology, especially the well-known treatise
in his Ārāʾ Ahl al-Madīnah al-Fāḍilah (Opinions of the People of the Righteous City).
A. Ibn Sīnā
B. Ibn Rushd
C. Al-Fārābī
D. Al-Kindī
E. Ibn Arabi
5. Which one is not correct? The factors that facilitated the emergence of the Islamic
Golden Age include
A. The emergence of a political system
B. Economic development
C. Greek, the functioning lingua franca of the period
D. Trade and commerce
E. Language and education
6. In his discussions of cognition, he argued that both sensation (perception) and imagina-
tion must be used to perceive it objectively.
A. Ibn Miskawayh
B. Al-Kindī
C. Al-Fārābī
D. Ibn Rushd
E. Ibn Arabi
7. Under the Abbasid dynasty in the 9th century the approaches in intellectual discourses
have been identified as
A. Kalam and Falsafa
B. Ash’arism and Mu’tazilism
C. Aristotelianism and Neoplatonism
D. Platonism and ontology
E. Epistemology and ontology
8. He was appointed by the Abbasid caliphs to the “House of Wisdom” to oversee the trans-
lation of Greek works into Arabic
A. Ibn Sīnā
B. Al-Kindī
C. Ibn Rushd
D. Ibn al-Qayyim
E. Ibn Bajjah
9. This polymath addressed, amongst other diseases, epilepsy: Physiological reasons for
the causes of epilepsy.
A. Ibn Sīnā
B. Ibn Rushd
C. Al-Kindī
D. Ibn Tammiyah
E. Ibn Arabi
10. Ibn Miskawayh’s book on Tahdhīb al-Akhlāq (Refinement of Ethics) is related to
A. Positive psychology and how to reach supreme happiness
B. Social psychology and how to reach supreme happiness
C. Psychology: The treatise on dreams and vision
D. Abnormal psychology: The strategy for repelling sorrow
E. Psychology: A treatise on pleasures and pains
11. This scholar argues that we know from our everyday experience that there exist health and
illness, and that religious texts contain important information as to how we should behave.
A. Ibn Sīnā
A. Ibn Rushd
B. Al-Kindī
C. Ibn Tammiyah
D. Ibn Arabi
12. Al Fārābī specifies ________________________________________________that
drives people to maintain social cohesion.
A. That practical moral virtues (moral behaviour)
B. That and social moral virtues (moral behaviour)
C. That an individual with the help of other people
D. That a person’s innate psychological dispositions
13. He was also the first to describe classical conditioned responses, approximately 1,000
years before Ivan Pavlov.
A. Ibn Rushd
B. Al-Rāzī
C. Ibn Tammiyah
D. Al-Kindī
E. Ibn Arabi
14. Which one is incorrect regarding Al-Balkhī?
A. Introduced concepts of mental health and “mental hygiene” related to spiritual
health.
B. He criticised many doctors for placing too much emphasis on physical illnesses.
C. He was the first to successfully discuss diseases related to both the body and the
soul.
D. He was the first to successfully separate the body and mind.
E. He was a pioneer of psychotherapy, psychophysiology and psychosomatic
medicine.
15. On psychology, this scholar highlighted the importance of meditation, reflection and
introspection in the pursuit of happiness.
A. Al-Balkhī
B. Al-Ghazâlî
C. Ibn Al-Qayyim
D. Ibn Taymiyyah
E. Al-Rāzī
16. It has been suggested that during the Islamic Golden Age, the physicians adopted
A. Biological psychiatry and applied medical therapeutic methods
B. Social psychiatry and applied psychosocial therapeutic methods
C. Biological psychiatry and applied psychosocial therapeutic methods
D. Biological psychiatry and applied physical therapeutic methods
E. A and B
17. The Bulletin of the World Health Organization of May 1970 pays tribute to ___________
by stating “His writings on smallpox and measles show originality and accuracy, and his
essay on infectious diseases was the first scientific treatise on the subject.”
A. Ibn Rushd
B. Al-Rāzī
C. Al-Kindī
D. Ibn Tammiyah
E. Ibn Arabi
18. He categorised neuroses into four emotional disorders: Anxiety, fear, aggression and
anger, depression and sadness, and obsessions
A. Al-Balkhī
B. Ibn Rushd
C. Al-Rāzī
D. Al-Kindī
E. Ibn Arabi
19. As a physician, his major work The Canon of Medicine (al-Qanun fi’l-Tibb) continued to
be taught as a medical textbook in Europe and in the Islamic world until the early modern
period.
A. Al-Balkhī
B. Ibn Rushd
C. Ibn Sīnā
D. Al-Rāzī
E. Al-Kindī
20. Ibn Sīnā’s therapeutic interventions to treat mental illness include
A. Meditation
B. Self-awareness
C. Imagery
D. Conditioning
E. All of the above
21. His religious work Tahāfut al-Falāsifa (Incoherence of the Philosophers) favours
Muslim faith over philosophy and was extremely influential in turning medieval
Muslim thought away from Aristotelianism, philosophical debate and theological
speculation.
A. Al-Balkhī
B. Al-Ghazâlî
C. Ibn Sīnā
D. Al-Rāzī
E. Al-Kindī
22. His psychological work is his discussion of moral emotion and the merit of an empa-
thetic sadness.
A. Al-Balkhī
B. Al-Ghazâlî
C. Ibn Sīnā
D. Ibn Taymiyyah
E. Al-Rāzī
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Chapter 3
Perspectives on human nature
Learning outcomes
• Explain the notion of human nature from philosophy to psychology.
• Discuss human nature according to Qur’anic sources.
• Explain what is meant by Fitra and Tawheed.
• Discuss the nature of the soul from an Islamic perspective.
• Describe the three stages of the soul.
• Discuss the three types of heart as mentioned by Ibn-Al Qayyim.
• Identify the types of hearts mentioned by the Companions.
Introduction
The fragile relationship between religion and psychology is due, in part, to the secularisation
of modern society. The dichotomy is that psychology was rooted in the longer history of the
intellectual discourse in philosophy, theology and the natural sciences. In the context of psy-
chology, this means that “religious ideas, practice, and organisations lose their influence in
the face of scientific and other knowledge” (McLeish, 1995, p.668). This secularisation has
provided a worldview of human nature as being a combination of bio-psychosocial elements.
Human nature has been described and defined by psychologists since the late 19th cen-
tury, beginning with a focus on sensory perception; moving toward a view that saw all
behaviour resulting from external stimuli; then into a more mental or cognitive view
of behaving and learning; and more recently an emphasis on the humanistic view of
humankind. Each of these paradigms is based on a distinct view of human nature that
often excludes God and his sovereignty.
(Christians, 2015)
By excluding God and divine revelation as a source of knowledge of human nature, psychol-
ogy is denying the spiritual and metaphysical nature of humans. From an Islamic perspective,
humans are dualistic organisms, possessing both a body and a soul. The body is only a vehi-
cle for the soul (Haque, 2004). By definition, human nature is the “fundamental dispositions
and traits of humans” (Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica). That is, the core characteristics
of thinking, feelings and acting depend on the conditions of our body, spirit and soul. From
an Islamic perspective, humans are creations of God, and they were given free will and the
ability to either obey or disobey God’s injunctions and commands. God created man to test
him with certain responsibilities as stated in the Qur’an (Al-Kahf 18:7; Al-Mulk 67:2; and
Al-Insan 76:2). The purpose of our existence is thus stated clearly in the Qur’an (interpreta-
tion of the meaning):
• And I did not create the Jinn and mankind except to worship Me. (Adh-Dhariyat 51:56)
It is reported by Ibn Kathir that Tirmidhi (a) said,
The meaning of this verse (51:56) is that Allah the Exalted, the Blessed created the
creatures so that they worship Him Alone without partners. Those who obey Him will
be rewarded with the best rewards, while those who disobey Him will receive the worst
punishment from Him. Allah stated that He does not need creatures, but rather, they are
in need of Him in all conditions. He is alone their Creator and Provider.
God revealed to man, through the message of Prophet Muhammad ( ), the ways of worship
suitable to his physical and psychological nature, and in harmony with his mission on earth.
This chapter will focus on the nature of man from different schools of Western psychology
and from an Islamic perspective. It will also examine the concept associated with the self,
the nature and stages of the Nafs or soul and the significant role the heart plays in human
psychology.
Human nature: From philosophy to psychology

Through history, from antiquity to contemporary times, philosophers, theologians and psy-
chologists have examined human nature from their own orientations and perspectives. In fact,
human nature has not changed since the beginning of time and creation; humans still exhibit a
wide range of behaviours. According to Cleary and Pigliucci (2018), “The existence of some-
thing like a human nature that separates us from the rest of the animal world has often been
implied, and sometimes explicitly stated, throughout the history of philosophy.” The discus-
sion of human nature usually begins with Plato and Aristotle. Plato thought that humans were
rational and social animals, and he connected our nature with our souls. Aristotle differed
primarily in his belief that both body and soul contributed to our human identity. Aristotle
also held that humans are social and political creatures who have activities common to all
(Messerly, 2014) and can think rationally. It has been observed that “the idea of a human
nature is of ‘noble savage’ (Jean-Jacques Rousseau); ‘essentially good’ (Confucius and
Mencius); ‘essentially evil’ (Hsün Tzu); ‘Tabula rasa’-blank slate (John Locke)” (Cleary and
Pigliucci, 2018).
From a psychological perspective, a diversity of theoretical frameworks and approaches
have evolved which have given rise to a variety of explanations on the true nature of man.
The dominant perspectives in contemporary psychology include the psychodynamic, behav-
ioural, cognitive-behavioural and humanistic perspectives. The psychoanalytic perspective
of Freud conceptualised human nature in a pessimistic and deterministic manner. According
to his views, human nature is determined by two psychological opposite forces of Eros (life
instinct) and Thanatos (death instinct). The life instincts are those that relate to a basic need
for survival, procreation, prosocial actions and pleasure. He also suggested that all humans
Perspectives on human nature 55
have an unconscious wish for death. Personality development consists of three systems
comprising the id, ego and super-ego. His argument on psychosexuality was that the man-
agement of sexual and aggression drives during the early stages of life contributes a more
significant percentage to healthy personality development. However, neo-Freudians, while
holding to the basic notions of human nature, have modified the theory to include powerful
social needs. It has been suggested that today “psychoanalytic thought is in a state of flux
between drive-centred theory and viewpoints that place relational or social needs at the core
of human psychology” (Kriegman and Knight, 1988). In contrast, the behaviourist school of
psychology based its theory on Locke’s “tabula rasa” theory; Pavlov, Watson and Skinner
believed that it is the environment that shapes man’s behaviour and personality through a
process called conditioning. Behaviourism focuses on the stimulus and response (“S-R”)
paradigm that can be studied in a systematic and observable manner. The behaviourists put
man in a neutral position, saying that man is neither good nor bad in his nature. That is, man
develops good and acceptable characteristics when placed in a good environment and bad
in a poor environment. For most Freudian and behavioural theorists, the idea of free will is
an illusion.
Albert Bandura promoted the social cognitive theory and the importance of cognition and
modelling, and their environmental situations. Social cognitive theorists’ outlook on human
nature is neutral: Neither positive nor negative. The humanistic approach brings a new out-
look to the nature of man. This school of thought begins with the existential assumptions that
people have free will, freedom of choice and are basically good. Humans have an innate need
for self-growth and development. The approach to human nature is optimistic and focuses on
the potential human capacity to overcome hardship, pain and despair.
The different schools of psychology, it seems, have contradicted one another in their
views on the theory and concept of man. As Plato (n.d.) said “To prefer evil to good is not in
human nature; and when a man is compelled to choose one of two evils, no one will choose
the greater when he might have the less.” However, it is argued that
It’s not only modern science that tells us that there is such thing as human nature, and it’s
no coincidence that a number of popular modern therapies such as logotherapy, rational
emotive behaviour therapy and cognitive behavioural therapy draw on ideas from both
existentialism and Stoicism [human nature being social and rational). No philosophy
of life – not just existentialism or Stoicism – could possibly exist without it. The Stoics
thought that there are two aspects of human nature that should be taken as defining what
it means to live a good life: we are highly social, and we are capable of reason.
(Cleary and Pigliucci, 2018)
In response to both the psychoanalytical and behavioural schools of psychology, Badri

(2000) exposes the limitations and contradictions of the current prevailing schools of psy-
chology that deny the existence of the soul and perceive humans as mere machines acting
on external stimuli. However, the “soulless” psychology that emerged after the Scientific
Revolution was that “no footprints of the divine can be discerned in the sands of the natural
world” (Peters, 2003, p.33). A summary of the different schools of psychology on human
nature, based on the following dimensions: Nature vs. nurture; conscious vs. unconscious;
observable vs. internal; free will vs. determinism; and individual vs. universal (Feldman,
2014), is presented in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1 Dimension of human nature
Nature vs. Conscious vs. Observable vs. Free will vs. Individual vs.
nurture unconscious internal determinism universal
Biological Nature Unconscious Internal Determinism Universal

Psychodynamic Nature Unconscious Internal Determinism Universal
Cognitive Nature and Conscious and Internal Free will Individual and
nurture unconscious universal
Behavioural Nurture Conscious Observable Determinism Individual and
universal
Humanistic Nurture Conscious Internal Free will Individual
Source: Adapted from Feldman (2014).
The Qur’an and human nature

The Islamic view of nature has its roots in the Qur’an, the very word of God and the book of
guidance for Muslims. To understand the true nature of humans, it is important to delve into
the true meaning and characteristics of humans from the story of their creation, as detailed
in the Qur’an. Among all creations in heaven and earth, only man has been bestowed with
many distinctive qualities and placed on top of the hierarchy of creations. The following
verses from the Qur’an illustrate the understanding of the nature of humans. Allah says in the
• And [mention, O Muhammad], when your Lord said to the angels, “Indeed, I will make
upon the earth a successive authority.” They said, “Will You place upon it one who
causes corruption therein and sheds blood, while we declare Your praise and sanctify
You?” Allah said, “Indeed, I know that which you do not know.”
• And He taught Adam the names – all of them. Then He showed them to the angels and
said, “Inform Me of the names of these, if you are truthful.”
• They said, “Exalted are You; we have no knowledge except what You have taught us.
Indeed, it is You who is the Knowing, the Wise.”
• He said, “O Adam, inform them of their names.” And when he had informed them of
their names, He said, “Did I not tell you that I know the unseen [aspects] of the heavens
and the earth? And I know what you reveal and what you have concealed.”
• And [mention] when We said to the angels, “Prostrate before Adam”; so, they pros-
trated, except for Iblees. He refused and was arrogant and became of the disbelievers.
• And We said, “O Adam, dwell, you and your wife, in Paradise and eat therefrom in
[ease and] abundance from wherever you will. But do not approach this tree, lest you be
among the wrongdoers.”
• But Satan caused them to slip out of it and removed them from that [condition] in which
they had been. And We said, “Go down, [all of you], as enemies to one another, and you
will have upon the earth a place of settlement and provision for a time.”
• Then Adam received from his Lord [some] words, and He accepted his repentance.
Indeed, it is He who is the Accepting of repentance, the Merciful.
• We said, “Go down from it, all of you. And when guidance comes to you from Me,
whoever follows My guidance – there will be no fear concerning them, nor will they
grieve.
• And those who disbelieve and deny Our signs – those will be companions of the Fire;
they will abide therein eternally.” (Al-Baqarah 2: 30–39)
Zarabozo (2002) has commented on the above verses and provides valuable lesson in the
understanding of human nature. He stated that
humans are unique in their creation and distinct from the Creator and that humans are
created for a purpose, which is to worship Allah. Humans have a very significant and emi-
nent role in the world, as evidenced by Allah’s orders to the angels to bow down to Adam
(‘alayhi as-salam – Peace and blessing be upon him). Humans are his successors on the
earth, and all of the earth’s resources have been made subservient to them. They have been
blessed with many capabilities, including the ability to understand, to will something, to
submit oneself to Allah and to follow His guidance in order to fulfil their mission. Humans
have weaknesses, such as lowly desires, laziness and forgetfulness, that may lead them
astray. Allah’s guidance is to make repentance [Taubah] after committing sins or errors.
Satan and his workers are always present, attempting to mislead them from the straight
path which is a continual struggle between human beings and these [satanic] forces. Their
key to salvation and happiness is in believing and following the guidance that comes from
Allah. This will determine the value of this life and their status in the hereafter.
(Zarabozo, 2002, pp.50–53; Utz, 2011, pp.33–34)
Several verses in the Qur’an feature the characteristics that Allah has bestowed upon human
beings due to their position in this world. Allah says in the Qur’an (interpretation of the meaning):
• We have certainly created man in the best of stature. (At-Tin 95:4)
The above verse, according to Ibn Kathir means that “Allah created man in the best image
and form, standing upright with straight limbs that He beautified.” Some of these distinctive
features are presented in the following verses of the Qur’an. For instance, Allah put Prophet
Adam in an exalted position and stature superior to the angels because He taught Adam the
names of everything. According to Ibn Kathir, Ad-Dahhak said that Ibn Àbbas commented
on the Ayah [verse]: (And He taught Adam all the names (of everything) “Meaning, the names
that people use, such as human, animal, sky, earth, land, sea, horse, donkey, and so forth,
including the names of the other species.” Man was given “Eloquent speech.” (Al-Bayan)
(Qur’an 55:4) and the faculties of hearing and sight so that he would be able to use them for
obedience and disobedience (Al-Insan 76:3). That is, having the freedom of choice to adhere
to the teaching or not. Allay says in the Qur’an (interpretation of the meaning):
• [And] taught him eloquence. (Ar-Rahman 55:4)

• Indeed, We guided him to the way, be he grateful or be he ungrateful. (Al-Insan 76:3)
Other blessings from Allah are the richness of provisions for our sustenance on earth (Al-Isra
17:70; Al-Mulk 67:15; Ibrahim 14: 32–34). Allah says in the Qur’an (interpretation of the
meaning):
• And We have certainly honoured the children of Adam and carried them on the land and
sea and provided for them of the good things and preferred them over much of what We
have created, with [definite] preference. (Al-Isra 17:70)
• It is He who made the earth tame for you – so walk among its slopes and eat of His provi-
sion – and to Him is the resurrection. (Al-Mulk 67:15)
• It is Allah who created the heavens and the earth and sent down rain from the sky and
produced thereby some fruits as provision for you and subjected for you the ships to sail
through the sea by His command and subjected for you the rivers.
And He subjected for you the sun and the moon, continuous [in orbit], and subjected
for you the night and the day.
And He gave you from all you asked of Him. And if you should count the favor of
Allah, you could not enumerate them. Indeed, mankind is [generally] most unjust and
ungrateful. (Ibrahim 14: 32–34)
One of the most important roles given to man by Allah is the role and status of Allah’s
vicegerent on earth (Khalīfah). The title “Khalīfah places man in an honoured position to be
Allah’s deputy; administrator; representative, etc. on earth. His position as Allah’s Khalīfah
gives him power and authority to rule, manage and preserve the earth” (Abdul Razak and
Abbas, 2018, p.257). Al-Maududi (1992) suggested that the office of viceregency can be used
by man in two ways: To either abuse the power and authority for the spread of evil and injus-
tice or to use them for things that are good for humanity. Man has been given all the faculties
and sustenance in order to nurture himself on earth with the mission of the purification of the
soul and showing gratitude to Allah, the Almighty, for His blessings.
Fitrah: The predisposition in humans to worship one God

The Fitrah is one of the most important concepts relating to the pristine nature of humans.
The Arabic word “Fiṭrah, often translated ‘original disposition,’ ‘natural constitution,’ or
‘innate nature,’ appears in the Qurʾān and Hadīth literature and factors into Islamic legal and
theological discussions about human nature and knowledge” (Hoover, 2016). Ibn Taymiyyah
(2000) says
that God created man with a particular nature, Fitrah. The beliefs, values and the prin-
ciples of Islamic life and society have their roots in this Fitrah. Islam is the religion of
Fitrah. and the whole purpose of Islam is the perfection of man on the lines of his Fitrah.
Reason is part of Fitrah.
(p.xxxiii)
Utz (2011) defined “Fitrah” as “the pristine nature within humans that leads them to acknowl-
edge the truth of God’s existence and to follow His guidance” (p.47). That is, a natural state
of submission to Allah. Allah says in the Qur’an (interpretation of the meaning):
• So, direct your face toward the religion, inclining to truth. [Adhere to] the Fitrah of
Allah upon which He has created [all] people. No change should there be in the crea-
tion of Allah. That is the correct religion, but most of the people do not know. (Ar-Rum
30:30)
Al-Tabari (a) (may Allah have mercy on him) said in his tafseer: Fitrah: the deen (way
or religion) of Allah. Al-Tabari’s tafseer (commentary) of the verse (interpretation of the
meaning): [Iblees said] and indeed I will order them to change the nature created by Allah
(An-Nisa 4:119). Ibn Taymiyyah (2000) stated that “Every human being is born in the nature
of Islam. If this nature is not subsequently corrupted by the erroneous beliefs of the family
and society, everyone will be able to see the truth of Islam and embrace it” (p.3). It is nar-
rated by Abu Hurayrah that Allah’s Messenger ( ) said, “Every child is born with a true
faith of Islam (i.e. to worship none but Allah Alone) but his parents convert him to Judaism,
Christianity or Magainism” (Bukhari (a)). Ibn Taymiyyah (2000) commented on this Hadith,
stating that
What he [The Prophet] meant is that there is a certain nature with which God created
man, and that is the nature of Islam. God endowed mankind with this essential nature
the day He addressed them saying, “Am I not your Lord?” and they said, “Yes, You are”
(Al-A’raf 7: 172).
(p.3)
That innate disposition for humans to believe in the unicity of God is reflected in the concept
of Tawheed which is an essential element of the Fitrah. Tawheed, in reference to Allah,
means
realising and maintaining Allah’s unity in all of man’s actions which directly or indi-
rectly relate to Him. It is the belief that Allah is One, without partner in his dominion
(Rububiyah), One without similitude in His essence and attributes (Asma’ Was-Sifaat).
And One without rival in His divinity and in worship (Uluhiyah/Ibadah).
(Philips, 2005, p.17)
Those who believe in the unicity of Allah, His essence and attributes and without partner in
his divinity and worship are in congruence with their Fitrah. In contrast, those whose beliefs
are divergent from Tawheed are defying their own Fitrah by rejecting the divine message of
Islam brought about by the Prophets and Messengers. Ibn Taymiyyah (2000) maintains that
Prophets address the Fitrah of man and appeal to it, for knowledge of the Truth is inher-
ent in the Fitrah. No prophet has ever addressed his people and asked that they should
first of all know the Creator, that they should look into various arguments and infer from
them His existence, for every heart knows god and recognises His existence. Everyone
is born with the Fitrah; only something happens afterwards which casts a veil over
it. Hence, when one is reminded, one recalls what was there in one’s original nature
(Fitrah).
(p.4)
Islam is called the religion of Fitrah, the religion of human nature, because it is the religion
that guides not only Muslims but also the whole humanity with their natural inclination to
submit to the Creator.
The nature of the soul

In Islamic psychology, the spiritual dimension of man has been described by using several
concepts including the Nafs (self), Rūḥ (spirit), ‘Aql (mind and intellect) and Qalb (heart).
These four concepts of the spiritual self are based on the work of the Islamic scholar Abu
Hamid al-Ghazâlî derived from Qur’anic sources. The literature in Islamic psychology is
saturated with this conceptualisation of the self (Abu-Raiya, 2012; Haque, 2004; Haque and
Keshavarzi, 2014; Haque and Mohamed, 2008;; Keshavarzi and Haque, 2013; Utz, 2011;
Rothmann and Coyle, 2018). This overemphasis on this conceptualisation of the self is like
the “emperor’s new clothes,” as if Imam al-Ghazâlî fails to consolidate the conceptualisa-
tion of the self in his philosophical discourse. It has been noted by Haque and Keshavarzi
(2014) that al-Ghazâlî viewed the four aspects of the human being (Nafs, Rūḥ, ‘Aql and Qalb)
as interconnected and having an interdependent holistic relationship with one another that
makes up the soul of the human being. Let us examine the nature of the Nafs (soul).
Nafs (soul)
Nafs (pl. Anfus or Nufus) lexically means soul, the psyche, the ego, self, life, person, heart or
mind (Mu’jam, Kassis in al-’Akiti, 1997). In Islamic tradition, the spiritual soul is referred to
as Nafs (al-Raghib; Ibn Sina; Ibn al-Arabi). In a general sense in Islamic psychology, the Nafs
is simply related to the human soul, the entire soul, and the self (Ahmad, 1992). In addition,
the Nafs is also referred to within al-Ghazâlî’s paradigm of the spiritual self as the “lower”
part of the self/soul. The concept is interchangeable with terms like the soul or spirit, body,
or the self. Nafs has been defined as
something internal in the entity of a human whose exact nature is not perceived. It is
ready to accept direction towards good or evil. It combines together a number of human
attributes and characteristics that have a clear effect on human behaviour.
(Karzoon, 1997, p.60)
This means that the Nafs is an internal entity or drive that shapes or directs human behaviour,
in combination with personality, towards good or evil. In the context of this chapter, the Nafs
will be used as the totality of the human self/human psyche. The Nafs and Rûh (spirit) are
regarded as synonyms and are interchangeable for the majority of Islamic scholars depending
on the context of use. The term
Rûh (also known as spirit, soul or breath of life) is used in the Qur’an in various ways
referring to metaphysical entities such as angels, revelation, or divine inspiration. It is
also used to signify the inner human nature or soul, which is the constituent that gives
life to the mind and body by spreading throughout the physical limbs. It drives the feel-
ings, thoughts, behaviours and volition of human beings. Its essence is different from
that of the physical body, and once the soul is removed, the physical body ceases to
function.
(Al-Tuwaijri, 2016)
The knowledge about the Rûh’s true essence is exclusive to Allah. This is exemplified in a
Hadith which was narrated by Ibn ‘Abbas
The Quraish said to the Jews: “Give us something that we can ask this man about.” So,
he said: “Ask him about the Rûh.” So, they asked him about the Rûh. So, Allah Most
High, revealed: They ask you concerning the Rûh. Say: The Rûh is one of the things, the
knowledge of which is only with my Lord. And of knowledge, you have been given only
a little (Al-Isra 17:85). (Tirmidhi (b))
The scholars of Ahlus-Sunnah wal Jamaah maintained that the terms Nafs and Rûh are inter-
changeable. In simplicity, when the soul as an entity is in the body, it is referred to as Nafs,
but when the soul is separated or apart from the body it is known as Rûh. However, there are
several Hadiths that indicate that the Nafs/Rûh are the same thing. Umm Salamah reported
that the Messenger of Allah ( ) said: “When the Rûh is taken out, the eyesight follows
it” (Muslim (a)). In another Hadith, Abu Hurayrah reported that the Messenger of Allah
( ) said, “Do you not see that when a person dies his gaze is fixed intently? That occurs
when his eyesight follows his Nafs [as it comes out]” (Muslim (b)). However, as “these
terms may be used interchangeably in relation to their essence, the difference between them
is merely a difference in attributes and usage” (al-Kanadi, 1996). Allah says in the Qur’an
(interpretation of the meaning):
• And if you could but see when the wrongdoers are in the overwhelming pangs of death
while the angels extend their hands, [saying], “Discharge your souls!” (Al An’am 6:93)
• Allah takes the souls [al-anfus]at the time of their death, and those that do not die [He
takes] during their sleep. (Az-Zumar 39:42)
The Qur’anic evidence regarding the range of meanings constitutes the road map for man’s
soul. Allah says in the Qur’an (interpretation of the meaning):
• O mankind, fear your Lord, who created you from one soul and created from it its mate
and dispersed from both of them many men and women. (An-Nisa 4:1)
• It is He who created you from one soul and created from it its mate that he might dwell
in security with her. (Al-A’raf 7:189)
• He created you from one soul. (Az-Zumar 39:6)
• And it is He who produced you from one soul and [gave you] a place of dwelling and of
storage. (Al-An’am 6:98)
The soul is the one that tastes death, and this is explained in the following verses. Allah says
in the Qur’an (interpretation of the meaning):
• Every soul shall taste death, then to Us will you be returned. (Al-’Ankabut 29:57)
• Every soul will taste death. And We test you with evil and with good as trial; and to Us
you will be returned. (Al-Anbya 21:35)
• Every soul will taste death, and you will only be given your [full] compensation on the
Day of Resurrection. (Ali ‘Imran 3:185)
• And it is not [possible] for one to die except by permission of Allah at a decree deter-
mined. (Ali ‘Imran 3:145)
The above verses indicate that all souls will taste death, but this cannot happen without the
decree or permission of God. The soul has also attributes, both positives and negatives, which
include desires (Al-Anbya 21:102; Fussilat 41:31, Az-Zukhruf 43:71); needs and desires
(Yusuf 12:68); stinginess (Al-Hashr 59:9; An-Nisa 4:12; At-Taghabun 64:16); constraint
or restriction (At-Tawbah 9:118); regret (Az-Zumar39:56) and purification (Ash-Shams

91:7–10).
Al-Ghazālī’s concept of soul

Al-Ghazālī (2010) relates to the Nafs as the appetitive soul, “united man’s blameworthy
qualities” (p.xvi), as opposed to his rational soul. He speaks of the Nafs as the vehicle
(markab) of the heart, and states that the Sufis call the Nafs the animal spirit (al-riih al-
hayawdni a nafs). He also views the Nafs as the “subtle spiritual substance which is the
real essence of man” (p.xvii). He describes the two meanings of the soul. One consists
of both the faculty of anger (ghadab) and of appetence (shahwa) [appetites, desires] in
man. This, in simplistic terms, is the principle in man that includes his blameworthy
qualities. He used a Hadith from the Prophet Muhammad ( ) to illustrate this mean-
ing. “Your soul, which is between your two sides, is your worst enemy” (Bayhaqi). The
second meaning is that
It is the soul of man and his essence. But it is described by different descriptive accord-
ing to its differing states. When it is at rest under His command, and agitation has left it
on account of its opposition to the fleshly appetites, it is called “the soul at rest” (al-nafi
al-mufma’inna). Of such a soul did God, the Exalted, say, Oh, you soul at peace, return
to your Lord, pleased, and pleasing Him (Al-Fajr 89:27–8).
(Al-Ghazālī, 2010, p.8)
Stages of the Nafs

• And they ask you, [O Muhammad], about the soul. Say, “The soul is of the affair of my
Lord. And mankind has not been given of knowledge except a little.” (Al-Isra 17:85)
The knowledge of the Nafs is based on the Qur’an, traditional knowledge and scholarly inter-
pretation of the Qur’an. There is a general consensus among the scholars that Allah has
described at least three main types of the Nafs, namely Nafs al-Ammara Bissu’ (the Nafs that
urges evil), Nafs al-Lawwama (the Nafs that blames) and Nafs al-Mutmaìnna (the Nafs at
peace). However, Sufi psychology identifies seven levels of the Nafs: Nafs-i-ammara (the
depraved, commanding Nafs), Nafs-i-lawwama (the accusing Nafs), Nafs-i-mulhama (the
inspired Nafs), Nafs-i-mutmainna (the serene Nafs), Nafs-i-radiyya (the fulfilled Nafs), Nafs-
i-mardiyya (the fulfilling Nafs) and Nafs-i-safiyya wa kamila (the purified and complete Nafs)
(Shah, 2015, p.445). In Sufi literature the phrase “states of Nafs” denotes basically the “stages
of consciousness.” Imam al-Ghazâlî categorised the Nafs into three stages as identified in the
Qur’an.
Nafs al-Ammara Bissu’ (the Nafs that urges evil)

The Nafs al-Ammara Bissu’ is found Surah Yusuf verse 53. Allah says in the Qur’an (inter-
pretation of the meaning):
• Indeed, the soul is a persistent enjoiner of evil. (Yusuf 12: 53)

Imam Tabari, in his Tafsir of the above verse, commented that this Nafs brings punishment
itself. By its very nature it directs the individual towards every wrong action. This evil can
only be relieved by the help of Allah. Allah refers to this Nafs in the story of the wife of al-
Aziz (Zulaikha) and Prophet Yusuf [in Sural Yusuf, Chapter 12]. Haque (2004) viewed this
Nafs as a developmental state of being in which the self “exhorts one to freely indulge in
gratifying passions and instigates to do evil” (p.367). This is a state where the Nafs is inclined
towards wants and desires, in an impulsive way, towards evil deeds. Al Tabari (b) further
commented that Allah also says (interpretation of the meaning):
• O you who have believed, do not follow the footsteps of Satan. And whoever follows
the footsteps of Satan – indeed, he enjoins immorality and wrongdoing. And if not
for the favor of Allah upon you and His mercy, not one of you would have been pure,
ever, but Allah purifies whom He wills, and Allah is Hearing and Knowing. (An-Nur
24:21)
Al-Tabari explained the above verse by stating that this Nafs resides in the world of the
senses and is dominated by earthly desires (Shahwat) and passions… Evil lies hidden in the
Nafs, and it is this that leads it to do wrong. If Allah were to leave the servant alone with his
self, the servant would be destroyed by the evil. This particular soul, at the lowest level, is
prone to disobedience and sinful behaviours because of its attractions towards evil and fails
to submit to Allah. As Zarabozo (2002) maintains that if individuals allow the soul to exert
significant control, they start losing a sense of remorse or guilt for their sinful behaviours
(pp.62–63). This state has been described as having their hearts blocked from believing in the
truth. Allah also says (interpretation of the meaning):
• No! Rather, the stain has covered their hearts of that which they were earning. (Al-
Mutaffifin 83:14)
According to Ibn Kathir “It is the dark covering that cast over it from the many sins and
wrong they committed that has covered up their hearts. In this context, according to Zarabozo
(2002), since the soul is already predisposed to those kinds of evil acts, Satan will whisper
to them and easily persuade them to do evil deeds” (p.63). However, Allah also says in the
• O you who have believed, do not follow the footsteps of Satan. And whoever follows the
footsteps of Satan – indeed, he enjoins immorality and wrongdoing. And if not for the
favor of Allah upon you and His mercy, not one of you would have been pure, ever, but
Allah purifies whom He wills, and Allah is Hearing and Knowing. (An-Nur 23:21)
(And if not for the favor of Allah upon you and His mercy, not one of you would have been
pure), meaning,
if He did not help whomever He wills to repent and come back to Him and be purified
from Shirk, evil and sin, and whatever bad characteristics each person has according to
his nature, no one would ever attain purity and goodness.
(Ibn Kathir)
Nafs al-Lawwama (the Nafs that blames)

This type of soul is also viewed as the self-reproaching soul and as having an awareness of
evil deeds. It is a self-critical stage during which an individual blames himself for his bad
deeds, or for not doing more good deeds, and feels a sense of guilt or remorse. It is reported
by Ibn Kathir that “Ìkrimah Ibn Abi Najih reported from Mujahid: ‘He is sorry for what he
missed (of good deeds) and he blames himself for it.’” This may be regarded as the polic-
ing of “ethical intelligence” of the soul. Allah mentions in the Qur’an (interpretation of the
meaning):
• And I swear by the reproaching soul. (Al-Qiyamah 75:2)
Hasan al-Basri said, “You always see the believer blaming himself and saying things like
‘Did I want this? Why did I do that? Was this better than that?’” (cited in al-’Akiti, 1997).
In this stage, the Nafs, being conscious of its own imperfections, and individuals having a
sense of guilt, would seek repentance from Allah and attempt to address their transgressions
[Fahishah (immoral sin)].
• And those who, when they commit an immorality or wrong themselves [by transgres-
sion], remember Allah and seek forgiveness for their sins – and who can forgive sins
except Allah ? – and [who] do not persist in what they have done while they know. (Ali
‘Imran 3:135)
Anas (may Allah be pleased with him) reported that the Messenger of Allah ( ) said,
Allah, the Exalted, has said: “O son of Adam, I forgive you as long as you pray to Me and
hope for My forgiveness, whatever sins you have committed. O son of ‘Adam, I do not
care if your sins reach the height of the heaven, then you ask for my forgiveness, I will
forgive you. O son of ‘Adam, if you come to Me with an earth load of sins, and meet Me
associating nothing to Me, I would match it with an earth load of forgiveness.”
(Tirmidhi (c))
This is the stage of contemplation and spiritual awakening in repentance and seeking
forgiveness.
Nafs al-Mutmaìnna (the Nafs at peace)

This is the Nafs at peace, serenity or in a tranquil state as a consequence of spiritual health.
This is the stage where the Nafs has earned the pleasure of Allah. The person has reached
the state of goodness, piety and righteousness. It was narrated that ‘Aishah (may Allah be
pleased with her) said: “I heard the Messenger of Allah ( ) say: ‘Enjoin what is good and
forbid what is evil, before you call and you are not answered’” (Ibn Majah (a)). Allah men-
tions in the Qur’an about this stage of the Nafs (interpretation of the meaning):
• [To the righteous it will be said]: O reassured soul, return to your Lord, well pleased and
pleasing [to Him]. And enter among My [righteous] servants. And enter My paradise.
(Al-Fajr 89:27–30)
It is reported that Ibn Abbas said, “It is the tranquil and believing soul.” Al-Qatadah said,
It is the soul of the believer, made calm by what Allah has promised. Its owner is at rest
and content with his knowledge of Allah’s Names and Attributes, and with what He has
said about Himself and His Messenger, and with what He has said about what awaits
the soul after death: about the departure of the soul, the life in the Barzakh [designates a
place between hell and heaven, where the soul resides after death], and the events of the
Day of Qiyamah [judgment] which will follow. So much so that a believer such as this
can almost see them with his own eyes. So, he submits to the will of Allah and surrenders
to Him contentedly, never dissatisfied or complaining, and with his faith never wavering.
He does not rejoice at his gains, nor do his afflictions make him despair – for he knows
that they were decreed long before they happened to him, even before he was created.
(Al-Tabari (b), cited in al-’Akiti, 1997)
Ibn Al-Qayyim (a), commenting on the states of Nafs, stated that
The Nafs is a single entity, although its state may change from the Nafs al-Ammara, to
the Nafs al-Lawwama, to the Nafs al-Mutmaìnna, which is the final aim of perfection …
It has been said that the Nafs al-Lawwama is the one, which cannot rest in any one state.
It often changes, remembers and forgets, submits and evades, loves and hates, rejoices
and become sad, accepts and rejects, obeys and rebels. Nafs al-Lawwama is also the Nafs
of the believer … It has also been mentioned that the Nafs blames itself on the Day of
Qiyamah – for every one blames himself for his actions, either his bad deeds, if he was
one who had many wrong actions, or for his shortcomings, if he was one who did good
deeds. All of this is accurate.
(p.308)
Imam Al-Ghazālī (2010) suggests that “When it is at rest under His command, and agitation
has left it on account of its opposition to the fleshly appetites, it is called ‘the soul at rest’
(al-nafi al-mufma’inna)” (p.10).
Thus, being in strong connection with the Creator is a level that we need to strive to attain
in in this life. This is our “self-actualisation,” but it is through the purification of the soul that
we will be able to, in essence, fulfil the rationale of our creation, which is the worship of and
obedience to Allah.
Aql (intellect)
The word for intellect in the Arabic language is ‘Aql; in Islamic psychology it is the rational
faculty of the soul or mind. It has also been translated as “dialectical reasoning” (Esposito,
2004). ‘Aql can be defined in a number of ways, and according to Al-Jawzi (2004) the con-
cept is restricted to only four meanings. The first meaning is that which is used to describe an
innate property of a person that has an awareness of the sensory environment, and receives,
understands and synthesises information as compared to other living animals. This is like a
sensory-cognitive process of information. Scholars such as Imam Ahmad and Al-Muhasibi
both described Aql as an innate property of man, or an inborn light for perception. The second
meaning implies that which is used to designate self-evident things or truths (Ilm al Daruri)
that both intelligent and non-intelligent people understand. The self-evident truth is known to
be true by understanding its meaning without proof by reason. For example, “the sky is blue.”
The third meaning of Aql cited by al-Jawzi is that which is gained through experience. The
last meaning implies the inherent principle by which one restrains one’s own self from one’s
heart’s vain desires. This could be viewed as ethical intelligence.
Dalhat (2015) articulates a summary of the concept of Aql in the following way:
Al-Aql implies the intellectual ability to comprehend evidence of factual knowledge in

an information or message received or discovered. It is used also to distinguish wisdom
from folly, which is the ability in man to be guided by the rule of wisdom.
(p.78)
The meaning of Aql from Qur’anic verses, Sunnah and the interpretations of theological
scholars is totally in contrast with the philosophers. Aql is the capacity to reason, undertake
reflective practice and act. Ibn Taymiyyah (1988) has suggested that an individual who acted
contrary to his knowledge, deserves not to be called al-Aqil (wise or intelligent). Allah men-
tions these people who failed to use their intellect to understand and be guided. Allah men-
tions in the Qur’an (interpretation of the meaning):
• And they will say, “If only we had been listening or reasoning, we would not be among
the companions of the Blaze.” (Al-Mulk 67:10)
• So, have they not traveled through the earth and have hearts by which to reason and ears
by which to hear. For indeed, it is not eyes that are blinded, but blinded are the hearts
which are within the breasts. (Al-Haj 22:42)
(If only we had been listening or reasoning). The explanation given by Ibn Kathir is that
“if we would have benefited from our intellects or listened to the truth that Allah revealed,
we would not have been disbelieving in Allah and misguided about Him.” (Have they not
traveled through the land) means, “have they not traveled in the physical sense and also used
their minds to ponder.” (and have they hearts wherewith to understand and ears which to
hear) meaning let them learn a lesson from that. (For indeed, it is not eyes that are blinded,
but blinded are the hearts which are within the breasts) means, “the blind person is not the
one whose eyes cannot see, but rather the one who has no insight. Even if the physical eyes
are sound, they still cannot learn the lesson” (Ibn Kathir). The following verse of the Qur’an
sums up the failure of these people to use their faculties of the heart, vision and hearing as a
means of gaining guidance or denying the truth.
• They have hearts with which they do not understand, they have eyes with which they do
not see, and they have ears with which they do not hear. (Al-A’raf 7:179)
There is a divergence of opinions between Islamic scholars concerning the anatomical seat of
the intellect. This is a brief overview of their stances:
• Imam Al-Shafi’i considers the organ of intellect to be centrally in the heart, based on the
verses in Al-Haj 22:46 and Qaf 50:37.
• Imam Ahmad b. Hambal: The intellect is in the brain.
• A faction of Hanbali scholars of jurisprudence consider the organ of intellect to be cen-
trally in the heart.
• Ibn Al-Jawzi considers the organ of intellect to be centrally in the heart.

• Imam Abu Hanifah and the Hanafi school consider the brain to be centrally the organ of
intellect.
• Ibn Taymiyyah observed that “Where does intellect, reason (Aql) reside within it (the
body)?” Then reason is established with the soul that displays reason (grasps, under-
stands). And as for the body, then it is connected to his heart, just as Allah, the Most
High, said, “Do they not traverse through the Earth wherewith they have hearts with
which they understand” (Al-Haj 22:46). And it was said to Ibn Abbas, “How did you
acquire knowledge?” He said, “With an inquisitive tongue and an understanding heart”
(pp.53–55).
• Al-Ghazālī (2010) “‘Intellect’ may be used with the force of knowledge (‘ilm) of the real
nature of things and is thus an expression for the quality of knowledge whose seat is the
heart” (p.9).
It is valuable to clarify the position of Ibn Taymiyyah on the relationship between the heart
and the brain. He stated that
However, that which is correct (in the matter) is that the spirit which is the soul, it has
a connection to this (the heart) and to that (the brain), and that which it is described of
intellect is connected to both this and that.
(pp.53–55)
What Ibn Taymiyyah attempted to do was to synthesise the two opposite views by explain-
ing that “cognition is related to both heart and brain. He said the foundation of the will
and decision making is in the heart, and the foundation of thought is the brain” (Dalhat,
2015, p.81). A review of the evidence from the Qur’an, Sunnah, Arabic language and
other collateral evidence identified the heart to be centrally the seat of intelligence rather
than the brain (Dalhat, 2015). There is now evidence from the relatively new field of
neurocardiology of the role of the cardiac neurons, about 40,000 neurons called sensory
neurites that communicate with the brain (Armour, 2007); the complex nervous network
of the heart (Kukanova and Mravec, 2006); and the intracardiac nervous system (Durães
Campos et al., 2018).
Qalb (the heart)

The heart is the “inner self” of an individual and is known as the “Qalb.” The Qalb is not just
an organ of the body but the essence of emotions and remembrance. Al-Ghazālī (1980) in the
Iḥyāʾ ʿulūm al-dīn comments that there are two meanings of the heart. One meaning is that “It
is the special flesh, pine like in shape, positioned in the left side of the breast and has within
it hollow cavity.” And the second meaning of the heart is that
It is subtle (latifah), divine (rabbaniyyah) and spiritual and it is the essence of a man. In
man, it is what perceives, knows, is aware, is spoken to, punishes, blames and is respon-
sible. It has connection with the corporeal heart, and the minds of most men have been
baffled in trying to grasp the mode of the connection … It [the heart] is like king and the
soldiers are like servants and helpers.
(p.3)
What is of interest to us is Al-Ghazālī’s relationship of the Nafs (soul) and the Qalb (heart).
In essence, Al-Ghazālī’s concept of the rational soul of the Risalah [at-Risalah al-Laduni-
yyah] also corresponds closely to the concept of the heart of the Ihya’ [Ihya’ ‘Ulum al-Din].
Al-Ghazālī (1986) states that
The soul (Nafs) accepts all branches of knowledge and does not grow weary of receiv-
ing abstract images … This jewel-like substance is the leader of the spirit and the com-
mander of the faculties and all serve it and comply with its command … (p.91) and it
does not die with the death of man’s body.
(pp.93–94)
In relation to the Aql (intellect), Al-Ghazālī (1986) does not identify his rational soul with
the intellect or reason (Aql). He echoes that “the heart, the spirit, the soul at rest (alnafs al-
mutma’innah) and the spirit of the command of God (al-ruh al-amri) are all names for the
rational soul” (pp.91–92). Al-Ghazālī (1986) also mentions that “when the heart is tranquil
under the command of God and free from agitation because of the opposition of the lusts,
it is called the soul at rest” (pp.3–4); but also “the heart’s mount is simply the body and its
provisions knowledge” (p.5); and the heart “has sound natural disposition (Fitrah saiihah) to
know the truths (It ma’rifat al-haqa’iq)” (Al-Ghazālī, 1980, p.14).
Al-Ghazālī (1980) also talks about the sickness of the soul (Qalb) which prevents it from
gaining the truth. These barriers of the heart include a natural defect of the heart; impurities of
sins owing to lusts (shahawat); diversion to worldly matters; and veiling by its lusts so that it can-
not gain the truth and is full of ignorance (jaht) (pp.13–14). It is only when the sicknesses of the
heart are cured that the soul will enhance the knowledge of spiritual intuition (al-’ilm al-laduni).
Ibn Al-Qayyim’s types of hearts
Narrated An-Nu’man bin Bashir: I heard Allah’s Messenger ( ) saying,
Beware! There is a piece of flesh in the body if it becomes good (reformed) the whole
body becomes good but if it gets spoilt the whole body gets spoilt and that is the heart.
(Bukhari (b))
Ibn Al-Qayyim (b), in contrast to Al-Ghazālī, classified the Qalb into three types due to its
functional aspect of life and death. The types include the sound or heathy heart, the dead heart
and the sick heart.
The frst: The healthy or sound heart

The sound or healthy heart is the one that is psychologically robust and untainted by false
doubts and hindrance about Allah and His messenger. Ibn Al-Qayyim (b)states that this is
“the truthful and sound (Salim) heart” (p.136). This is the sole type of heart that an individual
can bring to Allah which will rescue him on the Day of Judgement. Allah says in the Qur’an
(interpretation of the Qur’an):
• The Day when there will not benefit [anyone] wealth or children But only one who comes
to Allah with a sound heart. (Ash-Shu’ara 26:88–89)
Those with sound heart as described as Salim are characterised by the attributes of truthful-
ness and soundness. Ibn Al-Qayyim (b) describes the truthfu1 and sound heart as follows:
[The truthful and sound heart] is that which is secure from every carnal desire that
opposes the order and prohibition of Allah. It is secure from every doubt and uncertainty
that would obscure or go against His narrative. It is secure from displaying servitude
to any other than Him; just as it is secure from seeking ruling from any other than His
Messenger ( ).Therefore it becomes sound through loving Allah and seeking the rul-
ing of His Messenger; It becomes sound through showing Him feat, hope, crust and
reliance; penitence; and humility; it prefers what pleases Him in every circumstance-and
distances itself from everything that would displease Him in every possible way. This is
the reality of servitude (ʿubūdiyyah) which can only be directed to Allah Alone.
(p.137)
The characteristics of a truthful and secure heart are that heart which is secure from commit-
ting any form of shirking; its servitude is only directed to, and purely for Allah; its desire,
love, trust and reliance, repentance, humbleness, dread and reverential hope are only for the
love and sake of Allah; it loves for the sake of Allah and hates for the sake of Allah. In addi-
tion, the heart needs to follow the teaching and role model of the Messenger of Allah ( ),
obeying in sayings and actions. Allah says in the Qur’an (interpretation of the meaning):
• O you who have believed, do not put [yourselves] before Allah and His Messenger.
(Al-Hujurat 49:1)
The above verse means that the believer should not speak [of a matter] or act until he has
spoken or commanded it. Ibn Al-Qayyim (b) suggests that the reality of the secure and truth-
ful heart from which ensues victory and bliss is based on sincerity (ikhlāş) and (mutāba‘ah).
The second: The dead heart

This type of heart is literally dead, spiritually, which is the opposite of the sound heart. This
heart is devoid of the knowledge of His Lord and His commands. These individuals tend
to pursue carnal desires, delve into temptations and pleasures, even if these are against the
commands and displeasure of their Lord. This type of person is chasing worldly fantasies and
desires; they do not care if their Lord is pleased or displeased. Ibn Al-Qayyim (b) suggests
that this type of heart
Therefore, it worships other than Allāh. It directs its love, dread, reverential hope, pleas-
ure, displeasure, glorification, and submission to other than Him. If it loves, it loves for
the sake of its base desires; if it hates, it hates for the sake of its base desires; if it gives,
it gives for the sake of its base desires; if it withholds, it withholds for the sake of its base
desires. It gives preference to its base desires and these are more beloved to it than the
Pleasure of its Master.
(p.140)
It is interesting how Ibn Al-Qayyim (b) describes the features of this dead heart. He maintains
that the guidance of the heart is lust, controlled by carnal desires and driven by the ignorance
and negligence of its leadership. It is immersed in its concern with worldly objectives and
intoxicated with its own desires and its love for impulsive fleeting pleasures. Ibn Al-Qayyim
(b) emphasises that “Mixing with the person who has this heart is a sickness, interacting with
him is poison and sitting with him is destruction.”
The third: The diseased heart

This type of heart is living but has some fault lines inherent in it. It is based on two dimen-
sions. On one hand, it has sincerity towards Him, reliance upon Him, and has faith and
love for Allah, faith in Him, and these are what give it life. In contrast, this heart has also
a craving for lust and pleasure and prefers them and strives to experience them. Its char-
acteristics include love of its carnal desires, jealousy, arrogance, self-amazement, love of
ranking and sowing corruption in the land. Basically, it responds to the call whichever one
of the two happens to have most control over it at that particular time. Ibn Al-Qayyim (b)
describes
the first type of heart is the living, humble, soft, attentive and heedful heart. The second
type is the brittle, dry and dead heart. The third type is the diseased heart, either it is
closer to securing itself or it is closer to its devastation.
(p.141)
Allah has mentioned these types of the hearts in His saying in the Qur’an (interpretation of
the meaning):
• And We did not send before you any messenger or prophet except that when he spoke [or
recited], Satan threw into it [some misunderstanding]. But Allah abolishes that which
Satan throws in; then Allah makes precise His verses. And Allah is Knowing and Wise.
That is] so He may make what Satan throws in a trial for those within whose
hearts is disease and those hard of heart. And indeed, the wrongdoers are in extreme
dissension.
And so those who were given knowledge may know that it is the truth from your Lord
and [therefore] believe in it, and their hearts humbly submit to it. And indeed, is Allah
the Guide of those who have believed to a straight path. (Al-Haj 22:52–54)
Ibn Al-Qayyim (b) comments on the above three verses by suggesting that
Allāh, the Glorious and Exalted, has mentioned two types of hearts put to trial and one
type that is victorious. The two types of heart that are put to trial are the diseased and the
harsh and dry. The victorious heart is the heart of the believer that is humble before its
Lord, it is at rest and satisfaction with Him, submissive and obedient to Him.
(pp.142–143)
[The hearts with fault lines are the ones that are stepping outside the bounds of steadfastness
in obedience (istiqāmah) because of the absence of doing that which is natural |(fitrah) in the
worship of its Lord]. A summary of Ibn Al-Qayyim’s types of hearts and characteristics is
presented in Table 3.2.
Table 3.2 Ibn Al-Qayyim’s types of hearts and characteristics
Types Characteristics
Healthy/sound • No impediment
• Accepting truth
• Loving
• Recognition of truth
• Submission to Allah
• Opponents of Shaytān
• Rejects Shaytān’s whispering and creating doubts
• Shield or protection against the work of Shaytān
Dead • Harsh
• Does not accept the truth
• No submission to Allah
• Shaytān’s whispering
• Shaytān creating doubts
Diseased • Joins the ranks of diseased hearts or
• Joins the ranks of the truthful and secure hearts
• Shaytān’s whispering
• Shaytān creating doubts
Hudhyafah b. al-Yamān said: I heard the Messenger of Allah ( ) observing:
Trials and tribulation will be presented to the heart [one after another] in the same way
that the mat is knitted together, reed by reed. Any heart that accepts them will have a
black spot form on it. Any heart that rejects them will have a white spot put on it until
the hearts end up being one of two types: a black heart, murky and like an overturned
vessel, it does not know the good and does not reject the evil, [all it seeks] is that which
its base desires seek; and a white heart which will not be harmed by trials for as long as
the heavens and the earth remain.
(Muslim (c))
Table 3.3 presents the trials and tribulations: reactions of the heart, according to the above
Hadith.
According to Ibn Al-Qayyim (b)
The trials that are presented to the hearts are the causes of its disease. They are the trials
of carnal desires and doubts, the trials of aimless wandering and misguidance, the trials
of sins and innovations and the trials of oppression and ignorance. The first type [i.e. car-
nal desires] leads to the corruption of desire and intent and the second type [i.e. doubts]
leads to the corruption of knowledge and belief.
(p.145)
Ibn Al-Qayyim (b) mentions that the Companions (may Allah be pleased with them)
divided the hearts into four categories as is authentically reported from Hudhayfah b.
al-Yamān. Table 3.4 presents the Companions’ four types of heart, characteristics and
meaning.
Table 3.3 Trials and tribulations: Reactions of the heart
Types of heart Reactions to trials and tribulations Disease due to “black and inverted heart”
Type 1: • Acts in same way that a sponge • Confusion of good and evil
Black heart soaks in water • Does not know the good or reject
• Black spots form on it the evil
• Accepting trials until it becomes • Believing the good to be evil
totally black and inverted • Believing evil to be good
• Like an overturned vessel, i.e., • Sunnah to be bidʿah
inverted • Bidʿah to be Sunnah
• Truth to be falsehood
• Falsehood to be truth
• Giving precedence to its base
desires when seeking judgement
Type 2: White • Set ablaze with the light of faith No disease of the heart
heart and its niche has been illuminated
• When a trial is presented to it,
it rejects it and represses it and
hence its light, blaze and strength
increase
Table 3.4 Companions’ four types of heart, characteristics and meaning
Types of heart Characteristics Meanings
Believer A heart that is illuminated A heart that has detached itself of everything
solely by a blazing torch besides Allah and His Messenger.
Has separated and secured itself from everything
save the truth.
Secure from the false doubts and misguiding
carnal desires.
Refers to the niche of faith.
Illuminated by the light of knowledge and faith.
Disbeliever That is encased It is immersed by a veil and covering.
The light of knowledge and faith cannot reach it.
Hypocrite Inverted [he knew and then Most evils of hearts.
rejected; he saw only to Allah causes them to relapse and return to the
become blind] falsehood.
Believes falsehood to be the truth: Allegiance to
followers.
Believes the truth to be falsehood: Displays
enmity to those who follow it.
Faith vs. Has two desires/inclinations Has not become established upon faith.
hypocrisy Its torch not illuminated because it has not
devoted itself solely to the truth that Allah sent
His Messenger with.
It contains some faith and some of its opposite.
It is closer to disbelief than faith sometimes.
At other times it is closer to faith than disbelief.
The heart follows whatever is predominating
in it.
Adapted from Ibn Al-Qayyim (b). Ighathatu’l-Lahfan f Masayid al-Shaytan.

There is a Hadith on the four types of hearts in faith, unbelief and hypocrisy. Abu Sa’id
reported: The Messenger of Allah, ( ), said,
There are four kinds of hearts: a polished heart as shiny as a radiant lamp, a sealed heart
with a knot tied around it, a heart that is turned upside down, and a heart that is wrapped.
As for the polished heart, it is the heart of the believer and its lamp is the light of faith.
The sealed heart is the heart of the unbeliever. The heart that is turned upside down is
the heart of a pure hypocrite, for he had knowledge, but he denied it. As for the heart that
is wrapped, it is the heart that contains both faith and hypocrisy. The parable of faith in
this heart is the parable of the herb that is sustained by pure water, and the parable of the
hypocrisy in it is the parable of an ulcer that thrives upon puss and blood; whichever of
the two is greater will dominate.
(Ahmad)
There needs to be a clarification regarding the four categories of the heart and Table 3.4. It is
Ibn Abî Shaybah (n.d.) who reported about “The heart that has two urges: an urge calling it to
faith and an urge calling it to hypocrisy. It belongs to the need that predominates it.” In rela-
tion to this type of heart is immersed by a veil and covering the light of knowledge and faith.
This is as Allah said, relating from the Jews that they said (interpretation of the meaning):
• And they said, “Our hearts are wrapped.” (Al-Baqarah 2:88)
(Our hearts are wrapped), according to the explanation given by Ibn Al-Qayyim (b), this is a
punishment from Allah which covered their hearts with a veil because they (the Jews) did not
accept the truth. “Therefore, it is a covering upon the hearts, a seal for the ears and a blindness
for the eyes. This is the obscuring screen upon the eyes” (p.146), as stated in the following
verse (interpretation of the meaning):
• And when you recite the Qur’an, We put between you and those who do not believe in the
Hereafter a concealed partition.
And We have placed over their hearts coverings, lest they understand it, and in their
ears deafness. (Al-Isra’17:45–46)
Ibn Al-Qayyim (b) comments that people with these types of hearts are rebuked “to purify
their Tawhīd and following ittibāʿ [Innovation, Imitation], they turn on their heels and run!
The ‘inverted heart’ refers to the heart of the hypocrite” as Allah, the Exalted says (interpreta-
tion of the meaning)
• What is [the matter] with you [that you are] two groups concerning the hypocrites, while
Allah has made them fall back [into error and disbelief] for what they earned. (An-Nisa
4:88)
This means that he caused them to relapse and return to the falsehood. Allah says in the
• Deaf, dumb, and blind – so they will not return [to the right path]. (Al-Baqarah 2: 18)
According to Ibn Kathir, (deaf) means that the individual cannot hear the guidance, (dumb)
they cannot utter the words that might benefit them and (blind) they are in in total darkness
and deviation. This is one with the dead heart. Finally, it was narrated that ‘Abdullah bin
‘Amr said:
It was said to the Messenger of Allah ( ) “Which of the people is best?” He said:
“Everyone who is pure of heart and sincere in speech.” They said: “Sincere in speech,
we know what this is, but what is pure of heart?” He said: “It is (the heart) that is pious
and pure, with no sin, injustice, rancour or envy in it.”
(Ibn Maja (b))

• Secularisation has provided a worldview of human nature as being a combination of bio-
psychosocial elements.
• From an Islamic perspective, humans are dualistic organisms, possessing both a body
and a soul.
• From a psychological perspective, a diversity of theoretical frameworks and approaches
have evolved which have given rise to a variety of explanations to the true nature of man.
• The different schools of psychology, it seems, have contradicted one another in their
views on the theory and concept of man.
• The Islamic view of nature has its roots in the Qur’an, the very word of God and the book
of guidance for Muslims.
• The Fitrah is one of the most important concepts relating to the pristine nature of humans.
• That innate disposition for human to believe in the unicity of God is reflected in the con-
cept of Tawheed which is an essential element of the Fitrah.
• In Islamic psychology, the spiritual dimension of man has been described by using sev-
eral concepts including the Nafs (self), Rūḥ (spirit), ‘Aql (mind and intellect) and Qalb
(heart).
• In Islamic tradition, the spiritual soul is referred to as Nafs.
• Al-Ghazālī relates to the Nafs as the appetitive soul “united man’s blameworthy quali-
ties” as opposed to his rational soul.
• Three main types of the Nafs, namely Nafs al-Ammara Bissu’ (the Nafs that urges evil),
Nafs al-Lawwama (the Nafs that blames) and Nafs al-Mutmaìnna (the Nafs at peace).
• The word for intellect in the Arabic language is ‘Aql; in Islamic psychology it is the
rational faculty of the soul or mind.
• The heart is the “inner self” of an individual and is known as the “Qalb.”
• The scholars of Ahlus-Sunnah wal Jamaah maintained that the terms Nafs and Rûh are
interchangeable.
• Ibn Al-Qayyim classified the Qalb into three types due to its functional aspect of life
and death.
• The types include the sound or heathy heart, the dead heart and the diseased heart.
• The Companions’ four types of heart: Untainted, “wrapped up” and relapsed.
The fourth type of heart is the one which is stretched out on two bodies: The body of
faith and the body of hypocrisy. This kind of heart is with whichever body dominates.
1. Psychology was rooted in the longer history of the intellectual discourse in

A. Philosophy
B. Theology
C. Natural sciences
D. A, B and C
E. A and B only
2. By excluding God and divine revelation as a source of knowledge of human nature, psy-
chology is denying
A. The spiritual nature of humans
B. The metaphysical nature of humans
C. The spiritual and metaphysical nature of humans
D. The dualistic organism nature of humans
E. The pluralistic nature of humans
3. The psychoanalytic perspective of Freud conceptualised human nature
A. In a pessimistic and deterministic manner
B. In an optimistic and deterministic manner
C. In a pluralist and deterministic manner
D. In a negativist and deterministic manner
4. Pavlov, Watson and Skinner Watson were some of the early American psychologists to
break with popular notions that our unconscious mind was behind most of our behaviour.
What was their viewpoint?
A. Only subjective mental states could explain behaviour.
B. Only observable, measurable behaviour was valid.
C. Motives could be determined by talking to a person.
D. People should be studied in groups to form a context for behaviour.
E. All of the above.
5. Social learning theory gives prominence to learning that occurs:
A. By imitation
B. By modelling
C. Vicariously
D. A and C
E. All of the above
6. The humanistic approach understands human nature in terms of:
A. The unconscious
B. The self
C. The environment
D. The nature
E. The organism
7. “To prefer evil to good is not in human nature; and when a man is compelled to choose
one of two evils, no one will choose the greater when he might have the less.” This state-
ment was made by
A. Watson
B. Skinner
C. Plato
D. Aristotle
E. Rogers
8. Badri exposes the limitations and contradictions of the current prevailing schools of
psychology that
A. Deny the existence of the soul
B. Perceive humans as mere machines acting on internal stimuli
C. Perceive humans as mere machines acting on external stimuli
D. A and C
E. All of the above
9. He suggested that the office to viceregency can be used by man in two ways: To either
abuse the power and authority for the spread of evil and injustice or to use them for
things that are good for humanity.
A. Al-Maududi
B. Zarabozo
C. Al-Tabari
D. Ibn Tamiyyah
E. Ibn Al-Qayyim
10. Zarabozo has provided a valuable lesson in the understanding of human nature. He stated
that
A. Humans are unique in their creation.
B. Humans are distinct from the Creator.
C. Humans are created for a purpose, which is to worship Allah.
D. A and B only.
11. Allah says in the Qur’an (interpretation of the meaning): “We have certainly created man
in the best of stature.”
A. Al-Baqarah 2:30–39
B. At-Tin 95:4
C. Ar-Rahman 55:4
D. Al-Insan 76:3
E. Al-Isra 17:70
12. The Fitrah is one of the most important concepts relating
A. To the pristine nature of humans.
B. To the beliefs, values and the principles of Islamic life and society.
C. Islam is the religion of Fitrah.
D. To reason which is part of Fitrah.
13. Allah says in the Qur’an (interpretation of the meaning): “So, direct your face toward
the religion, inclining to truth. [Adhere to] the fitrah of Allah upon which He has cre-
ated [all] people. No change should there be in the creation of Allah. That is the correct
religion, but most of the people do not know.”
A. At-Tin 95:4
B. Ar-Rahman 55:4
C. Ar-Rum 30:30
D. Al-Insan 76:3
E. Al-Isra 17:70
14. That innate disposition for humans to believe in the unicity of God is reflected in the
concept of
A. Tawheed
B. Fitrah
C. Rububiyah
D. Uluhiyah
E. Ibadah
15. This scholar maintains that “Prophets address the fitrah of man and appeal to it, for
knowledge of the Truth is inherent in the fitrah.”
A. Al-Ghazâlî
B. Ibn Taymiyyah
C. Ibn Al-Qayyim
D. Abu Hurayrah
E. Ibn Sina
16. The scholars of Ahlus-Sunnah wal Jamaah maintained that the terms Nafs and Rûh are
A. Different
B. Non-interchangeable
C. Opposite
D. Interchangeable
E. Neutral
17. The main types of the Nafs include
A. Nafs al-Ammara Bissu’
B. Nafs al-Lawwama
C. Nafs al-Mutmaìnna
D. A and C
E. All of the above
18. Nafs al-Ammara Bissu’ is the Nafs
A. That blames
B. That urges evil
C. At peace
D. Purified and complete
E. The fulfilling
19. The word for intellect in the Arabic language is ‘Aql; in Islamic psychology it is the
A. Rational faculty of the soul or mind
B. Rational faculty of the nervous system
C. Emotional faculty of man
D. Social faculty of man
20. Which scholar or school of thought considered the brain to be centrally the organ of
intellect?
A. Ibn Al-Jawzi
B. Al-Ghazālī
C. Imam Abu Hanifah
D. Imam Al-Shafi’i
E. Ibn Khaldun
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Part II
Biological and developmental

psychology
Chapter 4
Biological bases of behaviour
Learning outcomes
• Define biological psychology.
• Describe the structure and functions of the neuron.
• List five neurotransmitters and their functions.
• Explain the structure of the cerebral cortex (its hemispheres and lobes) and the function
of each area of the cortex.
• Name the various parts of the central nervous system and their respective functions.
• Describe the functions of the diencephalon region of the brain.
• Identify the location and function of the limbic system.
• Describe the functions of the sympathetic and parasympathetic system.
• Name at least three neuroimaging techniques and describe how they work.
• Discuss the role of hearing from an Islamic perspective.
Introduction
This chapter provides an overview of the biological mechanisms that underlie human behav-
iour. The biological and physiological foundations are the basis for many areas of the disci-
plines of psychology and neuropsychology. The biological basis of behaviour or biological
psychology is the application of the principles of biology to the study of physiological,
genetic and developmental mechanisms of behaviour. The biological perspective of psychol-
ogy is defined as “An approach to psychology that tries to explain behaviour in terms of
electrical and chemical events taking place inside the body, particularly within the brain and
nervous system” (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 2014). Generally, all thoughts, feelings and behav-
iours are governed by biological mechanisms. The biological bases of behaviour are relevant
to the understanding of human behaviour and experiences based on three main approaches.
The understanding of physiology focusing on the working of the nervous system and its func-
tions, the role of neurochemical transmitters and hormones and the relationship between the
nervous system and endocrine system. Genetics, as the mechanism of inheritance of traits
and attributes, and intergenerational factors, may help in understanding human behaviour.
Lastly, another approach is the comparative method of studying humans and animals in the
understanding of human behaviour. Many aspects of human behaviour and mental function-
ing can be better understood with knowledge of the nervous and endocrine system, genetics
and from comparative research studies.
84 Biological and developmental psychology
The neuron
The fundamental building blocks of the nervous system are called neurons. There are approxi-
mately 100 billion neurons in the human brain, and each has many contacts with other neurons.
A neuron is made up of three major parts: A cell body (soma), dendrites and the axon. The cell
body contains the nucleus of the cell and keeps the cell alive. The dendrites, branching tree-like
fibres, act as an antenna and collect data or information from other cells and send the informa-
tion to the cell body. The axon, which is a long, segmented fibre, transmits information away
from the cell body toward other neurons (interconnector, relay or motor) or to the muscles and
glands. Figure 4.1 shows the main components of a neuron. There is a layer of fatty tissue that
covers the axon of a neuron called the myelin sheath. This myelin sheath has two main func-
tions: It acts as protection or an insulator for the axon, and it also allows faster transmission of
the electrical signal from neuron to neuron. The “nerves” in the nervous system refer to the bun-
dles of axons, which are found throughout the body along which electrical signals can travel.
The axons branch out toward their ends, and at the tip of each branch is the axon terminal.
There are three main types of neuron which control or perform different activities: The
sensory neurons, the motor neurons and interconnector and interneurons.
• Sensory neurons: These neurons are triggered by physical inputs such as light, sound,
pressure and heat and by chemical inputs such as smell and taste from the environment.
These neurons are sensitive to the physical and chemical inputs, and messages are sent
to the brain about those sensations.
• Motor neurons: These neurons transmit messages from the brain to the muscles to gen-
erate voluntary and involuntary movements. The motor neuron networks enable faster
transmission of information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles, organs and
glands all over the body. The motor neurons are divided into two groups: Lower and
upper. The upper motor neurons relay signals between your brain and spinal cord. Lower
motor neurons relay signals from the spinal cord to the smooth and the skeletal muscles.
• Interneurons or interconnector neurons are relay neurons found in the brain and spinal
cord. They form a complex circuit by transmitting signals from sensory neurons and
other interneurons to motor neurons and other interneurons
The nervous system operates using an electrical and chemical process. Neurons send signals
using action potentials. Basically, action potentials are nerve electrical signals at which the
neuron fires, transmitting information to another neuron. Technically, it is a shift in the neu-
ron’s electric potential caused by the flow of ions in and out of the neural membrane. During
the action potential, part of the neural membrane opens to allow positively charged ions
Figure 4.1 Structure of a neuron.

Biological bases of behaviour 85
inside the cell and negatively charged ions out. When a signal is received by the dendrites,
it relays the information to the cell body in the form of an electrical signal. If the signal is
potent, it may then be passed on to the axon and then to the axon terminals or terminal but-
tons. The terminal buttons are structures on the end of the axon that carry signals to adjacent
neurons, glands or muscles. It is the terminal buttons that convert the electrical impulses into
chemical signals. If the signal reaches the terminal buttons, they are signalled to emit chemi-
cals known as neurochemical transmitters, which communicate with other neurons across the
spaces between the cells, known as synapses.
Role of neurotransmitter
A neurotransmitter or neurochemical transmitter is a chemical that relays signals across the
synapses between neurons. The neurochemical transmitters then cross the synapse where they
are then received by other nerve cells. In addition, different terminal buttons release different
neurotransmitters, and different dendrites are particularly sensitive to different neurotrans-
mitters. The release of the neurotransmitters can excite or inhibit an adjacent cell depending
on the neurotransmitters involved. There are many different types of neurotransmitters, and
each has a specialised function. Table 4.1 presents a list of neurochemical transmitters and
their functions. There are other neurotransmitters, such as histamine that plays a role in aller-
gic reactions and is produced as part of the immune system’s response to pathogens.
There is a group of neurotransmitters called purines which consists of adenosine and
adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Adenosine is involved in suppressing arousing and improving
sleep. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) acts as a neurotransmitter in the central and periph-
eral nervous systems (Benarroch, 2010). It may play a part in some neurological problems
including pain, trauma and neurodegenerative disorders. There are also what are known as
gasotransmitters which include nitric oxide that plays a role in affecting smooth muscles and
increasing blood flow to certain areas of the body. Carbon monoxide is produced naturally
by the body where it acts as a neurotransmitter that helps modulate the body’s inflammatory
response (Hanafy et al., 2013).
Nervous system
The nervous system functions as a communication network and command centre for relay-
ing the information of our body’s internal and external conditions to and from the brain. The
nervous system not only includes neurons but also includes non-neuron cells, called glia.
Glia perform many important functions that keep the nervous system working properly. For
example, glia help support and hold neurons in place, create insulation called myelin, repair
neurons, help restore neuron function and regulate neurotransmitters.
The nervous system is divided into two main parts: The central nervous system (CNS) and
the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The CNS is made up of the brain and spinal cord. The
PNS consists of sensory motor and relay neurons involved in the transmission of neurochem-
ical transmitters. These neurochemical transmitters act as messengers to different parts of the
body. The PNS consists of the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system
(ANS). The somatic nervous system transmits messages sent from the skin and muscles to
the brain using sensory nerves. The ANS is primarily involved in the stress response and is
divided into the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) and the parasympathetic system (PNS).
The division of the nervous system is depicted in Figure 4.2.
86
Table 4.1 The major neurochemical transmitters and their functions
Neurotransmitters Type Function Notes
Dopamine Monoamines Role in the coordination of body movements. Schizophrenia is linked to increases in dopamine.
Involved in learning. Addictive drugs increase dopamine levels.
Involved in reward, motivation and addictions.1 Parkinson’s disease: Loss of dopamine-generating
neurons in the brain.
Gamma-aminobutyric Amino acids Contributes to vision, motor control and plays a Lack of GABA: Involuntary motor actions, including
acid (GABA) role in the regulation of anxiety. tremors and seizures. Alcohol stimulates the
release of GABA, producing drunkenness.
Low levels of GABA can produce anxiety.
GABA agonists (tranquilisers) are used to reduce
Biological and developmental psychology
anxiety.
Glutamate Amino acids Glutamate is found in the food additive Excess glutamate is associated with brain injuries,
monosodium glutamate (MSG). Alzheimer’s disease,2 stroke, migraines and
Role in cognitive functions such as memory and epileptic seizures.
learning.
Acetylcholine (ACh) Role in muscle contractions. Associated with motor neurons.3
Regulates sleeping, memory and learning Alzheimer’s disease is associated with low
acetylcholine.
Nicotine is an agonist that acts like acetylcholine.
Endorphins Peptides Released in response to vigorous exercise, orgasm Pain relievers.
and eating spicy foods. Triggered by aerobic exercise.4
Inhibit the transmission of pain signals and
promote feelings of euphoria.
Serotonin Monoamines Role in regulating and modulating mood, sleep, Antidepressant medication (SSRIs) balance
anxiety, sexuality and appetite. serotonin levels, improving mode and reducing
feelings of anxiety.
Source: Adapted from Cherry (2019).

The Nervous System
Central Nervous System Peripheral Nervous System

(Brain & Spinal Cord) (Sensory and Motor Neurons)
Somatic Nervous System Autonomic Nervous System

(Motor Nerves to Muscles) (Stress Response)
Parasympathetic Sympathetic Nervous

Nervous System System
Figure 4.2 Division of the nervous system.
The structure of the central nervous system

The CNS has three main components: The brain, the spinal cord, and the neurons (see above).
The brain is the organ in the skull that has an average mass of 3 pounds or 1.5 kg. It
constitutes specialised nerve and supportive tissues. The base, or lower part, of the brain
is connected to the spinal cord. Together, the brain and spinal cord are known as the CNS.
The brain is a hub and the body’s control centre. It processes all information that our senses
receive and commands the body’s functions including movement, speech, emotions, con-
sciousness and internal body functions, such as heart rate, breathing and body temperature.
The structure of the central nervous system is presented in Figure 4.3.
The cerebrum
The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain. The cerebrum is divided into two hemispheres, a
right hemisphere and a left hemisphere, which are connected by a bridge of nerve fibres called
the corpus callosum. The cerebrum’s right hemisphere controls the left side of the body. The
left half of the cerebrum (left hemisphere) controls the right side of the body. Despite this
division of the hemispheres and their specific function, both sides of the brain work together
to produce various functions (Nielsen et al., 2013). The myth that left-handed individuals
or the left-brain thinkers are deficient or reject social norms has been refuted as this may be
based more on prejudice than on the facts (Corballis, 2014). However, there are some people
who have had their corpus callosum severed due to a genetic abnormality or as the result of
surgery. This means that the two halves of the brain cannot relay information between one
another. A study performed by Rogers, Zucca and Vallortigara (2004) showed that when
you have two halves of a brain it increases your ability to both look for food and watch for
predators at the same time. That involve multitasking. The rare split-brain patients offer
helpful insights into contralateral functions of the brain. The surface of the cortex appears
convoluted or has elevated ridges (gyri) due to the shallow grooves (sulci) and folds of the
tissue. The cortex contains about 20 billion nerve cells and 300 trillion synaptic connections
Figure 4.3 The central nervous system.
(de Courten-Myers, 1999). The inner part of the cerebrum is called the white matter which
is mostly made up of tracts of myelinated axons. Deep within the cerebral white matter is an
area of sub-cortical grey matter called basal nuclei. These nuclei, the caudate nucleus, puta-
men and globus pallidus, are important regulators of skeletal muscle movement.
The hemisphere of the cerebrum is divided into four sections called lobes. These are the
frontal, parietal, temporal and occipital lobes (see Figure 4.4).
Each of these lobes is associated with a specific function.
• Frontal lobe: This lobe is at the forward part of the cerebral cortex. This location is where
behavioural motor plans are controlled. In addition, a number of highly complex pro-
cesses are involved including speech and language use, memory, emotions and intellec-
tual functions, such as thought processes, reasoning, problem solving, decision-making,
planning and organisation.
• Occipital lobe: The occipital lobe is located at the back of the cerebral cortex and is the
storage of the visual area of the brain. It controls general vision, tracking motions and
recognising faces.
• Temporal lobe: The temporal lobe is located on the underside of the cerebral cortex.
This lobe controls hearing, smell, memory and emotions. The dominant (left side in most
right-handed people) temporal lobe also controls speech.
• Parietal lobe: The parietal lobe is located at the upper back of the cerebral cortex. This
lobe controls sensations, such as touch, pressure, pain and temperature. It also controls
the spatial orientation (understanding of size, shape and direction).
Figure 4.4 Lobes of the brain.
The cerebellum
The cerebellum, which stands for “little brain,” is a structure located on the lower dorsal
aspect of the brain (back of the brain). Like the cerebrum, the cerebellum has two major
hemispheres with an inner region of white matter and an outer cortex made up of grey mat-
ter. The nerve fibres of the cerebrum pass down and cross through the brain and the spinal
cord. This crossing of nerve fibres enables the right hemisphere of the brain to control the
muscles of the left side of the body while the left hemisphere controls the muscles of the
right side. The cerebellum has an important role in motor control, with cerebellar dysfunc-
tion often presenting with motor signs. In particular, it is active in the coordination, preci-
sion and timing of movements, as well as in motor learning. It collects sensory information
from the body and the cerebellar activity occurs subconsciously in coordinating actions or
movements.
The dysfunction of the cerebellum can be caused as a result of stroke, physical trauma,
tumours and chronic alcohol excess. In a review by Gowen and Miall (2007) to examine
whether there is evidence of motor dysfunction associated with neuropsychiatric disorders
consistent with the disruption of cerebellar motor function, the findings showed that such
evidence is apparent especially in autism and schizophrenia. However, the authors also sug-
gested that these symptoms may also reflect involvement of extra-cerebellar components.
There is also evidence to suggest that cerebellar damage is not only present with the cerebel-
lar motor syndrome of dysmetria (wrong length: Is a lack of coordination of movement),
slurred speech or ataxia and also “with cerebellar cognitive affective syndrome (CCAS),
including executive, visual spatial, and linguistic impairments, and affective dysregulation”
(Stoodley and Schmahmann, 2010, p.831).
Brain stem
The brain stem is a bundle of nerve tissue at the base of the brain, located in front of the cer-
ebellum. It is sometimes considered the “oldest” part of the brain as seen in less evolved ani-
mals. The brain stem also provides a pathway for fibre tracts running between the cerebrum
and cerebellum to the spinal cord. It consists of three major parts: Midbrain (also called the
mesencephalon), pons and medulla oblongata. The midbrain helps control eye movement and
processes visual and auditory information. It is also associated with sleep and wake cycles,
alertness and temperature regulation.
The pons (meaning bridge) is the largest part of the brain stem and is located below the
midbrain and the medulla oblongata. It contains tracts that carry signals and serves as the
bridge between the two regions, and the cerebellum. It also has nerve tracts that carry sen-
sory signals to the thalamus. The pons is involved in several functions of the body including
arousal, autonomic function, breathing regulation, relaying sensory information between the
cerebrum and cerebellum and sleep. One of the regions of the pons is considered important
for rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, and damage to this area has been shown to eliminate
REM sleep in experimental animals (Caroll and Landau, 2014). Several cranial nerves origi-
nate in the pons. The largest cranial nerve, the trigeminal nerve, aids in facial sensation and
chewing. These nerves are involved in eye movement, and aid the sense of taste and swallow-
ing, hearing and the maintenance of equilibrium. The pons helps to regulate the respiratory
system by assisting the medulla oblongata in controlling breathing rate. Damage to the pons
can result in facial problems, facial sensation loss, corneal reflex loss, facial muscle drooping,
inability to gaze outward and corneal reflex loss (Anatomical Chart Company, 2009).
The medulla oblongata (medulla is Latin for middle; oblongata refers to this part of the
brain’s elongated form) is the most inferior portion of the brain stem continuous with the
spinal cord. Its upper part is continuous with the pons. It contains both grey and white matter.
The grey matter connects the medulla oblongata with four of the cranial nerves. The medulla
oblongata controls vital functions such as breathing, heart rate, sleep–wake cycle or circa-
dian rhythm, fluid balance in the body and vomiting reflex. One of the important functions
of the medulla oblongata in the cardiovascular centre is to regulate cardiac output. This is the
amount of blood that leaves the left ventricle. The medulla oblongata functions as a breath-
ing centre for the regulation of breathing. It has been suggested that the medulla oblongata
“is not a single functioning unit but a central collection point for sensory and motor data that
must pass from the central nervous system to the peripheral nervous system and vice versa”
(Knapp, 2020). Damage to the medulla oblongata such as by a stroke or cerebral infarction
can interfere with vital nerve messages. This can result in paralysis on one or both sides of
the body, double vision and coordination problems (Kim et al., 2012), use of a machine for
breathing and “locked-in syndrome” (a condition in which people are conscious and cannot
move any part of the body except their eyes) (Sarà et al., 2018).
Diencephalon
The diencephalon is a division of the forebrain, and it is a small portion cushioned under
and between the two cerebral hemispheres, located just above the brain stem. It consists of
structures that are on either side of the third ventricle, including the thalamus, the hypothala-
mus, the epithalamus and the subthalamus. The thalamus is a small structure in the centre of
the brain that acts as a relay hub for sensory and motor information. Before sensory informa-
tion reaches your brain’s cortex, it stops at the thalamus. The thalamus serves as a sort of
main switchboard of the system of information. It does not only process information through
its switchboard but also relays sensory information (except for smell). The input information
then travels to a localised area of specialty and is passed to the cortex for further processing.
It is involved in regulating states of sleep and wakefulness, consciousness, regulating arousal,
awareness level and activity. Damage to the thalamus can lead “thalamic pain,” also known
as central pain syndrome. The pain can be intense with a burning sensation in the affected
limbs. It can affect memory, may impede movement, balance or strength, contribute to the
development of epilepsy, impact a survivor’s attention span or a sense of apathy. Severe
damage to the thalamus can lead to permanent coma. The epithalamus is located in the bot-
tom area of the forebrain (diencephalon). It serves as a connection between the limbic system
and other parts of the brain. Within its are important nuclei and the pineal gland. The pineal
gland is an endocrine gland that secretes the hormone melatonin, which is thought to play an
important role in the regulation of regular sleep and wake cycles. The epithalamus also aids
with the sense of smell.
The hypothalamus (derived from the Greek for “under chamber”) is a small region of
the brain and located below the thalamus just above the brain stem, near the pituitary gland.
In humans, it is roughly the size of an almond. One of the most important functions of the
hypothalamus is serving as a gateway between the nervous system and endocrine system.
The hypothalamus has three main regions: The anterior, middle and posterior regions, and
there are clusters of neurons that perform vital functions, such as releasing hormones. Some
of the most important hormones produced in the anterior region include the corticotropin-
releasing hormone (CRH), thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH), gonadotropin-releasing
hormone (GnRH), oxytocin, vasopressin and somatostatin. CRH is involved in stress and
anxiety. It signals the pituitary gland to produce a hormone called adrenocorticotropic hor-
mone (ACTH) which triggers the production of cortisol, an important stress hormone. TRH
stimulates the pituitary gland to produce a thyroid-stimulating hormone. This hormone plays
an important role in the function of the heart, gastrointestinal tract and muscles. GnRH causes
the pituitary gland to produce important reproductive hormones, such as follicle-stimulat-
ing hormone (FSH) and luteinising hormone (LH). Oxytocin is responsible for the control
of many important behaviours and emotions, such as sexual arousal, trust, recognition and
maternal behaviour. It is also involved in some functions of the reproductive system, such
as childbirth and lactation. Vasopressin (antidiuretic hormone) (ADH) is a hormone that
regulates water levels in the body. The function of somatostatin is to inhibit the pituitary
gland from releasing certain hormones, including growth hormones and thyroid-stimulating
hormones. The middle region of the hypothalamus nucleus is involved in releasing growth
hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH) which stimulates the pituitary gland to produce growth
hormone. This helps to control appetite and is responsible for the growth and development
of the body. The posterior hypothalamic nucleus helps regulate body temperature by caus-
ing shivering and blocking sweat production. In the main, the hypothalamus helps maintain
the equilibrium (homeostasis) of all bodily functions by maintaining the sleep–wake cycle,
controlling appetite, regulating body temperature and controlling the producing and release
of hormones. Hypothalamic dysfunction may cause diabetes insipidus, Prader–Willi syn-
drome (inherited disorder; people with Prader–Willi syndrome have a constant urge to eat),
temperature disorders, sleep disorders, thyroid disorders, disorders in puberty growth hor-
mone deficiency and prolactin deficiency (inability to lactate).
The limbic (Latin limbus, for “border” or “edge”) system is a complex set of structures
that lies on both sides of the thalamus, just under the cerebrum. The structures include the
olfactory bulb, hypothalamus, amygdala, septal nuclei and some thalamic nuclei, and other
nuclei. The limbic system regulates autonomic and endocrine function and appears to be
primarily responsible for governing emotions, level of arousal in motivation, behaviour and
the formation of memories. For example, the limbic system is implicated in the formation of
memory, develops cognitive maps for navigation, arousing stimuli related to reward and fear
and is involved in sexual functions, such as mating. The amygdala is a subcortical structure
of the limbic system, whose role involves processing emotional responses – specifically fear,
anxiety and aggression. It is also reported that the amygdala further processes memory and
decision-making and fear conditioning processing. People with extensive limbic system dam-
age are likely to have anterograde amnesia as in schizophrenia (Harrison, 2004; Antoniades
et al., 2018); in Alzheimer’s disease, the damage resulting in short-term memory loss and dis-
orientation (Hampel et al., 2008); impairment of fear conditioning (Ressler and Davis, 2003);
and amnesia, docility, hyperphagia hypersexuality and visual agnosia (Marlowe et al., 1975).
Spinal cord
The spinal cord is the most important structure between the body and the brain and together
with the brain makes up the central nervous system. It is a 40 to 50 cm long, thin, fragile
tube-like structure that extends from the medulla oblongata in the brainstem to the lumbar
region of the vertebral column. It is protected by the spinal (vertebral) column or backbone
to keep it from damage. The spinal cord is a cylindrical structure of nervous tissue composed
of white and grey matter, is uniformly organised and is made up of 31 segments: 8 cervical,
12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 5 sacral and 1 coccygeal. A pair of spinal nerves leaves each segment
of the spinal cord. The spinal nerve contains both motor and sensory nerve fibres to and from
all parts of the body. It is also the centre for reflexes, such as the knee jerk reflex and the
withdrawal reflex (for example, when touching something hot). It is reported that “Vehicle
crashes are the most recent leading cause of injury, closely followed by falls. Acts of vio-
lence (primarily gunshot wounds) and sports/recreation activities are also relatively common
causes” (The National Spinal Cord Injury Statistical Centre, 2019). Injuries to the spinal
cord result in a spastic type of paralysis (upper motor neuron injury), flaccid type paralysis
(lower motor neuron injury), abnormal bowel and bladder function, loss of feeling or change
in feeling, pain, muscle spasms, abnormal reflexes, loss of sexual function, infertility, trouble
walking or maintaining balance and difficulty breathing or coughing.
The peripheral nervous system (PNS)

Our nervous system also comprises the peripheral nervous system (PNS), which refers to all
the neurons (or glia) of the body outside the brain and spinal cord (central nervous system).
It connects the central nervous system to different organs of the body and serves as a mes-
senger from the body parts to the brain. Peripheral neurons are of three types, sensory, motor
and mixed. The sensory (afferent) neurons bring data from the sense organs to the brain and
spinal cord. The sensory information, for example, includes bladder fullness, stomach aches,
blood pressure, concentration of substances in the blood and many other bits of sensory
information used to regulate homeostasis. In contrast, the motor (efferent) neurons carry mes-
sages from the brain and spinal cord out to the muscles and glands. The mixed nerves contain
both sensory and motor neurons as well as afferent and efferent information flow towards or
away from the brain. The PNS is not protected by bones or fluid, unlike the brain and spinal
cord, making it fragile and prone to damage.
The PNS is divided into two parts: The somatic nervous system and the autonomic nerv-
ous system. The somatic nervous system is associated with the voluntary control of body
movements via skeletal muscles and also mediates involuntary reflex arcs. The somatic
nervous system consists of three parts: Spinal nerves are peripheral nerves that carry motor
demands and sensory information into the spinal cord; the cranial nerves are the nerve fibres
that carry information into and out of the brain stem; and association nerves integrate both
sensory and motor output.
The other division of the peripheral nervous system is the autonomic nervous system
(ANS) and is responsible for the involuntary movement of the internal parts of the body. It
acts as a control system, functioning largely below the level of consciousness and controlling
visceral functions including the heart rate, digestion, respiratory rate, salivation, perspiration,
pupillary dilation, micturition (urination) and sexual arousal. This involuntary function of
the body is controlled by a certain part of the brain called the hypothalamus. The autonomic
nervous system is composed of two parts: The sympathetic and parasympathetic systems.
The sympathetic nervous system starts in the spinal cord and travels to a variety of areas of
the body. The sympathetic nervous system is activated when the body prepares for a “fight-
or-flight” response to stress or danger. During this stage of threat or stress, the sympathetic
system initiates the adrenal glands (on top of the kidneys) to release epinephrine (adrenalin)
into the bloodstream. Epinephrine is a powerful hormone that causes various parts of the
body to respond similarly to the sympathetic nervous system. The effects of this hormone
are long-lasting in the bloodstream, and it takes a bit longer to stop its effects. The increase
in the physical arousal levels prepares the body to “fight or flight or freeze.” For example, it
has been reported that anxiety has been associated with persistent freeze and flight tendencies
(Roelofs et al., 2010). Aggression is related to reduced freezing and heightened fight tenden-
cies (Gladwin et al., 2016). The parasympathetic system has its roots in the brainstem and
in the spinal cord of the lower back. Its function is to return the body to baseline behaviour
from the emergency status. It reduces bodily arousal, slowing the heartbeat and breathing
rate. Together, these two systems maintain homeostasis within the body. Table 4.2 presents
the functions of the sympathetic and parasympathetic system.
How do we study the brain?

The human brain is one of the most complex organs in the human body and the most dif-
ficult to study because of practical and ethical reasons. With modern neuroscience, some
techniques that may be used for studying the human brain include electroencephalogram
(EEG), magnetoencephalography (MEG), positron emission tomography (PET) and func-
tional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and diffuse optical imaging (DOI). EEG, which
measures the blood flow of the brain, tends to pick up the electrical activity of the brain very
fast. However, it is not accurate with regards to specific location. Magnetoencephalography
can map brain activity by recording the electromagnetic fields that are produced by the natu-
rally occurring electrical currents in the brain. This technique is better than EEG as it helps
in focusing on problematic sites in the brain. PET records metabolic activity in the brain by
Table 4.2 Sympathetic system and the parasympathetic system
Sympathetic system P system
• Flight-or-fght response Pupil constriction

• Speeding up the heart rate Activation of the salivary glands
• Increasing breathing rate Stimulating the secretions of the stomach
• Increasing blood fow to muscles Stimulating the activity of the intestines
• Activating sweat secretion Stimulating secretions in the lungs
• Dilating the pupils Constricting the bronchial tubes
• Opens the eyelids Decreasing heart rate
• Stimulates the sweat glands This allows us to return our bodies to
• Dilates the blood vessels in large muscles a normal resting state
• Constricts the blood vessels in the rest of the body
• Opens up the bronchial tubes of the lungs
• Inhibits the secretions in the digestive system
detecting the amount of radioactive substances, which are injected into a person’s blood-
stream, the brain is consuming. fMRI measures changes in the levels of naturally occurring
oxygen in the blood. This technique measures brain activity based on this increased oxygen
level. Another technique, known as DOI, works by shining infrared light into the brain. As a
result, it is possible to make inferences regarding where and when brain activity is happening.
Biological bases of behaviour from an Islamic perspective

Hearing and vision as a biological and embryonic development have received much atten-
tion all throughout the 20th century. Both hearing and seeing are frequently mentioned in the
Qur’an from embryonic, biological and physiological perspectives.
The word “ear” is mentioned 18 times in the Qur’an in 16 verses. Allah, the Almighty, has
explained that the creation of the auditory system preceded the creation of the visual system
at the embryologic stage. Allah says in the Qur’an (interpretation of the meaning):
• Indeed, We created man from a sperm-drop mixture that We may try him; and We made
him hearing and seeing. (Insan, 76:2)
• …made for you hearing and vision and hearts. (As-Sajdah 32:9)
According to Ibn Kathir, (and made for you hearing and vision and hearts) means that Allah
gave you hearing, sight and reason. It has been suggested that the part of the verse in Surah
32:9 which indicates that the special senses of hearing, seeing and intellect develop in this
order has evidence from modern science. According to Moore (1986), “The primordia of the
internal ears appear before the beginning of the eyes, and the brain (the site of understanding)
differentiates last” (p.16). The order of hearing, seeing and understanding is also reinforced
in Surah Al-Mu'minun 23:78.
The human ear consists of the outer ear (pinna or concha, outer ear canal, tympanic
membrane), the middle ear (middle ear cavity with the three ossicles malleus, incus and
stapes) and the inner ear (cochlea which is connected to the three semi-circular canals by the
vestibule, which provides the sense of balance), the auditory nerve, the auditory cortex and
other brain areas involved in sound processing. From a developmental aspect, it has been
reported that
Portions of the eye, nose and ear appear very early in development each as a specialised
surface ectoderm region on the embryo. These regions must be connected to the central
nervous system by neural pathways that originate as extensions from the developing
brain.
(Hill, 2020)
The auditory system is the sensory system for hearing that is controlled by the brain. At
birth most of the sensory organ structures will mature, although a few of the other structures
continue to increase in size until adulthood (Ponton et al., 2002; Wunderlich et al., 2006).
Rahmat et al. (2018) claimed that
A major factor determining the success of the maturation process is the collection of
sufficient auditory input. This means that humans need to be able to hear and gain new
“hearing experience” for this neural maturation process to continue until the maximum
maturational period. The experience gained through hearing and listening will enhance
brain functions, as it will cause the brain cells generally to increase in power and strength.
(p.36)
The audio system is linked with the part of the brain that deals with speech and language.
Evidence suggests that hearing, speech, language and cognition are functionally interrelated
(Mayberry, 2002). For example,
new-borns begin to recognise important sounds in their environment, such as the voice
of their mother or primary caretaker. As they grow, babies begin to sort out the speech
sounds that compose the words of their language. By 6 months of age, most babies rec-
ognise the basic sounds of their native language.
(NIDCD)
Hearing is a huge blessing and is a system that is operated 24 hours a day even during sleep.
Allah, the Almighty in His Wisdom, not only asks us to read and understand the Qur’an but
to listen to it so that we can reflect.
• And when they hear what has been revealed to the Messenger, you see their eyes over-
flowing with tears because of what they have recognised of the truth. They say, “Our
Lord, we have believed, so register us among the witnesses.” (Al-Ma’idah 5:83)
• So, when the Qur’an is recited, then listen to it and pay attention that you may receive
mercy. (Al-A’raf 7:204)
According to Ibn Kathir, it is an order from Allah to listen to the Qur’an
After Allah mentioned that this Qur’an is a clear evidence, guidance and mercy for
mankind, He commanded that one listen to the Qur’an when it is recited, in respect and
honour of the Qur’an. This is to the contrary of the practice of the pagans of Quraysh.
An interesting verse in the Qur’an relates to ear-consciousness.
• That We might make it for you a reminder and [that] a conscious ear would be conscious
of it. (Al-Haqqa 69:12)
According to Ibn Kathir, (and [that] a conscious ear would be conscious of it) or (and that it
might be retained by the retaining ears.)
meaning, that a receptive ear may understand and reflect upon this bounty. Ibn Àbbas
said, “This means an ear that is retentive and hearing.” Qatadah said, “An ear that Allah
gives intelligence, so it benefits by what it hears from Allah’s Book.” Ad-Dahhak said,
“the person who has sound hearing, and correct intellect.” And this is general concerning
everyone who understands and retains.
Ear consciousness is fittingly beyond cognition. It is the bridge between the guidance from
the Qur’an and Sunnah and faith (Iman) and God consciousness (Taqwa). According to
Safi (2020),
Taqwa is equally the process by which the believers internalise the sublime values of
revelation and develop their character. Thus the Qur’an reminds the believers that they
should not reduce religious practices to a set of blind rituals, of religiously ordained
procedures performed at the level of physical movement, and that they should always
be mindful that religious practices, like praying and fasting, ultimately aim at bringing
about moral and spiritual uplifting.
• Righteousness is not that you turn your faces toward the east or the west, but [true]
righteousness is [in] one who believes in Allah, the Last Day, the angels, the Book, and
the prophets and gives wealth, in spite of love for it, to relatives, orphans, the needy, the
traveller, those who ask [for help], and for freeing slaves; [and who] establishes prayer
and gives Zakah; [those who] fulfil their promise when they promise; and [those who]
are patient in poverty and hardship and during battle. Those are the ones who have been
true, and it is those who are the righteous. (Al-Baqarah 2:177)
Maududi (1948) suggested that Allah-consciousness (Taqwa)
consists in a practical manifestation of one’s faith in Allah in one’s daily life. Taqwa also
means desisting from everything which Allah has forbidden or has disapproved of; man
must be in a state of readiness to undertake all that Allah has commanded and to observe
the distinctions between lawful and unlawful, right and wrong, and good and bad in life.

• The biological basis of behaviour is the application of the principles of biology to the
study of physiological, genetic and developmental mechanisms of behaviour.
• The fundamental building blocks of the nervous system are called neurons.
• The sensory neurons, the motor neurons and interconnector and interneurons.
• A neurotransmitter or neurochemical transmitter is a chemical that relays signals across
the synapses between neurons.
• The nervous system is divided into two main parts: The central nervous system (CNS)
and the peripheral nervous system (PNS).
• The CNS has three main components: The brain, the spinal cord and the neurons.
• The cerebrum is divided into two hemispheres, a right hemisphere and a left hemisphere,
which are connected by a bridge of nerve fibres called the corpus callosum.
• Like the cerebrum, the cerebellum has two major hemispheres with an inner region of
white matter and an outer cortex made up of grey matter.
• The brain stem is a bundle of nerve tissue at the base of the brain, located in front of
the cerebellum. It is sometimes considered the “oldest” part of the brain as seen in less
evolved animals.
• The pons (meaning bridge) is the largest part of the brain stem and is located below the
midbrain and the medulla oblongata.
• The diencephalon is a division of the forebrain and is located just above the brain stem. It
consists of structures that are on either side of the third ventricle, including the thalamus,
the hypothalamus, the epithalamus and the subthalamus.
• One of the most important functions of the hypothalamus is serving as a gateway between
the nervous system and endocrine system.
• The limbic system regulates autonomic and endocrine function and appears to be primar-
ily responsible for governing emotions, level of arousal in motivation, behaviour and the
formation of memories.
• The spinal cord is the most important structure between the body and the brain and
together with the brain makes up the central nervous system.
• Our nervous system also comprises the peripheral nervous system (PNS), which refers to all
the neurons (or glia) of the body outside the brain and spinal cord (central nervous system).
• The PNS is divided into two parts: The somatic nervous system and the autonomic nerv-
ous system.
• The other division of the peripheral nervous system is the ANS and is responsible for the
involuntary movement of the internal parts of the body.
• With modern neuroscience, some techniques that may be used for studying the human
brain include electroencephalogram (EEG), magnetoencephalography (MEG), positron
emission tomography (PET) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and
diffuse optical imaging (DOI).
• From an Islamic perspective, the creation of the auditory system preceded the creation of
the visual system at the embryologic stage.
• Ear consciousness is fittingly beyond cognition. It is the bridge between the guidance
from the Qur’an and Sunnah and faith (Iman) and God consciousness (Taqwa).
1. The function of a neuron is

A. To support and nourish glial cells
B. To transmit neural impulses
C. Present only in higher mammals

D. Composed of many nerves bundled together
E. An electrical discharge
2. The axons a motor neuron is covered by an insulating substance called
A. Myelin sheath
B. Neurotransmitters
C. Synapses
D. Glial cells
E. Medulla
3. The signals sent across the synaptic gap from one neuron to another are by
A. Electrical charges
B. The ion pumps
C. The release and diffusion of chemicals
D. Physical contact between the pre- and post-synaptic membranes
E. Acetylcholine-containing neurons
4. The nerve fibres running from the brain to and from various parts of the body are gath-
ered together in the
A. Autonomic system
B. Medulla
C. Spinal cord
D. Somatic system
E. Cerebellum
5. The structure that controls the breathing is the
A. Reticular formation
B. Medulla
C. Cerebral cortex
D. Cerebellum
E. Glia cells
6. Which area of the brain acts as a relay station, for most incoming sensory information to
the cerebral cortex?
A. Reticular formation
B. Thalamus
C. Autonomic nervous system
D. Medulla
E. Synapses
7. The structure that is primarily involved in higher mental processes is the
A. Limbic system
B. Cortex of the cerebellum
C. Cortex of the cerebrum
D. Cortex of reticular system
E. Cortex of the mid brain
8. CT scans, MRI and PET scans are useful
A. To determine the cause of specific brain damage
B. To understand the effect of various neurotransmitters
C. To locate specific hormones
D. To study the brain without causing the patient any distress
E. For all of the above
9. The somatic nervous system

A. Comprised of two sub-systems
B. Connects the central nervous system and the senses
C. Consists of the brain and spinal cord
D. Controls the involuntary responses
E. Controls the voluntary responses
10. The autonomic nervous system is
A. Involved in the unconscious regulation of internal organs and glands
B. Involved in the coordination of voluntary muscle groups
C. A component of the central nervous system
D. Controlled by the somatic nervous system
E. Controlled by the brain and spinal cord
11. It has a big influence on the pituitary gland and also could be considered to be the con-
nection between the nervous system and the endocrine gland system.
A. Medulla
B. Limbic system
C. Thalamus
D. Autonomic nervous system
E. Hypothalamus
12. Alzheimer’s disease is
A. Caused by the degeneration of neurons
B. Affected by acetylcholine and results in memory impairment
C. Due to changes in acetylcholine containing neurons
D. Due to autonomic nervous system disruption
13. Relay neurons carrying information
A. Connect different parts of the central nervous system
B. Connect different parts of the peripheral nervous system
C. Convey instructions for physical operations
D. Convey instructions for mental operations
E. Support and nourish glial cells
14. What is the autonomic nervous system?
A. Part of the central nervous system independent of the will
B. The efferent pathway to the viscera (all fibres connecting the CNS to glands,
smooth muscles and heart)
C. All efferent fibres in the body except those to smooth muscle
D. Afferent (sensory) fibres from the bone
E. All of the above
15. Sympathetic nervous system activities lead to the “fight-or-flight” response. Which one
is incorrect?
A. Vasodilatation in skeletal muscle
B. Sweating
C. Bladder relaxation
D. Increased gut motility
16. According to Moore (1986), “The primordia of the internal _________appear before the
beginning of the eyes, and the brain (the site of understanding) differentiates last.”
A. Organs
B. Ears
C. Ocular system
D. Structure
E. System
17. Allah says in the Qur’an (interpretation of the meaning): Indeed, We created man from
a sperm-drop mixture that We may try him; and We made him _________and_______
(Insan, 76:2).
A. Seeing, hearing
B. Tall, strong
C. Hearing, seeing
D. Strong, tall
E. Weak, tall
18. The sympathetic nervous system is primarily concerned with
A. Mobilising the body in response to stress
B. Maintaining the body at rest
C. The release of acetylcholine into target organs
D. The release of adrenaline
E. Activation of skeletal muscle, activation of smooth muscle
19. The parasympathetic system is primarily concerned with
A. Mobilising the body in response to stress
B. Maintaining the body at rest
C. The release of acetylcholine into target organs
D. The release of adrenaline
E. Activation of skeletal muscle, activation of smooth muscle
20. Which of the following structures does not belong to the limbic system?
A. Hypothalamus
B. Striatum
C. Amygdala
D. Hippocampus
E. Pons
Notes
1 Arias-Carrión, O., Stamelou, M., Murillo-Rodríguez, E., et al., (2010). Dopaminergic Reward
System: A Short Integrative Review. Int Arch Med., 3:24. doi:10.1186/1755-7682-3-24.
2 Wang, R., and Reddy, P.H. (2017). Role of Glutamate and NMDA Receptors in Alzheimer's
Disease. J Alzheimers Dis., 57(4):1041–1048. doi:10.3233/JAD-160763.
3 National Center for Biotechnology Information. PubChem Database. Acetylcholine, CID=187.
4 Sprouse-Blum, A.S., Smith, G., Sugai, D., and Parsa, F.D. (2010). Understanding Endorphins and
Their Importance in Pain Management. Hawaii Med J., 69(3):70–71.
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Chapter 5
Development and reproductive

behaviours
Learning outcomes
• Describe briefly the process of conception and prenatal development.
• Discuss the issues of personhood from an Islamic perspective.
• Identify some of the verses of the Qur’an related to embryology.
• Explain the terms gene, chromosomes and gender determination.
• State the difference between dominant and recessive genes.
• Identify some of the potential problems associated with pregnancy.
Introduction
This chapter approaches the biological foundation from a genetic perspective, seeking to
determine how traits or one’s genotype (the genes that one inherits) are transmitted from
parents to their children and how the mechanics of genetics enable us to better understand the
biological basis that contributes to certain behaviours. Genes affect both physical and psy-
chological characteristic and are the result of a complex interplay between nature (heredity)
and nurture (environment) (Hughes and Plomin, 2000; Plomin and Asbury, 2005). In addi-
tion, the stages of conception and prenatal development, the effects of teratogens, infertility,
pregnancy, complications of pregnancy and childbirth will be examined. The evidence will
be based on scientific literature from the fields of genetics, biology, embryology and develop-
mental psychology, and from the Qur’an and Sunnah. In order to understand the mechanism
of heredity, we will start with an overview of conception.
Conception and prenatal development

Human life begins at conception. At around day 14 of a 28-day menstrual cycle, the average
woman ovulates and releases an egg, or ovum, from one of her ovaries. The ovum travels
into the nearby fallopian tube. The act of conception is the moment when an ovum on its way
to the uterus via the fallopian tube is fertilised by a man’s sperm. Sperm usually reach the
egg within approximately 90 minutes of ejaculation. Of the average 80 to 300 million sperm
present per ejaculation, an estimated 2,000 eventually reach the fallopian tube containing
the ovum. Only one sperm penetrates and fertilises the ovum. It is the tiny energy sources
for cells (mitochondria), in the anterior part of the sperm tail (called the midpiece), which
propels the sperm through the woman’s vagina and into her tubes. This propulsion also helps
the sperm to burrow through the egg coat. The head of the sperm contain a condensed hap-
loid nucleus, that is, a nucleus with only one set of chromosomes. Fertilisation is completed
when the nucleus of the head of the sperm fuses with the nucleus of the egg. Half of the 23
chromosomes from the sperm and half of the 23 chromosomes from the egg fuse together,
creating a zygote, a fertilised ovum.
The zygote continues to travel down the fallopian tube and will implant itself in the wall
of the uterus. If zygote is not attached to the uterus, it will be flushed out in the woman’s
menstrual flow. After implantation, and for the first eight weeks of gestation, the zygote is
referred to as an embryo. Beginning in the ninth week after conception, the embryo becomes
a foetus. During the fifth week of embryonic development, the umbilical cord carries blood
to and from the foetus via one vein and two arteries. The defining characteristic of the foetal
stage is growth, and the development starts with the head and ends with the lower body and
extremities. This cycle of development results in the head being excessively larger than the
rest of the body.
The frst trimester

During the first 12 weeks of gestation, most of the foetus’s systems and structures begin to
take shape. Various body organs including the sensory organs, skin, nervous system, muscles
and skeleton are formed. In addition, the circulatory, reproductive, digestive, respiratory and
glandular systems are also formed. By around seven weeks, the function of both the diges-
tive and respiratory organs is limited. Although the gonads (sex or reproductive gland) are in
the process of development, the foetus’s gender is not yet externally evident. Around week
8, the foetus’s heart beats with a regular rhythm. The tongue, lips, ears, nose and eyes are
visible. The arms and legs grow longer, and fingers and toes have begun to form. The sex
organs begin to form. The eyes have moved forward on the face, and eyelids have formed.
The umbilical cord is clearly visible. By week 10, due to the rapid growth of the brain, the
head is much larger than the rest of its body. During this period, the arms, hands, legs, feet
and toes are clearly visible. Around 12 weeks, the foetus weighs approximately 1 ounce, is
3 or 4 inches long and has discernible sex organs. With the use of ultrasound in the second
trimester or later the baby’s sex may be identified. The nerves and muscles begin to work
together. The eyelids are closed for the protection of the developing eyes. They will not open
again until the 28th week.
The second trimester

Week 13 is the beginning of the second trimester. Around 14 weeks, discernible movements
of the 6-inch long foetus can be felt by the mother. At week 16, muscle tissue and bone
continue to form, creating a more complete skeleton. Skin begins to form. Sucking motions
with the mouth (sucking reflex) are apparent. The baby weighs almost 3 ounces and reaches
a length of about 4 to 5 inches. This period is also that of the baby’s first bowel movement
and the earliest stool known as meconium. By week 17 or 18, the foetal heartbeat can be
detected. At week 20, the baby is more active. The baby is also covered by fine, downy hair
called lanugo and a waxy coating called vernix. This protects the forming skin underneath.
Eyebrows, eyelashes, fingernails and toenails have formed. The baby can hear and swallow.
The baby now is about 6 inches long and weighs about 9 ounces. By week 24, the rate of
Development and reproductive behaviours 105
development is intensified, and the bone marrow begins to make blood cells. The hand and
startle reflex develop. There are formations of taste buds, the lungs (do not function as yet),
footprints and fingerprints. Real hair begins to grow on your baby’s head. The baby sleeps
and wakes regularly. If it is a baby boy, his testicles begin to move from the abdomen into the
scrotum. For a baby girl, her uterus and ovaries are in place, and a lifetime supply of eggs has
formed in the ovaries. There is considerable weight gain as the baby starts storing fat. The
baby now weighs about 1.5 pounds and is about 12 inches long.
The third trimester

The third trimester begins around week 27. The foetus turns and takes a head-down posi-
tion in the womb as it prepares to enter the birth canal, or vagina. If the foetus does not turn
and is positioned feet-first or hips-first, then a breech presentation occurs. By 32 weeks, the
bones are fully formed, but still soft, and the breathing movements are present despite the
lungs not being fully formed. The eyes can open and close and sense changes in light. The
baby’s kicks are strong. The body begins to store vital minerals, such as iron and calcium.
At this stage, the baby weighs about 4 to 4.5 pounds and is about 15 to 17 inches long. At
36 weeks, the protective waxy coating gets thicker. As the baby’s size increases due to
body fats, there is less space for the baby to move around. At this stage, the baby weighs
about 6 to 6.5 pounds and is about 16 to 19 inches long. Between 37 to 40 weeks, the baby
is considered full term and the baby’s organs are ready to function on their own. The aver-
age baby weight at birth is between 6 pounds, 2 ounces and 9 pounds, 2 ounces and the
average height is 19 to 21 inches. Most full-term babies fall within these ranges, and it is
worth noting that these reference ranges typically have been based on white Anglo-Saxon
populations. However, those reference ranges for weight and size may not be applicable to
Black, Asian and minority ethnic (BAME) populations in the United Kingdom and other
countries.
Personhood and Islam

When human life begins is one of the more contentious bioethical, theological, political and
legal issues. The issue of “personhood” or life beginning at conception is a theological rather
than medical or embryological question. Generally divergent views have been suggested
as the point when human life begins. Feminists and pro-choice groups (pro-abortion) claim
that this phrase seeks to eliminate women’s basic rights to control over their own bodies.
They argue that the phrase life begins at conception is “highly—and purposefully—mislead-
ing because it confuses simple biological cell division both with actual pregnancy and with
actual, legal personhood, which are all very different things” (Jacobson, 2012). That life
begins at the time of conception is also the view of the “Catechism of the Catholic Church”
and the anti-abortionist lobby. Basically, the “fertilised egg,” that is the moment of fertilisa-
tion, is chosen as the beginning of human life. Embryologists such as Moore (1983), Moore
et al. (2019) and Kischer (2002) advocated that human life begins at fertilisation (concep-
tion). Others suggest that personhood happens during implantation (when the fertilised egg is
implanted in the womb), the first movement of the foetus in the womb (16 to 17 weeks after
fertilisation), the separation of tissues in the foetus into different types, the first sign of brain
activity, when the foetus could survive outside the womb and at birth. Some professional
associations have also taken a stance on the beginning of human life. For instance, the
American College of Pediatricians (2017)
concurs with the body of scientific evidence that corroborates that a unique human life
starts when the sperm and egg bind to each other in a process of fusion of their respec-
tive membranes and a single hybrid cell called a zygote, or one-cell embryo, is created.
From an Islamic perspective, Islamic scholars, clinicians and theologians have debated the
issue of human life, abortion, issues surrounding paternity, in vitro fertilisation and surrogacy
amongst others. There is also a diversity of positions among Islamic scholars and theologians
about when human life begins. On one hand, religious scholars and physicians advocated
that human life starts by conception. The Qur’anic verses quoted to support this position are
• Indeed, We created man [insan] from a sperm-drop [nufta] mixture. (Al-Insan 76:02)
• …and when you were foetuses in the wombs of your mothers. (An-Najm 53:32)
It has been observed that the Qur’an in verse Al-Insan 76:02 used the term man (insan) to
speak about the sperm-drop (nufta) mixture (Madhkur and Awadi, 1985, p.218). In verse
An-Najm 53:32, Madhkur and Awadi (1985) noted that “Dr. Hathut wondered, who are ‘you’
in this verse? It is you and me; the human being, he replied. He wants to conclude that the
Qur’an speaks about human life even in the stage of the embryo” (p.303). In contrast, there
is also the notion that human life starts by breathing the soul, which happens later than the
moment of conception.
The advocates of this position tried to reconcile the scientific vision, which ensures the
existence of different symptoms of life before breathing the soul with the traditional reli-
gious view that makes breathing the soul as the marker of the beginning of human life.
They opined that there is life prior to breathing the soul but not yet a human life.
(Ghaly, 2012, p.190)
The verses of the Qur’an that support this proposition include Al-Hijr 15:29; Al-Haj 22:05;
As-Sajdah 32:09; and Sad 38:72. The principal verses were from Al-Mu’minun (23: 2–14).
• And certainly, did We create man from an extract of clay.

• Then We placed him as a sperm-drop in a firm lodging. (Al-Mu’minun 23: 12–14)
Ghaly (2012) citing Dr Abd Allah Basalama, in reference to the above verses, stated that
the fertilized ovum passes by three stages: (1) the cellular stage during which the ferti-
lised ovum of a human being can hardly be distinguished from what we can find inside
the uteruses of some animals, (2) the alaqa and mudgha stage when one can observe a
human-like being, and (3) the soul-breathing stage that takes place when the nervous
system, including the brain, gets fully shaped and the verse expressed this stage by say-
ing, “Then we developed out of it another creature” (Basalama, 1985, pp.78–79).
(p.191)
It was also noted that the religious scholars preferred to consider alaqa and mudgha as two
distinct stages and thus there will be four stages in this process. The following Hadith nar-
rated by Àbdullah makes the point. Allah’s Messenger ( ), the truthful and truly inspired,
said,
Each one of you collected in the womb of his mother for forty days, and then turns into
a clot for an equal period (of forty days) and turns into a piece of flesh for a similar
period (of forty days) and then Allah sends an angel and orders him to write four things,
i.e., his provision, his age, and whether he will be of the wretched or the blessed (in the
Hereafter). Then the soul is breathed into him. And by Allah, a person among you (or a
man) may do deeds of the people of the Fire till there is only a cubit or an arm-breadth
distance between him and the Fire, but then that writing (which Allah has ordered the
angel to write) precedes, and he does the deeds of the people of Paradise and enters it;
and a man may do the deeds of the people of Paradise till there is only a cubit or two
between him and Paradise, and then that writing precedes and he does the deeds of the
people of the Fire and enters it.
(Bukhari (a))
Ghaly (2012) suggested that
The advocates of this position focused on two main points that can be concluded from
the Qur’anic verses and the Prophetic traditions, namely associating the soul-breathing
with the beginning of human life and the exact timing of breathing the soul.
(p.191)
In the final recommendation of the Islamic Organization for Medical Sciences’ (IOMS) sym-
posium in Kuwait, in 1985, examining the theme of “Human Life: Its Beginning and Its End
from an Islamic Perspective,” the position that human life starts much later, namely, when the
soul gets breathed into the foetus, and this takes place at earliest after 40 days of pregnancy
and at latest by the lapse of 4 months, gained the support of the majority of the participants
(80 biomedical scientists and religious scholars). The final recommendation stated that “that
life has three grades: it starts by conception, then gains dignity (ihtiram) by implantation, and
finally acquires sanctity (hurma) just after breathing the soul” (Ghaly, 2012, p.208).
Embryology in the Qur’an

It is clear to me that these statements must have come to Muhammad from God, or Allah,
because most of this knowledge was not discovered until many centuries later. This
proves to me that Muhammad must have been a messenger of God, or Allah. At first, I
was astonished by the accuracy of the statements that were recorded in the 7th century
AD, before the science of embryology was established.
This statement was made in the 1980s by Professor Dr Keith L. Moore best known for clini-
cal anatomy, and a professor emeritus in the Faculty of Surgery at the University of Toronto,
Canada. At that time, he worked with the Embryology Committee of King Abdulaziz
University in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, helping them interpret the many statements in the Qur’an
and Hadiths referring to human reproduction and prenatal development. In fact, we had
Figure 5.1 Human embryo (leech form).
limited knowledge about the stages of development and the classification of human embryos
until the 20th century. It has been suggested that “It is clear that mankind did not realise that
the embryo is created of a man’s sperm mingled with a woman’s ovum except in the 18th
century, and only to be confirmed at the beginning of the 20th century” (Mahdi, Abolfazl
and Hamid, 2012, p.1). This is one of the scientific miracles of the Qur’an. The Qur’an and
Prophetic traditions have confirmed in a very accurate scientific manner the creation of life
and human being.
• Indeed, We created man from a sperm-drop mixture [nutfah amshaj]. (Al-Insan 76:2)
This means the fluid of the man (semen) and the fluid of the woman (ovum) when they meet
and mix. This is the basis of conception in modern biological terminology. There are four
different stages of formation of the human embryo in the mother’s womb as described in the
Qur’an.
It is important at this stage to provide some explanations of the terminologies used in the
Qur’an regarding embryonic development.
• Nutfah: Mixed semen drops of male and female discharge.

• Alakah: Something that clings; leech-like structure (see Figure 5.1); blood clot.
• Mudgah: Piece of flesh; bead-like segmental masses of flesh; like chewed gum with teeth
marks (see Figure 5.2).
The drawings (Figures 5.1 and 5.2) reveal the similarity in shape and look between a leech
and a human embryo at the “alaqah stage.”
Figure 5.2 Embryo and gum.
Allah mentioned in the Qur’an about the different stages in the formation of the human
embryo (interpretation of the meaning):
• And certainly, did We create man from an extract of clay.

• Then We placed him as a sperm-drop [nuftah] in a firm lodging.
• Then We made the sperm-drop into a clinging clot [alaqah, and We made the clot into
a lump [of flesh] [mudgah, and We made [from] the lump, bones [izam], and We cov-
ered the bones with flesh[lahm]; then We developed him into another creation[human].
(Al-Mu’minun 23:12–14)
In the first verse (Al-Mu’minun 23:12) Allah tells us that man was formed from components
contained in clay. According to Ibn Kathir,
[Allah] He initially created man from an extract of Tin. This was Adam whom Allah cre-
ated from sounding clay of altered black smooth mud. Ibn Jarir said, “Adam was called
Tin because he was created from it.” Qatadah said, “Adam was created from Tin.” This
is the more apparent meaning and is closer to the context, for Adam, was created from
a sticky Tin, which is a sounding clay of altered black smooth mud, and that is created
from dust. Imam Ahmad recorded from Abu Musa that the Prophet ( ) said: of the
Qur’an clearly mentioned that at the first stage, man was formed from components con-
tained in clay (sulalatin min tin).
According to Imam Rāghib, the meaning of sulālah min tīn is that such an extracted essence of
clay is being cleaned from dirt. It has been suggested by Mahdi, Abolfazl and Hamid (2012)
that “Other Mufassirun [exegeses] entertain the possibility that Allah might be referring to
man’s body that consists of various chemical components, such as iron, phosphorus, car-
bon, etc. These chemical components are also found in clay” (p.2). The authors also men-
tioned that Talbi Bucaille (1989) “emphasises that ‘quintessence of clay’ refers to the various
chemical components which constitute clay, extracted from ma’ (water), which in term of
weights, is the main element and the origin of all life” (p.2). Tahir-ul-Qadri (2001) suggested
that “From the Qur’anic interpretation and the scientific research about the chemical creation
of man we extract the point that the fundamental compounds in the chemical formation of
human life are clay, inorganic matter and chemical extract of the clay” (p.47).
The second stage of humans’ creation is stated in Al-Mu’minun 23:13 (Then We placed
him as a sperm-drop [nuftah] in a firm lodging). The drop or nuftah mentioned in the verse
has been interpreted as the fluid of the man, the semen. However, according to Moore (1986),
a more meaningful interpretation would be the zygote which divides to form a blastocyst
which is implanted in the uterus (“a place of rest”). This interpretation is supported by
another verse in the Qur’an which states that “a human being is created from a mixed
drop [Al-Insan 76:2].” The zygote forms by the union of a mixture of the sperm and the
ovum (“The mixed drop”). “Then We made the drop into a leech-like structure.”
(p.15)
From the exegesis of Ibn Kathir, “Nutfah Amshaj, meaning, mixed. Ibn Àbbas said concern-
ing Allah’s statement, (from Nutfah Amshaj,) ‘This means the fluid of the man and the fluid
of the woman when they meet and mix.’” That is the formation of the zygote.
“Nutfah” is translated as fluid, cell or “seminal fluid.” In Arabic, it means “very little
water” or “a drop of water.” Semen is a mixture of fluids that contains sperm, but the major-
ity of semen is composed of over 200 separate proteins, as well as vitamins and minerals.
The sperm, which is the male reproductive cell or gamete, has a tail known as a flagellum
(Sulalah). Allah says in the Qur’an (interpretation of the meaning):
• Who perfected everything which He created and began the creation of man from clay.
• Then He made his posterity out of the extract of a liquid disdained [despised fluid].
(As-Sajdah 32:7–8)
The following explanation is provided by Ibn Kathir. Allah has created us in stages and
Allah tells us that He has created everything well and formed everything in a goodly
fashion. Malik said, narrating from Zayd bin Aslam: (Who perfected everything which
He created) means, “He created everything well and in a goodly fashion.” When Allah
mentions the creation of the heavens and the earth, He follows that by mentioning the
creation of man, (and began the creation of man from clay) meaning, He created the
father of mankind, Adam, from clay. (He made his posterity out of the extract of a liquid
disdained) means, they reproduce in this fashion, from a Nutfah which comes from the
loins of men and from between the ribs of women.
The role of nutfah is further reinforced in the following verse of the Qur’an: Allah says (inter-
• So, let man observe from what he was created.

• He was created from a fluid, ejected. (At-Tariq 86: 5–6)
This verse is also a reminder to man that they have been created from a fluid from both the
man and the woman. Furthermore, Allah has created man from a sperm-drop (An-Nahl 16:
4), a drop of sperm from a despised fluid known as semen, then he became a clot, then a lump
of flesh, then he was formed into male or female (Al-Qiyamah 75: 37–39).
From the ‘nutfah, it then becomes the “alaqah.” The zygote is formed by the union of a
mixture of the sperm and the ovum and implemented in the uterus. The “alaqah” has been
explained above. It is something that clings, a leech-like structure. The following verses of
the Qur’an depict as a whole the stages of embryonic development. Allah says in the Qur’an
• Then We made the sperm-drop into a clinging clot. (Al-Mu’minun 23:14)
Moore (1986), commenting on the above verse, suggested that
This is an appropriate description of the human embryo from days 7–24 when it clings to
the endometrium of the uterus, in the same way that a leech clings to the skin. Just as the
leech derives blood from the host, the human embryo derives blood from the decidua or
pregnant endometrium. It is remarkable how much the embryo of 23–24 days resembles
a leech.
(pp.15–16)
In the same verse, Allah says (interpretation of the meaning):
• We made the clot into a lump [of flesh], and We made [from] the lump, bones, and We cov-
ered the bones with flesh; then We developed him into another creation. (Al-Mu’minun
23:14)
In the context of the above verse, the word Mudgah is used which means piece of flesh,
bead-like segmental masses of flesh, like chewed gum with teeth marks. It is toward the
end of the fourth week that the human embryo has the appearance of a chewed lump of
flesh (Figure 5.2). Then there is the formation of bones and muscles from the chewed
lump. Then there is the formation of another creature or human-like embryo that forms
by the end of the eighth week. The embryo is characterised by having all the internal and
external organs and parts. After the eighth week, the human embryo is called a foetus.
Then there is the development of the senses of hearing, seeing and feeling (As-Sajdah
32:9), and the bones, muscles and ligaments (Al-Haj 22:5). The next verse of the Qur’an
indicates which embryos will remain in the uterus. Allah says (interpretation of the
meaning):
• We created you from dust, then from a sperm-drop, then from a clinging clot, and then
from a lump of flesh, formed and unformed – that We may show you. And We settle in the
wombs whom We will for a specified term. (Al-Haj 22:5)
(And We settle in the wombs whom We will for a specified term) meaning “that some-
times the foetus remains in the womb and is not miscarried. (Ibn Kathir). “It is well
known that many embryos abort during the first month of development, and that only
about 30% of zygotes that form, develop into foetuses that survive until birth” (Moore,
1986, p.16).
(and then from a lump of flesh, formed and unformed) meaning “Mujahid said, This means
the miscarried foetus, formed or unformed. When forty days have passed of it being a lump of
flesh, then Allah sends an angel to it who breathes the soul into it and forms it as Allah wills,
handsome or ugly, male or female. He then writes its provision, its allotted length of life and
whether it is to be one of the blessed or the wretched.”
It is narrated by Abdullah that Allah’s Messenger ( ) the true and truly inspired said,
“(as regards your creation), every one of you is collected in the womb of his mother for the
first forty days, and then he becomes a clot for another forty days, and then a piece of flesh for
another forty days. Then Allah sends an angel to write four items: He writes his deeds, time
of his death, means of his livelihood, and whether he will be wretched or blessed (in religion).
Then the soul is breathed into his body” (Bukhari (b)).
Finally, in another verse of the Qur’an, Allah says (interpretation of the meaning):
• He creates you in the wombs of your mothers, creation after creation, within three dark-
nesses. (Az-Zumar 39:6)
What is interesting in this verse is the (in three veils of darkness) which means, “in the dark-
ness of the womb, the darkness of the placenta which blankets and protects the child, and the
darkness of the belly. This was the view of Ibn Àbbas and many others” (Ibn Kathir).
The three veils of darkness may refer to “(1) the anterior abdominal wall; (2) the uterine
wall; and (3) the amnio-chorionic membrane. Although there are other interpretations of this
statement, the one presented here seems the most logical from an embryological point of
view” (Moore 1986, p.15).
Perhaps there are other verses of the Qur’an that related to human development and behav-
iour that, as humans, we are unable to comprehend or will understand in the future as our
scientific knowledge increases. Tzortzis (2013) suggested that
An interesting aspect of the Qur’ān, [is that] it seems to be able to address various times
and different levels of understanding. If some statements do not seem to be in line with
modern science, then science will catch up. Also, and as you know, science is not abso-
lute, it changes with time and that there is always the possibility of new observations and
new findings.
(p.25)
• And say, “[All] praise is [due] to Allah. He will show you His signs, and you will recog-
nise them. And your Lord is not unaware of what you do.” (An-Naml 27:93)
Gene, chromosomes and gender determination

In the examination of human development from a hereditary perspective, there is a need to
understand a number of concepts including genotype, phenotype, chromosomes and genes.
In the simplest terms, a gene is a section of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) that encodes a
trait. For example, there is a gene that encodes hair colour or eye colour. Genotype is the
genetic constitution of an organism and comprises the entire complex of genes inherited from
both parents. A phenotype is the observable or measurable characteristics of an individual.
The main contrasting key point between genotype and phenotype and is that genotype is
inherited from an organism’s parents, whereas the phenotype is not. Phenotype is influenced
by genotype and also but environmental and life-style factors. An example of a difference
between phenotype and genotype is that having blue eyes or black hair is a phenotype; lack-
ing the gene for brown eyes or black hair is a genotype.
A zygote is formed due to the fertilisation of the father’s sperm (gamete) and the mother’s
ovum (gamete). This tiny cell, 1/20th the size of the head of a pin, contains the biochemi-
cal material for the zygote’s development. In the case of identical twins in humans, it is
the zygote that splits into two separate cell masses at a relatively early stage in its growth.
These two masses, genetically identical to each other, develop to form embryos. In the case
of two separate zygotes (two separate eggs fertilised by two different sperm), fraternal twins
develop. The human zygote is endowed with thousands of chemical segments which are
essential factors for development but also genes from two parents. It is estimated that human
beings have approximately 20,000 to 25,000 genes.
Genes are made of a chemical called “deoxyribonucleic acid,” known as the DNA. The
DNA molecule has a unique “double helix” shape like two long, thin strands twisted around
each other like a spiral staircase. It is the chromosomes, rod-shaped structures, that contain
biological blueprints, or genes. Each parent contributes 23 chromosomes to each of their
children. More technically, it is the sperm that carriers either an Y or X chromosome and the
egg always carries an X chromosome. For example, a female zygote (XX) is the product of
the fusion of an egg with a sperm carrying an X chromosome (female X chromosome and
male x chromosome). In contrast, a male zygote (XY) is the product of the fusion of an egg
with a sperm carrying a Y chromosome (female X chromosome and male Y chromosome).
However, there are exceptions to this rule. It is reported that “The X chromosome is about
three times larger than the Y chromosome, containing about 900 genes, while the Y chromo-
some has about 55 genes” (National Human Genome Research Institute, 2020). The largest
chromosome, chromosome 1, contains about 8,000 genes. The smallest chromosome, chro-
mosome 22, contains about 300 genes.
Gender determination of the foetus can be an important issue to parents, especially in
some Muslim-majority countries in the Indian sub-continent. Historically, there has always
been a myth that it is the woman who is responsible for determining the gender of the baby.
It is widely acknowledged now that it is the sperm that determines the sex of a baby depend-
ing on whether they are carrying an X or Y chromosome. That means it is the man who is
responsible for determining the gender of the baby, by Allah’s leave. Research studies have
shown that a baby’s sex is not only determined just by the X-Y chromosomes, “but involves
a ‘regulator’ that increases or decreases the activity of genes which decide if we become male
or female” (Croft et al., 2018). It has been reported that Dr Muhammad ‘Ali al-Baarr (2016)
(may Allah bless him) said:
It is scientifically proven that the gender of the baby is decided from the moment when
the sperm meets the egg and fertilises it. If the sperm which carries the male chromo-
some Y meets the egg, then the foetus will be male, by Allah’s leave. But if the sperm
that fertilises the egg carries the female chromosome, then the foetus will be female, by
Allah’s leave. So, it is the sperm or the man’s semen that determines the gender, whether
the foetus will be male or female. “And that He creates the two mates – the male and
female – from a sperm-drop when it is emitted” [An-Najm 53:45, 46]. The drop of semen
that is emitted is undoubtedly the semen of the man.
(Cited in Islam Q&A, 2016)
This statement was supported by the following verses. Allah, may He be exalted, also says
• Does man think that he will be left neglected?

Had he not been a sperm from semen emitted?
Then he was a clinging clot, and [Allah] created [his form] and proportioned [him]
And made of him two mates, the male and the female.
Is not that [Creator] Able to give life to the dead? (Al-Qiyaamah 75:36–40)
Ibn Al-Qayyim of Jawziyyah (2016) (may Allah have mercy on him) said:
The Prophet ( ) was asked how come the baby sometimes resembles the father and
sometimes resembles the mother, and he said: “If the water of the man precedes the water
of the woman, the child will resemble him, and if the water of the woman precedes the
water of the man, the child will resemble her.” Agreed upon. With regard to the report
narrated by Muslim in his Sahih (authentic or sound), according to which the Prophet
( ) said: “If the water of the man prevails over the water of the woman, the child will
be male, by Allah’s leave, and if the water of the woman prevails over the water of the
man, the child will be female, by Allah’s leave,” our Shaykh, namely Ibn Taymiyyah,
had reservations about this wording and doubted whether it was part of the Hadith. He
said: What is soundly narrated is the first version, and determination of gender, male or
female, has no natural cause; rather it happens by the command of the Lord, may He be
blessed and exalted, to the angel, telling him to shape the foetus as He wills. Hence it is
included with provision, lifespan and whether the individual will be blessed or doomed.
(Islam Q&A, 2016)
Regarding the controversy about the Hadith statement that “when the substance of the female
prevails upon the substance contributed by the male, a female child is formed by the Decree
of Allah,” which is contrary to modern scientific evidence, this issue has been clarified. It has
been stated that
The most likely of these views to be correct is the view which says that it is the man’s water
that is responsible for determining the sex of the foetus, and in the case where the woman’s
water prevails, which leads to the baby being female, that does not undermine the fact that
the main role in this regard is played by the man’s water, and the woman’s water is not
given an equal role. Yet we acknowledge that there is a need for modern, scientific study
by more than one scientist and specialist in order to examine this issue from all aspects and
reach a scientific conclusion on which there is consensus. And Allah knows best.
(Islam Q&A, 2016)
For further clarification about the Hadith mentioned above, see Muslim (b) and Islam Q&A
(2016).
Dominant and recessive genes

Human beings have two versions of each gene, and these are called alleles. These alleles
can be either dominant or recessive. This comes about because the sperm or ovum contains
only one copy of a chromosome pair carrying one allele. The fusion of the sperm and the
ovum produces a zygote (a fertilised egg) which contains two copies of each chromosome
and hence the two alleles. A dominant gene, as the name carries, is dominant because it
expresses more strongly all by itself than any other version of the gene. The less dominant
gene is the recessive gene. They both describe the inheritance patterns of certain traits. It has
been stated that
In autosomal inheritance (pertaining to a chromosome that is not a sex chromosome),

both alleles of a gene have to be recessive to express the recessive phenotype whereas
only one dominant allele is sufficient for the expression of a dominant phenotype. This
also means that a recessive allele may be masked by a dominant allele in one generation
but reappear in a subsequent generation.
(Ghareeb, 2011, p.84)
From an Islamic perspective, the following Hadith illustrates the role of the dominant gene
and genetic inheritance. Abu Huraira (Allah be pleased with him) reported:
There came a person to the Prophet ( ), from Banu Fazara and said: My wife has
given birth to a child who is black, whereupon Allah’s Apostle ( ) said: Have you
any camels? He said: Yes. He again said: What is this colour? He said: They are red.
He said: Is there a dusky one among them? He said: Yes, there are dusky ones among
them He said: How has it come about? He said: It is perhaps the strain to which it has
reverted, whereupon he (the Holy Prophet) said: It is perhaps the strain to which he (the
child) has reverted.
(Muslim (a))
How the Messenger of Allah knew about dominant genes nearly 1,440 years ago is some-
thing to reflect upon.
The same could be applicable to gene transmission in humans. It is genetically possible
for a couple to have a baby with a skin colour different from their own. That is, two parents
with lighter complexions can bear a dark-complexioned child. Somehow, the genes inherited
by the new-born may not be necessarily of the parents as this may have come from either
parents’ genetic pool. It has been reported that “A baby’s skin colouring can vary greatly,
depending on the baby’s age, race or ethnic group, temperature, and whether or not the baby
is crying” (Stanford Children’s Health, 2020).
In the literature, for example, (Ghareeb, 2011) mentioned a Hadith in which the Messenger
of Allah ( ) said “Choose well your mate (for your semen) as (the hidden) traits can reap-
pear.” The implication is that through the genes a whole range of hereditary traits including
character and disease can be transmitted (p.84). However, this Hadith is weak according to
Darussalam (Da’if Hadith is one that does not fulfil the conditions of an authentic Hadith).
It is worth nothing that there a difference of opinion between the scholars on the ruling on
acting upon weak Hadiths.
Potential problems in pregnancy

There are several complications that may arise during pregnancy and childbirth. Although
the vast majority of pre-natal development follows the “normal” pattern of development,
there are environment factors that can harm the developing embryos and foetuses. The term
teratogen refers to chemicals, disease, maternal infections, radiation and drugs that can harm
a developing embryo or foetus. Teratogenic agents include
infectious agents (rubella, cytomegalovirus, varicella, herpes simplex, toxoplasma, syph-

ilis, etc.); physical agents (ionizing agents, hyperthermia); maternal health factors (diabe-
tes, maternal PKU (elevated maternal phenylalanine concentrations during pregnancy);
environmental chemicals (organic mercury compounds, polychlorinated biphenyl or
PCB, herbicides and industrial solvents); and drugs (prescription, over-the-counter, or
recreational). In general, if medication is required, the lowest dose possible should be
used and combination drug therapies and first trimester exposures should be avoided.
(Genetic Alliance, 2010)
Teratogens are more harmful during the early stage of pregnancy. Some women experience
health problems during pregnancy which include high blood pressure, gestational diabetes
(developing the condition for the first time during pregnancy), infections, ectopic pregnancy
(implantation outside of the uterus), rubella (German measles), eclampsia (high blood pres-
sure and fluid build-up), severe and persistent nausea and vomiting, iron-deficiency anae-
mia. Socio-economic conditions, homelessness and poverty have a major impact on infant
development.
Two of the preventable life-style causes of birth abnormalities are alcohol and tobacco
smoking. Prenatal exposure to alcohol has profound effects on many aspects of foetal devel-
opment and may have deleterious effects on the central nervous system and other organs
depending on the dose, duration and developmental stage of the embryo at exposure (Ornoy
and Ergaz, 2010; Jones, 2011). One of the effects of alcohol during pregnancy is a condition
known as foetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD). This group of disorders produces physi-
cal, behavioural and intellectual disabilities that last a lifetime including problems with the
heart, kidney and/or bones; learning disabilities and low IQ; trouble with memory, coordi-
nation and attention; hyperactivity; problems with sleep; and problems with suckling as an
infant. The symptoms of FAS tend to get worse as a person grows up and the disabilities are
not reversible. Smoking tobacco is another substance that causes damage to the organs of the
body. For example, the findings of studies have showed that smoking during pregnancy can
cause tissue damage in the unborn baby, particularly in the lung and brain, potential for mis-
carriage and a link between maternal smoking and cleft lip (U.S. Department of Health and
Human Services, 2010a,b). One of the detrimental child health outcomes of tobacco smoking
during pregnancy is preterm birth and the risk of infant mortality. It has been observed that
premature babies can have low birth weight, feeding difficulties, breathing problems right
away, breathing problems that last into childhood, cerebral palsy (brain damage that causes
trouble with movement and muscle tone), developmental delays (when a baby or child is
behind in language, thinking or movement skills) and problems with hearing or eyesight
(Been et al., 2014; Harju et al., 2014; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2019).
In addition, e-cigarettes and other tobacco products containing nicotine (the addictive drug
found in tobacco) are not safe to use during pregnancy. The findings of a review of the lit-
erature on the use of electronic cigarettes in pregnancy by Whittington et al. (2018) indicated
that the nicotine consumed by e-cigarettes is similar to that consumed by cigarette smok-
ing. Moreover, some of the flavourings and chemicals used in e-cigarettes may be harmful to
a developing baby. However, greater emphasis of health education and promotion of smok-
ing cessation among expectant mothers who smoke may reduce the negative child health
outcomes. However, the findings of a recent study have showed that cigarette smoking cessa-
tion, especially early in pregnancy, was associated with a reduced risk of preterm birth even
for high-frequency cigarette smokers (Soneji and Beltrán-Sánchez, 2019). There are also the
problems associated with the use of psychoactive substances including opiates, stimulants
(cocaine), cannabis and other illicit substances. These psychoactive substances can cause low
birthweight, withdrawal symptoms, birth defects or learning or behavioural problems.

• Genes affect both physical and psychological characteristics and are the result of a com-
plex interplay between nature (heredity) and nurture (environment).
• Fertilisation is completed when the nucleus of the head of the sperm fuses with the
nucleus of the egg.
• After implantation, and for the first eight weeks of gestation, the zygote is referred to as
an embryo.
• During the first 12 weeks of gestation, most of the foetus’s systems and structures begin
to take shape.
• When human life begins is one of the more contentious bioethical, theological, political
and legal issues.
• The Islamic Organization for Medical Sciences’ (IOMS) position is that human life starts
much later, namely, when the soul gets breathed into the foetus and this takes place at
earliest after 40 days of pregnancy and at latest by the lapse of 4 months.
• The Qur’an and Hadiths refer to human reproduction and prenatal development.
• In the simplest terms a gene is a section of DNA that encodes a trait.
• The genotype is the genetic constitution of an organism and comprises the entire com-
plex of genes inherited from both parents.
• The phenotype is the observable or measurable characteristics of an individual.
• The main contrasting key point between genotype and phenotype and is that the geno-
type is inherited from an organism’s parents whereas the phenotype is not.
• Phenotype is influenced by genotype and also but environmental and life-style factors.
• Human beings have two versions of each gene and these are called alleles.
• These alleles can be either dominant or recessive.
• There are several complications that may arise during pregnancy and childbirth.
• Teratogenic agents include infectious agents, physical agents, environmental chemicals
and drugs.
• Socio-economic conditions, homelessness and poverty have a major impact on infant
development.
1. FASD refers to which condition?

A. Facial abnormality system
B. Foetal ammonia syndrome
C. Father absence syndrome
D. Foetal alcohol spectrum disorder
E. Future abnormality syndrome
2. There are external agents such as viruses, drugs, chemicals and radiation that can harm a
developing embryo or foetus.
A. Foetal programmes
B. Teratogens
C. Toxoplasmosis
D. Chromosome abnormalities
E. Gene abnormalities
3. The most critical period in prenatal development for potential damage to the developing
organism from teratogens is the period of the
A. Blastocyst
B. Zygote
C. Foetus
D. Embryo
E. Genes
4. The genes a person inherits are called his
A. Gene
B. Chromosome
C. Genotype
D. Phenotype
E. Embryo
5. The observable characteristics a person inherits are called his
A. Gene
B. Chromosome
C. Genotype
D. Phenotype
E. Embryo
6. Each gamete (sperm or ovum) contains ____________ chromosomes.
A. 23
B. 46
C. 23 pairs
D. 46 pairs
E. 24 pairs
7. Each human cell contains 22 pairs of________ and 1 pair of__________.
A. Genes; alleles
B. Alleles; genes
C. Autosomes; sex chromosomes
D. Sex chromosomes; autosomes
E. Genes; autosomes
8. At what period after conception is the organism known as a foetus?
A. Seven to nine months
B. Two months after conception and lasting until birth
C. Five to nine months
D. One month before birth
E. One to two months after conception
9. What are the possible detrimental effects of smoking during pregnancy?
A. Premature birth
B. Foetal addiction
C. Low birth weight
D. Respiratory problems
E. All of these
10. Physical, behavioural and intellectual disabilities that last a lifetime including problems
with the heart, kidney and/or bones; learning disabilities and low IQ; trouble with mem-
ory, coordination and attention; hyperactivity; problems with sleep; and problems with
suckling as an infant may be signs of maternal use of which substance during pregnancy?
A. Amphetamine
B. Cannabis
C. Alcohol
D. Tobacco
E. Salts
11. When will a mother begin to feel the movement of the foetus?
A. After six months
B. After four months
C. After three weeks
D. Immediately
E. In the embryonic period
12. During the first __________of gestation, most of the foetus’s systems and structures
begin to take shape. Various body organs including the sensory organs, skin, nervous
system, muscles and skeleton are formed.
A. 12 weeks
B. 18 weeks
C. 20 weeks
D. 24 weeks
E. 10 weeks
13. In the final recommendation of the Islamic Organization for Medical Sciences, the posi-
tion is that human life starts
A. At conception.
B. During conception.
C. When the soul gets breathed into the foetus.
D. This takes place at earliest after 40 days of pregnancy and at latest by the lapse of
4 months.
E. C and D only.
14. Who made the following statement “It is clear to me that these statements must have
come to Muhammad from God, or Allah, because most of this knowledge was not discov-
ered until many centuries later. This proves to me that Muhammad must have been a mes-
senger of God, or Allah. At first, I was astonished by the accuracy of the statements that
were recorded in the 7th century AD, before the science of embryology was established.”
A. Keith Spencer
B. Keith Moore
C. Brian Skinner
D. Zakir Naik
E. Abdul Raheem Green
15. It is widely acknowledged now that it is the _________that determines the sex of a baby
depending on whether they are carrying an X or Y chromosome by Allah’s leave.
A. Ovum
B. Egg
C. Sperm
D. Gene
E. Chromosome
16. Allah mentioned in the Qur’an about the different stages in the formation of the human
embryo (interpretation of the meaning): Then We made the sperm-drop into a clinging
clot [alaqah], and We made the clot into a lump [of flesh] [mudgah], and We made
[from] the lump, bones [izam], and We covered the bones with flesh [lahm]; then We
developed him into another creation [human].This verse is from
A. Al-Insan 76
B. An-Najm 53
C. Al-Mu’minun 23
D. Al-Haj 22
E. As-Sajdah 32
17. Dr Abd Allah Basalama, stated that the fertilised ovum passes by these stages:
A. The cellular stage during which the fertilised ovum of a human being can hardly be
distinguished from what we can find inside the uteruses of some animals.
B. The alaqa and mudgha stage when one can observe a human-like being.
C. The soul-breathing stage that takes place when the nervous system, including the
brain, gets fully shaped.
D. A, B and C.
E. A and C only.
18. Nutfah means
A. Mixed semen drops of male and female discharge
B. Something that clings
C. Leech-like structure
D. Blood clot
E. Piece of flesh
19. In the first verse (Al-Mu’minun 23:12) Allah tells us that man was formed from compo-
nents contained in
A. Chemicals
B. Genes
C. Chromosomes
D. Clay
E. Hormones
20. From the ‘nutfah, it then becomes the
A. Alaqah
B. Mudgah
C. Amshaj
D. Alleles
E. Hurma
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Overview of Finding Regarding Reproductive Health. Atlanta: U.S. Department of Health and
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& Gynecological Survey, 73(9), 544–549.
Chapter 6
Lifespan development
From conception to death
Learning outcomes
• Identify the three developmental domains during lifespan development.
• State the difference between the continuity and discontinuity approaches to development.
• Discuss the role of attachment in the development of the parent–child relationship.
• Discuss the relationship between breastfeeding and bonding.
• Describe the Islamic perspective on breastfeeding.
• Discuss issues related to marriage in Islam.
• Identify the physical, cognitive and social changes that accompany late adulthood.
• Discuss aging and dying from an Islamic perspective.
Introduction
Lifespan development examines the growth and development of the ‘rites de passage’ from
conception through childhood, adolescence, adulthood, old age to death. The stages of the
lifespan can be examined across three developmental domains: Physical, cognitive and psy-
chosocial development. Some psychologists extend the stages of development to infancy;
early, mid- and late childhood; adolescence; early adulthood; middle age and old age. At each
milestone, specific physical changes may affect the individual’s cognitive and psychosocial
development. Physical development is the process that starts in human infancy and contin-
ues into late adolescence. It involves growth and changes in the body, including the brain,
muscles, senses, motor skills, health and wellness. Cognitive development involves learning,
attention, memory, language, thinking, reasoning, problem-solving and decision-making and
creativity from childhood through adolescence to adulthood. The most well-known and influ-
ential theory of cognitive development (four stages spanning from birth through adolescence)
is Jean Piaget’s (Piaget, 1936; Wadsworth, 2004). Other theoretical perspectives of cogni-
tive development include Vygotsky’s (1978) social interaction and language in cognitive
development; Bruner’s (1966) different modes of thinking (or representation) and the social
environment; Kohlberg (1985) and American Psychological Association’s (2018) focus on
the development of moral reasoning that occurs throughout the lifespan; and the informa-
tion-processing approach (van der Heijden and Stebbins, 1990). Psychosocial development
involves attachment, emotions, personality and social relationships. The attachment theory
was developed by Ainsworth and Bowlby (1991), psychosocial development (Erickson,
1958, 1963) and Freud’s psychosexual theory of development (Freud, 1910; Silverman,
2017). There are two main approaches regarding development: Continuity and discontinuity.
Proponents of the continuity approach would argue that development is a continuous process
that is gradual and occurs gradually over time, for example, the height of a child. Generally,
the child increases in height year by year. In contrast, the discontinuity approach believes
that development takes place at distinct stages over a period of specific times or ages. For
example, Piaget’s stages of cognitive development are a discontinuity approach to cogni-
tive development. However, in most cases, development is a combination and interaction
of continuous and discontinuous processes. In this chapter we will be selective in aspects of
lifespan development, and we will examine attachment, acculturation, marriage and family
issues and death and dying.
Attachment
Attachment theory in psychology originates with the seminal work of John Bowlby and Mary
Ainsworth. Attachment refers to the deep emotional bond or relationship that forms between
infant and caregiver, across time and space (Ainsworth, 1973; Bowlby, 1969). It is through
this deep emotional bonding that the child’s physical, social, emotional and cognitive devel-
opment needs are met. For children to grow mentally healthy and develop, “the infant and
young child should experience a warm, intimate, and continuous relationship with his mother
(or permanent mother substitute) in which both find satisfaction and enjoyment” (Bowlby,
1951, p.13). In his report to the World Health Organization in 1951, Bowlby concluded that
early attachments with caregivers were essential to a child’s mental health “as are vitamins
and proteins for physical health” (p.240).
Bowlby was very much influenced by the ethological theory of Lorenz’s (1935) study
of imprinting in geese and other birds especially because of the observation that suggested
social bond formation need not be tied to feeding. His evolutionary theory of attachment
suggests that children come into the world biologically pre-programmed to form attachments
with others, because it increases chances of survival. Bowlby’s theory (1951, 1952, 1969,
1988) has the following features:
• A child has an innate need or is biologically pre-programmed to attach to one main

attachment figure for security.
• A child must receive consistent care from a single attachment figure for approximately
the first two years of life.
• Short-term separation from an attachment figure leads to distress or separation anxiety
(protest, despair and detachment).
• Maternal deprivation may lead to deviant behaviours.
• The child’s attachment relationship with their primary caregiver leads to the develop-
ment of an internal working model that acts as a secure base for exploring the world.
Bowlby believed that there should be a primary attachment figure for a child that is more
important than other significant others. This primary bond, the mother, is qualitatively differ-
ent from any other subsequent attachments. This single special attachment with one primary
attachment figure, usually the mother, is called monotropy (moving towards one). For the
child, there would be a hierarchy attachment that include both the primary family (father,
siblings) and the extended family (grandparent, uncles, aunts, etc.). The failure to bond with
the primary monotropy may lead to maternal deprivation. It is Bowlby’s theory of monot-
ropy that primes him to formulate his maternal deprivation hypothesis. The dimension of
Lifespan development 125
attachment has long-term cognitive, social and emotional difficulties for that infant, and may
lead to delinquency, low intelligence quotient (IQ), aggression, depression and affectionless
psychopathy (no guilt for antisocial behaviour).
Studies in dealing with the effects of maternal and/or peer deprivation in infant monkeys
have shown a link to a variety of biological and behavioural disturbances in later life (Harlow,
Dodsworth and Harlow (1965). These studies were cutting-edge in providing empirical evi-
dence for the primacy of the parent–child attachment relationship and the importance of mater-
nal touch in infant development. The findings of a study by Bifulco, Harris and Brown (1992)
showed that the loss of mothers through separation or death increased the risk of depressive
and anxiety disorders in adult women. In addition, the findings indicated that the quality of
early attachment (before age six) to the natural mother before any loss not only related to
childhood helplessness but also a higher risk of disorder in adult life. However, a review of
the literature on the separation from a mother figure in early childhood having a detrimental
effect on a child’s later mental health has concluded that these studies do not have supporting
empirical evidence to satisfy the requirements of scientific methodology (McConaghy, 1979):
The research studies mix up cause and effect with correlation (Rutter, 1972); ignore scientific
evidence (Berghaus, 2011); and do not clearly define the limits of the theory (Bollen, 2000).
Rutter (1972, 1979) also suggested that Bowlby may have oversimplified the concept of
maternal deprivation and stresses that the quality of the attachment bond is the most important
factor, rather than just deprivation in the critical period. Rutter (1981) distinguished between
privation and deprivation. Deprivation refers to the loss of “fault lines” of an attachment,
whereas privation refers to a child who fails to develop an emotional bond. There are impli-
cations arising from Bowlby’s work. The importance is to do with the quality of attachment
rather than the period of attachment to a significant figure. There is evidence to suggest that
children develop better with a mother who is happy in her work, than a mother who is bored
and frustrated as a full-time carer (Schaffer, 1998). According to Fitzgerald (2020),
Bowlby was over-ambitious, like Freud before, with the explanatory power that he
claimed for his theory. His theory was much more subjective than people realise. When
he travelled around, and he travelled a great deal first, when he was asked by the WHO to
do the report and later, these travels were mainly looking for evidence, (like Freud before
him), to support his attachment theory and for the purpose of proselytization.
(p.19)
Mary Ainsworth was a Canadian developmental psychologist who began to conduct research
in the field of attachment theory and examined the variations in how children respond to sepa-
ration from parents. She developed a technique called the Strange Situation Test to examine
the pattern of attachment between a child and the mother or caregiver. The Strange Situation
was devised by Ainsworth and Wittig (1969) and was based on Ainsworth’s previous studies
(Ainsworth, 1967; Ainsworth et al., 1971, 1978). The Strange Situation Test is a 20-minute
miniature drama with 8 episodes. It is characterised by an observation phase and an assess-
ment phase. During the observation phase, mother and infant are introduced to a laboratory
playroom, with the experimenter. In episode 2, mother and baby are alone. In episode 3, a
stranger joins the mother and infant. In episode 4, the stranger plays with the baby, and the
mother leaves briefly. In episode 5, the mother returns and the stranger leaves. In episode
6, a second separation ensues during which the baby is completely alone. In episode 7, the
stranger returns, and in episode 8, the mother returns and the stranger leaves. Mother and
child are left alone to interact. The child’s behaviour is examined and assessed throughout
this exercise. Ainsworth and Bell (1970) identified three main attachment styles which were
the result of early interactions with the mother.
• Secure attachment: Secure attachment is a healthy, strong attachment to the mother. The
child is confident that the attachment figure will be available to meet their needs. The
child seeks the attachment figure in times of distress.
• Anxious-resistant insecure attachment: The child displays elevated anxiety when the
stranger is introduced to the environment, even in the presence of the mother. This is
typical when a child’s needs are not met by the mother. This may be due to inadequate
parenting styles and behaviours. The child exhibits clingy and dependent behaviour but
displays an ambivalent behaviour by rejecting the attachment figure when they engage
in interaction.
• Anxious-avoidant insecure attachment: This child will display ambivalence when the
mother is present or not present. The child does not seek contact with the attachment
figure when distressed and is emotionally and physically distant from the caregiver. Both
caregiver and stranger are treated in the same ambivalent styles of behaviour.
A fourth attachment style known as disorganised was later identified (Main and Solomon,
1990). The behaviour of the child may change when the mother is absent but shows relief upon
her return. The child may have behavioural problems and also exhibit anger and repetitive
behaviours, such as hitting or rocking. Although the strange situation classification has been
found to have good reliability in some studies, it has been criticised on ethical grounds, for
using biased sample (100 middle-class American families) and for lacking ecological validity.
Lifespan development from an Islamic perspective

Allah, the Almighty, has clearly stated the stages of human lifespan development in the
• We created you from dust, then from a sperm-drop, then from a clinging clot, and then
from a lump of flesh, formed and unformed – that We may show you. And We settle in the
wombs whom We will for a specified term, then We bring you out as a child, and then
[We develop you] that you may reach your [time of] maturity. And among you is he who
is taken in [early] death, and among you is he who is returned to the most decrepit [old]
age so that he knows, after [once having] knowledge, nothing. And you see the earth bar-
ren, but when We send down upon it rain, it quivers and swells and grows [something]
of every beautiful kind. (Al-Haj 22:5)
• [That] you will surely experience state after state. (Al-Inshiqaq 84:19)
The above verse (Al-Haj 22:5) indicates that humans develop and grow throughout their
lifespan, from a clinging clot to a decrepit old age with its weakness in mind and body. Allah
uses the metaphor of a plant to refer to the stages, and changes of growth. According to Ibn
Kathir, Ikrimah said,
(From stage to stage.) “Stage after stage. Weaned after he was breast feeding, and an old
man after he was a young man.” Al-Hasan Al-Basri said, (From stage to stage.) “Stage
after stage. Ease after difficulty, difficulty after ease, wealth after poverty, poverty after
wealth, health after sickness, and sickness after health.”
It has been narrated by Ibn Àbbas: “(as regards the Verse):—‘You shall surely travel
from stage to stage (in this life and in the Hereafter).’ (It means) from one state to another”
(Bukhari (a)). This is further emphasised in the following verse of the Qur’an (interpretation
of the meaning):
• And Allah has caused you to grow from the earth a [progressive] growth. (Nuh 71:17)
Human beings’ growth and development will be in successive stages. In the context of attach-
ment, this is not only physical and emotion attachment but also spiritual attachment. The lack
of spiritual attachment will have a deep impact on humans later in life. Spiritual attachment,
that is attachment to Allah, supersedes all other attachments and creates a secure base; how-
ever humans are created as social beings too. In Islam
belief in Allāh is clearly an “attachment” with your Creator. It is a more secure, strong
and precious attachment than any other bond or relation with anyone else. It not only
teaches you how to connect to your Creator who is The Ever-Living, The Sustainer of all
existence (Al-Ḥayyul-Qayyūm), but, by the guidance of Allāh, when you discover that
your true Lord is Allāh then you have truly reached the most secure base.
(Ala, 2014)
It has been suggested that The premise for considering aspects of Muslim believers’ relation-
ships with Allah functioning as attachment bond can find its starting point in the Arabic word
“Iman” translated as “faith” (Al-Baqarah 2:108). Pondering on the Arabic root of “Iman”
(faith) in Islamic theology reveals that “to be secure”, trust, entrust, and the state of safety are
included in the meaning of faith. Each of these terms supports the importance of Allah as an
attachment figure providing security in Islamic theology. (Bonab et al., 2013, p.86)
Attachment, bonding and breastfeeding

The issue of maternal–baby interaction is essential for the development of permanent emo-
tional bonds for the rest of life. Attachment is the process through which the child establishes
the emotional and cognitive bond with their caregiver. This attachment to the parental figure
is increased through the mother’s breastfeeding. This is in accord with the notion that empha-
sises the role of physical proximity and skin-to-skin contact as necessary for maternal bond-
ing (Kennell and Klaus, 1984). Breastfeeding provides not only nutrition, but comfort, safety
and nurturing. The World Health Organization, the American Academy of Pediatrics (2012)
and the European Society of Paediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition (2013)
recommend the feeding of preterm infants with the mother’s own milk as the first choice
and if this is not available, pasteurised Donor Human Milk (DHM) from an established milk
bank should be the next alternative. The World Health Organization (2010) promotes the
benefits of breastfeeding not simply as the healthiest nutritional choice, but also for the emo-
tional relationship, or bonding, between mother and infant. Evidence suggests that being
in close physical proximity promotes secure infant bonding (Bowlby, 1969; Anisfeld et al.,
1990), and the positive interactional qualities observed in breastfeeding mothers might also
promote a secure infant attachment (Kuzela et al., 1990; Bigelow et al., 2014). There is evi-
dence to suggest that close interaction experienced during breastfeeding may be only one of
many ways the bond is strengthened between mother and child (Weaver, Schofield and Papp,
2018). The authors also suggested that breastfeeding should be examined more closely as a
parenting factor, not just as a health consideration. A recent study by Hairston et al. (2019)
refutes the hypothesis that a positive association between breastfeeding and bonding exists
and whether breastfeeding may be protective against the negative consequences of mood and
sleep disturbances. The findings suggested that “that among healthy mothers, breastfeeding
may not be a central factor in mother-infant bonding, nor is it protective against the negative
impact of mood symptoms and bonding difficulties” (Hairston et al., 2019).
Bonding and breastfeeding in Islam

Throughout history, breastfeeding had and still retains a cultural and religious dimension.
From the beginning, breastfeeding was the first priority of mothers, and changes started to
happen at the end of 18th century, when new substitutes for feeding infants appeared, and
in the 19th century artificial feeding became the first choice. In the 21st century, “a strong
movement is noticed worldwide attempting to convince societies and healthcare profes-
sionals on the innumerable advantages of breastfeeding for the mother, the infants and in
the long-term for the health systems” (Papastavrou et al., 2015). In Islam, breastfeeding is
the right of the infant, according to the rulings of Shari’ah, and must be provided for him/
her by the one whose duty it is to do so. Allah says in the Qur’an (interpretation of the
meaning)
• Mothers may breastfeed their children two complete years for whoever wishes to com-
plete the nursing [period]. Upon the father is the mothers’ provision and their clothing
according to what is acceptable. No person is charged with more than his capacity. No
mother should be harmed through her child, and no father through his child. And upon
the [father’s] heir is [a duty] like that [of the father]. And if they both desire weaning
through mutual consent from both of them and consultation, there is no blame upon
either of them. And if you wish to have your children nursed by a substitute, there is no
blame upon you as long as you give payment according to what is acceptable. And fear
Allah and know that Allah is Seeing of what you do. (Al Baqarah 2:233)
The above verse clearly illustrates the command from Allah to the mothers to suckle their
infants through the complete term of suckling, which is two years. In another verse, Allah
says (interpretation of the meaning):
• And We have enjoined upon man [care] for his parents. His mother carried him, [increas-
ing her] in weakness upon weakness, and his weaning is in two years. Be grateful to Me
and to your parents; to Me is the [final] destination. (Luqman 31:14)
The above verse means that the infant is breastfed and weaned within two years. Ibn Hazm
(n.d.) commented: “A mother should nurse her baby even if she was the daughter of the
king. She is not exempted from that duty unless she is incapable of nursing.” The Qur’an
encourages the mother to breastfeed her child naturally. Thus, Shaykh Muhammed Sâlih al-
Munajjid (2002). states:
The scholars mentioned that one part of breastfeeding is obligatory, which is the yel-
low substance (colostrum) that is produced at the beginning of breastfeeding and which
is known medically to be of great benefit in building the immune system of the child.
Undoubtedly in carrying out the commands of Allah there is great blessing.
Breastfeeding benefits mother and child both physically and psychologically “as it gives
infants all the nutrients they need for healthy development. It is safe and contains antibodies
that help protect infants from common childhood illnesses, such as diarrhoea and pneumo-
nia, the two primary causes of child mortality worldwide” (World Health Organization and
UNICEF, 2018). The benefits to mothers are also highlighted as the practice when done
exclusively often induces a lack of menstruation, which is a natural (though not fail-safe)
method of birth control. Breastfeeding reduces “the risks of breast and ovarian cancer later
in life, helps women return to their pre-pregnancy weight faster, and lowers rates of obesity”
(World Health Organization and UNICEF, 2018).
Islam also provides choices for mothers who are unable to breastfeed their baby. This is
illustrated in the above verse (Al Baqarah 2:233). Islam allows the adoption of a wet nurse
if a child cannot be breastfed by his or her own mother. Similarly, Allah says (interpretation
of the meaning):
• And if they should be pregnant, then spend on them until they give birth. And if they
breastfeed for you, then give them their payment and confer among yourselves in the
acceptable way; but if you are in discord, then there may breastfeed for the father
another woman. (At-Talaq 65:6)
According to Ibn Kathir, this means that
The father should kindly give the mother her expenses for the previous period (during
which she reared and suckled the child), and he should seek other women to suckle his child
for monetary compensation. The decision for weaning before the two years (of suckling)
should be by mutual consent by both parents. The method of mutual consultation protects
the child’s interests. Allah has legislated the best method for parents to rear their children.
However, an option that is not available to Muslim mothers is the use of milk banks. Milk
banks are banks which buy milk from nursing mothers and then sell it to women who need
to give it to their children, but whose own milk is lacking, or who are sick or are too busy
working, etc. The use of milk banks is not acceptable in Islam. Shaykh Muhammad ibn Sâlih
al-Uthaymeen (1999) stated that
for Muslims it is not permissible to establish this kind of bank, because this is human
milk, and the milk from different mothers will be mixed, so that no one will know who
the mother is. In Islam, drinking the milk of a woman creates the same relationship as
does a close tie by blood (i.e., it has an effect on whom one may and may not marry, etc.).
If the milk is of any kind other than human, then there is nothing wrong with milk banks.
To encourage women to breast feed, privacy needs to be provided for to preserve a woman’s
modesty. Babies who have shared breast milk from the same mother are considered to be
siblings and cannot marry each other.
Lifespan development: Adulthood and marriage

The lifespan development now focuses on young and middle adulthood with the “rites de pas-
sage” of significant events including employment, love, relationships and marriage. Celibacy
is forbidden for men or women in Islam. It is narrated from 'Aishah (may Allah be pleased
with her) that the Messenger of Allah forbade celibacy (An-Nasa’i (a)). Marriage is an ethical
act and serves as a protection from immoral indecency, and illicit and promiscuous sexual
relationships. It is narrated by Àbdullah:
We were with the Prophet ( ) while we were young and had no wealth whatever.
So Allah’s Messenger ( ) said, “O young people! Whoever among you can marry,
should marry, because it helps him lower his gaze and guard his modesty (i.e. his private
parts from committing illegal sexual intercourse etc.), and whoever is not able to marry,
should fast, as fasting diminishes his sexual power.” (Bukhari (b))
The companions of the Prophet ( ) were reprimanded when they said that they would not
sleep, not break their fast or marry, etc. Anas narrated that
There was a group of the Companions of the Prophet, one of whom said: “I will not
marry women.” Another said: “I will not eat meat.” Another said: “I will not sleep on
a bed.” Another said: “I will fast and not break my fast.” News of that reached the
Messenger of Allah ( ) and he praised Allah then said: “What is the matter with people
who say such and such? But I pray and I sleep, I fast and I break my fast, and I marry
women. Whoever turns away from my Sunnah is not of me.”
(An-Nasa’i (b))
Marriage is a highly recommended act, and it is an expected state for all adult Muslims. It is
viewed as an important and sacred union between a man and woman that fulfils half of one’s
religious obligations. It is narrated by Thawban, the Messenger of Allah ( ) “The most
virtuous of it is a believing wife that helps him with his faith” (Tirmidhi (a)). Marriage is
discussed in the Qur’an. A well-known passage in the Qur’an discusses marriage. Allah says
• And of His signs is that He created for you from yourselves mates that you may find
tranquillity in them; and He placed between your affection and mercy. Indeed, in that
are signs for a people who give thought. (Ar-Rum 30:21)
This means human beings can find tranquillity, and Islam puts a strong emphasis on mutual
love, kindness and respect between a husband and wife in marriage. Allah says in the Qur’an
• It is He who created you from one soul and created from it its mate that he might dwell
in security with her. And when he covers her, she carries a light burden and continues
therein. And when it becomes heavy, they both invoke Allah, their Lord, “If You should
give us a good [child], we will surely be among the grateful.” (Al-A’raf 7:189)
According to Ibn Kathir, the above verse relates to the enjoyment, the intimacy and passion
in sexual intercourse between husband and wife. This verse also mentions (he covers her)
having sexual intercourse with her and her subsequent pregnancy. In fact, Islam views emo-
tional and sexual expression between a husband and wife as a form of worship. Al-Ati (1977)
stated that “In common with other systems, Islam favours marriage as a means to emotional
and sexual gratification; as a mechanism of tension reduction, legitimate procreation, and
social placement; as an approach to interfamily alliance and group solidarity” (p.54). The
Messenger of Allah ( ) is indicating here that marriage is part of his Sunnah (traditions of
the Prophet) and both spouses will be rewarded for fulfilling their desires with marriage. Abu
Dharr reported that the Messenger of Allah ( ) said
and in man’s sexual intercourse (with his wife,) there is a Sadaqa [charity]. They (the
Companions) said: Messenger of Allah, is there reward for him who satisfies his sexual
passion among us? He said: Tell me, if he were to devote it to something forbidden,
would it not be a sin on his part? Similarly, if he were to devote it to something lawful,
he should have a reward.
(Muslim (a))
Imam al-Nawawi (n.d.) (may Allah have mercy on him) said:
This indicates that permissible actions may become acts of worship if there is a sincere
intention. Intercourse may be an act of worship if the intention behind it is to fulfil the
rights of one’s wife, to treat her kindly as enjoined by Allah, to seek a righteous child,
to keep oneself or one’s wife chaste, to prevent both partners from looking towards or
thinking of haram [forbidden] things, and other good intentions. “O Messenger of Allah,
if one of us fulfils his desire, is there reward in that?”
Kindness and respect of the husband towards his wife are also part of the command of the
Sunnah. Abu Hurairah reported: The Messenger of Allah ( ) said, “The believers who show
the most perfect Faith are those who have the best behaviour, and the best of you are those who
are the best to their wives” (Tirmidhi (b)). In relation to sex, men, generally, are more easily
sexually aroused than women are. It has been suggested that men think about sex more often
than women do, but they also think about other biological needs, such as eating and sleep,
more frequently than women do (Fisher, Moore and Pittenger, 2012). However, when a man is
aroused by other women, according to the Sunnah, he should go to his wife to fulfil that desire.
Jabir heard Allah’s Apostle ( ) say: “When a woman fascinates any one of you and she cap-
tivates his heart, he should go to his wife and have an intercourse with her, for it would repel
what he feels” (Muslim (b)). An additional point, there are many injunctions in Islam to reduce
the likelihood of sexual needs being met outside marriage. According to a Hadith, a wife should
not reject her husband’s request for intimate relations. This is a preventative measure so as to
ensure that men are not tempted by having sexual relations outside the marriage. Abu Huraira
reported Allah’s Messenger ( ) as saying: “When a man invites his wife to his bed and she
does not come, and he (the husband) spends the sight being angry with her, the angels curse her
until morning” (Muslim (c)). There are other rulings that are in place to protect both the indi-
vidual and the society in relation to unlawful sexual relationships, fidelity. There is severe pun-
ishment for adultery and fornication. Allah says in the Qur’an (interpretation of the meaning):
• and do not commit unlawful sexual intercourse. And whoever should do that will meet a
penalty. (Al-Furqan 25:68)
There is also the imposition of limits on family members marrying one another. Allah says in
• Prohibited to you [for marriage] are your mothers, your daughters, your sisters, your
father’s sisters, your mother’s sisters, your brother’s daughters, your sister’s daughters,
your [milk] mothers who nursed you, your sisters through nursing, your wives’ mothers,
and your step-daughters under your guardianship [born] of your wives unto whom you
have gone in. But if you have not gone in unto them, there is no sin upon you. And [also
prohibited are] the wives of your sons who are from your [own] loins, and that you take
[in marriage] two sisters simultaneously, except for what has already occurred. Indeed,
Allah is ever Forgiving and Merciful. (An-Nisa 4:23)
According to Ibn Kathir, this verse establishes the degrees of women relatives who are never
eligible for one to marry, because of blood relations, and relations established by suckling or
marriage. “Ibn Abi Hatim recorded that Ibn Àbbas said, ‘(Allah said) I have prohibited for
you seven types of relatives by blood and seven by marriage.’ Ibn Àbbas then recited the
above verse.”
There are many misconceptions surrounding women’s rights and polygamy in Islam
(Jaafar-Mohammad and Lehmann, 2011). It is important to note that Muslims are part of
a heterogeneous community and that there are variations in Muslims’ cultural traditions.
Orientalists tend to assume that many behaviours and traditions are related to Islam, and they
confuse cultural practices with religious beliefs.
Muslims’ behaviours are often shaped by cultural practices that may or may not be in
concordance with basic religious practices. Some cultural practices (or pre-Islamic prac-
tices) performed by Muslims are given an Islamic dimension, although these practices
are not considered Islamic practices.
(Rassool, 2016, p.7)
The subject of polygamy is often a misunderstood concept in Islam, and it is an “an option
and not a requirement in Islam” (Al-Ati, 1977). Allah says in the Qur’an (interpretation of
the meaning):
• And if you fear that you will not deal justly with the orphan girls, then marry those that
please you of [other] women, two or three or four. But if you fear that you will not be
just, then [marry only] one or those your right hand possesses. That is more suitable that
you may not incline [to injustice]. (An-Nisa 4:3)
This above Qur’anic text shows that polygamy is permissible in Islam.
According to Islamic Shari’ah, a man is permitted to marry one, two, three or four wives,
in the sense that he may have this number of wives at one time. It is not permissible
for him to have more than four. This was stated by the commentators on the Qur’an
and jurists, and there is consensus among the Muslims on this point, with no differing
opinions.
(Islam Q&A, 2002)
The passages above reflect a strict requirement that a man who has multiple wives must meet
certain conditions: Treating the wives with justice or fairness (An-Nisa 4:3), and the ability
to spend on one’s wives (An-Nur 24:33). So, there should be equality in regard to financial
means, fairness and emotional and sexual relationships. There are, of course, criticisms in
individualist culture of pluralist marriage in relation to disputes and enmity, and unequal
relationships that may occur. It has been suggested that
The response to that is that family arguments may occur even when there is only one
wife, and they may not even happen when there is more than one wife, as we see in real
life. Even if we assume that there may be more arguments than in a marriage to one
wife, even if we accept that they may be harmful and bad, the harm is outweighed by the
many good things in a plural marriage. Life is not entirely bad or entirely good, but what
everyone hopes is that the good will outweigh the bad, and this principle is what applies
in the permission for plural marriage.
(Islam Q&A, 2002)
The stages of man, death and dying

The different stages of man are described in the Qur’an. Allah says in the Qur’an (interpreta-
• Allah is the one who created you from weakness, then made after weakness strength,
then made after strength weakness and white hair. He creates what He wills, and He is
the Knowing, the Competent. (Ar-Rum 30:54)
According to Ibn Kathir, the above verse means that
Allah points out how man passes through different stages of creation, one phase after
another. He is originally created from dust, then from a Nutfah, then from a clot, then
from a lump of flesh. Then he becomes bones, then the bones are clothed with flesh, then
the soul is breathed into him. Then he emerges from his mother’s womb, weak and thin
and powerless. Then he grows up little by little, until he becomes a child, then he reaches
the stage of puberty, then he becomes a young man, which is strength after weakness.
Then he starts to get older, reaching middle age, then old age and senility, weakness after
strength, so he loses his resolve, power of movement and ability to fight, his hair turns
grey and his characteristics, both inward and outward, begin to change.
The development stages are a biological reality which starts at conception and ends with
death.
The focus in this section is late adulthood, a stage where there are physical, cognitive
and social changes. For some people, there are the psychological and physical outcomes of
grief and bereavement. The global average life expectancy has increased during the past few
decades due to better socioeconomic status, nutrition, physical activity and access to medical
care. The decline in physical, psychological and cognitive health is not applicable to many
older adults as there are those who do not show such declines. In most cases, the older adults
remain in the “wellness” state and maintain an active life-style and social networks with
family and friends (Angner et al., 2009). People in their 80s are highly productive and have
energetic lives. The dimensions of the quality of life that matter to older adults include auton-
omy, role and activity, health perception, relationships, attitude and adaptation, emotional
comfort, spirituality, home and neighbourhood and financial security (van Leeuwen et al.,
2019). There is also the suggestion that people who are best able to adapt to changing situa-
tions early in life are more likely to make better adjustment later in life (Sroufe et al., 2009).
The findings from the Baltimore Longitudinal Study on Aging (National Institute of
Aging) showed that there are variations among individuals in the aging process, and from
one organ system to another. The findings also showed that “‘normal’ aging cannot be dis-
tinguished from disease. Although people’s bodies change and can in some ways decline
over time, these changes do not inevitably lead to diseases such as diabetes, hypertension, or
dementia.” In addition,
no single, chronological timetable of human aging exists. We all age differently. In fact,
in terms of change and development, there are more differences among older people than
among younger people. Genetics, lifestyle, and disease processes affect the rate of aging
between and within all individuals.
Physical changes are apparent in older adults. For instance, sensory and visual changes in
eyesight are common with age as the lens of the eye becomes harder and less flexible. This
may result in a decreased ability to view objects, and many older adults require eyeglasses
to correct for these changes. The skin becomes dryer, thinner and less elastic in older age,
and these changes may be due to nutrition, exposure to the sun and other biological factors.
The thinner skin becomes more sensitive and more vulnerable to injuries, such as bruises.
Older adults may be prone to falls and injuries due to bone health, the decrease in physical
mobility and a loss of balance. The senses of taste, touch and smell also become less sensi-
tive as compared to earlier years. Auditory senses are affected, and some people may have
problems with hearing loss which may affect the quality of life. Foot health is also affected
as the soles have less cushioning which can cause soreness after walking. These are also
problems with the development of arthritis in the knees or hips. The immune system is
weakened, and cardiovascular disease, osteoporosis and dementia are common chronic
conditions. It has been suggested that “Osteoarthritis, diabetes, and related mobility dis-
ability will increase in prevalence as the population ages and becomes more overweight”
(Jaul and Barron, 2017). Cardiovascular problems and respiratory problems are common
in the elderly population. The overall diabetes population makes up a large proportion of
older adults. The most common mental and neurological disorders in this age group are
dementia and depression, anxiety disorders, substance use problems and self-harm. There
are the types of dementias which include Alzheimer’s disease, multi-infarct dementia and
cortical-subcortical dementia (Parkinson’s disease, Huntington’s disease and multiple
sclerosis).
Besides the physical and psychological changes, there are also psychosocial and eco-
nomic changes affecting the life-style behaviours of older adults. These include retirement or
change in work status or the loss of a spouse and other significant others. Loss, bereavement
and death are major psychological and spiritual upheavals of this stage of life. A common
phenomenon in many societies is the fear of death, or death anxiety, which is regarded as the
prime motivation for human behaviour (Becker, 1973). The findings from a meta-analysis of
49 studies of fear of death in older adults (Fortner et al., 2000) indicated that fear of death was
essentially stable over the age range 61–87. It has been suggested that
the best interpretation of existing findings is that fear of death declines over the years of
middle adulthood but does not continue declining in old age. This seems paradoxical in
that one might expect elders to have a greater fear of death than younger people in view
of the fact that increasing age and frailty render them ever more vulnerable to death.
(Cicirelli, 2002, p.358)
Aging from an Islamic perspective

The Islamic view, from anthropology and philosophy, divides old age into two periods. The
first period starts at the age of 60 and lasts until the age of 70 (Mobkerah), and the sec-
ond phase starts from the age of 70 and lasts until the end of life (Moteakhera – dementia)
(Ibrahim, 1997; Asadollahi, 2019). The word “Harem” (plural Harmi) refers to a person who
has reached the final stage of weakness and disability as a result of aging (Ibn Manzur, 2000).
In Islamic culture, elderly parents are highly regarded and respected due to their leading posi-
tion in the family network. Caring for and meeting the needs of elderly parents are a duty and
an obligation. Allah says in the Qur’an (interpretation of the meaning):
• And your Lord has decreed that you do not worship except Him, and to parents, good
treatment. Whether one or both of them reach old age [while] with you, say not to them
[so much as], “uff,” and do not repel them but speak to them a noble word.
• And lower to them the wing of humility out of mercy and say, “My Lord, have mercy
upon them as they brought me up [when I was] small.” (Al-Isra 17:23–24)
This verse relates to the respect, verbally and behaviourally, to be shown to parents.
This includes the word “Uff!” which is the mildest word of disrespect. Parents need to
be addressed in a good manner with kindness, politeness, respect and humility. Those
who abuse their parents, orally, physically and emotionally, are reprimanded by the
Messenger of Allah ( ). It is narrated by Àbdullah bin Àmr that Allah’s Messenger
( ) said, “It is one of the greatest sins that a man should curse his parents.” It was asked
(by the people), “O Allah’s Messenger ( )! How does a man curse his parents?” The
Prophet ( ) said, “The man abuses the father of another man and the latter abuses the
father of the former and abuses his mother”.
(Bukhari (c))
Islam holds life as sacred and belonging to God and that all creatures will die one day. Death
is not a taboo subject in Muslim communities, and we are encouraged to reflect upon death
frequently. It is the Islamic belief that death and dying are predetermined by God, and the
exact time of a person’s death is known only to God. Allah, the Almighty, has destined the
time for death for every individual. Allah says in the Qur’an (interpretation of the meaning):
• And it is not [possible] for one to die except by permission of Allah at a decree deter-
mined. (Ali 'Imran 3:145)
• Every soul will taste death, and you will only be given your [full] compensation on the
Day of Resurrection. (Ali 'Imran 3:185)
Choong (2015) noted that
Dying, in Islam, is usually a time for reflection and repentance. It is a time for bringing
oneself closer to the Almighty by immersing in activities such as prayers and recitation
of the Qur’an. It is also a time for seeking forgiveness from fellow human beings for past
transgressions.
(p.28)
What should a Muslim do if he/she feels that death is approaching because of severe illness?
It has been recommended that what
he must do is hasten to set things straight by repenting to Allah, making up for any
wrongs done to people and asking them for forgiveness, hastening to do righteous deeds,
being serious and focused in turning to Allah and obeying Him, and seeking pardon and
forgiveness from Him by His grace, in addition to thinking positively of Allah, may He
be glorified, and trusting in His abundant grace and mercy, and believing that He will
never let down a slave who thinks positively of Him.
(Islam Q&A, 2014)
It was narrated that Jabir said: “I heard the Messenger of Allah ( ) say: ‘No one of
you should die except thinking positively of Allah’” (Ibn Majah (a)). In another Hadith,
narrated by Anas bin Malik, the Prophet ( ) said, “None of you should wish for death
because of a calamity befalling him; but if he has to wish for death, he should say: ‘O
Allah! Keep me alive as long as life is better for me and let me die if death is better for
me’” (Bukhari (d)).
However, the Islamic view is that hardship and agonies are part of the process of dying.
The pains and agonies are the last thing by means of which Allah expiates the sins of His
slave. Shaykh Ibn ‘Uthaymeen (may Allah have mercy on him) stated that
Everything that befalls a person of sickness, hardship, worry, or distress, even a thorn
that pricks him, is expiation for his sins. Then if he is patient and seeks reward, in addi-
tion to expiation of sin he will have the reward for that patience with which he faced the
calamity that befell him. There is no differentiation in that regard between what happens
at the time of death and what happens before that.
• And the intoxication of death will bring the truth; that is what you were trying to avoid.
(Qaf 50:19)
According to Ibn Kathir, the (intoxication of death will bring the truth) means that
Allah the Exalted and Most Honoured says, Ò mankind! This is the stupor of death that
has come in truth; now, I have brought forth to you the certainty that you were disputing.
In the Sahih, the Prophet said, while wiping sweat from his face when the stupor of death
overcame him, said “Glory be to Allah! Verily, death has its stupor.”
The Messenger of Allah ( ) himself even experienced the pains of death. Aishah narrated:
I saw the Messenger of Allah while he was dying. He had a cup with water in it, he put
his hand in the cup then wiped his face with the water, then said: “O Allah! Help me with
the throes of death and the agony of death.”
In relation to experiencing the hardship and agonies of death, the believer also receives glad
tidings and is made steadfast at the time of his death. Al-Haafiz Ibn Hajar (may Allah have
mercy on him) said:
The dying person can only be one of two things: either it is a relief for him or others are
relieved of him. In either case things may be very hard for him at the time of death or they
may be alleviated for him. In the former case, he is the one who is faced with the agonies of
death, and that has nothing to do with whether he was pious or an evildoer; rather if he was
one of the pious it will increase him in reward, otherwise it will expiate for him accordingly,
then he will be relieved of the annoyances of this world, of which this is the last. ‘Umar ibn
‘Abd al-‘Azeez said: I would not like the agonies of death to be reduced for me, for that is
the last thing by means of which sin may be expiated for the believer. Yet at the same time,
what the believer receives of glad tidings and the angels being happy to meet him, and their
accompanying him, and his joy at meeting his Lord, make it easier for him to bear whatever
he may face of the pain of death, until it becomes as if he does not feel anything of that.
Muslims are encouraged to repent before death arrives. Tawbah is the Islamic concept
of repenting to God due to performing any sins and misdeeds. 'Abdullah bin 'Umar bin
Al-Khattab reported that: The Prophet ( ) said, “Allah accepts a slave’s repentance as
long as the latter is not on his death bed (that is, before the soul of the dying person reaches
the throat)” (Tirmidhi (c)). Perhaps one of the most reassuring Hadiths was narrated from
‘Aishah who stated that the Messenger of Allah ( ) said: “Whoever loves to meet Allah,
Allah loves to meet him, and whoever hates to meet Allah, Allah hates to meet him.” It was
said to him: “O Messenger of Allah, does hating to meet Allah mean hating to meet death?
For all of us hate death.” He said:
No. Rather that is only at the moment of death. But if he is given the glad tidings of the
mercy and forgiveness of Allah, he loves to meet Allah and Allah loves to meet him; and
if he is given the tidings of the punishment of Allah, he hates to meet Allah and Allah
hates to meet him.
(Ibn Majah (b))

• Lifespan development examines the growth and development of the “rites de passage”
from conception through childhood, adolescence, adulthood and death.
• Attachment theory in psychology originates with the seminal work of John Bowlby and
Mary Ainsworth.
• Attachment refers to the deep emotional bond or relationship that forms between infant
and caregiver, across time and space.
• Bowlby believed that there should be a primary attachment figure for a child who is more
important than other significant others.
• Rutter suggested that Bowlby may have oversimplified the concept of maternal depriva-
tion and stresses that the quality of the attachment bond is the most important factor,
rather than just deprivation in the critical period.
• Mary Ainsworth developed a technique called the Strange Situation Test to examine the
pattern of attachment between a child and the mother or caregiver.
• The verse (Al-Haj 22:5) in the Qur’an indicates that humans develop and grow throughout
their lifespan, from a clinging clot to a decrepit old age with its weakness in mind and body.
• The spiritual attachment, that is attachment to Allah, supersedes all other attachments
and creates a secure base; however, humans are created as social beings too.
• Evidence suggests that being in close physical proximity promotes secure infant bond-
ing, and the positive interactional qualities observed in breastfeeding mothers might also
promote a secure infant attachment.
• In Islam, breastfeeding is the right of the infant, according to the rulings of Shari’ah, and
must be provided for him/her by the one whose duty it is to do so.
• Breastfeeding reduces the risks of breast and ovarian cancer later in life, helps women
return to their pre-pregnancy weight faster and lowers rates of obesity.
• The use of milk banks is not acceptable in Islam.
• Celibacy is forbidden for men or women in Islam.
• Kindness and respect of the husband towards his wife are also part of the command of
the Sunnah.
• In Islam, there is also the imposition of limits on family members marrying one another.
• There are many misconceptions surrounding women’s rights and polygamy in Islam.
• In late adulthood there are physical, cognitive and social changes.
• Besides the physical and psychological changes, there are also psychosocial and eco-
nomic changes affecting the life-style behaviours of older adults.
• Islam holds life as sacred and belonging to God and that all creatures will die one day.
• Death is not a taboo subject in Muslim communities, and we are encouraged to reflect
upon death frequently.
1. According to Bowlby, what are the purposes of attachment?

A. A biological mechanism
B. A social thing
C. Providing bonding between humans
D. Bio-genetic cues to protect the infant
E. A protective mechanism for the child in infancy
2. Which of these statements is true?
A. Breastfeeding promotes infections in the baby
B. Breastfeeding reduces the risk of the mother developing breast cancer
C. Breastfeeding can worsen your baby’s digestive system
D. Breastfeeding makes the mother susceptible to infections

E. Breastfeeding increases the risk of pregnancy
3. According to Bowlby, what functions do clinging, crying and proximity-seeking behav-
iours serve?
A. To prevent threat and danger
B. To imitate adults’ behaviours
C. A sign of emotional maturity
D. To elicit attachment
E. To elicit maternal privation
4. What happens at stage 6 of the Strange Situation procedure?
A. Another stranger is introduced
B. A second separation ensues during which the baby is completely alone
C. The father comforts the child while the mother is absent
D. The new stranger arrives to greet the baby
E. The mother stays with the baby
5. Children will display ambivalence when the mother is present or not present
A. Anxious-avoidant insecure
B. Secure
C. Insecure-disorganised
D. Secure-disorganised
E. Insecure-avoidant
6. Which of these is a benefit of breastfeeding?
A. It strengthens the bond between the mother and the baby
B. It helps the uterus contract after delivery
C. It reduces the risk of breast cancer
D. A and C only
E. All of the above
7. What is the first milk produced after delivery known as?
A. Lactose
B. Colostrum
C. Acidophilus
D. Glucose
8. In the Qur’an (Al Baqarah 2:233) it is stated that mothers may breastfeed their children
for
A. Five complete years
B. One complete year
C. Two complete years
D. Three complete years
9. Islam also provides choices for mothers who are unable to breastfeed their baby. This is
illustrated in verse Al Baqarah 2:233. Islam allows
A. The adoption of a wet nurse
B. The adoption of a mother
C. The use of milk banks
D. The use of camel milk
10. Which one is correct? Shaykh Muhammad ibn Sâlih al-Uthaymeen (1999) stated that for
Muslims
A. It is permissible to establish this kind of bank
B. And the milk from different mothers will be not be mixed
C. Drinking the milk of a woman does not create the same relationship
D. It is not permissible to establish this kind of bank
E. None of the above is correct
11. Which of the following can you marry under Islamic law?
A. Your mother
B. Your father’s sister
C. Your sister’s daughter
D. Your brother’s daughter
E. Your cousin
12. There is a strict requirement that a man who has multiple wives must meet certain
conditions:
A. Treating the wives with justice
B. Treating the wives with fairness
C. Ability to spend on one’s wives
D. A, B and C
E. A and C only
13. The different stages of man are described in the Qur’an. Allah says in the Qur’an (inter-
pretation of the meaning): “Allah is the one who created you from weakness, then made
after weakness strength, then made after strength weakness and white hair. He creates
what He wills, and He is the Knowing, the Competent.” This verse is from
A. An-Nisa 4:3
B. Ar-Rum 30:54
C. Al-Furqan 25:68
D. An-Nisa 4:23
E. Al-Isra 17:23
14. Which statement is correct?
A. The decline in physical, psychological and cognitive health is applicable to all
B. All people in their 80s are not highly productive and have limited energetic lives
C. People who are best able to adapt to changing situations early in life are more likely
to make better adjustment later in life
D. People who are not able to adapt to changing situations early in life are more likely
to make better adjustment later in life
15. Which one is NOT correct? The findings from the Baltimore Longitudinal Study on
Aging (National Institute of Aging) showed that
A. There are no variations among individuals in the aging process, and from one organ
system to another
B. Normal aging cannot be distinguished from disease
C. No single, chronological timetable of human aging exists
D. We all age differently as there are more differences among older people than among
younger people
E. Genetics, life-style and disease processes affect the rate of aging between and
within all individuals
16. The findings of Fortner, Neimeyer and Rybarczyk’s (2000) study indicated that
A. Fear of death was essentially not stable over the age range 61–87
B. Fear of death was essentially stable over the age range 51–67
C. Fear of death was essentially stable over the age range 61–87
D. Fear of death was essentially not stable over the age range 51–67
17. A plurality of wives is called:
A. Polyandry
B. Polygamy
C. Bigamy
D. Monogamy
E. Endogamy
18. 'Abdullah bin 'Umar bin Al-Khattab reported that: The Prophet ( ) said, “Allah accepts
a slave’s repentance as long as the latter is not on his death bed (that is, before the soul
of the dying person reaches the throat).” This Hadith, according to the text, is from
A. Ibn Majah
B. Ahmad
C. Shaykh Uthaymeem
D. Tirmidhi
E. Ibn Sina
19. In a Hadith, narrated by Anas bin Malik: The Prophet ( ) said, “None of you should
wish for death because of a calamity befalling him; but if he has to wish for death, he
should say: ‘O Allah! Keep me alive as long as ________is better for me and let me die
if ________is better for me’” (Bukhari).
A. Death; life
B. Life, prayer
C. Life; death
D. Prayer, life
E. Living, forgive
20. The most common cause of dementia is:
A. Diabetes
B. Alzheimer’s disease
C. Cardiovascular accident
D. Infection
E. Hypertension
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Chapter 7
Learning, conditioning and modelling
Learning outcomes
• Explain how learned behaviours are different from instincts and reflexes.
• Define learning.
• Explain how classical conditioning occurs.
• Define operant conditioning.
• Compare and contrast between classical conditioning and operant conditioning.
• Discuss the strengths and limitations of the behavioural approach to human learning.
• Define observational learning.
• Discuss the steps in the modelling process.
• Evaluate the contemporary learning theories from an Islamic perspective.
• Define spiritual modelling.
• Outline the stages of observational spiritual modelling.
Introduction
Learning behaviours, whether through the process of informal learning or formal learning,
is part of human behaviour and has both a cognitive and a behavioural process. We are born
with innate behaviours such as instincts and reflexes. During the early 20th century, behav-
iourist approaches became the major force in psychology as a scientific discipline based on
the Western paradigm that sought to explain the learning process. The concept of learning
is now embedded in numerous areas of psychology, including cognitive, educational, social
and developmental psychology. The three major types of learning described by behavioural
psychology are classical conditioning, operant conditioning and observational learning or
modelling. This chapter focuses on learning, conditioning and modelling and the modes in
which learning occurs.
Refexes and instincts

A reflex is an inborn neural mechanism that provides an automatic response and organised
patterns of behaviour. It is usually any response to a stimulus after a very brief delay and
involves the activity of specific body parts and systems. Most people are familiar with the
physical reflexes including the knee-jerk reflex, the contraction of the pupil in bright light,
blushing, cough reflex, shivering, sneeze or sternutation, startle reflex and sucking reflex, etc.
Learning, conditioning and modelling 147
Prochazka et al. (2000) have questioned the differences between what is voluntary and what
is reflex. According to Prochazka et al. (2000), there are two approaches:
those who equate voluntary behaviours with consciousness and suppressibility and
those who view all behaviours as sensorimotor interactions, the complexity of which
determines whether they are reflexive or voluntary. According to the first view, most
movements of daily life are neither purely reflex nor purely voluntary. They fall into
the middle ground of automatic motor programmes. According to the second view, as
neuroscience advances the class of reflex behaviours will grow and the class of voluntary
behaviours will shrink.
(p.417)
Instinct is a term used to describe a set of innate complex behaviours, species-specific, trig-
gered by biological and environmental factors. This behaviour is performed without being
based upon prior experience. For example, sexual activity, survival instinct, reproductive
instinct, courtship behaviours in animals, honeybees’ communication, nesting behaviours
and many other behaviours manifest themselves as immediate or automatic reactions. Human
instincts have been categorised into life instincts (survival, sexual, fight or flight reaction),
pleasure instincts, social instincts (needs for affiliation, power, authority and interpersonal
communication) and cultural and religious instincts. One of the controversial instincts is the
“religious instinct.” It has been suggested that
there is a general recognition among psychologists that the genesis of the religious and
scientific attitudes is localisable in the instinctive behavior of the psycho-physical organ-
ism. This has led some scholars to posit the existence of a specific religious instinct.
(Woodburn, 1919, p.319)
This indicates that human beings have an innate need for religious affiliation or to find mean-
ing in their lives. Dutton and van der Linden (2017) argued that religion should be regarded
as a separate evolved domain or instinct as compared to intelligence. From an Islamic per-
spective, the “religious instinct” is more apparent with the view that belief in God begins with
belief in His existence and is part of human nature. This innate instinct is termed “Fitrah.”
Al-Ghazâlî raises the basic question of whether the human instinct is based on good or evil.
He has presented his ideas in the light of the Qur’an and Hadith. According to him, good and
evil are not physical and are not instinctual. Humans can be transformed by education and
training. This has been examined in Chapter 3.
What is learning?
There are several perspectives on learning as a construct. The concept has been defined dif-
ferently by philosophers, psychologists and educationalists. While reviewing the definitions,
we can come up with a common central point. There is a general perception that learning is
some kind of change of knowledge and behaviour as a result of experience. In contrast, learn-
ing is described as “to memorise, to learn by heart” (Rogers, 2003, p.86). That is, there is an
absolute change in behaviour as a result of some kind of experience, but, also, we can acquire
knowledge through reading. Learning is not only confined to the acquisition of knowledge
but also has an influence on feeling and attitude. In this context, “learning are those more or
less permanent changes and reinforcements brought about voluntarily in one's patterns of act-
ing, thinking and/or feeling” (Rogers, 2003, p.86). According to Ambrose et al. (2010), learn-
ing is “a process that leads to change, which occurs as a result of experience and increases
the potential for improved performance and future learning” (p.3). In addition, Ambrose et al.
(2010) stated that
• Learning is a process, not a product;
• Learning is a change in knowledge, beliefs, behaviours or attitudes; and
• Learning is not something done to students, but something that students themselves
do. (p.3)
Associative learning has also been used to describe the connection or association made
by individual and environmental stimuli. It is a learning principle that implies the connec-
tion or association between ideas and experiences which reinforce each other and produce
an interlink. Associative learning is “central to all three basic learning processes classi-
cal conditioning tends to involve unconscious processes, operant conditioning tends to
involve conscious processes, and observational learning adds social and cognitive layers
to all the basic associative processes, both conscious and unconscious” (OpenStax, 2017,
p.186).
From an Islamic perspective, regardless of the sources of learning, it is revelation from
the Creator, Allah the Almighty, that becomes the primary and most fundamental source of
knowledge, learning and understanding. The sources of knowledge in Islam can be ilahi or
insani (Najati, 2001). It has been stated that
Ilahi source of learning means learning that occur directly from Allah such as wahy (rev-
elation), ilham (inspiration), and ru’ya sadiqah (true dream). Whereas insani source of
learning means learning that occur from human experience through conditioning, obser-
vations, cognitions, and others.
(Alizi and Hariyati Shahrima, 2015, p.2)
Cornell (2005) has also suggested that real learning is “learning by seeing” which is referred
to in the Qur’an as “The Eye of Certainty” (‘ayn al-yaqin) (At-Takathar 102:7). Allah says in
the Qur’an (interpretation of the meaning)
• And Allah has extracted you from the wombs of your mothers not knowing a thing, and
He made for you hearing and vision and intellect that perhaps you would be grateful.
(An-Nahl 16:78)
In the above verse, Allah reminds us that he gave us ears to hear, eyes to see and minds which
are tools He has bestowed upon us to think and reflect. According to Imam Abu Al-Fida
Ismail Ibn Kathir (Ibn Kathir, 2003), “Allah mentions this blessing to His subjects in that He
gives them hearing and sight. These abilities develop gradually, and Allah has created these
faculties to enable man to worship His lord” (p.499).
One of the greatest learning tools is the Noble Qur’an. The word Qur’an is derived from
the word qara-a which means literally meaning “the recitation.” The Qur’an has put forward
principles to enhance both learning and teaching activities. Allah says in the Qur’an (inter-
• Invite to the way of your Lord with wisdom and good instruction and argue with them in
a way that is best. Indeed, your Lord is most knowing of who has strayed from His way,
and He is most knowing of who is [rightly] guided. (Al-Nahl 16:125)
Husain and Tahir@Twahir (2019) stated that
The Qur’an and the rest of its contents aim to build human beliefs and creed. This goal
is because such acts and human behaviours are direct results of one’s belief and creed,
which is the thematic coherent of the Qur’an as a whole, according to Sayyid Qutb’s
point of views.
(p.343)
Qutub (2004) stated that
Anyone who studies the Qur’an closely, and tastes the unique and wealth of experience
of living within its ambiance, will immediately identify the distinct character of every
one of its Surahs [chapters]. Every Surah has an aura and a personality of its own, with
unique and well-defined features, and a feel that makes it stand apart from all the rest.
Moreover, every Surah revolves around a central theme or some major themes related to
one another by a common thread or idea. Every Surah radiates its atmosphere of mean-
ing and essence, within which its theme, or themes, are discussed using the same well-
integrated and well-coordinated style and approach. It also has its distinctive rhythm
and musical pulse, which accord with the meaning and context of its topics and content.
The methods used throughout the Qur’an to enhance learning, according to Utz (2011),
include:
• Direct speech in the form of reprimand or exhortation;
• Dialogue in a logical manner leading to conclusion;
• Parables to clarify concepts and provide models;
• Descriptions of rewards and punishments to motivate human towards good behav-
iour and to keep them away from evil deeds; and
• Repetition of important concepts and principles. (p.186)
In addition, there are narratives of specific historical events, prophets and ethical and legal
subjects that place emphasis on the moral significance of an event. Allah says in the Qur’an
• And We had certainly brought them a Book which We detailed by knowledge – as guid-
ance and mercy to a people who believe. (Al-A’raf 7:52)
However, the concept of learning cannot be separated from the concept of human nature as
stated in the Qur’an. It has been suggested that the Qur’an “has a basic implication toward all
education aspects, especially, in vision, orientation and objective of education, curriculum,
methodology of education and evaluation on education” (Kadir and Sonjava, 2005, p.301).
The method used by the Qur’an in the education and training of humans is that of contempla-
tion and the reflective method, that is, thinking deeply about life and behaviours and reflect-
ing within the self in a religious context and learning from our experiences. The methodology
of reflection and contemplation is stressed in the Qur’an in different ways including the
verses on the rain (An-Nahl 16:10–11), the life of a bee (An-Nahl 16:68–69), using the think-
ing methodology in reading the universe as the visual Book of Allah (Ali 'Imran 3:191),
non-believers regretting their previous behaviours in the Hereafter (Al-Mulk 67:10), thinking
deeply in order to understand (Al-An’am 6:65), thinking of themselves deeply (Al-An’am
6:98) and looking at the Qur’an and thinking deeply to seek a fuller understanding of it
(Muhammad 47: 24; An-Nisa 4: 82) (Al-Karasneha and Salehb, 2010).
Conditioning
Conditioning can be described from both behavioural psychology and physiological per-
spectives. From behavioural psychology, it is a theory of learning based on the notion that
all behaviours are acquired through interaction with the environment by conditioning. In
physiological terms, it is “a behavioral process whereby a response becomes more frequent
or more predictable in a given environment as a result of reinforcement, with reinforcement
typically being a stimulus or reward for a desired response” (The Editors of Encyclopaedia
Britannica, 2015). Behaviourism is a worldview that operates on the principle that all behav-
iours are caused by external stimuli (conditioning). It has been suggested that all behav-
iours can be explained without the need to consider internal mental states or consciousness
(Skinner, 1976). This is the basis of the stimulus-response approach. Early in the 20th cen-
tury, through the study of conditioned reflexes by I.P. Pavlov and others, the development of
research in conditioning emerged. The most well-known form of this is classical and operant
conditioning.
Classical conditioning
Classical conditioning, as a mode of learning, was demonstrated by Pavlov (1849–1936),
a Russian scientist, who performed extensive research on conditioned reflexes. The most
famous classical experiment is “Pavlov’s dogs” whose aim was to condition the dogs to
salivate in the presence of food or in the absence of any food. Pavlov noted that dogs began
to salivate not only at the taste of food, but also at the sight of food, but also when bell ring-
ing is regularly associated with the food. That is, the dogs began salivation in response to
the absence of any food but in response to bell ringing. Table 7.1 presents a summary of the
classical conditioning experiment.
Basically, at the start of the experiment and before conditioning, the presence of food or
the taste of food is the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) and this produces a salivation [uncon-
ditioned response (UCR)]. A neutral stimulus (NS) such as bell ringing does not produce a
response. However, during conditioning, the UCS (food) is presented repeatedly with the
neutral stimulus (bell). After conditioning, salivation becomes a conditioned response (CR)
as a response to the bell ringing (neutral stimulus) in the absence of any food. In the case of
Pavlov’s dogs, they had learned to associate the bell ringing with the anticipation of food,
and they began to salivate.
One of the most famous examples of classical conditioning was John B. Watson’s experi-
ment in which a fear response was conditioned called “Little Albert and the white rat” (see
Hofmann, 2008). In the experiment, Little Albert initially showed no fear of a white rat.
However, when a loud and scary sound was paired repeatedly with the white rat, Little Albert
would cry when the rat was present. The child’s fear was also generalised to other furry white
Table 7.1 Pavlov’s classical conditioning
Meat powder Unconditioned stimulus (UCS): A stimulus that elicits a UCS

refexive response in an organism.
Salivation Unconditioned response (UCR): A natural (unlearned) UCR
reaction to a given stimulus.
Bell ringing A neutral stimulus is presented immediately before an NS
unconditioned stimulus.
Bell ringing + meat Bell ringing: Neutral stimulus NS + UCS =
powder = salivation Meat Powder: Unconditioned stimulus UCR
Salivation: Unconditioned response
Bell ringing Conditioned stimulus CS
Salivation Conditioned response CR
Meat powder (UCS) → salivation (UCR)

Bell ringing (NS) + meat powder (UCS) → salivation (UCR)
Bell ringing (NS) → salivation (CR)
objects. The fear is a conditioned response. There are a number of general processes that are
involved in classical conditioning.
• Acquisition: In classical conditioning, it is the initial stage of the learning process

when a response is first established. It occurs when there is a connection between
a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus. In the case of the Pavlov’s dogs
experiment, the acquisition period is the phase in which the dogs begin to salivate at
the bell ringing.
• Extinction: This is the process when the behaviour is extinguished. It happened as in
the case of Pavlov’s dogs: When the unconditioned stimulus (meat powder) is no longer
presented with the conditioned stimulus (bell ringing), then there is a decrease in the
conditioned response (salivation).
• Spontaneous recovery: This displayed behaviour occurs after a dormant period or
rest. The behaviour was thought to be extinct. That is, it is the reappearance of the
conditioned response (salivation) after a rest period. However, if there is no con-
nection or association between the conditioned stimulus (bell ringing) and uncondi-
tioned stimulus (meat powder), extinction will occur very rapidly after a spontaneous
recovery.
There is also the case that the conditioned stimulus (for example, bell ringing or a loud
sound) can evoke similar responses after the response has been conditioned. That is, there is
a reaction or a change in behaviour as a result of stimuli that are similar to the conditioned
stimulus. This is called stimulus generalisation. In classical conditioning, not only stimulus
discrimination but habituation may also occur. That is, the organism becomes accustomed to
the stimulus.
Operant conditioning
In contrast with classical conditioning, operant conditioning is a learning process in which
the organism associates a behaviour and its consequence. That is, there is a probability of a
response occurring if reward (or punishment) is increased or decreased. Operant conditioning

is based on the work of B.F. Skinner (Skinner, 1938).
Skinner described how reinforcement could lead to acceptable behaviours. In contrast,

punishment would result in decrease in behaviour. He also noted that the delivery of
reinforcements had an influence on how quickly a behaviour was learned. This timing
and degree of reinforcement are known as schedules of reinforcement
In the case of operant conditioning, the animal or human receives a reinforcement or reward
after performing a specific behaviour. The reinforcement can be either positive or negative
and may increase the likelihood of a behavioural response. Punishment as a reinforcement
decreases the likelihood of a behavioural response. Positive reinforcement indicates the
application of a stimulus, and negative reinforcement indicates the withholding of a stimulus.
There are several types of reinforcement schedules that may be used in the reward to
shape the behaviour. Rewards can be in the form of tokens, money, toys, stickers, stars, etc.,
to reinforce learning. There are two types of reinforcers: Primary and secondary reinforcers.
Primary reinforcers have innate characteristics such as physiological or psychological needs
(water, food, sleep, shelter, sex and touch, etc.), and a secondary reinforcer (verbal praise
with a reward) occurs when there is an association with the primary reinforcer (innate rein-
forcer) before the organism can produce a behavioural response. A summary of the compari-
son between classical and operant conditioning is presented in Table 7.2.
Strengths and limitations of the conditioning approach for human

learning
The work of Pavlov on classical conditioning and Skinner’s concept of operant condition-
ing have provided the foundation for the application of behavioural approaches in education
and in psychology. This behavioural approach based upon observable behaviours provides
clear predictions and can be scientifically tested and support with evidence. This approach
provides comparisons between animals (Pavlov’s dogs) and humans (Watson and Rayner –
Little Albert), and there are many experiments to support the theories. This approach has also
been used in real-life applications with humans in areas including behaviour therapy, behav-
iour modification, psychopathology, relationships, moral development and addictive behav-
iours. Many therapeutic techniques such as intensive behavioural intervention, behaviour
analysis and token economies have been used effectively. However, many critics argue that
behaviourism is too deterministic and is a one-dimensional approach to understanding human
behaviour. It fails to consider the internal processes such as moods, thoughts and feelings
and free will. It is superficial in nature as it fails to acknowledge that learning occurs without
the use of reinforcement and punishment. The reduction of learning to stimulus–response
associations is an oversimplification of human behaviours and experiences. The concept of
reward and punishment may be a temporary measure in changing a desired behaviour and
does not work with everyone. Despite its limitations, the behavioural approach does have its
applications in education and clinical psychology. However, from an Islamic perspective,
behavioural conditioning “takes away responsibility on the individual. This is contrary to the
Islamic conceptualisations in which free will and accountability are primary features” (Utz,
2011, p.187).
Table 7.2 Comparison of classical and operant conditioning
Classical conditioning Operant conditioning
First described by Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist in First coined by B. F. Skinner, an

the early 1900s American psychologist in 1938
Pavlov conducted experiments on dogs Skinner conducted experiments on
rats and pigeons
Learning by association Learning by association
Nature of learning: Passive Nature of learning: Active
Changes involuntary behaviour/refex Changes in voluntary behaviour
Stimulus occurs immediately before the response Stimulus (either reinforcement or
punishment) occurs soon after the
response
Involves pairing a conditioned stimulus (meat powder) Focuses on strengthening or
with a neutral stimulus (such as a ringing bell). The weakening voluntary behaviours
ringing bell becomes the conditioned stimulus, which by applying reinforcement or
brings about salivation as the conditioned response punishment
Behaviours may become extinct, and spontaneous Behaviours may become extinct, and
recovery spontaneous recovery
Strength of conditioning is measured by speed or amount Strength of conditioning is measured
of response by rate of production of behaviour
Effectiveness of conditioning assessed by size of response Effectiveness of conditioning assessed
by frequency of response
Internal mental thoughts and brain processes play a huge Focuses on overt behaviours and not
role in associative learning any internal mental thoughts and
brain mechanisms
Used to teach a new behaviour to an organism Used to teach a new behaviour to an
organism
The process of classical conditioning involves peripheral The operant conditioning involves
nervous system activities central nervous system activity
Observational learning or modelling

Another type of learning is modelling or observational learning. This social learning theory
has been developed by Albert Bandura (1977), who postulates that an individual learns from
others, via observation, imitation and modelling. The main difference between behavioural
conditioning and social learning theory is the role of the cognitive processes (attention, mem-
ory and motivation) in imitation and modelling. Models represent the imitated behaviour.
There is evidence to suggest that this observational learning involves a specific type of neu-
ron, called a mirror neuron (Hickock, 2010; Rizzolatti et al., 2006). Bandura identified three
basic models of observational learning: Live (executing the behaviour), verbal (explaining or
describing the behaviour) and symbolic (fictional characters or real people who demonstrate
behaviours in visual or online media). One of the best-known experiments in the social learn-
ing approach is “the Bobo doll” experiment, conducted by Albert Bandura in 1961 (Bandura
et al., 1961) and repeated in 1963 (Bandura et al., 1963). The aim of Bandura’s experiment
was to demonstrate that adult aggressive behaviours can be learned by children through the
process of observation and imitation (see Do, 2011). An inflatable plastic doll called the Bobo
doll was used in the experiment. The children were shown a team of teachers (researchers)
physically and verbally abusing an inflatable doll. Later the children mimic the behaviour
of the adults, in the same fashion, by punching, kicking and yelling at the doll. The findings
support Bandura’s (1977) social learning theory. That is, social behaviour such as aggression
is learned through the process of watching and imitating the behaviour of another person –
observational learning. This study has important implications for the impact of media vio-
lence and also the effects of parental violence on children. It is not surprising that children
who are victims of aggression are more likely as adults to inflict abuse on their partners or
children (Heyman and Slep, 2002).
The approach of social learning theory considers both the cognitive processes and psycho-
logical influences such as attention and memory, for learning to be successful. There are four
stages to this theory, attention, retention, motor reproduction and motivation (Fryling et al.,
2011). In the attention phase, the individuals need to be paying attention to the model for
learning to take place. Constant distractions will inhibit or have a negative effect on obser-
vational learning. Retention is the ability to understand the behaviour and to store the new
information about the modelled behaviour. The next stage, motor reproduction, is to act or
perform the observed behaviour. Lastly motivation depends on the readiness of the individual
to imitate the observed behaviour. This process is dependent on motivation of the individual
which may involve reinforcement or punishment.
In relation to observational learning, there is evidence to suggest that there are neural
mechanisms in the frontal lobe area of the brain that are the basis for this type of learning.
These are called mirror neurons which are
a set of neurons in the premotor area of the brain that are activated not only when per-
forming an action oneself, but also while observing someone else perform that action. It
is believed mirror neurons increase an individual's ability to understand the behaviours
of others, an important skill in social species such as humans.
(Public Library of Science, 2005)
It is believed that these mirror neurons might be very important in explaining a variety of
human mental capacities such as empathy, imitation learning and the evolution of language
(Ramachandran, 2020)
Evaluation of contemporary learning theories from an Islamic

perspective
This section will evaluate contemporary Western theories of learning and conditioning from
an Islamic perspective. The behaviourist school of psychology restricts the study of human
behaviour to only that which can be observed and measured and rejects the notion of study
of the mind and consciousness or inner mental experience. The behavioural paradigm also
denies the importance of the soul in driving human behaviour because human behaviours
depend how we respond to the environment, and by our inner biological processes. Badri
(1979) argued that the current prevailing schools of psychology deny the existence of the
soul and perceive humans as mere machines acting on external stimuli. He also asserted that
modern psychology has lost its mind after having lost both its soul and its consciousness
(Badri, 2000). However, it has been suggested that Islamic scholars including Ibn Sina and
Al-Ghazâlî introduced the principles of conditioning long ago. However, these scholars do
not subscribe to the mechanistic principles of classical conditioning but that not all the prin-
ciples (for example classical conditioning) are unIslamic (Tabrani, 2014).
Classical conditioning
According to Alizi and Hariyati Shahrima (2015) both
Ibn Sina and Al-Ghazâlî believe in the importance of association between stimuli to
elicit a conditioned response. The main difference between their ideas and contemporary
classical conditioning is, they include the cognitive aspects (e.g. memory and imagina-
tion) that moderate the stimulus-response relationship which is absent in contemporary
“mechanical” classical conditioning perspective.
(p.66)
That means the cognitive process, involving the memory, must be involved before the stimu-
lus can become a conditioned stimulus (Badri, 1997; Najati, 1993; Taha, 1995). Alizi and
Hariyati Shahrima (2015) provide Ibn Sina’s examples of
how seeing food (without even eating it) is pleasurable and seeing sticks (without even
been beaten by it) is painful. Ibn Sina also suggested that a person can feel disgusted (a
conditioned response) with yellow honey (a conditioned stimulus) if he associates its
colours with yellow bile (neutral stimulus).
(p.66)
In associative learning there is condition known as “stimulus generalisation.” This concept

refers to “the extent to which a response conditioned to one stimulus transfers to similar
stimuli” (Till and Priluck, 2000, p.55). Al-Ghazâlî provided an example of Pavlovian “stimu-
lus generalisation” when he observed that “a person who was bitten by a snake is momentar-
ily phobic of a colourful rope.” He also used salivation (before Pavlov’s conditioning) as an
example of conditioning. Al-Ghazâlî said that
observing a person eating an acidic fruit, or even imagining such a scene, can make the
observer (or the imaginer) salivate. Not only was that an advanced theory at that time, it
also adds to the current deficient theory by introducing the cognitive aspect of learning
such as imagination.
For a more comprehensive account of these examples see Badri (1997), Najati (1993) and
Taha (1995).
Operant conditioning
With regard to operant conditioning, Skinner (1971) neglected the internal factors such as
feelings, emotions and cognitive processes in the development of behaviours because they
could not be controlled, manipulated or observed objectively. This approach fails to recog-
nise the inner and outer nature that makes the uniqueness of individuals. From an Islamic
perspective, similar to classical conditioning, operant conditioning philosophy is also athe-
istic in its orientation. Badri (2000) stated that behaviourism denies the innate goodness or
evilness of humans and maintains that freedom of choice, values, beliefs and morality (right
or wrong) are determined entirely by environmental events based on immediate and tangible
rewards and punishments. For example, according to Skinner (1971), a child does not behave
a certain way out of fear, obligation, respect or even a sense of right and wrong because all
behaviours are a direct result of conditioning. This is in total contradiction with the Muslim
belief system (Aqeedah) and moral values (Akhlaq). Moreover, Al-Ghazâlî believed that ethi-
cal and emotional habits can be learned and trained (Badri, 1997).
The concept of conditioning and reinforcement is not unfamiliar to Islam. Training and
conditioning falcons have been in practice in the Middle East for more than 1,400 years. The
Arabs have acquired knowledge of catching, manning and hunting with falcons through gen-
erations (Zubair, 2004). The Qur’an approves falconry and legitimises hunting by falcons for
human consumption of the trophy (Al Maid’ah 5:4). Reinforcement is also present in many
verses of the Qur’an. One of the features of the Noble Qur’an is that it repeats certain topics
throughout the text so that one thing might be discussed multiple times in different parts of
the Book. In Shari’ah terminology, repetition (Takraar in Arabic) means repeating a word or
phrase more than once for various reasons, such as emphasis, exaggeration, reinforcement,
etc. (Lisaan al-‘Arab, 5/135). Shaykh al-Islam Ibn Taymiyah (a) (may Allah have mercy on
him) said: “There is no pointless repetition in the Qur’an, rather there are benefits in every
repetition.” Scholars have divided the repetition in the Qur’an into two kinds: Repetition of
words and meanings and repetition of meaning but not words. Al-Suyooti (may Allah have
mercy on him) said that there are several reasons for repetition in the Qur’an. This includes
confirmation. It is said that if words are repeated the meaning is confirmed. Allah has indi-
cated the reason why He repeats stories and reminders in the Qur’an, as He says (interpreta-
• And have explained therein in detail the warnings, in order that they may fear Allah, or
that it may cause them to have a lesson from it. (Ta-Ha 20:113).
It also includes emphasis which highlights a point so that the words will be accepted, such
as the verse:
• And he who believed said, “O my people, follow me, I will guide you to the way of right
conduct.
O my people, this worldly life is only [temporary] enjoyment, and indeed, the
Hereafter – that is the home of [permanent] settlement. (Ghaafir 40:38–39).”
Shaykh al-Islam Ibn Taymiyah (b) said, commenting on the repetition of the story of Moses
(Moosa) and his people:
Allah mentions this story in several places in the Qur’an, and in every place, He high-
lights a different idea and conclusion. The same applies to sentences that are complete
in meaning. The story is told in one way that highlights one point, then it is told in
another way which highlights a different point. The story is the same story, but its details
are numerous, and every sentence conveys a meaning that is not indicated by other
sentences.
In the Qur’an both emphasis and confirmation act as a reinforcement in the conditioning pro-
cess. There is a wisdom in this because man is easily inattentive and forgetful, and repetition
(reinforcement) plays a crucial role in the sustainability of the learning process. Repetition
and reinforcement are the key principles of learning (Hartley, 1998).
Rewards and punishment

In Islam, the concepts of paradise and hell-fire are based on the principles of rewards and
punishment. The Messenger of Allah ( ) employed the concept of reward (positive rein-
forcements) and punishment in his teachings of enjoining what is good and forbidding what
is wrong. Mu’adh bin Jabal (may Allah be pleased with him) said: “O Messenger of Allah,
tell me of a deed which will take me into Paradise and will keep me away from the Hell-fire.”
He said:
You have asked me about a great matter, yet it is, indeed, an easy matter for him to
whom Allah Almighty makes it easy. (It is) that you worship Allah without associating
anything with Him, that you perform the prayers, that you pay the zakat, that you fast
during Ramadan, and that you make the pilgrimage to the House.
Then he said: “Shall I not guide you to the gates of goodness? Fasting is a shield; charity
extinguishes sin as water extinguishes fire; and a man’s prayer in the middle of the night.”
Then he recited:
Who forsake their beds to cry unto their Lord in fear and hope, and spend of that We
have bestowed on them. No soul knoweth what is kept hidden for them of joy, as a
reward for what they used to do.
(Al-Sajdah, 32:16–17)
Then he said: “Shall I not also tell you of the head of the matter, its pillar, and its topmost
part?” I said: “Yes, O Messenger of Allah.” He said: “The head of the matter is Islam (sub-
mission to Allah), the pillar is prayer; and its topmost part is jihad.” Then he said: “And shall
I not tell you of the controlling of all that?” I said: “Yes, O Messenger of Allah.” So he took
hold of his tongue and said: “Restrain this.” I said: “O Prophet of Allah, will we be held
accountable for what we say?” He said: “May your mother be bereft of you! Is there anything
that topples people on their faces (or he said, on their noses) into the Hell-fire other than the
harvest of their tongues?” (Tirmidhi). This Hadith revolves around many principles and goes
through the many paths that can lead to paradise. The concept of rewards and punishment
can also be explained by continuous and partial schedules of reinforcement. It has been sug-
gested that
Although the concepts of rewards and punishment in Islam are based on continuous
schedule (awarded each time after we perform good or bad deed), there is an element of
variability in terms of interval and ratio because the rewards and punishments are unob-
servable. Therefore, they can become powerful motivators for Muslims who have faith
(Iman) in practicing good (Ma`ruf) and avoiding evil (Munkar).
In, addition, the most prominent application of partial reinforcement schedule is the mul-
tiplied rewards during Ramadan and an unspecified night in the last ten days of Ramadan.
It is narrated by Abu Hurairay that I heard Allah’s Messenger ( ) saying regarding
Ramadan, “Whoever prayed at night in it (the month of Ramadan) out of sincere Faith and
hoping for a reward from Allah, then all his previous sins will be forgiven” (Bukhari (a)).
It is narrated by Ibn Àbbas that Allah’s Messenger ( ) said, “The Night of Qadr is in
the last ten nights of the month (Ramadan), either on the first nine or in the last (remain-
ing) seven nights (of Ramadan).” Ibn Àbbas added, “Search for it on the twenty-fourth (of
Ramadan)” (Bukhari (b)).
Observational learning
The use of observational learning has been emphasised in the Qur’an and Hadiths. The
Qur’an gives an example of observational learning in the following verse. Allah says (inter-
pretation of the meaning)
• Then Allah sent a crow searching in the ground to show him how to hide the disgrace of
his brother. He said, “O woe to me! Have I failed to be like this crow and hide the body
of my brother?” And he became of the regretful. (Al Maid’ah 5:31)
This verse illustrates how Cain (Qabil) learned to bury the corpse of his brother Abel (Habil) by
observation. According to Ibn Kathir, Ali bin Abi Talhah reported that Ibn Àbbas said, “A crow
came to the dead corpse of another crow and threw sand over it, until it hid it in the ground.”
In the Qur’an, the only verse that refers literally to the status of Prophet Muhammad ( ) as
a positive role model. For example, in the Qur’an, Allah says (interpretation of the meaning):
• There has certainly been for you in the Messenger of Allah an excellent pattern for
anyone whose hope is in Allah and the Last Day and [who] remembers Allah often.
(Al-Ahzab 33:21)
According Ibn Kathir, this is a Command to follow the Messenger ( ). It is an important

principle, to follow the Messenger of Allah ( ) in all his words, and deeds. The life of
Prophet Muhammad ( ) is full of countless examples that show his status as a role model
for individuals and the whole humanity. His characteristics include superior morality, good
habits, noble and gentle feelings and superior skills. The character of the Prophet is narrated
in a Hadith. Qatadah reported: I said, “O mother of the believers, tell me about the character
of the Messenger of Allah, peace and blessings be upon him.” Aisha said, “Have you not read
the Qur’an?” I said, “Of course!” Aisha said, “Verily, the character of the Prophet of Allah
was the Qur’an.” She asked: Do you not recite the Qur’an? The character of Messenger of
Allah ( ) was the Qur’an (Muslima).
These are many verses of the Qur’an and Hadiths that indicate that a Muslim should obey
the Prophet ( ), the perfect role model, for the correct guidance. For example, in relation
to prayer, the Prophet Muhammad ( ) commanded that “Pray as you have seen me pray-
ing. When it is time for the prayer, then let one of you give the adhan [call to prayer] and let
the oldest of you lead the prayer” (Bukhari and Muslim). Obedience and conformity to the
Prophet’s ( ) message are mandatory acts as shown in the following verses of the Qur’an.
Allah says (interpretation of the meaning):
• O you who have believed, obey Allah and His Messenger and do not turn from him while
you hear [his order]. (Al-Anfal 8:20)
• And whatever the Messenger has given you – take; and what he has forbidden you –
refrain from. (Al-Hasr 59:7)
• And obey Allah and the Messenger that you may obtain mercy. (Ali 'Imran 3: 132)
• Say, Obey Allah and obey the Messenger; but if you turn away – then upon him is only
that [duty] with which he has been charged, and upon you is that with which you have
been charged. And if you obey him, you will be [rightly] guided. And there is not upon
the Messenger except the [responsibility for] clear notification. (An-Nur 24:54)
One of the limitations of the theory of social learning and modelling is that it cannot explain
why some individuals are exposed to positive role models but do not imitate those models.
Alizi and Hariyati Shahrima (2015) suggested that
even with the presence of an ideal model (a husband who was a Prophet), the wife of Noah
(Nuh) and the wife of Lot (Lut) followed the unbelievers instead of their husbands (At-Tahrim
66:10). In contrast, the Qur’an (At-Tahrim 66: 11) gave an example of the wife of a Pharaoh
who had a bad role model (a husband who claimed to be a god), but she refrained from fol-
lowing him, and instead followed the right path with Prophet Moses (Musa).
(p.71–72)
The self (including the Nafs, Qalb, Aql and Ruh) can play an important role as moderator to
observational learning.
Spiritual modelling
Spiritual modelling has been a new dimension in the area of observational learning and is
built on Bandura’s concept of modelling. Oman and Thoresen (2003) define spiritual model-
ling as “the idea that people may grow spiritually by imitating the life or conduct of one or
more exemplars” (p.150). The idea is that individuals have the potential to develop spiritually
by imitating the life or conduct of a spiritual exemplar (a prophet) or a religious significant
other. Oman and Thoresen (2003) suggested that most spiritual attitudes and practices may
be largely transmitted through the process of attention, retention, reproduction in behaviour
and motivation based on Bandura’s social cognitive theory. It is by imitating others that the
individual learns spiritually relevant skills or behaviours. The four processes that have been
suggested to regulate observational learning (Bandura, 1977; Oman and Thoreson, 2003) can
be applied to observational spiritual learning. There are four mediational phases: Attention,
retention, reproduction and motivation. Rassool (2020) has added another mediational phase
which is the dimension of intention. The application of adapted stages of spiritual modelling
is presented in Figure 7.1 and Table 7.3.
In the initial phase, the main component in spiritual modelling is intention. From an
Islamic perspective, every action is judged upon intention (Arabic – Niyyah). Intention is
what you want out of something you do; whatever you intend to do should be in the way
of God and not for the sake of anyone else. It is narrated by ‘Umar bin Al-Khattab: I heard
Allah’s Apostle saying, “The reward of deeds depends upon the intentions and every person
will get the reward according to what he has intended” (Bukhari (c)). This famous Hadith
is also referred to as “All actions are judged by intention.” There is a need to have “purity
of intention,” and this state becomes a pre-requisite before moving to the stage of attention.
Figure 7.1 Stages of observational spiritual modelling (Rassool, 2020).
In the attention phase, the focus is to develop attitude and skills to maintain the attention. It
is stated that “All major religious traditions have fostered attentional skills by teaching forms
of meditation that can be regarded as in essence, the effort to retrain attention” (Goleman,
1988, p.169). The skills of attention can be developed through the use of meditative practice
of the remembrance of Allah (Dhikr). Oman and Thoreson (2003) maintained that “all the
major religious traditions encourage patterns of life in which major and minor biographical
events and teachings of spiritual exemplars are repeatedly brought to mind. Such repetition
fosters retention of modeled behaviors” (p.154). The learning of Hadiths of the Messenger
( ) of Allah and his life story (Seerah) may serve the purpose of enhancing attention and
retention. Studying the life of the Prophet Muhammad ( ) is a spiritual need for every
Muslim. In the reproduction phase, the individual needs to develop the virtues. Islam sup-
ports all good deeds and encourages the development of virtues.
There are several virtues mentioned in the Qur’an including:
• Righteousness (Al-Baqarah 2:60; Ali 'Imran 3:104; An-Nisa 4:36; An-Nahl 16:90;
Al-Hujurat 49:13)
Table 7.3 Stages, process and action in spiritual modelling
Stages Process Action
Intention Every action is judged upon intention The rewarding of deeds depends upon
the intentions, and every person
will get a reward according to what
he has intended
Attention Meditation: Remembrance of Allah Develop attitude and skills to maintain
(Dhikr) the attention. Attention in the daily
prayers.
Remembrance of Allah and
worshipper’s attention to the
importance of following the
Prophet Muhammad ( )
Retention Repetition of the biographical events.
Studying the life of the Prophet ( )
Teachings of spiritual exemplars
and Hadiths.
to foster memory of modelled
behaviours
Reproduction Enacts what is Following the Sunnah of the Prophet
learned in daily life and attempts to Muhammad ( ) in many aspects
refne skills over time
of life, such as the fve daily prayers,
daily supplications, good conduct,
virtues
Motivation Focuses on the rewards that References to the peace and rewards
will be obtained for striving in the that are promised to the believers
spiritual quest are prevalent in the Islamic
tradition
Adapted from Utz (2011) Psychology from an Islamic Perspective. Riyadh: International Islamic Publishing House,
pp.142–143.
• Generosity (Al-Baqarah 2:267, 2:271; Ali 'Imran 3:92; Al-Hashr 59:9; Al-Qiyamah 74:6)
• Gratitude (Al-Baqarah 2:172; Luqman 31:14; Az-Zumar 39:7)
• Contentment (An-Nisa 4:32)
• Humility (Al-A’raf 7:55; Al-Hijr 15:98; Al-Furqan 25:63; Al-Qasas 28:76; Luqman
31:18)
• Kindness (Al-Ma’idah 5:13; Al-Isra 17:23–24; Luqman 31:14; Ad-Duhaa 93:9–10)
• Courtesy (An-Nisa 4:86; Al-Hujurat 49:11)
• Purity (Al-Baqarah 2:168, 2:222; Al-Ma’idah 5:6)
• Good speech (Al-Isra 17:53; Al-Haj 22:24; Al-Humazah 104:1)
• Respect (Ali 'Imran 3:20; An-Nur 24:27–28; Al-Hujurat 49:12)
• Tolerance (Ali 'Imran 3:64; Yunus 10:99)
• Justice (An-Nisa 4:135; Al-Ma’idah 5:42; Al-An’am 6:151)
• Self-restraint (Al-Baqarah 2:183; Sad 38:26; An-Nazi’at 79:40–41)
• Sincerity (Al-Anfal 8:53; Al-Ma’un 107:4–6)
• Responsibility (An-Nisa 4:85)
• Trustworthiness (Al-Baqarah 2:283; An-Nisa 4:58; Al-Isra 17:34)
• Honesty/fairness (Al-Baqarah 2:42; An-Nahl 16:94; Sad 38:24; Al-Mutaffifin 83:1–3)
• Spirituality (Ali 'Imran 3:190–191; Al-'Ankabut 29:45; Al-Muzzammil 73:7–9)
One of the Hadiths related to virtue is the one narrated by An-Nawwas bin Sam’an (may
Allah be pleased with him):
I asked the Messenger of Allah ( ) about virtue and sin and he replied, “The essence
of virtue is (manifested in) good morals (Akhlaq) whereas sinful conduct is that which
turns in your heart (making you feel uncomfortable) and you dislike that it would be
disclosed to other people.”
(Muslim (b))
The motivational phase does not focus on immediate gratification but delayed gratification
in the rewards to be obtained in the path of spiritual quest. Saefullah (2012) suggested that
“Motivation results from commitments toward sincere intentions” (p.1562). The verses of the
Qur’an bring both inspiration and motivation for a Muslim under different contexts. These
inspirational or motivational verses or statements can be used in times of need for guidance.
The inspirational or motivational verse or quotes are related to hope, blessings, a source of
enlightenment, resisting pride, temptations, worries and fears, trust in Allah, having doubts,
illness, abandonment, forgiving sins, leading to the straight path and not despairing. The list
of verses is not exhaustive.
Prophet Muhammad ( ) was accorded the status of a final and last Prophet. He has been
endowed as a role model for the whole of mankind. The Prophet ( ) said,
The example of guidance and knowledge with which Allah has sent me is like abundant
rain falling on the earth, some of which was fertile soil that absorbed rainwater and
brought forth vegetation and grass in abundance. (And) another portion of it was hard
and held the rainwater and Allah benefited the people with it and they utilised it for
drinking, making their animals drink from it and for irrigation of the land for cultiva-
tion. (And) a portion of it was barren which could neither hold the water nor bring forth
vegetation (then that land gave no benefits). The first is the example of the person who
comprehends Allah’s religion and gets benefit (from the knowledge) which Allah has
revealed through me (the Prophets and learns and then teaches others. The last example
is that of a person who does not care for it and does not take Allah’s guidance revealed
through me (He is like that barren land.)
(Bukhari (d))

• In classical conditioning a person or animal learns to associate a neutral stimulus (the
conditioned stimulus, or CS) with a stimulus (the unconditioned stimulus, or UCS) that
naturally produces a behaviour (the unconditioned response, or UCR).
• Positive reinforcement strengthens a response by presenting something pleasant after the
response, and negative reinforcement strengthens a response by reducing or removing
something unpleasant. Positive punishment weakens a response by presenting some-
thing unpleasant after the response, whereas negative punishment weakens a response
by reducing or removing something pleasant.
• Shaping is the process of guiding an organism’s behaviour to the desired outcome
through the use of reinforcers.
• Not all learning can be explained through the principles of classical and operant
conditioning.
• Learning by observing the behaviour of others and the consequences of those behaviours
is known as observational learning. Aggression, altruism and many other behaviours are
learned through observation.
• Learning theories can and have been applied to change behaviours in many areas of eve-
ryday life. Some advertising uses classical conditioning to associate a pleasant response
with a product.
• Mediating processes occur between stimuli and responses.
• Behaviour is learned from the environment through the process of observational
learning.
• Ibn Sina and Al-Ghazâlî believe in the importance of association between stimuli to
elicit a conditioned response.
• Spiritual modelling has been a new dimension in the area of observational learning and
is built on Bandura’s concept of modelling.
• There are four mediational phases: Attention, retention, reproduction and motivation.
• Rassool has added another mediational phase which is the dimension of intention.
There is only one answer to each of the following questions.
1. Classical conditioning is based on the work of which person?

A. Freud
B. Bowlby
C. Ellis
D. Bandura
E. Pavlov
2. Which of these is an unconditioned stimulus?
A. Pain
B. Loud noise
C. Food
D. Shock
E. All of these
3. Which of these is an unconditioned response?
A. Blink
B. Startle response
C. Salivation
D. Sweating
E. All of these
4. Which of the following is not true for operant conditioning?
A. It is based on innate behaviours
B. It is concerned with learnt behaviours
C. It is based on reward and punishment
D. It is based on voluntary behaviour
E. It is based on consequences of actions
5. What is positive reinforcement?

A. Punishment which increases the likelihood that a behaviour will be repeated
B. A classical conditioning technique
C. Punishment which makes behaviour unlikely in the future
D. Any consequence where something pleasurable is added
E. Any consequence where something pleasant is taken away
6. What is negative reinforcement?
A. A classical conditioning technique
B. Punishment which reinforces behaviour
C. Punishment which discourages behaviour
D. Any consequence where something unpleasant is taken away
E. Any consequence where something pleasant is taken away
7. What is punishment?
A. Another form of negative reinforcement
B. Any consequence which makes behaviour unlikely to reoccur in the future
C. Any consequence which makes behaviour likely to reoccur in the future
D. A tool for preventing extinction
E. Any consequence where something pleasurable is added
8. Learning is generally considered a lasting change in behaviour based on
A. Practice and experience
B. Practice and wisdom
C. Challenge and behaviour
D. Challenge and reinforcement
E. Practice and challenge
9. All of the following are true about learning through modelling except
A. Skills are learned by observing another person perform the skill
B. It is commonly used to learn simple habits and instincts
C. It is considered a form of social cognitive learning
D. Skills are learned in the presence of others
10. The use of pleasant and unpleasant consequences to change behaviour is known as:
A. Pavlovian conditioning
B. The conditioned reflex
C. Stimulus generalisation
D. Operant conditioning
E. The conditioned instinct
11. The new association between a stimulus and response formed in classical conditioning is
called the:
A. Conditioned stimulus
B. Unconditioned stimulus
C. Conditioned response
D. Unconditioned reflex
E. Stimulus association
12. According to Bandura, rather than learning by performing responses that are rewarded,
much of human learning comes about by:
A. Habituation
B. Classical conditioning
C. Seeing the consequences of one’s actions
D. Observing others
E. Making mistakes
13. In order for observational learning to occur, the observer must pay attention to the occur-
ring behaviour, be able to remember observed behaviour and be motivated to produce
the behaviour. Which of the following is missing from the above list?
A. Recognise the behaviour
B. Describe the behaviour
C. Ignore the behaviour
D. Replicate the behaviour
E. Acceptance of the behaviour
14. Which of the following is NOT one of the four elements of observational learning?
A. Attention
B. Retention
C. Defiance
D. Motivation/reinforcement
E. Intention
15. What is the name of the experiment conducted by Bandura to study children’s behaviour?
A. Bobo doll experiment
B. Dodo Doll Experiment
C. Dolly Doll Experiment
D. Voodoo Doll Experiment
E. Visual Cliff Experiment
16. Which of these basic models of observational learning is NOT true?
A. A live model/a verbal instructional model
B. A behavioural model/a live model
C. A symbolic model/a visual model
D. A and B
E. B and C
17. Bandura characterised the elements of effective observational learning as attention,
retention, ________ and motivation.
A. Detention
B. Attentive
C. Objection
D. Reproduction
E. Rehearsal
18. Al-Ghazali went a step further by giving example of what is now known as __________
when he observed that a person who was bitten by a snake is momentarily phobic of a
colourful rope.
A. Pavlovian conditioning
B. Stimulus generalisation
C. Stimulus consolidation
D. Stimulus learning
E. Skinnerian conditioning
19. ________believes that the association between unconditioned and neutral stimulus must
be kept in memory before it can become a conditioned stimulus (Badri, 1997).
A. Ibn Sina
B. Al-Ghazali
C. Al-Razi
D. B.F. Skinner
E. I. Pavlov
20. The concept of rewards and sins in Islam can be explained from the perspective of sched-
ules of reinforcement
A. Continuous and full
B. Continuous and partial
C. Continuous and intermittent
D. Full and continuous
E. None of the above is correct
21. Al-Qur’an illustrates how Cane (Qabil) learned to bury the corpse of his brother Abel
(Habil) by observing a raven who scratched the ground to bury another dead bird. Which
chapter and verse does this relate to?
A. Qur’an 5:32
B. Qur’an 5:31
C. Qur’an 5:31
D. Qur’an 2:31
E. Qur’an 6:31
22. The idea that people may grow spiritually by imitating the life or conduct of one or more
exemplars is termed:
A. Religious modelling
B. Exemplar learning
C. Religious cognitive learning
D. Spiritual modelling
E. Spiritual cognitive modelling
23. Oman and Thoresen (2003) suggested that most spiritual attitudes and practices may be
largely transmitted through the process of
A. Retention, reproduction, rehearsal and motivation
B. Attention, retention, reproduction and motivation
C. Reproduction, rehearsal, motivation, detention
D. Symbolic, visual, motivation and retention
24. From an Islamic perspective, another dimension has been added to this process.
A. Rehearsal
B. Conditioning
C. Social learning
D. Intention
E. Behavioural
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Part III
Social and personality psychology

Chapter 8
Social psychology
Social cognition, attitude and prejudice
Learning outcomes
• Define social psychology.
• Outline the history of the field of social psychology and the topics that social psycholo-
gists study.
• Explain what is meant by social cognition.
• Review the concepts of (1) salience and (2) priming.
• Describe the relationship between social and religious cognition.
• Identify the issues of cognitive dissonance among Muslims.
• Compare and contrast between prejudice, stereotypes and discrimination.
• Explain why social support is important for positive health outcomes.
• Discuss social support as part of Islamic beliefs and practices.
What is social psychology?

Social psychology is a growing sub-discipline of psychology and is having an increasingly
important influence in our daily living. Social psychology is about understanding individual
behaviour and experiences in a social context. The classical definition by Gordon Allport is
that social psychology is the scientific attempt to understand and explain how the thought,
feeling and behaviour of individuals are influenced by the actual, imagined or implied pres-
ence of others (Allport, 1954), that is, the understanding and explanation of thinking, feeling
and behaviour in a social group context. Baron, Byrne and Suls (1989) define social psychol-
ogy “as the scientific field that seeks to understand the nature and causes of individual behav-
ior in social situations” (p.6). It is through interactions with others that we construed our
worldview. It has been suggested that Islam also acknowledges the influence of the presence
of others and social situations on human cognition, thought and affection (Mahudin, 2009).
The topics in social psychology are quite varied and include studies at intrapersonal lev-
els: Emotions and attitudes, the self-concept, social cognition, attribution theory. At inter-
personal levels, the themes include helping behaviours, prosocial behaviours, aggression,
prejudice and discrimination, attraction and close relationships, group processes intergroup
relationships, social influence, conformity and obedience. Social psychology is an amalgam
of psychology and sociology where each discipline synthesises the study of individual human
behaviour with a social structure and context.
172 Social and personality psychology
A brief history of social psychology

• 870–950. Abu Nasr Mohammad Ibn Al-Farakh (Al-Farabi): He introduced social psy-
chology and the “Model City.”
• 1770–1831. Hegel introduced the concept that society and social mind.
• 1898. Social psychology experiments on group behaviour were conducted.
• 1908. First social psychology textbooks were published in 1908 (McDougall).
• 1920. Allport. Social facilitation
• 1936. Muzafir Sherif’s studies on conformity.
• 1939. Lewin et al. Experimental research into leadership and group processes.
• 1940s and 1950s. Kurt Lewin and Leon Festinger creating social psychology as a rigor-
ous scientific discipline.
• 1940. Klineberg. The Problem of Personality.
• 1950s. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology.
• 1957. Leon Festinger: A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance.
• 1963. Hovland, Janis and Kelley, Communication and Persuasion.
• 1963. Journal of Personality, British Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology.
• 1963. Bandura. Social learning theory.
• 1965. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Journal of Experimental Social
Psychology.
• 1968. John Darley and Bibb Latané, “Bystander Intervention in Emergencies.”
• 1971. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, European Journal of Social Psychology.
• 1971. Tajfel. Social identity theory.
• 1972. Irving Janis. Group behaviour.
• 1973. Philip Zimbardo. Stanford “prison experiment.”
• 1974. Stanley Milgram’s studies on obedience to authority.
• 1974. Leonard Berkowitz. Human Aggression.
• 1975. Social Psychology Quarterly, Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin.
• 1982. Kahneman, Slovic and Tversky. Humans’ decision-making could be flawed by
both cognitive and motivational processes.
• 1986. Weiner. Attribution theory.
• 1993. Eagly and Chaiken, The Psychology of Attitudes.
• 2008. Fiske and Taylor. Social cognition.
• 2010. Lieberman. Social Cognitive Neuroscienes.
Social psychology: Early infuences

Abū Naṣr Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad al Fārābī known as al Fārābī (c. 872–950) was
a renowned early Islamic philosopher and jurist who wrote in the fields of political
philosophy, metaphysics, ethics and logic. He was also a scientist, cosmologist, math-
ematician and music scholar. In Islamic philosophical tradition he was often called “the
Second Teacher,” following Aristotle who was known as “the First Teacher.” He wrote
Psychology and Principles of the Opinions of the Citizens of the Virtuous City, which were
the first treatises to deal with social psychology. He stated that “an isolated individual
could not achieve all the perfections by himself, without the aid of other individuals,”
and that it is the “innate disposition of every man to join another human being or other
men in the labour he ought to perform.” He concluded that to “achieve what he can of
Social psychology 173
that perfection, every man needs to stay in the neighbourhood of others and associate
with them” (Haque, 2004, p.363). Hegel (1770–1831) was a German philosopher who
introduced the concept of civil society (bürgerliche Gesellschaft) and maintained that the
welfare of an individual in society is intrinsically bound up with that of others. Hegel, in
his philosophy, introduced the concept of society and the development of the social mind.
Wilhelm Maximilian Wundt (1832–1920) wrote a book on Völkerpsychologie (or, roughly
translated, folk psychology) and differentiated between social psychological states and
processes of the individual (individual psychology). He maintained that it is the influence
of both culture and community, especially through language, that enables the development
of personality.
Social cognition
Within the realm of social psychology, the field of social cognition deals exclusively with
the human cognitive process and behaviours. Social cognition is defined as any cognitive
process that involves other people (Frith and Blakemore, 2006). This is because social
cognition is concerned with the psychological processes in the understanding of both the
self and others. In the process of social interactions, cognitive processes such as percep-
tion, attention, memory and decision-making are all involved. One aspect of social cog-
nition is person perception, which refers to a general tendency to form impressions of
other people. In addition to forming these impressions, we also make different conclusions
about other people based on our impressions (Brooks and Freeman, 2019). Impression
formation is essentially a form of person perception. The premise of this social cognition
is the way in which people collect and use information about other people to guide their
interactions with them. Person perceptions occur either directly or indirectly and provide
the basis to make subsequent judgement, for example, whether we like a person or not.
The indirect form requires inferring information about a person based on collateral infor-
mation, whereas the direct form of person perception is based solely on self-observation
(here and now) and our brains are designed to help us judge others efficiently (Macrae and
Quadflieg, 2010).
Face perception and recognition are essential elements of social cognition, and represent
critical skills acquired early in human development. It has been suggested that “Socially
meaningful information regarding levels of familiarity, attractiveness, and emotional status
can be derived from facial recognition, which then shapes behavioural patterns” (Lopatina
et al., 2018, p.1). Both children and adults have an in-built preference for face recognition
over other objects. There is evidence to suggest that infants prefer to look at faces of peo-
ple more than they do other visual patterns, and children quickly learn to identify people
and their emotional expressions (Turati et al., 2006), through the skills of nonverbal com-
munication. Within only a few months of birth, human infants can decode facial expres-
sions and begin to make sense of social interaction with people and the environment. There
is evidence to suggest that five-month-old infants can decode facial expressions and dis-
criminate between neutral and smiling facial expressions of their mothers (Bornstein et al.,
2011). Similarly adults have the capacity to identify and remember a potentially unlimited
number of people (Haxby, Hoffman and Gobbini, 2000), form quick impressions (Carlston
and Skowronski, 2005; Fletcher-Watson et al., 2008) and with a high degree of accuracy
(Ambady et al., 2000).
Through the system of memory, networks or schemas, information is gathered and some
of the retained information can be accessed with rapidity and ease. The schema theory
is a branch of cognitive science concerned with how the brain structures knowledge.
A schema is an organized unit of knowledge for a subject or event. It is based on past
experience and is accessed to guide current understanding or action.
(Pankin, 2013, p.1)
Psychologists believe that the schemas) of information are stored in long-term memory
(Camina and Güell, 2017).
However, the accessibility of the schema is based on two cognitive processes: Salience
and priming. In social cognition, salience refers to any aspect of a stimulus (person, behav-
iour, trait or an object) that stands out from the rest in a given situation. For example, a
mosquito buzzing around your ear while you are reading a book would attract your attention
to the mosquito. Priming occurs whenever there is exposure to one stimulus prior to a situ-
ation that causes a schema to be more accessible. The priming may later alter behaviour or
thoughts. For example, watching a horror movie late at night might increase the accessibility
of evil schemas, increasing the likelihood that a person will have a nightmare or bad dreams
or hearing background noises as potential threats. One consequence of schema-based organi-
sation of information about people is that the tendency to neatly arrange information in this
way can lead to stereotyping and prejudice.
From Islamic perspective, there are many examples how the presence of others influences
cognition and human behaviour. Taib and Alias (2020, citing Khan, 2001) have observed, for
example, Caliph Umar (may Allah be pleased with him), who embraced Islam due to the pres-
ence of others’ behaviour, in particular his sister’s recitation of the Qur’an. Another example
provided is Asiyah (may Allah be pleased with her), the wife of the Egyptian Pharaoh, who
despite being in the presence of non-believers still retained her behaviour and cognition of
the Unicity of Allah. Taib and Alias (2020) maintained that the influence of social situations
on human behaviour is not a simple or a direct relationship but depends on the soul as the
moderator variable. That is, it is the soul that overpowered the influence of the presence of
others. In relation to person perception of impression formation, Alias (2005) noted that
the Quraish’s (an Arab tribe of which Prophet Muhammad ( ) was a member and associ-
ated with its hereditary provision of the pre-Islamic custodians of the Kaaba at Mecca) first
impression of Prophet Muhammad ( ) was positive due to the Prophet’s ( ) good char-
acter, to the extent he is known as the trustworthy (al-Ameen) among the Quraish. However,
this first impression changed after the Prophethood of Muhammad ( ) due to differences
in belief or creed. This example illustrated the vital role of the belief system in impression
formation. According to Alias (2005), a first impression may not last forever, as it is prone
to reinterpretation and also depends on one’s acceptance of the fact/truth or belief system.
Several Hadiths illustrated examples of person perception and social cognition. It was nar-
rated from Sa’eed bin Al-Musayyab that Mu’awiyah said: “The Messenger of Allah ( ) for-
bade giving a false impression” (An-Nasa’i). The next statement is about how we interpret our
own behaviour and people perception. Al-A’raj reported that he heard Abu Hurayrah saying:
You are under the impression that Abu Hurayrah transmits so many Hadiths from
Allah’s Messenger ( ); (bear in mind) Allah is the great Reckoner. I was a poor man
and I served Allah’s Messenger ( ) being satisfied with bare subsistence, whereas
the immigrants remained busy with transactions in the bazar; while the Ansar had been
engaged in looking after their properties. (He further reported) that Allah’s Messenger
( ) said: He who spreads the cloth would not forget anything that he would hear from
me. I spread my cloth until he narrated something. I then pressed it against my (chest),
so I never forgot anything that I heard from him.
(Muslim (a))
Religious cognition as social cognition

There is a general consensus among psychologists of the potential link between religious
cognition and social cognition. Some psychologists reject the notion of a separate religious
cognition and perceive religious cognition emerging as a by-product of the workings of other
cognitive faculties (Atran and Norenzayan, 2004; Barrett, 2000; Boyer, 2003). However,
Gervais (2014) argued that “religious cognition does not represent a ‘special’ category of
cognition, although it may represent a specific configuration of (common) cognitions and
beliefs. Instead, religious cognitions emerge largely through the workings of cognitive mech-
anisms devoted to other specific purposes” (p.2). Gervais (2014) considers various forms of
religious cognition which are inherently social in nature: Afterlife beliefs, beliefs about the
origins and apparent functions of living things, and supernatural agent beliefs.
All three of these types of beliefs are central to Islam and all three fundamentally depend
on social cognitive processes. For Muslims, afterlife beliefs are never far from their con-
sciousness and death is the return of the soul to its Creator, Allah. Islamic doctrine holds
the notion that human existence continues after the death of the human body in the form of
spiritual and physical resurrection. The belief in an afterlife depends upon a form of plurality
mind-body-soul, that is, Muslims tend to view themselves as composed of three distinct, yet
interacting, elements: A physical body, mind and soul. Muslims also believe in the continued
existence of the soul and a transformed physical existence after death. Islam teaches that
there will be a day of judgement when all humans will be divided between the eternal destina-
tions of Paradise and Hell. On the Day of Judgement, resurrected humans and Jinn (invisible
creatures) will be judged by Allah on the balance of good to bad deeds in life. People will
either be granted admission to Paradise, where they will enjoy spiritual and physical pleas-
ures forever, or condemned to Hell to suffer spiritual and physical torment, eternally. For
some, at the mercy of Allah, the journey in Hell may be shortened. Allah says in the Qur’an
(interpretation of the meaning);
• Indeed, those who disbelieve and die while they are disbelievers – upon them will be the
curse of Allah and of the angels and the people, all together,
Abiding eternally therein. The punishment will not be lightened for them, nor will they
be reprieved. (Al-Baqarah 2:162–163)
According to Ibn Kathir (upon them will be the curse of Allah and of the angels and the peo-
ple, all together, abiding eternally therein),
Therefore, they will suffer the eternal curse until the Day of Resurrection and after that
in the fire of Jahannam [Hell], where, it is they on whom is the curse of Allah and of
the angels and of mankind, combined. They will abide therein (under the curse in Hell).
(Their punishment will neither be lightened.) “Hence, the torment will not be decreased for
them, (nor will they be reprieved.) The torment will not be changed or tempered for even an
hour. Rather, it is continuous and eternal.”
It has been suggested that the belief in an afterlife depends upon a form of mind-body dual-
ism and this type may be perceived as a form of “folk dualism.” According to Bloom (2004),
this has influenced the ways in which our minds perceive the world. Gervais (2014) suggests
that “we have distinct cognitive mechanisms for representing physical stuff in the world and
for representing the social world, and the minds on which social interactions depend” (p.4).
However, the Muslim worldview is rather different from the one proposed by Bloom and
Gervais. One could argue from the Muslim worldview that cognitive mechanisms represent
the physical and the social world, and the afterlife beliefs represent the metaphysical or spirit-
ual world. In response to Gervais’s (2014) proposition that Teleological Thinking ( ascribing
functionality and purpose to the world )– appears to be an intuitive default stance. Islam also
deals with questions of teleology. Allah says in the Qur’an (interpretation of the meaning):
• And to Allah belongs the dominion of the heavens and the earth, and Allah is over all
things competent. Indeed, in the creation of the heavens and the earth and the alterna-
tion of the night and the day are signs for those of understanding. Who remember Allah
while standing or sitting or [lying] on their sides and give thought to the creation of the
heavens and the earth, [saying], “Our Lord, You did not create this aimlessly; exalted
are You [above such a thing]; then protect us from the punishment of the Fire.” (Ali
'Imran 3:189–191)
So, from above verse of Qur’an, Allah has created this world, humans and Jinns for His wor-
ship. Islam addresses the what and why of human existence, and, for Muslims, the purpose of
creation of this world is to praise and worship of our Creator.
• And I did not create the Jinn and mankind except to worship Me. (Adh-Dhariyat, 51:56)
• [Remember] when your Lord extracted from the loins of Adam’s children their descend-
ants and made them testify (saying): “Am I not your Lord?” They said: “Yes, we testify
to it.” [This was] in case you say on the Day of Judgment: “We were unaware of this.”
Or you say: “It was our ancestors who worshipped others besides God, and we are only
their descendants. Will you then destroy us for what those falsifiers did?” (Al-A’raf
7:172–173)
The above verse provides clarity about testifying the Unicity of God and the prime purpose of
human existence. Allah, the Almighty, also says (interpretation of the meaning):
• Did you think that We had created you in play (without any purpose) and that you would
not be brought back to Us? (Al-Mu’minun 23:115)
From the above verse, we can conclude that we were indeed created for a purpose beyond the
enjoyment and material world of this life. The Islamic tradition is also rich in references to our
responsibility as Muslims to act as stewards of the environment. The Qur’an has numerous
passages that describe the lush gardens and trees in heaven, highlighting their value not only
in this world but their significance in the hereafter. The final supernatural agents depend
not only social cognitive processes but on cognitive-spiritual processes. In Islam, Jinn is
believed to have superhuman powers and live in an invisible world parallel to humans.
According to Gervais, “supernatural agent beliefs actually are directly derived by prod-
ucts from ordinary social cognition” (p.7). The supernatural agent will be considered in
Chapter 22.
Attitudes and prejudices

In social cognition, social psychologists have documented how the power of the situation can
influence our behaviours, and can lead to stereotyping and prejudice. Attitudes are important
because they affect both our worldview and our behaviours. In social psychology, an attitude
refers to the way we think, feel and behave toward a particular object, person, thing or event.
An attitude is “a relatively enduring organization of beliefs, feelings, and behavioural tenden-
cies towards socially significant objects, groups, events or symbols” (Hogg and Vaughan,
2005, p.150). Albarracín et al. (2018) defined attitude as an evaluation. Attitude is a general
evaluation of people, groups and objects in our social world, and like personality has an
enduring characteristic. Although attitudes can be enduring, they are subject to modification
or change depending on the context, education, social pressure and free will. Attitudes can
be negative or positive and are learned from others through socialisation and influenced by
social pressure, and social and religious norms. Attitudes have multiple components:
• Affective component: Feelings and emotions that are aroused when there is an evalua-
tion of an object, person, issue or event.
• Cognitive component: Beliefs, thoughts and attributes associated with an object.
• Behavioural component: The effect of the attitude on behaviour.
The affective component consists of feelings and emotions Affective responses are influenced
by emotions that are induced by a person, object or event and through the process of classical
and operant conditioning. This is the association or pairing of the attitude object with other
unpleasant stimuli that elicit negative emotions. In the cognitive component of attitude, both
social and religious cognitions have an impact on attitudes in relation to attributes, valence
(positive and negative characteristics), stereotypes and prejudice. The behavioural compo-
nent is how an attitude influences behaviour. It is a reflection of the intention of a person
which may lead the person to behave in a particular way toward the attitude object.
Attitudes can serve several functions for the individual. Daniel Katz (1960) proposed four
attitude functions: Knowledge, adaptive (instrumental), ego-defence and value-expression.
The knowledge function refers to our need for a world which is understandable, consist-
ent and relatively stable. This gives us a sense of control and can help us to organise our
knowledge of the world and structure our experience. This knowledge function of an indi-
vidual’s attitude may also enable us, in certain contexts, to predict behaviour. Stereotyping is
an example of the knowledge function of attitudes. The adaptive function serves as a mecha-
nism for reward, approval and social acceptance for a person who holds or expresses socially
acceptable attitudes. Acceptable attitudes or those based on social and religious norms enable
the person to be affiliated with and have membership in the social group. This group member-
ship provides friendship, self-help and social and psychological support. The ego-defensive
function refers to holding attitudes that protect our self-esteem from psychologically damag-
ing events. This is a psychological protective function that rationalises certain actions that
make us feel guilty. However, positive attitudes towards ourselves (self-esteem, self-con-
cept), for example, have an ego-defensive function in helping us preserve our self-image.
According to Katz (1960), “Ego-defensive attitudes, for example, can be aroused by threats,
appeals to hatred and repressed impulses, and authoritarian suggestion, and can be changed
by removal of threat, catharsis, and self-insight” (p.163). Attitudes are an integral part of
the self-concept and enable a person to express their values, directly or indirectly. The self-
expression of attitudes can be verbal and non-verbal. Attitudes we express form part of the
contents of communication and provide us with a sense of identity of who we are. According
to Katz (1960, “Expressive attitudes are aroused by cues associated with the individual’s val-
ues and by the need to reassert his self-image and can be changed by showing the appropri-
ateness of the new or modified beliefs to the self-concept” (p.163). The basic idea behind the
functional approach is that attitudes help a person to counterbalance between the inner self
of the ego-defence expression of values and the external world of knowledge and adaptation
to the environment. Another benefit in the understanding of the primary function of attitudes
is that it helps us to focus our strategy in changing attitude. Our attitudes are part of our self-
identify and help us to be aware through the expression of our feelings, beliefs and values,
cognitions and behaviours.
Sometimes, as a result of a threat to our self-esteem or positive self-image, we experience
a dissonance in our cognition. This is known as cognitive dissonance. Leon Festinger (1962)
first proposed a theory centred on how people try to reach internal consistency. This is when
beliefs and behaviours are consistent. Festinger (1957) suggested that
Cognitive dissonance can be seen as an antecedent condition which leads to activity ori-
ented toward dissonance reduction just as hunger leads toward activity oriented toward
hunger reduction. It is a very different motivation from what psychologists are used to
dealing with but, as we shall see, nonetheless powerful.
(p.3)
A simplified definition is that of Gruber (2003) who refers to dissonance as “the personal
tension or stress experienced when an individual’s actions contradict or are inconsistent with
his or her values or beliefs” (p.242). Festinger (1957) observed that the existence of cognitive
dissonance as psychological discomfort will motivate the person to reduce the conflicts, and
also avoid situations and information that may increase the dissonance. Individuals tend to
react to dissonance in several different ways in an attempt to return to consistency. A good
example of cognitive dissonance is cigarette smoking. A person smokes cigarettes despite
knowing the dangers and harms of smoking and associated financial costs. He starts experi-
encing conflict between his belief and behaviour. He continues to smoke because cigarettes
make him relax and help him to deal with anxiety. Another rationalisation would be that he
only smokes a few cigarettes, as compared to others, to cause him to have serious harm like
lung cancer. In this example, the person is reducing the dissonance by convincing himself of
the benefits of cigarette smoking and his behaviour. There is plenty of research supporting the
theory of cognitive dissonance in a variety of fields.
What causes cognitive dissonance? There are several factors that contribute to cognitive
dissonance. Highly valued beliefs or the level of conflict caused by the behaviour are major
influencers in producing cognitive dissonance. The degree of dissonance people experience
can depend on a few different factors, including how highly they value a particular belief and
the degree to which their beliefs are inconsistent. The strength of dissonance also has con-
tributing factors as it directly impacts the pressure to relieve the feelings of anxiety. Personal
cognitions, such as religious cognitions, tend to result in greater dissonance. This is the dis-
sonance between guilty feelings and behaviours. In cases of coerced compliance behaviour,
there may be tension when a person is forced to do something in public when in reality they
privately do not want to do. Dissonance is created when an individual is expected to perform
an action that is inconsistent with their beliefs. In fact, anything that involves religious beliefs
and values that are highly valued by the person results in more intense dissonance.
In order to reduce dissonance, there are healthy ways and negative strategies to reduce
the dissonance. A person needs to acquire more information from reliable sources to coun-
terbalance dissonant belief or behaviour, for instance, getting more information on smoking
or changing the behaviour that is causing the dissonance, that is, stop smoking. There is also
the approach of changing the cognitions though mental defence mechanisms of denial or
rationalisation, for instance, justifying that morning jogging and other exercise or using elec-
tronic cigarette may reduce the health risks. There is also the case of adding a new cognition.
For example, if smoking relaxes me and reduces my anxiety, I do not have to take my stress
medications which is better for my health. It is important to note the effects that cognitive dis-
sonance has on the individual. Cognitive dissonance has a significant effect on an individual’s
feelings, decision-making, beliefs and behaviour. The effects are not only on the psychology
or the mental health status of the individual but also on their physical health. There is evi-
dence to suggest that dissonance is not only psychologically unpleasant but also can cause
physiological arousal (Croyle and Cooper, 1983). People experiencing cognitive dissonance
may notice that they feel anxious, ashamed or guilty which may lead to hiding their actions
or beliefs from others or rationalising their actions or choices continuously. However, some
people may change their behaviour so that their belief and behaviour are affiliated.
Cognitive dissonance: An Islamic perspective

Dissonance is what is affecting us in the 21st century. Some Muslims are fragmented and
disconnected from the reality of their existence, the reality of being. Due to the large migra-
tion of Muslims to Western Europe, Northern America and Australasia, some Muslims have
developed cognitive dissonance in many aspects of their lives in the host countries. In addi-
tion, major events and psychosocial issues affecting endogenous and migrants Muslims
include the impact of September 11, Islamophobia, stigma, identity and intergenerational
crisis, acculturation, refugee status and microaggressions (Rassool, 2020). The trail of dis-
sonance starts when the migrants are exposed to different set of culture, values and beliefs.
One of the main challenges that has been identified for the Muslim population is difficulty
with acculturation and adjustment to their new life (Abu-Ras and Suarez, 2009). This is the
initiation of the psychological acculturation. The term psychological acculturation has been
defined as “the changes an individual experiences as a result of being in contact with other
cultures or participating in the acculturation that one’s cultural or ethnic group is undergo-
ing” (Berry, 1990, p.203). The cognitive dissonance is amplified and further complicated
when Muslim immigrants try to integrate into Western society and adopt its values. That is,
endorsing and valuing dominant mainstream culture, mainly secular with individualistic val-
ues, over the culture of origin, mainly religious with collectivist values, may lead to religious
dissonance. Muslims are faced with Islamic ethical dilemmas.
However, it may be argued that cognitive dissonance is part of the trials and tribulations
of the believers. This resultant psychological malaise in the form of anxiety, shame and
guilt may be viewed as a blessing which enables us to modify our behaviour according to
the Shari’ah and bring it back into alignment with our beliefs. For believers, cognitive dis-
sonance is a regular occurrence so as to practice the religious rituals with Ihsaan (perfection).
For those who fail to deal with their religious dissonance, denial and rationalisation become
part of their behavioural repertoires. Despite having more knowledge or information on the
ethical or religious issues, there are those who will still deny or suppress the cognitive dis-
sonance. Even if the truth and authentic guidance are brought to them, perhaps because of
pride and arrogance, they will still not shift their attitudes or beliefs and practices. Allah says
• Those are the ones who have purchased error [in exchange] for guidance, so their trans-
action has brought no profit, nor were they guided.
Their example is that of one who kindled a fire, but when it illuminated what was
around him, Allah took away their light and left them in darkness [so] they could not see.
Deaf, dumb and blind – so they will not return [to the right path]. (Al-Baqarah
2:16–18)
In Ibn Kathir’s exegesis (Tafsir), it is reported that As-Suddi reported that Ibn Àbbas and Ibn
Masùd commented on (These are they who have purchased error with guidance), saying it
means, “They pursued misguidance and abandoned guidance.” Mujahid said, “They believed
and then disbelieved,” while Qatadah said, “They preferred deviation to guidance.”
Allah likened the hypocrites when they bought deviation with guidance, thus acquiring
utter blindness, to the example of a person who started a fire. When the fire was lit, and
illuminated the surrounding area, the person benefited from it and felt safe. Then the
fire was suddenly extinguished. Therefore, total darkness covered this person, and he
became unable to see anything or find his way out of it. Further, this person could not
hear or speak and became so blind that even if there were light, he would not be able to
see. This is why he cannot return to the state that he was in before this happened to him.
Such is the case with the hypocrites who preferred misguidance over guidance, deviation
over righteousness. This parable indicates that the hypocrites first believed, then disbe-
lieved, just as Allah stated in other parts of the Qur’an.
Prejudice and discrimination

One of the root causes of human conflict is the result of biases against social groups, which
social psychologists sort into emotional prejudices, mental stereotypes and behavioural dis-
crimination. The three aspects of prejudice, discriminations and stereotypes are intercon-
nected but they each can occur separately from the others (Fiske, 1998; Dovidio and Gaertner,
2010). Prejudice and discrimination affect everyone including those with lower status and
class, ethnic groups, migrants, refugees or based on religious beliefs, etc. In this section we
will examine the definitions of prejudice and discrimination, examples of these concepts and
causes of these biases. Prejudice is defined as a “feeling, favourable or unfavourable, toward
a person or thing, prior to, or not based on, actual experience” (Allport, 1979, p.6). Auestad
(2015) defines prejudice as characterised by
a judgement formed without sufficient warrant, or a more general attitude or judgement

underlying a long range of more specific judgements that are expressive of the former.
These judgements are never neutral—they are accompanied by a negative or positive
tone of feeling.
(p.xvii)
That is, the notion of prejudice refers to the situation when there is a judgement or where
verbal opinion is expressed without knowing the person. This judgement or expression, overt
or subtle, is based on some external characteristics.
Prejudice can be based on a number of factors including demographic factors like gen-
der, race, age, nationality, socioeconomic status, sexual orientation and religion. In the 21st
century, however, with social group categories becoming even more complex, biases may
be transforming and surfacing again in society. The biases include: Racism, nationalism,
populism, sexism, classism (bias against those of a certain social class), Islamophobia (bias
against Muslims), ageism, xenophobia (bias against those from other countries), homopho-
bia and religious prejudice. Common features of prejudice include negative feelings, stereo-
typed beliefs and a tendency to discriminate against members of the group. There are several
theories about the formation of prejudice. The evolutionary approach focuses on prejudice
as an inherited trait that could possibly be genetic. Allport (1954) proposed that prejudice
and stereotyping may be due to normal human thinking. Allport claimed that prejudice is
a natural and normal process for humans and that the human mind must think with the aid
of categories. Once the categories are formed, they become the basis for normal prejudge-
ment. From a psychodynamic approach, prejudice serves as a mechanism for individuals to
meet their psychological needs. It is the subconscious attitudes of inadequacy that cause a
person to project their feelings and behaviour onto the target group (Pettigrew, 2016). From
a social psychology perspective, prejudices seem to be passed along through socialisation
from parents to children and from the media, including social media. On a daily basis,
the media perpetuate demeaning images and stereotypes about immigrants, ethnic minori-
ties, refugees and Muslims. Economic factors relating to unemployment and benefits are
another source of prejudice. It has been suggested that direct competition for the allocation
of resources and jobs by groups may lead to prejudice. This provides an explanation as to
why prejudice increases dramatically during times of economic and social stress (Krosch
and Amodio, 2014).
Discrimination refers to negative behaviour towards an individual or group of people,
especially on the basis of their gender, race, ethnicity or social class. Discrimination refers
to “inappropriate and potentially unfair treatment of individuals due to group membership”
(Dovidio et al., 2010, p.8). Discrimination is independent of prejudice. One can be prejudiced
towards a person or group but not discriminate. Prejudice includes the affective, cognitive
and behavioural components of an attitude, whereas discrimination involves emotion and
behaviour. Discrimination can be towards race, ethnicity, age and gender.
The concept of stereotypes is believed to have originated from the Greek words “ste-
reos,” meaning solid and firm, and “typos,” which means impression. Stereotypes are beliefs
held about specific individuals or certain ways of doing things which are devoid of real-
ity. According to Dovidio et al. (2010), stereotypes are “Associations and beliefs about the
characteristics and attributes of a group and its members that shape how people think about
and respond to the group” (p.8). Stereotypes tend to represent the cognitive components
and are basically schemas being part of the social cognition. Stereotypes are not restrictive
to particular characteristics or traits but are extended to social roles, Dovidio et al. (2010)
maintained that
Stereotypes not only reflect beliefs about the traits characterising typical group members
but also contain information about other qualities such as social roles, the degree to
which members of the group share specific qualities (i.e. within-group homogeneity or
variability), and influences emotional reactions to group members.
(p.7)
One of the purposes of stereotypes is to protect one from anxiety and enhance self-esteem and
self-worth by affiliation with a group. It also enables us to organise huge flows of informa-
tion into cognitive schemas. The negative effects of stereotyping may include making gener-
alisations, ignoring differences between individuals (system justification), forming incorrect
opinions of people, victims displaying self-fulfilling prophecy behaviour, blaming, being
judgemental or inducing misjudgement, preventing emotional identification and deteriorat-
ing performance.
Reducing prejudice and discrimination

Reducing prejudice and discrimination is a complex subject and involves more than educa-
tional strategies. There must be political and legal strategies to reduce prejudice and discrimi-
nation in all aspects of life. The traditional and intentional form of prejudice may be reduced
by direct educational and attitude-change techniques. Training people in developing empathy
skills has been shown to be effective in reducing prejudice (Feshbach and Feshbach, 1998). In
fact, studies have showed that that programmes aimed at reducing anti-immigrant attitudes in
adolescence should work more closely with youth perspective taking and empathic concern
(Miklikowska, 2018). Dovidi and Gaertner (1999) suggest that
contemporary forms may require alternative strategies oriented toward the individual or
involving intergroup contact. Individual-oriented techniques can involve leading peo-
ple who possess contemporary prejudices to discover inconsistencies among their self-
images, values, and development of more favourable attitudes. Intergroup strategies can
involve structuring intergroup contact to produce more individualised perceptions of the
members of the other group, foster personalised interactions between members of the
different groups, or redefine group boundaries to create more inclusive, superordinate
representations of the groups.
(p.101)
Others ways to reduce prejudices and discrimination are to pass laws and regulations
that require fair and equal treatment and justice for all groups of people. Increased con-
tact with members of other social groups can be encouraged by having open day gather-
ings, for example, having mosques opening their doors to non-Muslim visitors to offer
people a better understanding of Islam and Islamic culture and the chance to ask ques-
tions about the faith. As well as explaining the basic tenets of Islam, prayer rituals and
the influence of faith on everyday lives, the mosques can present the social action pro-
jects they are involved with that tackle food distribution, homelessness and refugees. It
is expected that non-Muslims will take the opportunity to show solidarity in the face of
rising Islamophobia.
Islam: Prejudice and discrimination

Prejudice in Arabic is Mi-Sa-as and is used in the Qur’an as well. Islam is not a religion and
way of life for Muslims only but for the whole of humanity and for all times. The diversity of
ethnic composition of indigenous Muslims and Muslims migrants in Western and Northern
Europe shows that Muslims should not be perceived, as is the case by Western Orientalists, as
being homogeneous. That diversity and identities create a tapestry of cultures with one thing
in common, Islam. The Qur’an and Hadith inform us about the diversity of creation, race,
colour and ethnicities, addressing them in light of the principles of equality, justice, apprecia-
tion of differences and eliminating biased assumptions, prejudice and discrimination. Allah,
the Almighty, has created different genders, races, tribes and cultures so that people would
cooperate together and maintain good relations with each other for the moral good. Race and
ethno-cultural diversity is part of the divine plan, Allah says in the Qur’an (interpretation of
the meaning):
• O mankind, indeed, We have created you from male and female and made you peo-
ples and tribes that you may know one another. Indeed, the most noble of you in the
sight of Allah is the most righteous of you. Indeed, Allah is Knowing and Acquainted.
(Al-Hujurat 49:13)
According to the Tafsir of Ibn Kathir,
Allah the Exalted declares to mankind that He has created them all from a single person,
Àdam, and from that person He created his mate, Hawwa' [Eve]. From their offspring
He made nations, comprised of tribe, which include subtribes of all sizes. It was also said
that `nations refers to non-Arabs, while `tribes refers to Arabs. Therefore, all people are
the descendants of Àdam and Hawwa' and share this honour equally. The only differ-
ence between them is in the religion that revolves around their obedience to Allah the
Exalted and their following of His Messenger. After He forbade backbiting and belittling
other people, alerting mankind that they are all equal in their humanity.
It is narrated by Ibn 'Umar that the Messenger of Allah ( ) gave a Khutbah [sermon] to the
people on the day of the conquest of Makkah, and he said:
O you people! Verily Allah has removed the slogans of Jahiliya [Pre-Islam age of igno-
rance] from you, and its reverence of its forefathers. So, now there are two types of men:
A man who is righteous, has Taqwa and honourable before Allah, and a wicked man,
who is miserable and insignificant to Allah. People are children of Adam and Allah cre-
ated Adam from the dust. Allah said: O you people! We have created you from a male
and a female, and made you into nations and tribes, that you may know one another.
Verily, the most honourable of you with Allah is the one who has most Taqwa (God
consciousness). Verily, Allah is All-Knowing, All-Aware (Al-Hujurat 49:13).
(Tirmidhi (a))
In relation to the pursuance of diversity and the creation of races with different colours, Allah
says in the Qur’an (interpretation of the meaning):
• And of His signs is the creation of the heavens and the earth and the diversity of your
languages and your colours. Indeed in that are signs for those of knowledge. (Ar-Rum
30:22)
The following Hadith also indicates the diversity of colours of different races. It is narrated
by Abu Musa Al-Ash'ari that the Messenger of Allah ( ) said:
Indeed Allah Most High created Adam from a handful that He took from all of the earth.
So the children of Adam come in according with the earth, some of them come red, and
white and black, and between that, and the thin, the thick, the filthy, and the clean.
(Tirmidhi (b))
Islam is against all forms of bigotry and humiliation. Ibn Hajar Haytami (n.d.) placed humili-
ating others as evil, and he defined it as blackening a Muslim’s name and searching out his
shameful points so as to disgrace and humiliate him before others. Prejudice may be followed
by verbal abuse and humiliation, and Allah clearly reminds people of such behaviours. Allah
• O you who have believed, let not a people ridicule [another] people; perhaps they may
be better than them; nor let women ridicule [other] women; perhaps they may be better
than them. And do not insult one another and do not call each other by [offensive] nick-
names. Wretched is the name of disobedience after [one’s] faith. And whoever does not
repent – then it is those who are the wrongdoers. (Al-Hujurat 49:11)
The Prophet ( ) would rebuke his companions if they ever belittled the other companions
because of their race, lineage or status. In one well-known incident, the Prophet ( ) repri-
mands his companion for insulting Bilal because he was of African descent and had dark skin
colour. Abu Umamah reported: Abu Dharr reproached Bilal about his mother, saying, “O
son of a black woman!” Bilal went to the Messenger of Allah ( ), and he told him what he
said. The Prophet ( ) became angry and then Abu Dharr came, although he was unaware of
what Bilal told him. The Prophet turned away from him and Abu Dharr asked, “O Messenger
of Allah, have you turned away because of something you have been told?” The Prophet
said, “Have you reproached Bilal about his mother? By the one who revealed the Book to
Muhammad, none is more virtuous over another except by righteous deeds. You have none
but an insignificant amount” (Al-Bayhaqi).
In the sight of Allah, righteousness is the only quality that makes someone virtuous and
not race, or skin colour, or lineage, or social status, or country of origin. This message against
racism and tribalism was delivered by the Prophet ( ) during his farewell sermon, demon-
strating to us how important it is in Islam. Narrated by Isma’il through Sa’il al-Jurairi through
Abi Nadra through those who listened to the Messenger of Allah ( ) in the middle of the
days of tashriq [11–12–13th of Dhul-Hijjah], the Messenger of Allah ( ) said:
O’ people, your Lord is one, and your father is one. There is no virtue far an Arab over
a non-Arab, nor for a non-Arab over an Arab, and neither for a red-skin [person] over
a black-skin [person], nor for a black-skin [person] over a red-skin [person], except by
righteousness. Have I delivered the message?
(Ahmad)
There are many Hadiths that relate to pride, arrogance, nobility, boasting about lineage and
ancestors and tribalism (al-asabiyyah). Prejudice and discrimination against others can be
based on gender, race, ethnicity, social class or a variety of other social identities. These
characteristics are unacceptable in Islam and can never determine ethical outcomes and are
morally unworthy. Prejudice and discrimination usually come from ignorance, fear, upbring-
ing and stereotyping.
Social support
Social support is often a neglected component and is seen as one of the social determi-
nants of stable relationships and robust psychological health. The American Psychological
Association (2009) suggested that having strong social support can actually make you more
able to cope with problems on your own, by improving your self-esteem and sense of auton-
omy. Research studies have showed that being socially integrated in a network of mean-
ingful relationships predicts mortality more strongly than many life-style behaviours (e.g.
smoking, physical activity) (Holt-Lunstad and Smith, 2012). On the basis of these findings,
Holt-Lunstad and Smith (2012) have suggested that public health campaigns should focus on
helping people to nurture high-quality relationships. Poor social support has been linked to
depression. The findings from a study by Grav et al. (2012) showed the link between social
support and depression; those with strong social and emotional support were less likely to die
than those who lacked such relationships. Further backing for the importance of social sup-
port is indicated where individuals with higher levels of social support are less likely to suffer
from depression, anxiety and schizophrenia. Those receiving social support are also more
likely to have better physical health and to live longer than those with less or no social sup-
port (Uchino, 2006). Social support is commonly categorised into four types of behaviours.
(Hale et al. 2005, pp.276–277).
• Emotional: Expressions of empathy, love, trust and caring

• Instrumental: Health information, tangible aid and service
• Informational: Advice, suggestions, and information
• Appraisal: Information that is useful for self-evaluation. (p.189)
According to Lakey and Cohen (2015) there are three important theoretical perspectives:
The stress and coping perspective, the social constructionist perspective and the relationship
perspective.
The stress and coping perspective proposes that support contributes to health by pro-
tecting people from the adverse effects of stress. The social constructionist perspective
proposes that support directly influences health by promoting self-esteem and self-
regulation, regardless of the presence of stress. The relationship perspective predicts that
the health effects of social support cannot be separated from relationship processes that
often co-occur with support, such as companionship, intimacy, and low social conflict.
(Lakey and Cohen, 2015, p.29)
Another essential component that contributes to health is social integration (Cohen and
Janicki-Deverts, 2009). This sociological term has been described as
the process of fostering societies that are stable, safe and just and that are based on the
promotion and protection of all human rights, as well as on non-discrimination, toler-
ance, respect for diversity, equality of opportunity, solidarity, security and participation
of all people, including disadvantaged and vulnerable groups and persons.
(Jeannotte, 2008, p.6)
This is quite a wide definition which covers the socio-political developments. However, on a more
micro-level, Baumgartner and Susser (2013) refer to the actual participation in various social rela-
tionships, ranging from romantic partnerships to friendships. This is the process of an individual
making affiliation with and being assimilated into a group. The social integration is being part of
religious groups, self-help groups, friendship groups and “extended” nonfamily groups.
Islam has always been in the vanguard in the promotion of social support and social inte-
gration. Over 1,400 years ago, the Messenger of Allah ( ) stated that: “Whoever desires
an expansion in his sustenance and age, should keep good relations with his kith and kin”
(Bukhari). Most social integration and social support are from close relatives and significant
others. Scholars have explained the meaning of this particular Hadith in several ways. It has
been suggested that the reward is an expansion in sustenance, success in performing worship
and consumption of time in what is useful on the day of judgement (An-Nawawi). Other
scholars have explained that
The first is that the blessings of your life will increase such that you will be able to do
more in a shorter period of time, as though you had lived longer. The second possibility
is that your lifespan literally increases. This would suggest that if you do not maintain
the ties of kinship, you might live a certain number of years; if you do maintain the ties,
even more years would be added to your lifespan by the will of Allah.
(Qadhi, 2002, cited by Utz, 2011, p.225)
The next three Hadiths relate to good deeds and not to sever kin-relationship more than three
days. Ibn 'Umar narrated that the Prophet ( ) said: “Among the most dutiful of deeds is
that a man nurture relations with the people his father was friends with” (Tirmidhi (c)). The
Messenger of Allah ( ): “Do not cut off (mutual relations)” (Muslim (b)). Abu Huraiyah
reported Allah’s Messenger ( ) as saying: “There should be no estranged relations beyond
three days” (Muslim (c)). Social relationships, social support and social integration with rela-
tives, and keeping good relations with them, are vital to the social structure of Islam.

• Social psychology is about understanding individual behaviour and experiences in a
social context.
• Abū Naṣr Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad al Fārābī known as al Fārābī introduced the dis-
cipline of social psychology.
• Social cognition is defined as any cognitive process that involves other people.
• A schema is an organised unit of knowledge for a subject or event.
• Priming occurs with exposure to one stimulus prior to a situation that causes a schema
to be more accessible.
• From an Islamic perspective, there are many examples of how the presence of others
influences cognition and human behaviour.
• There is a general consensus among psychologists of the potential link between religious
cognition and social cognition.
• There are various forms of religious cognition which are inherently social in nature:
Afterlife beliefs, beliefs about the origins and apparent functions of living things and
supernatural agent beliefs.
• For Muslims, afterlife beliefs are never far from their consciousness and death is the
return of the soul to its Creator, Allah.
• Islam addresses the what and why of human existence, and, for Muslims, the purpose of
creation of this world is to praise and worship of our Creator.
• Attitudes are important because they affect both our worldview and our behaviours.
• In social psychology, an attitude refers to the way we think, feel and behave toward a
particular object, person, thing or event.
• Attitudes can serve several functions for the individual: Knowledge, adaptive (instru-
mental), ego-defence and value-expression.
• Cognitive dissonance refers to the personal tension or stress experienced when an indi-
vidual’s actions contradict or are inconsistent with his or her values or beliefs.
• Cognitive dissonance is part of the trials and tribulations of the believers.
• The three aspects of prejudice, discriminations and stereotypes are interconnected but
they each can occur separately from the others.
• Prejudice is defined as a “feeling, favourable or unfavourable, toward a person or thing,
prior to, or not based on, actual experience.”
• Discrimination refers to negative behaviour towards an individual or group of people,
especially on the basis of their gender, race, ethnicity or social class.
• Stereotypes are beliefs held about specific individuals or certain ways of doing things
which are devoid of reality.
• The Qur’an and Hadith inform us about the diversity of creation, race, colour and eth-
nicities, addressing them in light of the principles of equality, justice, appreciation of
differences and eliminating biased assumptions, prejudice and discrimination.
• Social support can actually make you more able to cope with problems on your own, by
improving your self-esteem and sense of autonomy.
1. As a field, social psychology focuses on ________ in predicting human behaviour.

A. Personality traits
B. Genetic predispositions
C. Biological forces
D. Situational factors
E. Evolution factors
2. Collectivistic cultures are to ________ as individualistic cultures are to ________.
A. Dispositional; situational
B. Situational; dispositional
C. Autonomy; group harmony
D. Just-world hypothesis; self-serving bias
E. Situational; social
3. Attitudes describe our ________ of people, objects and ideas.
A. Treatment
B. Evaluations
C. Cognitions
D. Knowledge
E. Social
4. Cognitive dissonance causes discomfort because it disrupts our sense of ________.
A. Dependency
B. Unpredictability
C. Consistency
D. Power
E. Authority
5. Prejudice is to ________ as discrimination is to ________.
A. Feelings; behaviour
B. Thoughts; feelings
C. Feelings; thoughts
D. Behaviour; feelings
E. Emotion; feelings
6. Which of the following is not a type of prejudice?
A. Homophobia
B. Racism
C. Sexism
D. Individualism
7. When remembering social information, what kind of information do people remember
the least?
A. Schema-relevant social information
B. Schema-discrepant social information
C. Behaviour related to an activated schema
D. Schema-irrelevant social information
8. A schema that tells us the exact order of events in specific situations is called what?
A. Vague schema
B. Specific schema
C. Script
D. Subschemata
E. Primacy
9. Which of the following social psychology perspectives involves learning behaviours
based on the way that a person thinks about the behaviour of others?
A. Social cognition
B. Sociocultural
C. Evolutionary
D. Social learning
E. Classical cognition
10. Which one is incorrect? Social psychology is about
A. Understanding individual behaviour and experiences in a social context.
B. The scientific attempt to understand behaviour in a laboratory.
C. Explaining how the thoughts, feelings and behaviour of individuals are influenced.
D. Seeking to understand the nature and causes of individual behaviour in social
situations.
11. “An isolated individual could not achieve all the perfections by himself, without the aid
of other individuals.” Who said that?
A. W. M. Wundt
B. S. Freud
C. B.F. Skinner
D. Al Fārābī
E. Ibn Sina
12. Which one is incorrect? In the process of social interactions, cognitive processes such as
A. Perception
B. Attention
C. Memory
D. Decision-making
E. Affection
13. Taib and Alias (2020) maintained that the influence of social situations on human behav-
iour is not a simple or direct relationship but it depends on the _________as the modera-
tor variable.
A. Affect
B. Soul
C. Heart
D. Intellect
E. Motivation
14. Gervais (2014) considers various forms of religious cognition which are inherently
social in nature including
A. Afterlife beliefs
B. Beliefs about the origins and apparent functions of living things
C. Supernatural agent beliefs
D. A and C
E. A, B and C
15. Why are attitudes important?
A. They are the foundation of all psychological constructs.
B. They are useful in understanding human thought and behaviour.
C. They drive all human behaviours.
D. They are a topical research topic.
E. They drive homeostasis.
16. Which of the following is NOT one of the ways in which attitudes are acquired?
A. Observational learning
B. Classical conditioning
C. Operant reinforcement
D. Positive inhibition
E. All of the above
17. Attitudes have a multidimensional component; the affective component is
A. Feelings and emotions that are aroused when there is an evaluation of an object,
person, issue or event.
B. Beliefs, thoughts and attributes associated with an object.
C. The effect of the attitude on behaviour.
D. B and C.
18. Daniel Katz (1960) proposed that attitude functions do not include:
A. Knowledge
B. Cognition
C. Adaptive (instrumental)
D. Ego-defence
E. Value-expression
19. Prejudice and discrimination affect everyone including those with
A. Lower status and class
B. Ethnic groups
C. Migrants and refugees
D. Religious beliefs
E. All of the above
20. O mankind, indeed, We have created you from male and female and made you peoples
and tribes that you may know one another. Indeed, the most noble of you in the sight of
Allah is the most righteous of you. Indeed, Allah is Knowing and Acquainted. This verse
is from chapter (Surah)
A. Al-Baqarah 2:16–17
B. Al-Hujurat 49:13
C. Ar-Rum 30:22
D. Al-Mu’minun 23:115
E. Al-A’raf 7:172
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Chapter 9
Personality development
Learning outcomes
• Define personality.
• Outline and critique the early approaches to assessing personality.
• Critically evaluate Freud’s theories of human personality and psychosexual stages of
development.
• Discuss the biological basis of personality traits.
• Critically examine the strengths and limitations of the trait approach to personality.
• Discuss the contributions of Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers to personality
development.
• Appreciate the diversity of methods that are used to measure personality characteristics.
• Examine personality traits and their relationship with religiosity.
• Identify the traits from the Big Five personality model that are congruent with Islamic
teaching.
• Explain what is meant by spiritual personality.
• Evaluate the development of spiritual personality.
Introduction
The word “personality” is derived from the Latin word persona, which means “mask.” That
is, the mask people wear to present aspects of their character or nature to other people. People
may wear different masks according to the social role, context and setting. According to the
Encyclopedia of Psychology (Kazdin, 2000),
Personality refers to individual differences in characteristic patterns of thinking, feeling

and behaving. The study of personality focuses on two broad areas: One is understand-
ing individual differences in particular personality characteristics, such as sociability or
irritability. The other is understanding how the various parts of a person come together
as a whole.
Gordon Allport (1961) defines personality as the “dynamic organization within the individual
of those psychophysical systems that determine his characteristics be relatively enduring pat-
terns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that reflect the tendency to respond in certain ways
under certain circumstances” (Roberts, 2009, p.140). All these definitions emphasise the
enduring patterns of thoughts, feelings and behaviours and the uniqueness of the individual.
Personality development 195
The major theories of personality include the psychodynamic, learning theories, biological
trait, trait theory, humanistic and cultural perspectives.
Historical approaches to studying personality

The early philosophical roots of the study of personality began with Hippocrates, a physician
in ancient Greece, who introduced a theory of four temperaments associated with four fluids
of the body known as “humours.” He proposed that an individual’s personality was the result
of the balance of these humours (bodily fluids: Yellow bile, black bile, phlegm and blood),
which corresponded to four characters (grumpy, melancholy, calm and cheer, respectively).
These humours directly affect an individual’s personality, behaviour and health (Johansson
and Lynøe, 2008). Avicenna (Ibn Sina) presented the theory of humours in Islam in his Canon
of Medicine and also how this theory should be put into practice (Ormos, 1987). Though this
theory is no longer held to be valid, it paved the way for further understanding of the rela-
tionship between personality and health. One early theory that assumed that personality traits
were linked with scalp morphology (patterns of bumps on people’s skulls) is phrenology.
This was developed by the German physician Franz Joseph Gall (1758–1828). Although it
was taken seriously as a theory in the Victorian era, phrenology has now been discredited
in contemporary psychology (Parker Jones et al., 2018). That is, there is no evidence that
phrenology is a reliable method for inferring mental capacities or personality characteristics.
Other approaches include somatology (determining personality from people’s body types)
and physiognomy (assessing personality from facial characteristics). Research in physiog-
nomy has provided evidence that people are able to detect some aspects of a person’s char-
acter. For instance, first impressions are highly influential in the assessment of personality
characteristics (Willis and Todorov, 2006); and attractiveness, masculinity and age may all
provide cues to assess personality accurately (Little and Perrett, 2007), or whether they are
liberal or conservative (Rule and Ambady, 2010). Despite these findings, the ability to assess
personality characteristics from visual appearance is not guaranteed. The findings from a
study by Olivola and Todorov (2010) showed that people would have made more accurate
judgments about the strangers if they had just guessed and that appearances are overweighted
in judgments and can have detrimental effects on accuracy. More robust research is needed
for empirical support in the predictions of physiognomy.
Psychodynamic theories of personality

The psychodynamic approach to understanding personality is based on the work of Sigmund
Freud (1856–1939). His psychodynamic theory posits that human personality is the result of
the interaction among various components of the mind (the id, ego and superego) and early
childhood experiences based on a series of psychosexual developmental stages. It is the id,
ego and superego that are the main determinants of individual differences in personality.
Freud (1923/1949) proposes that the mind is divided into three components: Id, ego and
superego. It is the interactions and conflicts of the id, ego and superego that are involved in
the development of personality. His tripartite personality structure is developed at different
stages in our lives.
The id, which is entirely unconscious, is the primitive and instinctive component of per-
sonality and consists of all the biological components of personality. The genetic (inherited)
components of personality, including the sexual drive (libido) and aggressive (death) drive
(Thanatos). The id operates on the pleasure principle (Freud, 1961) which is the craving
for instant gratification of our sexual and aggressive desires. In contrast to the id, the ego is
the executive function of personality and mediates between the impulsive id and the exter-
nal world. It operates on the reality principle, delaying the immediate gratification of the
demands of the id in order to avoid the negative consequences. The final component of the
mind is the superego which represents our sense of conscience and morals. It operates at a
conscious level and strives for excellence, and the failure to achieve this state can cause an
individual to feel guilty. It is when there is conflict between the tripartite system that the
experience of anxiety occurs; in order to mediate the problem, the individual makes use of
psychological defence mechanisms. These include projection, regression, repression, ration-
alisation, displacement, sublimation and reaction formation. Freud believed that the nature
of the conflicts among the tripartite components of personality, the id, ego and superego,
changes during the lifespan development from child to adult. He argued that personality is
developed through a series of psychosexual stages, each focusing on pleasure from a differ-
ent part of the body. The psychosexual stages are: Oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital.
Table 9.1 presents Freud’s stages of psychosexual development.
During the five stages of psychosexual development, the child is presented with different
conflicts between their id and superego. That is, conflicts arise between their inherited bio-
logical drives and their social and moral conscience because of the id’s pleasure principle. If,
during the oral stage of development, a child was underfed (limited oral gratification), they
will become orally dependent. In contrast, a child who was overfed or excessively gratified
will regress by acting helpless, aggressive or dominating. During the anal stage, if toilet train-
ing was either too harsh or too lenient, the adult personality will be anal retentive – tidiness,
obsession, mean or stubborn. In contrast if the parents had been too tolerant, the anal expul-
sive personality will evolve in adult life. This is characterised by a lack of self-control and a
tendency toward untidiness and carelessness. In the phallic stage, children develop a power-
ful but unconscious attraction for the opposite-sex parent and perceive the same-sex parent
as a rival. In the latency stage, boys and girls have little or no interest in members of the
opposite sex. In the fifth and last stage, the genital stage, if the psychosexual development has
proceeded normally, the child would form mature attachment. However, if earlier problems
have not been resolved, difficulties with establishing mature relationships will occur.
Many followers of Freud, known as neo-Freudians, have developed, modified and made
meaningful additions to the psychoanalytic study of personality. These prominent neo-Freud-
ians include Alfred Adler, Erik Erikson, Carl Jung and Karen Horney. Although Freud’s
theories have provided new insights into our psychological understanding of personality,
they are not without limits and failed to pass the test of the Western scientific paradigm. In
addition, Freud, on the structure of the human mind, failed to include the socio-cultural and
environmental factors in the development of personality.
Learning and social cognitive theories of personality

From a behaviourist perspective, B.F. Skinner proposed that personality development is the
result of the interaction with the environment (external stimuli) through the process of rein-
forcement (reward as positive reinforcement of good behaviour or punishment as a negative
reinforcement of bad behaviour). Our behaviour and personality traits can be shaped and
controlled by the environment. For example, if we want to acquire positive traits or change
our negative traits into positive ones, the environment needs to be modified or changed. This
Table 9.1 Freud’s stages of psychosexual development
Stage Age range Location of pleasure Fixation Condition
Oral 0–1.5 Mouth in the form On all things oral Child underfed or neglected –
of sucking, biting Developing negative orally dependent
and chewing oral behaviours Child who was overfed or
overly gratifed –will resist
growing up and regress
Anal 1.5–3 Bowel and bladder Constraints of toilet Parent harsh about toilet
elimination training training – anal retentive
(obsessive, mean,
stubborn)
Parent lenient about toilet
training – anal expulsive
personality (lack of
self-control, messiness,
carelessness)
Phallic 3–5 Genitals Confict is with Boys: Oedipus complex
sexual attraction Girls: Electra complex
towards a parent
of the opposite
sex
Latency 5–12 Healthy dormant Sexual impulses repressed
sexual feelings
for the opposite
sex
Genital (12–adulthood) Sexual intercourse If development
Onset of healthy has proceeded
sexual feelings normally – development
and behaviours of mature romantic
relationships Problems not
resolved – diffculties with
establishing intimate love
attachments
approach rejects the notion that we change our own personality traits before we can fully
change our behaviour. In contrast, the social learning theory posits that personality is deter-
mined by an individual’s cognition or world view.
Albert Bandura (1977)’s social cognitive perspective on personality focuses on the inter-
action of our traits with our situations. Unlike the behaviourist, instead of focusing solely on
how our environment controls our behaviours, the social cognitive approach examines how
the individual and the environment interact. Although social learning theorists do not reject
the influence of reinforcement and punishment in personality development, they emphasise
the significant role of observation and modelling in the process of personality development.
This approach operates on the notion that social learning requires cognition. For Rotter et al.
(1972), personality is the interaction between the person (learning and experiences) and the
environment (awareness of stimuli and response). It is through the process of change in cog-
nition or the change in the environment that behaviour or personality will change. Unlike the
Freudians’ approach, Rotter does not believe there is a critical period after which personality
is determined.
Trait approach to personality

The trait approach to personality was pioneered by early psychologists, including Gordon
Allport, Raymond Cattell and Hans Eysenck. This approach focuses on the idea that behav-
iour is determined by traits which maintain the stability of personality. Although traits remain
consistent across contexts and situations, they vary between individuals and this may be due
to genetic differences. These trait theories are also known as psychometric theories, because
of their emphasis on measuring personality by using psychometric tests. Allport’s theory
of personality (1961) is based on traits that emphasise the uniqueness of the individual. He
believed that these traits, biologically determined at birth, are influenced by the interaction of
childhood experiences and the environment. Allport believed that personality was composed
of three types of traits: Cardinal traits (the most important traits), central traits (the basic and
most useful traits) and “secondary traits” (the less obvious and less consistent ones).
According to Cattell (1990), human personality traits need to be understood by looking
at several dimensions of behaviour and a much larger number of traits. He used a statistical
procedure known as factor analysis to analyse the correlations among traits and described 16
personality factors (PF) or main traits on a continuum. This means that everybody has some
degree of every trait, and this can be assessed by the 16 Personality Factors Test (16PF) to
determine where on the continuum an individual falls. Despite its usefulness in career devel-
opment and personality assessment, Cattell’s 16PF theory has been subject to criticism for
being too broad, and inconsistencies exist between the relationships of Cattell’s personality
scales with variables such as age and social class.
Eysenck (1967) proposed a theory of personality based on biological and genetic factors
(see next section). He proposed that individuals inherit a type of nervous system that affects
their ability to learn and adapt to the environment. He made an important contribution to the
understanding of traits: Extraversion versus introversion; neuroticism versus stability; and
psychoticism/socialisation (Eysenck, 1998). According to this theory, people high on the
trait of extroversion are overt, talkative, engage more in social activities, have a large social
network and readily connect with others. In contrast, people high on the trait of introversion
tend to be quieter, timid, reserved, plan their actions, control their emotions, serious, reliable,
pessimistic and have a small network of close friends. In the neuroticism/stability dimension,
people high on neuroticism tend to be anxious, more unstable, constantly worrying and dis-
playing anger or fear. Their emotional state tends to go into a fight-or-flight reaction. People
high on stability tend to be more emotionally intelligent and require high stimulation to acti-
vate their flight-or-fight reaction. In the psychoticism/socialisation dimension, people who
are high on psychoticism tend to be nonconformist, impulsive, aggressive, antisocial and hos-
tile. People who are high on socialisation tend to be more empathetic, cooperative, socially
aware and traditional. The strength of Eysenck’s model of personality is that his approach is
more quantifiable and considers the biological predispositions combined with conditioning
and socialisation during childhood in the development of personality. However, his approach
has been found to be too narrow in perspective, reducing psychological concepts and gener-
alisations to neurophysiological ones, and reductionist (Khosrow, 1995).
According to five-factor model of personality, there are five fundamental underlying trait
dimensions that are stable across time, cross-culturally shared and explain a substantial pro-
portion of behaviour (Costa and McCrae, 1992; Triandis and Suh, 2002; Power and Pluess,
2015). Table 9.2 presents the five-factor model of personality.
There is ample evidence to suggest that, in the five-factor model of personality, both bio-
logical and environmental influences play a role in shaping our personalities (Jang, Livesley
Table 9.2 The fve-factor model of personality
Dimension Description/characteristics Prediction of behaviours
Openness Imagination, curiosity, insight, variety Adventurous

of experience Creative
Traditional
Struggle with abstract thinking
Conscientiousness Discipline, act dutifully and aim for A preference for planned rather than
achievement spontaneous behaviour
Pays attention to detail
Enjoys having a set schedule
Extraversion Excitability, sociability, talkativeness, Enjoys being with people
assertiveness and high amounts of Has a wide social circle of friends and
emotional expression acquaintances
Finds it easy to make new friends
Feels energised when around other
people
Say things before thinking about them
Agreeableness Trust, altruism, kindness, affection Interest in people
and other prosocial behaviours Cares for others
Empathy
Concern for others
Assists others in need of help
Neuroticism Negative emotions, such as anger, Experiences a lot of stress
anxiety or depression; sometimes Worries about many different things
called “emotional instability” Emotional outbursts
Experiences dramatic shifts in mood
Struggles to bounce back after
stressful events
and Vernon, 1996). There is also evidence that the Big Five traits are also universal based on
a study of more than 50 different cultures (McCrae et al., 2005). However, a study (Gurven
et al., 2012) has thrown into doubt the universality and validity of the “Big Five.” Five main
criticisms have been levelled against the five-factor model of personality according to Block
(McAdams and Walden, 2010). These include “lacking in theory; relies too much on factor
analysis; leave important traits; fails to take into consideration critical development in meas-
urement; and may be superseded by a two-factor approach” (p.50).
Biological theories of personality

The biological perspective on personality focuses on the role of genetics and the anatomical
structures located in the brain in shaping personality traits. Neuropsychology studies how , by
means of brain imaging and molecular genetics, the structure of the brain is related to various
psychological processes and behaviours. Within that biological approach, there are also the
evolutionary perspectives on personality. The two most common theories are the theory of
natural selection and the theory of sexual selection. The theory of natural selection focuses
on the adaptation of man and the environment. It is based on the principle of “survival of the
fittest” whereby those individuals with transmissible traits who are better suited to the envi-
ronment will survive. This theory posits that our personality characteristics are developed
over a span of time through the benefits of our sexual selection and reproduction. It has been
argued that some individuals have better reproductive success than others because of their
attractions and have preference for attractive partners to produce offspring (Starr et al., 2019).
For instance, there is a possible link between the serotonin transporter gene and the
trait called neuroticism, or the tendency to experience affective disorders like depression
and anxiety disorders (Gonda and Bagdy, 2006). The hormone testosterone is important for
sociability, affectivity, aggressiveness and sexuality (Funder, 2001). There is also evidence
to suggest that four traits, extraversion, neuroticism, agreeableness and conscientiousness,
depend on the volume of the brain cortex they are associated with. For example,
Extraversion covaried with volume of medial orbitofrontal cortex, a brain region

involved in processing reward information. Neuroticism covaried with volume of brain
regions associated with threat, punishment, and negative affect. Agreeableness covaried
with volume in regions that process information about the intentions and mental states of
other individuals. Conscientiousness covaried with volume in lateral prefrontal cortex, a
region involved in planning and the voluntary control of behaviour.
(DeYoung et al., 2010, p.6)
There are several theories of personality that have a biological basis: Eysenck’s three-factor
model of personality, Gray’s reinforcement sensitivity theory, Cloninger model of personal-
ity and the five-factor model of personality. Table 9.3 presents the models and theories with a
biological basis in the development of personality traits. In the five-factor model of personal-
ity, the brain region corresponding to the trait of openness is still not clear.
The biology-based personality research in neuroscience is a relatively new field of psy-
chology. Ongoing research would provide more evidence of the role of genetics and neuro-
chemical transmitters in the development of personality traits.
Humanistic perspectives on personality

The humanistic theory of personality focuses on the depth and meaning of human experi-
ence, psychological growth and free will as the most important determinants of behaviour.
People also have the innate capacity for self-directed growth and development toward self-
actualisation. Maslow studied how people develop to be healthy, creative and productive. He
found that these people share similar characteristics, such as being open, creative, loving,
spontaneous, compassionate, concerned for others and accepting of themselves (Maslow,
1987). In Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory, Maslow proposes that human beings have cer-
tain needs in common and that lower needs must be met in a certain order. The highest need
is the need for self-actualisation, which is regarded as the supreme achievement. According
to Maslow (1987), self-actualisers have the following characteristics: Self-actualised people
embrace the unknown and the ambiguous; they accept themselves, together with all their
flaws; they prioritise and enjoy the journey, not just the destination; while they are inherently
unconventional, they do not seek to shock or disturb; they are motivated by growth, not by
the satisfaction of needs; self-actualised people have purpose; they are not troubled by the
small things; self-actualised people are grateful; they share deep relationships with a few, but
also feel identification and affection towards the entire human race; self-actualised people are
humble; self-actualised people resist enculturation; and self-actualised people are not perfect.
Another humanistic theorist was Carl Rogers. He also believed in the inherent goodness
of people and emphasised the importance of psychological growth and development. For this
Table 9.3 Biological basis of personality theory
Model and theory System/brain system/neuro-chemical transmitters Factors or traits
Eysenck’s three- Reticular formation (brainstem): Mediating Extraversion (interaction

factor model of arousal and consciousness. with people)
personality Limbic system: Mediating emotion, behaviour,Neuroticism (emotional
motivation and long-term memory. instability)
Psychoticism (aggression
and interpersonal
hostility)
Gray’s reinforcement Fight-fight-freeze system: Mediates the Fear-proneness and
sensitivity theory emotion of fear (not anxiety) and active avoidance
avoidance of dangerous situations. Worry-proneness and
Behavioural inhibition system: Mediates the anxiety
emotion of anxiety and cautious risk- Optimism, reward
assessment behaviour when entering orientation and
dangerous situations due to conficting goals. impulsivity
Behavioural approach system: Mediates the
emotion of anticipatory pleasure, resulting
from reactions to desirable stimuli.
Cloninger’s model of Correlated with low dopamine activity. Novelty-seeking:
personality Correlated with high serotonin activity. Impulsiveness of people
Correlated with low norepinephrine activity. Harm avoidance;
anxiousness of people
Reward dependence
Five-factor model of Larger medial orbitofrontal cortex (processing Extraversion (people who
personality reward information). seek stimuli outside of
Larger volume of brain regions associated with themselves)
threat, punishment and negative affect. Neuroticism (people
Larger volume in regions that process who are emotionally
information about the intentions and mental unstable)
states. Agreeableness (aim to
Large volume in lateral prefrontal cortex, a cooperate and please
region involved in planning and the voluntary others)
control of behaviour. Conscientiousness (dutiful
and goal-oriented)
Openness (enjoyment
after experiencing new
stimuli)
Adapted from Khatibi, M. and Khormaei, F. (2016). Biological Basis of Personality: A Brief Review. Journal of Life
Science and Biomedicine, 6(2): 33–36.
to happen, the individual needs an environment with genuineness (openness and self-disclo-
sure), acceptance (unconditional positive regard) and empathy (acceptance and understand-
ing) (Rogers, 1959). Rogers’s approach to personality development focuses on self-concept,
our thoughts and feelings about ourselves. He categorises the self into two dimensions: The
ideal self (the person that you would like to be) and the real self (the person you actually
are). To have a balanced self (congruence), there must be consistency between these two
selves. When we experience high congruence, we have a greater sense of self-worth and a
healthy, productive life. It is through unconditional positive regard, or unconditional love
by parents, according to the humanistic approach, that this potential for high congruence is
achieved. A state of incongruence will lead to maladjustment and psychological conflicts.
Both Rogers’s and Maslow’s theories focus on individual choices and do not believe that
biology is deterministic.
Personality assessment
Different models and approaches to personality development use different ways of assess-
ing personality. Personality tests have been developed to measure one’s personality or per-
sonality traits. Personality assessment are used for a variety of reasons: Screening potential
candidates for employment in a particular sector, and to diagnose psychological problems.
One of the most popular and widely used approaches to assessing personality is the objective
tests known as self-report measures (Meyer and Kurtz, 2006). The other types of personality
tests are known as projective tests. Examples of these types of self-report measures include:
The Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire (Patrick et al., 2002), the NEO Personality
Inventory-3 (NEO-PI-3) (McCrae et al., 2005), the 16PF (Cattell et al., 1980) and the Big
Five Inventory (John and Srivastava, 1999). The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory
(MMPI) is one of the most common self-report inventories. It was developed by Hathaway and
McKinley and is based on a series of true/false questions that are designed to provide a clini-
cal profile of an individual. It is the most widely used psychometric test for measuring adult
psychopathology in the world. The MMPI-2 (Tellegen et al., 2003) is used in mental health,
medical and employment settings. Projective tests are based on the interpretation of ambigu-
ous images or other ambiguous stimuli to assess an individual’s unconscious fears, desires
and challenges. Two prominent examples of projective tests are the Rorschach Inkblot Test
(Rorschach, 1921) and the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) (Morgan and Murray, 1935).
There is not a single method in the measurement of personality and personality traits.
Each of the major methods of assessing personality has both strengths and limitations. In
the case of projective tests, there is limited empirical evidence supporting their use in clini-
cal settings but, used with other tests, they may provide better insight into clinical psycho-
pathology. Despite their widespread use, self-reported measurements of personality will
not always predict accurately the behaviour of people in a given situation. However, what
the tests do is to help clinicians to have a better understanding of human behaviours and
characteristics.
The development of personality from an Islamic perspective

In Islam, personality development is based on the teaching of Islamic beliefs and practices.
Spirituality, from an Islamic perspective, has practical manifestations at the individual and
societal levels, and is a major component of personality. However, Islamic personality can
be defined as
the study of human nature in relation to the behavior, thinking, and emotions which are
based on the values derived from the sources of Islam. The most important part is the
spiritual aspect of human in measuring their personality. Thus, it is suggested that the
above constructs are essential for an Islamic personality model for each Muslims.
(Tekke and Ismail, 2016, p.1325)
This definition is very akin to the Western definition of personality, and it is based on
the Rogerian (Rogers, 1951) framework and Said Nursi’s Islamic perspective (Turkish
Theologian and Scholar). Tekke and Ismail’s (2016) model of personality development is the
integrative Islamic personality which is referred to as
the manifestation of Tawhidic (Belief in God) paradigm in particular way of Prophet

Muhammad expresses his individual traits or adapts to diverse situations in the world –
manifested aspects of a personal self, life definition and view – that are guided by teach-
ing of Qur’an and motivated by faith.
(p.1327)
Langgulung (1991) characterises Islamic personality as the total development and balanced
growth of human personality. He argues for the inclusion of the spiritual dimension in the
understanding of personality development.
Abu-Raiya (2012) based his “systematic Qur’anic theory of personality” around four
aspects of the soul: the Nafs (or lower self), the Qalb (heart), the Aql (intellect) and the
Ruh (spirit) with the three developmental stages as found in the Qur’an: Nafs al ammarah
bil su (soul that inclines to evil), Nafs al lawwama (self-reproaching soul) and Nafs al
mutmainah (soul at rest). It is worth noting that the four aspects of the soul (Nafs, Qalb,
Aql or intellect, and the Ruh) were examined in the classical work of Al-Ghazâlî (2015).
Abu-Raiya’s Qur’anic theory of personality is a process approach in the use of the stages of
the Nafs towards growth and personality development. There is a typology of personality
from an Islamic perspective that is referred to as spiritual personality. According to Abdul-
Rahman and Khan (2018), spiritual personality refers to “a person’s natural disposition that
influences what aspects of Islamic practice, belief, and virtues naturally appeal to them”
(p.3). That is, developing distinct, noble and virtuous characteristics based on the guidance
of Allah in His book, and the teaching of Prophet Muhammad ( ) in all aspects of life.
This section will examine the concept of personality in the Qur’an, Sunnah and Islamic
tradition.
Personality in the Qur’an and Sunnah

The Qur’an makes references to personality in a few verses. For instance, the Qur’an states,
• Say, “Each works according to his manner, but your Lord is most knowing of who is best
guided in way.” (Al-Isra17:84)
According to the exegesis of Ibn Kathir, Each works according to his manner according to
Ibn Àbbas means, “According to his inclinations. Mujahid said, According to his inclina-
tions and his nature.” In another exegesis, the explanation given is that everyone acts accord-
ing to his makeup and his predominant natural disposition (Al-Kāshānī, n.d.). Another verse
of the Qur’an alludes to (interpretation of the meaning):
• Moses replied, “Our Lord is He Who has given a distinctive form to everything and then
guided it aright.” (Ta-ha 20:50)
According to Maududi (n.d.), this verse “means that it is Allah alone Who has created every-
thing and given it its distinctive structure, form, capabilities, characteristics, etc.” Utz (2011),
in reference to the above verse stated that
Although the word “form” may refer to those aspects that are common to humans, it
also applies to traits that differ from one individual to the next. This adds to the diversity
in experience and is part of Allah’s plan in creation. For example, some people may be
more extroverted, preferring social connections, while others may be more introverted
or reserved.
(p.75)
In contrast to personality, which is generally stable, enduring and value-neutral, the character
of an individual is more permeable, value-laden and subject to change. The distinction and
relationship between personality and character are described in the story of Al-Mundhir al-
Ashajj. It was narrated by Al-Wazi' ibn Zari':
Umm Aban, daughter of al-Wazi' ibn Zari', quoting his grandfather, who was a member
of the deputation of Abdul Qays, said: When we came to Medina, we raced to be first to
dismount and kiss the hand and foot of the Messenger of Allah ( ). But al-Mundhir al-
Ashajj waited until he came to the bundle of his clothes. He put on his two garments and
then he went to the Prophet ( ). The Prophet ( ) said to him: You have two charac-
teristics which Allah likes: gentleness and deliberation. He asked: Have I acquired them
or has Allah has created (them) my nature? He replied: No, Allah has created (them) in
your nature. He then said: Praise be to Allah Who has created in my nature two charac-
teristics which Allah and His Apostle like.
(Abu Dawud (a))
The term Akhlāq (in Arabic) means to practice virtue, morality and good manners and charac-
ter. It is basically the ethical aspects of behaviour and can be viewed as “Ethical intelligence.”
According to Ahmad (2020), ethical intelligence “is like a filter that is based on Islamic
concepts of what is acceptable behavior (halal) and what is unacceptable behavior (Haram).
These values are solely based on the Qur’an and traditions of Prophet Muhammad ( ).”
Our character refers to positive moral traits including qualities such as truthfulness, humility,
honesty, patience, justice, sincerity, patience and gratitude, and negative moral traits includ-
ing arrogance, showing off (Riya'), hypocrisy, impulsivity and ingratitude. The development
of positive moral characters is a task ordered by Allah, the Almighty, through the guidance of
the Prophet ( ) towards the path of purification of the soul (Tazkiya an- Nafs) or personal-
ity development. The development of virtuous behaviours or ethical intelligence is a continu-
ing process. The Prophet Muhammad ( ) epitomised virtuous character traits, and he is our
positive role model for personality growth and development. Allah mentions his character in
• And indeed, you are of a great moral character. (Al-Qalam 68:4)
According to Ibn Kathir, (And indeed, you are of a great moral character)
It has been mentioned to us that Sa`d bin Hisham asked À'ishah about the character
of the Messenger of Allah, so she replied: “Have you not read the Qur’an.” Sa`d said:
“Of course.” Then she said: “Verily, the character of the Messenger of Allah was the
Qur’an.”
Ibn Kathir commented that
“This means that he would act according to the commands and the prohibition in the
Qur’an. His nature and character were patterned according to the Qur’an, and he aban-
doned his natural disposition (i.e., the carnal nature). So, whatever the Qur’an com-
manded, he did it, and whatever it forbade, he avoided it. Along with this, Allah gave
him the exalted character, which included the qualities of modesty, kindness, bravery,
pardoning, gentleness and every other good characteristic.
Abu Hurairah reported that the Messenger of Allah ( ), said, “I was sent to perfect good
character” (Al-Albani). The above Hadiths make it clear that not only was the Prophet ( )
endowed with moral character but also his mission was to elevate and perfect the moral char-
acter of all human beings.
The mission of Muslims is to develop and obtain perfection in virtuous characters and
performing good deeds. Abu Hurayrah (may Allah be pleased with him) reported that the
Messenger of Allah ( ) said: “The most perfect man in his faith, among the believers, is
the one with the best behavior” (Tirmidhi (a)). In another Hadith about good characters or
manners, Abud-Darda (may Allah be pleased with him) reported: The Prophet ( ) said,
“Nothing will be heavier on the Day of Resurrection in the Scale of the believer than good
manners. Allah hates one who utters foul or coarse language” (Tirmidhi (b)). Jabir (may
Allah be pleased with him) reported: The Messenger of Allah ( ) said,
The dearest and nearest among you to me on the Day of Resurrection will be one who is
the best of you in manners; and the most abhorrent among you to me and the farthest of
you from me will be the pompous, the garrulous, and Al-Mutafaihiqun. The Companions
asked him: “O Messenger of Allah! We know about the pompous and the garrulous,
but we do not know who Al-Mutafaihiqun are.” He replied: “The arrogant people”
(Tirmidhi (c)).
One of the virtues of good character is righteousness. The Arabic word Birr (righteousness)
is used in the Qur’an to refer to all forms of righteousness, in words and deeds. It has been
suggested that “Birr encompasses many characteristics: justice in one’s dealings, kindness,
consideration in one’s endeavors, being generous in offering help, as well as other traits of the
believers” (An-Nawawi). Allah says in the Qur’an (interpretation of the meaning):
• Righteousness (birr) is not that you turn your faces toward the east or the west, but
[true] righteousness is [in] one who believes in Allah, the Last Day, the angels, the
Book, and the Prophets. (Al-Baqarah, 2:177)
On the authority of an-Nawas bin Sam’an, the Messenger of Allah ( ) said: “Righteousness
is in good character, and wrongdoing is that which wavers in your soul, and which you dislike
people finding out about” (Muslim (a)). And on the authority of Wabisah bin Ma’bad (may
Allah be pleased with him) who said: I came to the Messenger of Allah ( ) and he (peace
and blessings of Allah be upon him) said, “You have come to ask about righteousness.” I
said, “Yes.” He ( ) said,
Consult your heart. Righteousness is that about which the soul feels at ease and the heart
feels tranquil. And wrongdoing is that which wavers in the soul and causes uneasiness in
the breast, even though people have repeatedly given their legal opinion [in its favour].
(Ahmed bin Hambal and Al- Darimi)
There are immense rewards for those who observe good character. In a Hadith narrated by
Abu Ad-Dardh, that the Messenger of Allah ( ) said: “Nothing is placed on the Scale that
is heavier than good character. Indeed, the person with good character will have attained
the rank of the person of fasting and prayer” (Tirmidhi (d)). Abu Hurayrah narrated that the
Messenger of Allah ( ) was asked about that for which people are admitted into Paradise
the most, so he said: “Taqwa of Allah [piety], and good character” (Tirmidhi (e)). In addition,
the Prophet ( ) guarantees a house in the highest part of Paradise to those who have good
character. Abu Umamah Al-Bahili reported: The Messenger of Allah ( ) said,
I guarantee a house in paradise (Jannah) for one who gives up arguing, even if he is in
the right; and I guarantee a home in the middle of Jannah for one who abandons lying
even for the sake of fun; and I guarantee a house in the highest part of Jannah for one
who has good manners.
(Abu Dawud (b))
Traits and spiritual personality

The literature and study of personality from an Islamic perspective have been grounded on
an Islamic paradigm which focused on prescription rather than explanation. It has been sug-
gested that the
Islamic tradition is concerned with how our personalities can be utilised to strengthen
this relationship and ultimately grow as individuals. If it does describe the structure of
the human psyche, it is more interested in describing spiritual elements and functions of
our personality. The purpose of knowledge is to act, and the purpose of knowing the self
is to act in its best interests.
(Abdul-Rahman and Khan, 2018, p.11)
As stated in the previous sections of this chapter, Islamic beliefs and practices value personality
traits that involve virtue and good deeds. Allah says in the Qur’an (interpretation of the meaning):
• He has certainly succeeded who purifies himself. (Al-A’la 87:14)
According to Ibn Kathir, (He has certainly succeeded who purifies himself ) means he who
purifies himself from despised characteristics and follows what Allah has revealed to the
Messenger ( ).
It would be valuable, in this context, to examine the personality traits that are the deter-
minants of human behaviour in relation to religiosity and good character. One of the most
widely used and extensively researched models of personality traits is the Big Five per-
sonality framework (Woods and Anderson, 2016). In the Big Five personality framework,
individual differences in human personality can be classified into five empirically derived
factors, namely, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, openness-to-experience,
neuroticism or emotional instability. Abdul-Rahman and Khan (2018) suggested that the two
types of learning from experiences (Ahwāl) or judgements (Ahkām) are complimentary to
the Big Five personality traits. The Qur’an and Sunnah contain much evidence that describes
the experiential dimension of learning in the importance of journeying through the earth
(Al-'Ankabut 29:20), or journeying in order to obtain beneficial knowledge using one’s heart
and hearing (Al-Haj 22:46). In contrast, the judgement-oriented approach towards knowledge
“focused on acquiring knowledge of rulings, of drawing value-laden judgments about matters
that will guide practical decision-making in the performance of good deeds” (Abdul-Rahman
and Khan, 2018, p.17). The characteristics of judgement-oriented individuals include having
“a sense of duty and justice, perceiving the complex interweb of roles, rights, and responsi-
bilities that govern human relationships” (Abdul-Rahman and Khan, 2018, p.17).
Conscientiousness
The trait of conscientiousness encompasses six dimensions: Industriousness, orderliness,
self-control, responsibility, traditionalism and virtue (Roberts et al., 2005). This trait is con-
sidered to be a fundamental personality trait of a religious person, which is construed as an
Islamic personality construct (Othman, Hamzah and Hashim, 2014). This notion has been
supported in a number of studies whose findings indicate that conscientiousness is related
positively with religious beliefs (Taylor and MacDonald, 1999; Khoynezhad et al., 2012;
Wisker and Rosinaite, 2016). Thus, Muslims with the trait of conscientiousness are believed
to have self-control, self-discipline and to abstain from unacceptable behaviours and commit-
ting sins. Allah says in the Qur’an (interpretation of the meaning):
• And let there be [arising] from you a nation inviting to [all that is] good, enjoining what
is right and forbidding what is wrong, and those will be the successful. (Ali 'Imran 3:104)
Enjoining what is right and forbidding what is wrong are examples of conscientiousness
personality traits in Islam. Being conscientiousness is not only the responsibility of the indi-
vidual fulfilling this task, but also is a community obligation (Fard Kifayah). It is narrated by
Abu Sa'id Al-Khudri that the Messenger of Allah ( ) said,
Whoever amongst you sees an evil, he must change it with his hand; if he is unable to do
so, then with his tongue; and if he is unable to do so, then with his heart; and that is the
weakest form of Faith.
(Muslim (b))
It has been suggested that the judgement approach to knowledge or learning appears to over-
lap with some areas of conscientiousness from the Big Five personality trait model (Abdul-
Rahman and Khan, 2018). In contrast, those individuals low in conscientiousness are likely
to have low ethical intelligence and less self-control in their behaviours. Those individuals
are more likely to have an increased propensity to commit sins.
Agreeableness
Agreeableness is the personality trait characterised by trust, altruism, honesty, modesty,
cooperation and sympathy. This type of individual is people-oriented with good social and
interpersonal skills. In contrast, individuals with low agreeableness show “lack of concern for
others, tense, irritable, and rebellious, thus they tend to display unethical behaviour” (Wahab,
2017, p.187). Agreeableness has also been found to relate highly to spirituality (Womble
et al., 2013), spirituality and religiosity (Aghababaei et al., 2015), religious values (Wisker
and Rosinaite, 2016) and religiosity (Saroglu, 2002; Alminhana and Moreira–Almeda, 2009;
Aghababaei, 2013). Agreeableness is another of the super-traits of religious individuals and
can be considered as an Islamic personality measure construct. This is supported by the find-
ings of a meta-analysis review of religion and the five factors of personality (Saroglou, 2002).
The findings of the review indicate that, regardless of culture, agreeableness is a fundamental
component of the personality characteristics of a religious person.
Extraversion
Extraversion is a major personality factor in both the dimensional model of Eysenck (1973)
and the Big Five personality factors of Costa and McCrae (1992). Extraversion in the Big
Five personality trait model is very similar to Eysenck’s traits of the same name. People
who are extroverted have a tendency to have traits including sociability, warmth, asser-
tiveness, cheerfulness and being in search of stimulation, in addition to being assertive,
active and impulsive (Bratton and Strittmatter, 2013). Research has shown mixed findings
about the relationship between extraversion and individuals’ predisposition towards religi-
osity. For instance, Francis and Pearson (1985) reported a significant negative correlation
between extraversion and religiosity using the Eysneck Personality Inventory. However,
more recent studies have found that extraversion in the Big Five personality trait model is
correlated positively with religious attitude, and personal religiousness (Saroglou, 2002;
Khoynezhad et al., 2012; Szczesniak et al., 2019). In addition, a study by Abdel-Khalek
(2013) using the Arabic versions of the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire found that relig-
iosity significantly correlated with extraversion (positive) and neuroticism (negative) in
women. A study on the psychological-type profiling of attenders inside a mosque indicated
that religious participation is associated with extraversion rather than introversion (Francis
and Datoo, 2012).
From an Islamic perspective, some of the facets of the extraversion domain would be
deemed to be unacceptable because of religious beliefs and practices. For example, women
are required cover their intimate parts of the body ('Aūrah) and to dress modestly. It was
narrated by Abu Hurairah that the Prophet ( ) said: “Modesty (Al-Haya') is a branch of
Faith” (An-Nasa’i (a)). In addition, to men and women being extroverted. It was narrated
by Àbdullah bin Ùmar that the Prophet ( ) passed by a man who was admonishing his
brother regarding Haya' (pious shyness from committing religious indiscretions) and was
saying, “You are very shy, and I am afraid that might harm you.” On that, Allah’s Messenger
( ) said, “Leave him, for Haya' is (a part) of Faith” (Bukhari). However, some extrovert
traits are found to be in line with Islamic teachings. For example, Islam emphasises the role
of being friendly and approachable. Ibn Mas’ud reported that the Messenger of Allah ( )
said, “Shall I not tell you whom the (Hell) Fire is forbidden to touch? It is forbidden to touch
a man who is always accessible, having polite and tender nature” (Tirmidhi (f)). Other extro-
vert traits that are commended include using positive energy invested in spreading goodness;
being around when needed; and strong communication skills to help others (Mazloum, 2017).
The Islamic model of personality emphasises a balance between extraversion and introver-
sion traits.
Openness-to-experience
The traits of people with openness-to-experience include receptivity to novel and uncon-
ventional ideas, and new experiences. People with high levels of openness-to-experience
tend to display high levels of curiosity and often enjoy being enriched with innovations.
However, the relationship between openness-to-experience and religiousness is somewhat
less clear. Research studies’ findings have showed negative and significant correlations
between openness and religiousness (Khoynezhad et al., 2012; Szczesniak et al., 2019). The
openness-to-experience trait may also make one liable to go to extremes in the tendency.
For instance,
a person who goes to an extreme in searching for spiritual experiences may fall into
innovation by prioritising experience over knowledge. Their aim becomes to achieve
a “spiritual high” rather than a meaningful relationship with Allah; this may be seen in
the Qur’anic criticism of monasticism (Qur’an 57:27), which was invented to seek more
intense religious experiences.
Openness-to-experience, in relation to religious innovation, is eschewed in Islam. It was nar-

rated that Jabir bin 'Abdullah reported that the Prophet ( ) said “The worst of things are
those that are newly invented; every newly-invented thing is an innovation and every innova-
tion is going astray, and every going astray is in the Fire” (An-Nasa’i (b)). The scholars have
explained that “even though every innovation is misguidance, it is also a kind of sin, and
sins vary in degree, depending on the extent to which they are contrary to Islamic teaching”
(Islam Q&A, 2016). In relation to work ethics , Islam highly encourages Muslims to pos-
sess openness-to-experience personality traits. It has been suggested that “Numerous Islamic
work values such as perfection (Itqān) and benevolence (Iḥsān) are core Islamic work values
which are highly emphasised to be practised by Muslims and encouraging them to be creative
in many new areas of work activities” (Wahab, 2017, p.190).
Abdul-Rahman and Khan (2018) have suggested that from a conceptual framework
the experiential tendency appears connected to the Big Five personality trait of openness.
Accordingly,
For a Muslim, this refers to a person’s creativity, insight, and visionary thinking. People
who are more focused on experiential knowledge may find themselves seeking “spiritual
experiences” in the world. They search for what can heighten their perception and expe-
rience of Allah’s Names and Attributes, the Justice of His commandments, and the reali-
ties of the next life. Regarding Islamic knowledge, they are interested in learning about
spiritual concepts, philosophy, and theology, and less interested in learning the minutiae
of technical details of Islamic rulings. They possess a strong capacity for abstraction,
which enables them to understand difficult philosophical and theological ideas.
Neuroticism
Neuroticism, according to Colman (2006), is “one of the big five personality factors, ranging
from one extreme of neuroticism, including such traits as nervousness, tenseness, moodiness,
and temperamentality, to the opposite extreme of emotional stability” (p.503). Those with
neurotic traits are more likely to experience such feelings as anxiety, worry, fear, anger,
frustration, envy, jealousy, guilt, depressed mood and loneliness. It is stated that those with
high neuroticism are less adaptive in difficult situations and more prone to stress (Costa and
McCrae, 1992). In many studies, neuroticism has been found to be the significant predic-
tor of unethical behaviour and interpersonal deviance in the workplace (Berry, Ones, and
Sackett, 2007; Walumbwa and Schaubroeck, 2009; Camps et al., 2016). The work of Yasein
(1998) and Akhir (2010) has supported the notion of the relationship between neuroticism
and unethical predisposition. It seems that religiosity basically has a negative relation with
neuroticism (Ehsan and Pournaghash-Tehrani, 2012). The findings from a study by Abdel-
Khalek (2010) have showed that those participants who consider themselves as religious
were healthier, enjoying subjective well-being, and obtained lower scores on neuroticism. It
has been reported that religious people seemed to be high in emotional stability, which is the
opposite of neuroticism (Farshi and Mani, 2005).
From an Islamic perspective, emotional stability can be realised if Muslims adhere to
Allah’s commands by enjoining what is good and refraining from evils. However, because
people are afflicted with both psychological and spiritual disease, they indulge in unac-
ceptable behaviours and commit sins, thus, preventing people from believing in Allah,
and from following the guidance of the Prophet ( ). Allah says (interpretation of the
meaning):
This is the call to righteousness, inviting to all that is good (Islam), enjoining Al-Ma`ruf (all
that Islam orders) and forbidding Al-Munkar (all that Islam has forbidden). And it is they who
are the successful. Enjoining what is good and forbidding what is evil is one of the prime
focuses of Islam. It is stated that
Enjoining what is good and forbidding what is evil is an important mission, hence those
who undertake this mission must be of good character and must understand the objec-
tives of Shari’ah; they must call people with wisdom and fair preaching and deal with
them in a kind and gentle manner, so that Allah may guide those whom He wills at their
hands.
(Islam Q&A, 2001)
In the Qur’an, Luqman said to his son (interpretation of the meaning):
• O my son! Aqim-is-Salaah (establish prayer), enjoin (on people) Al-Ma‘roof (Islamic

Monotheism and all that is good), and forbid (people) from Al-Munkar (i.e. disbelief in
the Oneness of Allaah, polytheism of all kinds and all that is evil and bad), and bear with
patience whatever befalls you. Verily, these are some of the important commandments
(ordered by Allah with no exemption. (Luqman 31:17)
So, people who adhere to the religion and enjoin what is good and forbid what is evil will
attain happiness and emotional stability in this world and in the hereafter.
Spiritual personality
The characteristics associated with religiosity include conscientious, agreeableness and extra-
version on the Big Five Trait Model which fit in the model of spiritual personality. Abdul-
Rahman and Khan (2018) have developed a typology of the spiritual personality. According
to the authors
Every person’s spirituality is comprised of knowledge (Ìlm) and deeds (Àml). Their
primary approach to knowledge may either be through experience of states or practical
knowledge of rulings that aid in judging right from wrong. Their primary approach to
deeds may either be focused on performing acts of virtue (birr) or restraining from evil
(taqwa). Depending on which approach to knowledge is combined with which approach
to deeds, a person acquires one of four possible combinations, each representing a dis-
tinct spiritual personality type: Hand of power, Voice of justice, Heart of inspiration, and
Eye of vigilance.
(pp.33–34).
These spiritual personality types are described as

• Hand of Power – When a person combines Judgment with Action, their spiritual
passion for positive action merges with judgment to produce a practical solution-
focused approach to doing good in the world, attempting to maximise benefit for
those around them.
• Voice of Justice – When Judgment merges with Restraint, this results in judgment
concerning evils. This personality type is powerfully motivated to eradicate injus-
tice, immorality, and falsehood. This is the personality that best typifies the names
of these categories have been formulated by the authors to capture the central motif
embodied in each spiritual personality Prophetic saying, “The most virtuous strug-
gle is a true word spoken in the face of a tyrant.”
• Heart of Inspiration – A person who approaches knowledge with Experience com-
bined with the behaviour of Action possesses incredible vision, seeing the path that
humanity must collectively tread in the pursuit of virtue and a better future. These
are the visionaries the Ummah needs as its guides and source of continued wisdom,
compassion, and support.
• Eye of Vigilance – This spirituality type unites the caution of Restraint with the
vision and foresight of Experiential knowledge, resulting in unparalleled awareness
of the dangers and threats to true faith and worrisome trends in society. There is a
focus on heeding warnings, escaping evil, and reflecting on the end-times and the
afterlife. (Abdul-Rahman and Khan, 2018, pp.30–32)
Conclusion
Islam has provided a blueprint for the development of personality, especially the spiritual
personality. The nature of believers is about performing good deeds and acquiring virtues in
the enjoining of what is good and forbidding evil. The process of transformation is through
the process of purification of the soul (Tazakiyah an Nafs) until the end of one’s life. Over
time, the purification of the soul becomes customary and this enables the development of
positive personality characteristics. Al-Jaza’iry (2001) stated that
When these traits result in the desire for virtue and the truth, love of good deeds, longing
to perform charitable deeds, and being pleased with good things, being displeased with
disgraceful things, and when this is the basic source of motivation to habitually do good
deeds, then this is called “good character.”
(p.287)
The positive character traits, according to Utz (2011), “that the believers strive to develop
include kindness, mercy, truthfulness, humility, patience and justice” (p.77). In relation to
the Big Five personality model, conceptually, the traits of openness, conscientiousness and
agreeableness seemed to be generally acceptable as positive traits from an Islamic perspec-
tive as compared to extraversion and neuroticism. Despite the extensive literature on per-
sonality traits, this theme has been less researched with regard to Muslim populations. More
robust research needs to be undertaken to identify traits of the spiritual personality.

• Personality refers to individual differences in characteristic patterns of thinking, feeling
and behaving.
• Research in physiognomy has provided evidence that people are able to detect some
aspects of a person’s character.
• Freud’s psychodynamic theory posits that human personality is the result of the interac-
tion among various components of the mind (the id, ego and superego) and early child-
hood experiences based on a series of psychosexual developmental stages.
• From a behaviourist perspective, personality development is the result of the interaction
of the environment through the process of reinforcement (reward or punishment).
• The trait approach focuses on the idea that behaviour is determined by traits which main-
tain the stability of personality.
• In the five-factor model of personality, there are five fundamental underlying trait
dimensions: Extraversion, neuroticism, agreeableness, conscientiousness and openness
to experience.
• The biological perspective on personality focuses on the role of genetics and the ana-
tomical structures located in the brain in shaping personality traits.
• The humanistic theory of personality focuses on the depth and meaning of human experi-
ence, psychological growth and free will to be the most important determinants of behaviour.
• One of the most popular and widely used approaches to assessing personality is the
objective tests known as self-report measures.
• The other types of personality tests are known as projective tests.
• Islamic personality theory can be defined as the study of human nature in relation to
the behaviour, thinking and emotions which are based on the values derived from the
sources of Islam.
• Abu-Raiya based his “systematic Qur’anic theory of personality” around four aspects of
the soul: The Nafs (or lower self), the Qalb (heart), the Aql (intellect) and the Ruh (spirit)
with the three developmental stages as found in the Qur’an.
• Spiritual personality refers to a person’s natural disposition that influences what aspects
of Islamic practice, belief and virtues naturally appeal to them.
• In Islam there is a distinction and relationship between personality and character.
• The term Akhlāq means to practice virtue, morality and good manners and character.
• The Prophet Muhammad ( ) epitomised virtuous character traits, and he is our posi-
tive role model for personality growth and development.
• The literature and study of personality from an Islamic perspective have been grounded
on an Islamic paradigm which focused on prescription rather than explanation.
• The characteristics associated with religiosity include conscientious, agreeableness and
extraversion on the Big Five trait model.
• Spiritual personality types: Hand of power, voice of justice, heart of inspirationand and
eye of vigilance.
1. Talkative; frank, open; adventurous; sociable – these traits describe which dimension of
personality?
A. Agreeableness
B. Conscientiousness
C. Extraversion
D. Culture
E. Emotional stability
2. The idea that you can assess someone’s personality by studying their face is called:
A. Phrenology
B. Physiology
C. Somatology
D. Physiognomy
E. Physiognomy
3. Humanistic psychologists embraced the idea of:
A. Repression
B. Free will
C. Unconscious drives
D. The id
E. Cognition
4. Projective tests claim to reveal information about:
A. Career aptitude
B. Intellectual attainment
C. Unconscious processes
D. Parenting style
E. Anal stage
5. Who is the pioneer that proposed the 16 basic dimensions of normal personality and
devised a questionnaire (16PF) to measure them?
A. Carl Jung
B. Raymond Cattell
C. Julian Rotter
D. Gordon Allport
E. Sigmund Freud
6. From the Big Five personality dimensions, behaviours such as speaking fluently, dis-
playing ambition and exhibiting a high degree of intelligence are
A. Agreeableness
B. Openness
C. Extraversion
D. Conscientiousness
E. Neuroticism
7. Psychologists seek to understand personality through thoughts, beliefs and their impact
on behaviour in certain situations. This is known as the
A. Trait approach
B. Humanistic approach
C. Cognitive approach
D. Psychoanalytic approach
E. Biological approach
8. Personality is assessed through three factors: Extraversion, neuroticism and psychoti-
cism. This personality trait model is called:
A. Eysenck’s trait model
B. Myers-Briggs type indicator
C. Smith model
D. Cattell’s 16 Factor Model
E. Big Five personality model
9. What is the trait approach to personality?
A. People are motivated by unconscious emotional conflicts.
B. Each individual has stable personality characteristics.
C. People’s thoughts and beliefs are central to personality.
D. People have an innate tendency to become self-actualised.
E. People are motivated by conflicts originating in childhood.
10. The individual smokes, drinks alcohol, overeats and bites his nails. Which stage of
Freud’s stages of psychosexual development has the individual become fixated at?
A. Latency stage
B. Anal stage
C. Oral stage
D. Phallic stage
E. Sexual stage
11. Phrenologists tried to find out about personality by:
A. Reading a person’s horoscope
B. Feeling a person’s skull
C. Looking at a person’s hands
D. Asking people questions
E. Facial expressions
12. Which of the following is NOT one of the Big Five traits?
A. Sense of humour
B. Openness to experience
C. Conscientiousness
D. Extraversion
E. Agreeableness
13. Traits are defined as:
A. Physical characteristics that distinguish us from other people
B. Relatively enduring characteristics that influence our behaviour across many
situations
C. Unconscious tendencies to act in different ways according to the situation
D. Permanent personality tendencies that determine our behaviour in any situation
E. A and D
14. Being friendly, always willing to help others and compassionate. This trait is more likely
to be
A. Extraversion
B. Agreeableness
C. Neuroticism
D. Openness to experience
E. Conscientious
15. Which of the following would NOT be useful to in the understanding of the biological
basis of personality?
A. Family studies
B. Case studies
C. Adoption studies
D. Twin studies
16. According to Freud, children pass through four stages of psychosexual development.
Which of the following shows the stages in the correct developmental order?
A. Latency, oral, anal, phallic
B. Phallic, anal, oral, latency
C. Oral, anal, phallic, latency
D. Oral, phallic, latency, anal
E. Phallic, latency, anal, oral
17. Which of the following things can have an effect on the development of an individual’s
personality?
A. Physical and mental capabilities
B. Health and physical appearance
C. Skin colour, gender and sexual orientation
D. All of the above
E. A and B only
18. The humanistic perspective of personality theory __________________
A. Emphasises the importance of unconscious processes and the influence of early
childhood experience.
B. Emphasises the description and measurement of specific personality differences
among individuals.
C. Emphasises learning and conscious cognitive processes, including the importance
of beliefs about the self, goal setting and self-regulation.
D. Represents an optimistic look at human nature, emphasising the self and the fulfil-
ment of a person’s unique potential.
19. Self-report inventories are ____________ tests, while projective tests are much more
_____________
A. Vague, clear
B. Subjective, objective
C. Objective subjective
D. Difficult, easy
E. Direct, indirect
20. One criticism, or weakness, of __________ theories is that they don’t really explain
human personality. Instead, they simply label general predispositions to behave in a
certain way.
A. Humanistic
B. Trait
C. Psychoanalytic
D. Social-cognitive
E. Biological
21. Abu-Raiya (2012) based his “systematic Qur’anic theory of personality” around aspects
of
A. The soul (the Nafs or lower self)
B. The Qalb (heart)
C. The Aql (intellect)
D. The Ruh (spirit)
E. All of the above
22. The distinction and relationship between personality and character is described in the
story of
A. Al-Wazi' ibn Zari'
B. Al-Mundhir al-Ashajj
C. Al- Maududi
D. Sa`d bin Hisham
E. Ibn Kathir
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Chapter 10
Affective behaviour
Emotion
Learning outcomes
• Explain the concept of emotion.
• Identify the areas of the nervous system involved in emotional behaviours.
• Explain the major theories of emotion.
• Discuss the use of non-verbal communication in conveying emotions.
• Discuss the concept of love from an Islamic perspective.
• Explain what is meant by emotional intelligence.
• Identify the emotional abilities that comprise emotional intelligence.
• Discuss emotional intelligence from an Islamic perspective.
• Discuss some of the emotional behaviours as portrayed in the Qur’an.
Introduction
Emotion is a component of affect which is viewed as the experience of feeling. Emotion
plays an important role in everyday life and provides our psychological and spiritual being
the quality and meaning of our existence. Emotion “is a term that came into use in the English
language in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries as a translation of the French term
‘émotion’” (Scarantino and de Sousa, 2018). Throughout history, different terms have been
used to denote both positive and negative emotion or emotional feelings. These include
affection, anger, concern, desire, despair, empathy, excitement, feeling, sentiment, affection,
affect, disturbance, movement, perturbation, upheaval and appetite. There is no consensus in
the literature on a definition of emotion. In an attempt to resolve the diversity of definitions
and terminological confusion, Kleinginna and Kleinginna (1981) reviewed 92 definitions and
9 sceptical statements compiled from a variety of sources in the literature of emotion.
Emotion is defined as “a strong feeling such as love, fear or anger; the part of a per-
son’s character that consists of feelings” (Oxford Learners Dictionaries). From a cogni-
tive approach, an operative definition of emotion is that emotion is a mental state (Oatley,
1994). The American Psychological Association (APA) defined emotion as “a complex
reaction pattern, involving experiential, behavioural, and physiological elements, by which
an individual attempt to deal with a personally significant matter or event.” According to
Cabanac (2002), “emotion is any mental experience with high intensity and high hedo-
nicity” (p.87). Thus, the definition needs further explanation. It means that emotion is a
mental experience that is of short or long duration and considered in terms of pleasant (or
unpleasant) sensations.
Cabanac (2002) suggested that
emotion can result from sensation, perception, memory recall, reckoning (assessment),
and imagination. According to this definition, intense pain and sexual orgasm are emo-
tions. Both are accompanied by the autonomic responses, facial expression, tachycardia,
and sweating usually considered to be signs of emotion.
(p.87)
At a simplistic level, an emotion is “a mental and physiological feeling state that directs our
attention and guides our behavior” (Stangor and Walinga, 2014, p.446). It is a psychologi-
cal state associated with the arousal of the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous
system (ANS). Although the words emotion and mood are sometimes used interchangeably,
these two terms refer, respectively, to two different things in psychological terminology. In
an emotional state, there is a conscious experience with clear intention, whereas mood is
viewed as an affective state, with less intensity, and its occurrence is not related to the actual
experience. Mood states are more prolonged (Beedie et al., 2005, p.864), and with a lack of
intentionality that is associated with emotion (Beedie, et al., 2011). This chapter will explore
the theories of emotion, and examine the cultural expressions of emotion and emotional intel-
ligence, and emotion from an Islamic perspective.
Biological and neurological bases of emotion

Emotional behaviours can be explained in both biological and neurological terms. Different
systems are involved and interact to enable the processing and subjective experiences of
emotions. The systems include the limbic system, autonomic nervous system and the retic-
ular activating system. The limbic system which controls our emotional and behavioural
responses to environmental stimuli includes the amygdala, the hypothalamus, the thalamus
and the hippocampus. It increases or decreases neurochemical transmitters such as dopa-
mine, noradrenaline and serotonin that cause the emotional experiences. For instance, dopa-
mine is related to experiences of pleasure and the reward-learning process (happy feeling).
Serotonin is a neurotransmitter associated with memory and learning. However, it is reported
that an imbalance in serotonin levels results in an increase in anger, anxiety, depression
and panic (Nazario, 2011). Researchers initially believed that low serotonin levels caused
depression, but recent evidence suggests that this is not the case (Cowen and Browning,
2015). Serotonin is involved in several aspects of emotional information processing (Merens,
Willem Van der Does and Spinhoven, 2007). That is, how emotions are processed has a sig-
nificant influence on moods. There is evidence to suggest that mood disorders are associated
with abnormalities in the processing of emotional stimuli (Leppänen, 2006). There is evi-
dence to suggest that dopamine is involved in the processing of human emotion (Badgaiyan
et al., 2009) and that includes happiness (Baixauli, 2017). That is why “when a person is
physically attracted to another, an activation of dopamine, serotonin increased and produc-
tion of oxytocin, a hormone that reduces pain perception and increases the emotional con-
nection” (Baixauli, 2017). Dopamine is also an important neurochemical transmitter that is
involved in enhancing motivation and attention, and helps regulate movement, learning and
emotional responses.
Affective behaviour 223
Theories of emotion
Researchers have developed several theories about the mechanisms behind our experience
of emotions. There are three components of emotion: The subjective experience, the physi-
ological response and the behavioural response. It is the interactions of the three compo-
nents that generate emotional states and experiences. However, the subjective experiences
are informed by socio-cultural backgrounds, and religion. For instance, people may produce
different emotional experiences or reactions even when faced with similar situations. Ekman
(1999) suggested that fear, disgust, anger, surprise, happiness and sadness are the six basic
emotions that are universal throughout human cultures. He later added the emotional states
of embarrassment, excitement, contempt, shame, pride, satisfaction and amusement. Despite
the acceptance for the universality of basic emotion across cultures, experiencing emotion is
believed to be highly subjective (Barrett et al., 2007). Several different theories of emotion
have been proposed to explain how the various components of emotion interact with one
another.
The James–Lange theory of emotion

The James–Lange theory of emotion asserts that the emotions we experienced arise from
physiological arousal. Basically, physiological arousal such as an increase in heart rate and
respiration would precede the feeling of emotion such as fear. For instance, if you were to
encounter a wild animal or see a car coming straight towards you, the sympathetic nervous
system activates what is often termed the “fight-or-flight” response. This may lead to dilation
of the pupils, increased sweating, increased heart rate and increased blood pressure. So, the
emotion seems to depend on the activation of the physiological arousal. The operation of the
fast emotional pathway supports the idea that arousal and emotions occur together. The emo-
tional circuits in the limbic system are activated when an emotional stimulus is experienced,
and these circuits quickly create corresponding physical reactions (LeDoux, 2000). The pro-
cess happens so quickly that it may feel to us as if emotion is simultaneous with our physical
arousal. Figure 10.1 presents a simplistic view of the James–Lange theory.
It is the arousal that leads to the emotional response. William James put it, “We feel
sorry because we cry, angry because we strike, afraid because we tremble” (James, 1884,
p.190). There is some evidence that supports at least some parts of James and Lange’s origi-
nal ideas (Levenson et al., 1990; Barrett, 2012; Lindquist et al., 2012).The findings from
Levenson et al.’s study (1990) showed that there were noticeable differences in heart rate,
skin temperature and other physiological reactions for the different emotions. That is, differ-
ent physiological arousal may produce different emotional experiences. The James–Lange
theory of emotion has been criticised on the grounds that it was pseudo-experimental design
based on introspection and correlational research. The theory is also rejected on the basis of
research findings which showed that physiological responses should be a requisite to produce
Figure 10.1 James–Lange theory.

emotional reaction (Lindquist et al., 2012). There is evidence to suggest that those with mus-
cle paralysis and lack of sensation were able to still feel emotions such as joy, fear and anger
(Söderkvist et al., 2018).
The Cannon–Bard theory of emotion

The rejection of the James–Lange theory for its limited ability to account for the wide variety
of emotions experienced by human beings led to the development of the Cannon–Bard theory
of emotion. In contrast to James–Lange theory of emotion, the experience of an emotion runs
concurrently with the physiological arousal. This means that as we become aware of a threat,
our heart rate also increases. Figure 10.2 presents the Cannon–Bard theory of emotion.
For instance, the threat of a venomous snake would lead to an emotional response of
fear and at the same time the body activates the fight-or-flight response (physiological).
Although the emotional response occurs together with the physiological arousal, both com-
ponents of emotion are separate and independent. The key point of this model is that the
physiological arousal of sweating, increased heart rate and increased respiration may be
the same, but the emotions are very different. The emotional responses may include fear,
excitement or anger.
There is research evidence to support the Cannon–Bard theory of emotion. Research in
the area of neurocognitive processing of emotions supports the idea of the possibility of two
segregated pathways in the brain (slow and fast emotional pathways) and that arousal and
emotions occur together (LeDoux, 2000; Ceric, 2012). However, this theory is not fully sup-
ported because of its reliance on animal and case studies. Their findings cannot be generalised
because they involved extrapolating animal studies to the understanding of human behaviour.
The Schacter–Singer theory of emotion

The Schacter–Singer theory draws on the essentials of both the James–Lange theory and
Cannon–Bard theory (two-factor theory). Schachter and Singer (1962) suggested that emo-
tions have two factors: A physiological arousal factor and a cognitive factor. According to
this two-factor theory, physiological arousal occurs first and is basically the same in every
emotion, but it is our cognitive evaluation of the source of the arousal that determines the
experience and intensity of the emotion. So, the role of cognition and the context of the situ-
ation label the emotion. Figure 10.3 presents the Schacter–Singer theory of emotion.
For example, you see a big snake in the garden coming in your direction. According to the
Schacter–Singer theory, the sequence that follows may include: I see a big snake is coming
towards my direction; I am shaking and have increased heart rate; my shaking and my rapid
Figure 10.2 The Cannon–Bard theory.

Figure 10.3 The Schachter–Singer two-factor theory.
heart rate are caused by fear. I am really frightened! This theory has also been subject to
criticism from different researchers with contradictory results (see Marshall and Zimbardo,
1979; Maslach, 1979; Reisenzein, 1983). Despite the lack of research evidence in support of
this theory, it has nonetheless been influential in expanding the understanding of emotional
behaviour.
Culture and expression of emotions

Emotion has both an internal and external component. Not only do we experience emotion
internally or subjectively, we also convey our emotions to others, and we learn about the
emotions of others by observing them. This communication process has evolved over time
through acculturation, and people from varying cultural backgrounds can have very different
displays of emotion. The way we express our emotions and perceive the emotions of others is
through their non-verbal or para-verbal communication process. Nonverbal communication
includes facial expression, body movements, posture, eye contact, paralanguage, proxemics
(intimate space) and physiological changes.
However, the most common nonverbal means of communication is through facial expres-
sions. In addition, the face not only helps us to express our emotions, but also feels the affec-
tive aspects of emotion (Strack et al., 1988). It has been suggested that “the face contains 43
different muscles that allow it to make more than 10,000 unique configurations and to express
a wide variety of emotions” (Stangor and Walinga, 2014). The findings from research stud-
ies (Ekman and Friesen, 1971; Ekman et al., 1987) showed that there are universally recog-
nised emotional facial expressions but there is considerable variability across cultures. The
study of Safdar et al. (2009) investigates emotional display rules for seven basic emotions
of Canadians, US Americans and Japanese. The results indicate that “Japanese display rules
permit the expression of powerful (anger, contempt, and disgust) significantly less than those
of the two North American samples. Japanese also think that they should express positive
emotions (happiness, surprise) significantly less than the Canadian sample” (p.1). Matsumoto
(2009) also indicated that Japanese individuals tend to express negative emotions like fear,
anger and disgust alone as compared to those individuals from the United States who express
their negative emotions both alone and in the presence of others. There are also gender dif-
ferences involved in emotional processing. There is some evidence that men and women
may differ in the regulation of emotions (McRae et al., 2008; Safdar et al., 2009). It seemed
that men displayed powerful emotions more than women and that women expressed helpless
emotions (sadness, fear) and happiness more than men. (Safdar et al., 2009). Currently, func-
tional neuroimaging techniques have highlighted brain sex differences and their influence on
different expressions of emotions. The findings of a study showed that for negative emotions,
men preferentially recruit right hemisphere structures, while women depend more on left
hemisphere structures of the brain (Einstein et al., 2013).
Emotional intelligence
In the context of this chapter, emotional intelligence refers to the ability to be self-aware,
and to identify and manage self-emotions and emotions of others in positive ways. Despite
the criticisms that emotional intelligence is not a construct and there is no validated psy-
chometric test or scale, this concept has gained wide acceptance with employers and
organisations. Emotional intelligence is generally said to include at least four charac-
teristics: Self-awareness, social awareness, self-control and interpersonal relationship
management.
• Self-awareness: This is the recognition and identification of one’s own emotions. How
these feelings and emotions affect your behaviour. The ability to evaluate one’s own
emotion.
• Social awareness: Having the ability to understand, identify and accept emotions of oth-
ers. Using empathy as a professional and therapeutic tool in dealing with others’ emo-
tional behaviours.
• Self-control: Recognising impulsive feelings and behaviours. Using positive coping
strategies in dealing with emotions.
• Interpersonal relationship management: Development and maintenance of interpersonal
relationships in personal and professional life. Effective communicator and team player.
Three primary models of emotional intelligence identified include the ability model (Mayer
and Salovey, 1997; Salovey and Mayer, 1990; Mayer et al., 2000), the trait model (Petrides
and Furnham, 2003) and the mixed models (Boyatzis and Sala, 2004; Bar-On, 2006). The
concept of emotional intelligence has been defined according to the three main perspec-
tives: Ability model, trait model or mixed model. The ability model includes having a set
of abilities that includes intelligence and reasoning that are developed with age and experi-
ence. In contrast, both mixed and trait models include a set of perceived abilities, skills,
social behaviours, social behaviours, features, relationship-management and characteris-
tics. Mayer et al. (2000) outline a four-branch model in which emotional intelligence (EI)
is defined as “the ability to (1) perceive and express emotion, (2) assimilate emotion in
thought, (3) understand and reason with emotion, and (4) regulate emotion in the self and
others” (p.396). The Boyatzis–Goleman model divides competences in emotional intel-
ligence into four groups: Self-awareness, self-management, social awareness and relation-
ship management. The trait model (Petrides and Furnham, 2003) focuses on emotion-related
personality traits. The Bar-On model (2006) is characterised by five main components of
emotional intelligence: Intrapersonal skills, interpersonal skills, adaptability, stress man-
agement and mood.
Emotional intelligence has been shown to play a key role in the increase of performance,
and a statistical relationship has been found between emotional intelligence and job perfor-
mance. The findings from a study by Shahhosseini et al. (2012) indicated that individuals
with high emotional intelligence have excellent job performance and have success in their
careers. Emotional intelligence is also positively related to physical, psychosomatic and men-
tal health (Schutte et al., 2007; Martins et al., 2010). Petrides et al. (2016) provide a com-
prehensive review of research findings relating to the trait of emotional intelligence which
indicate that emotional intelligence is of benefit in a variety of fields, including clinical,
health, social, educational and organisational. In addition, people who have high emotional
intelligence have been found to be more cooperative, and have better social skills and higher
marital satisfaction (Schutte et al., 2001).
Emotional intelligence: An Islamic perspective

All the four components of emotional intelligence can be applied to Islamic beliefs and prac-
tices: Self-awareness, social awareness, self-control and interpersonal relationship manage-
ment. Self-awareness is not only the recognition of our emotional state but also our soul. Ibn
'Arabi (n.d.)stated that “He who knows himself (or his-self, his soul, his mind) knows his
Lord.” This notion of self-awareness is related to the systematic pursuit of self-development
or Tazkiyaat an-Nafs (the purification of the soul). Allah says in the Qur’an (interpretation
of the meaning):
• He has succeeded who purifies it. (Ash-Shams 91:9)
This means that those who have been successful have been able to purify their soul from
negative characteristics and adhere to the commands of Allah, the Almighty. This purifica-
tion of the soul thus leads one to know Allah by obedience to Allah. However, the process
and outcome of purification cannot be achieved without having a healthy spiritual heart. It is
narrated by An-Nu’man bin Bashir that Allah’s Messenger ( ) said: “Beware! There is a
piece of flesh in the body if it becomes good (reformed) the whole body becomes good but if
it gets spoilt the whole body gets spoilt and that is the heart” (Bukhari (c)). Metaphorically,
this Hadith means the spiritual state of the heart because in Islamic tradition the spiritual heart
is centred in the physical heart.
According to Ibn al-Qayyim, the heart is classified into three types: The Correct and
Sound Heart, the Dead Heart and the Diseased Heart. Allah says in the Qur’an (interpretation
of the meaning):
• Those who have believed and whose hearts are assured by the remembrance of Allah.
Unquestionably, by the remembrance of Allah hearts are assured. (Ar Ra’ad 13:28)
So, it is through the process of purification that, having the foundation of self-awareness, one
can develop and nurture emotional intelligence.
Empathy is another ability that builds on emotional self- and social awareness. It is the
use of empathy as a professional and therapeutic tool that enables us to deal with others’
emotional behaviours. Having empathy, which is a form of compassion towards others, is
central to Islamic practices.
• There has certainly come to you a Messenger from among yourselves. Grievous to him
is what you suffer; [he is] concerned over you and to the believers is kind and merciful.
(At-Tawbah 9:128)
Thus, being kind and merciful is part of the constituents of empathic behaviours. Mercy is
not only is one of the traits of the Prophet ( ) but for all Muslims too. It is through being
merciful that the soul abides being kind and doing righteous deeds. It is narrated by Nu’man
b. Bashir that Allah’s Messenger ( ) said: “The similitude of believers in regard to mutual
love, affection, fellow-feeling is that of one body; when any limb of it aches, the whole body
aches, because of sleeplessness and fever” (Muslim (a)). A verse in the Qur’an specifically
highlights the empathy and understanding of his companions after the battle of Uhud, in
which Allah says (interpretation of the meaning):
• So by mercy from Allah, [O Muhammad], you were lenient with them. And if you had
been rude [in speech] and harsh in heart, they would have disbanded from about you.
So pardon them and ask forgiveness for them and consult them in the matter. And when
you have decided, then rely upon Allah. Indeed, Allah loves those who rely [upon Him].
(Ali ‘Imran 3:159)
In this verse, according to Ibn Kathir,
Allah addresses His Messenger and reminds him and the believers of the favour that He
has made his heart and words soft for his Ummah, those who follow his command and
refrain from what he prohibits. Qatadah said that, (And by the mercy of Allah, you dealt
with them gently) means, “With Allah's mercy you became this kind.” Al-Hasan Al-Basri
said that this, indeed, is the description of the behaviour that Allah sent Muhammad with.
This verse also reveals how the Prophet ( ) was perfectly attuned in the recognition of the
emotional needs of his companions, both verbal and nonverbal cues.
The following narration provides an illustrative account of the Prophet’s ( ) empathy in
action. Mundhir b. Jarir reported on the authority of his father:
While we were in the company of the Messenger of Allah ( ) in the early hours of the
morning, some people came there (who) were barefooted, naked, wearing striped wool-
len clothes, or cloaks, with their swords hung (around their necks). Most of them, nay, all
of them, belonged to the tribe of Mudar. The colour of the face of the Messenger of Allah
( ) underwent a change when he saw them in poverty. He then entered (his house) and
came out and commanded Bilal (to pronounce Adhan). He pronounced Adhan [First call
to prayer] and Iqāmah [the second call to prayer, given immediately before the prayer
begins], and he (the Prophet) observed prayer (along with his Companion) and then
addressed (them reciting verses of the Noble Qur’an):
“O mankind, fear your Lord, who created you from one soul and created from it its
mate and dispersed from both of them many men and women. And fear Allah, through
whom you ask one another, and the wombs. Indeed Allah is ever, over you, an Observer.”
(An-Nisa, 4:1). (He then recited) a verse of Surah Hashr “O you who have believed, fear
Allah. And let every soul look to what it has put forth for tomorrow – and fear Allah.”
(Al-Hashr 59:18). (Then the audience began to vie with one another in giving charity.)
Some donated a dinar, others a dirham, still others clothes, some donated a sa' [measure-
ment approximately a small container] of wheat, some a sa' of dates; till he (the Holy
Prophet) said: (Bring) even if it is half a date. Then a person from among the Ansar came
there with a money bag which his hands could scarcely lift; in fact, they could not (lift).
Then the people followed continuously, till I saw two heaps of eatables and clothes,
and I saw the face of the Messenger ( ) glistening, like gold (on account of joy). The
Messenger of Allah ( ) said: He who sets a good precedent in Islam, there is a reward
for him for this (act of goodness) and reward of that also who acted according to it sub-
sequently, without any deduction from their rewards; and he who sets in Islam an evil
precedent, there is upon him the burden of that, and the burden of him also who acted
upon it subsequently, without any deduction from their burden.
(Muslim (b))
The Prophet ( ) personified, in his approach, what it means to be an emotionally intelligent

and empathic person.
The Qur’an and emotional behaviours

From an Islamic perspective, the Qur’an expresses human emotion in the most detailed way.
Allah says in the Qur’an (interpretation pf the meaning):
• And that it is He who makes [one] laugh and weep. (An-Najm 53:43)
This means that Allah has created within humans emotion both in positive and negative ways.
Allah created His creatures with the ability to laugh or weep, and their causes. The Qur’an is
not an encyclopaedia of medicine, but it does contain guidance that promotes good spiritual
and emotional health. Allah says in the following two verses of the Qur’an (interpretation of
the meaning):
• O mankind, there has to come to you instruction from your Lord and healing for what is
in the breasts and guidance and mercy for the believers. (Yunus 10:57)
• And We send down of the Qur'an that which is healing and mercy for the believers, but
it does not increase the wrongdoers except in loss. (Al-Isra 17:82)
So, the Qur’an is healing for the body, spirit and the soul. There is evidence to suggest that
Qur’anic recitation has a positive effect on mental health (Mahjoob et al., 2016), the reduc-
tion of depression (Ansari et al., 2005) and is effective as a non-pharmacological treatment
in the management of psychological problems such as anxiety (Ghiasi and Keramat, 2018).
The concept of love is generally regarded as an intense human emotion but in the scientific
community, love lacks a “facial expression” to be considered an emotion like happiness, sad-
ness, disgust, anger and surprise. Love is regarded as a drive which can make us feel either
positive or negative. One of five forms of love that the ancient Greek philosophers identified
is the divine love of God (Agape or Eros of Christian theology). In the study of the Gospels,
Nygren (1930) finds that the characteristic feature of Eros is an upward movement and an
attempt to ascend from humanity toward God, and Agape is God’s love for humans. In con-
trast, in Islamic theology, the love of Allah and His Prophet ( ) should always exceed the
love for another human being. The demand for the love of Allah and His Messenger ( ),
for instance, is stated in the following verse from the Qur’an. Allah says (interpretation of
the meaning):
• Say, [O Muhammad], If your fathers, your sons, your brothers, your wives, your rela-
tives, wealth which you have obtained, commerce wherein you fear decline, and dwellings
with which you are pleased are more beloved to you than Allah and His Messenger and
jihad in His cause, then wait until Allah executes His command. And Allah does not
guide the defiantly disobedient people. (At-Tawbah 9:24)
This verse is supported by a Hadith which is narrated by ‘Abdullah bin Hisham:
We were with the Prophet ( ) and he was holding the hand of Ùmar bin Al-Khattab.
Ùmar said to Him, “O Allah's Messenger ( )! You are dearer to me than everything
except my own self.” The Prophet ( ) said, “No, by Him in Whose Hand my soul
is, (you will not have complete faith) till I am dearer to you than your own self.” Then
Ùmar said to him, “However, now, by Allah, you are dearer to me than my own self.”
The Prophet ( ) said, “Now, O Ùmar, (now you are a believer).”
(Bukhari (a))
In this context, the love and obedience of Allah, the Almighty, and His Messenger ( ) is a
sign of true piety and devotion. It is narrated by Anas that the Prophet ( ) said,
Whoever possesses the following three qualities will taste the sweetness of faith: The
one to whom Allah and His Apostle become dearer than anything else; Who loves a per-
son and he loves him only for Allah’s sake; Who hates to revert to disbelief (Atheism)
after Allah has brought (saved) him out from it, as he hates to be thrown in fire.
(Bukhari (b))
The contents of the Qur’anic verse and Hadiths have implications for the believers. Whoever
loves Allah should obey Him in what He has legislated and made obligatory and avoid diso-
bedience. To love the Messenger of Allah ( ) entails following his path without religious
deviations or innovations, in order to worship Allah in the way that He commanded. The
Prophet’s ( ) Sunnah should be implemented in our daily routine. Abu Hurairah narrated
that: The Prophet ( ), said: “Whoever obeys me, obeys Allah; and whoever disobeys me,
disobeys Allah” (Ibn Majaha (a)). Allah describes the characteristics of those who truly love
Him (interpretation of the meaning):
• O you who have believed, whoever of you should revert from his religion – Allah
will bring forth [in place of them] a people He will love and who will love Him [who
are] humble toward the believers, powerful against the disbelievers; they strive in
the cause of Allah and do not fear the blame of a critic. That is the favour of Allah;
He bestows it upon whom He wills. And Allah is all-Encompassing and Knowing.
(Al-Ma’idah 5:54)
According to Ibn Kathir, (humble towards the believers, powerful against the disbelievers)
are “the qualities of perfect believers, as they are humble with their believing brothers and
allies, stern with their enemies and adversaries.” (They strive in the cause of Allah and do
not fear the blame of a critic.) This means that “Nothing prevents them from obeying Allah,
establishing His Law, fighting His enemies, enjoining righteousness and forbidding evil.
Certainly, nothing prevents them from taking this path, neither someone who seeks to hinder
them, nor one who blames or chastises them.” Utz (2011) stipulates the characteristics of
those who love Allah. They are those who
strive in the path of Allah against His enemies with one’s heart, soul, hand, tongue
and wealth; and not fearing the reproach of anyone, as there is contentment in doing
what is pleasing to Allah, unconcerned about receiving criticism or praise from other
people.
(p.158)
Hope (Yarjūna) is one of the most important characteristics of a Muslim in that he relies on
Almighty God whatever the circumstances. Hope is an emotional feeling of expectation.
Essentially, Allah has provided humankind with unlimited resources of hope. Due to trials
and tribulations, some people tend to lose hope and deviate into despair. There are several
Qur’anic verses that reflect the concept of hope from different perspectives. The believers
never follow the path of hopelessness, not even in the most challenging moments. They
should always have hope in Allah, the Creator of all things, which would ease their difficul-
ties. Allah says in the Qur’an (interpretation of the meaning):
• For indeed, with hardship [will be] ease.

• For indeed, with hardship [will be] ease. (Ash-Sharh 94:4–5)
• Allah will bring about, after hardship, ease. (At-Talaq 65:7)
With reference to the verse “For indeed, with hardship [will be] ease,” there is a Hadith that
is relevant here. Abu Hurairah relates a story,
A man and his wife from an earlier generation were poor. Once when the man came
back from a journey, he went to his wife saying to her, while feeling hunger and
fatigued, “Do you have anything to eat.” She said, “Yes, receive the good news of
Allah’s provisions.” He again said to her, “If you have anything to eat, bring it to me.”
She said, “Wait a little longer.” She was awaiting Allah’s mercy. When the matter was
prolonged, he said to her, “Get up and bring me whatever you have to eat, because I
am really hungry and fatigued.” She said, “I will. Soon I will open the oven’s cover, so
do not be hasty.” When he was busy and refrained from insisting for a while, she said
to herself, “I should look in my oven.” So she got up and looked in her oven and found
it full of the meat of a lamb, and her mortar and pestle were full of seed grains; it was
crushing the seeds on its own. So, she took out what was in the mortar and pestle, after
shaking it to remove everything from inside, and took the meat out that she found in
the oven.
(Ahmad)
There is a link between hope and mercy. In the following verse of the Qur’an, Allah says
• Say, “O My servants who have transgressed against themselves [by sinning], do not
despair of the mercy of Allah. Indeed, Allah forgives all sins. Indeed, it is He who is the
Forgiving, the Merciful.” (Az-Zumar 39:53)
This verse is supplemented by a Hadith which is narrated by Asma bint Yazid. I heard
the Messenger of Allah ( ) reciting: 'Say: “O My slaves who have transgressed against
themselves! Despair not of the mercy of Allah, verily, Allah forgives all sins and I do not
mind (referring to 39:53)” (Tirmidhi). The above verse (Qur’an 39:53), according to Ibn
Kathir,
is a call to all sinners, be they disbelievers or others, to repent and turn to Allah. This
verse tells us that Allah, may He be blessed and exalted, will forgive all the sins of those
who repent to Him and turn back to Him, no matter what or how many his sins are, even
if they are like the foam of the sea.
Allah’s name al-Rahîm is derived from the Arabic word rahmah, meaning mercy. However,
al-Rahîm denotes specific mercy for the believers alone, and they should not lose hope even
if they have committed many sins. Allah forgives all sins except that of associating partners
with Him.
In the following verse, according to Ibn Kathir, “He ordered them to never give up hope
in Allah, nor to ever discontinue trusting in Him for what they seek to accomplish. He said to
them that only the disbelieving people despair of Allah’s mercy.” Allah says (interpretation
of the meaning):
• O my sons, go and find out about Joseph and his brother and despair not of relief from
Allah. Indeed, no one despairs of relief from Allah except the disbelieving people. (Yusuf
12:87)
Hence, losing hope in Allah’s mercy is likened to not trusting or disbelieving in Allah. In the
following verse, Allah says (interpretation of the meaning):
• But the enduring good deeds are better to your Lord for reward and better for [one's]
hope. (Al-Kahf 18:46)
The true foundation of hope is the “the good righteous deeds that last.” In relation to the
righteous deeds, according to Ibn Kathir,
Ali bin Abi Talhah reported that Ibn Àbbas said, “This is the celebration of the remem-
brance of Allah, saying `La ilaha illallah, Allahu Akbar, Subhan Allah, Al-Hamdu Lillah,
Tabarak Allah, La hawla wa la quwwata illa billah, Astaghfirallah, Sallallahu àla
Rasul-Allah', and fasting, prayer, Hajj (pilgrimage), Sadaqah (charity), freeing slaves,
Jihad, maintaining ties of kinship, and all other good deeds. These are the righteous
good deeds that last, which will remain in Paradise for those who do them for as long as
heaven and earth remain.”
In the following verse of the Qur’an, Allah says (interpretation of the meaning):
• And invoke Him in fear and aspiration. (Al-A’raf 7:56)
Imam at-Tahâwi (n.d.)stated:
A slave should remain between fear and hope. For the right and approved kind of fear
is that which acts as a barrier between the slave and the things forbidden by Allah.
However, if the fear is excessive, then the possibility is that the man will fall into despair
and pessimism.
And he adds:
Fear and hope are like the two wings of a bird. If they are well balanced, the flight will
be well-balanced. However, if one is stunted, the flight would also be stunted. And to be
sure, if the two are lost, the bird will soon be in the throes of death.
It was narrated from Anas that the Prophet ( ) entered upon a young man who was dying
and said: “How do you feel?” He said: “I have hope in Allah, O Messenger of Allah, but I
fear my sins.” The Messenger of Allah ( ) said: “These two things (hope and fear) do not
coexist in the heart of a person in a situation like this, but Allah will give him that which he
hopes for and keep him safe from that which he fears” (Ibn Majah (b)).
The believer calls on Allah in fear and hope: Fear of His displeasure and hope in His mercy
and approval of us. Our journey between hope and fear must focus on the remembrance of
Allah often, by carrying out all our religious obligations with perfection. In Islam, we should
fear Allah and, at the same time, remain hopeful of His mercy and rewards. Therefore, fear
and hope should be in equal balance.

• Emotion is part of a person’s character that consists of feelings.
• Emotional behaviours can be explained in both biological and neurological terms.
• Dopamine is related to experiences of pleasure and the reward-learning process (happy
feeling).
• Serotonin is involved in several aspects of emotional information processing.
• There are three components of emotion: The subjective experience, the physiological
response and the behavioural response.
• The James–Lange theory of emotion asserts that the emotions we experience arise from
physiological arousal.
• In the Cannon–Bard theory of emotion, the experience of an emotion runs concurrently
with the physiological arousal.
• Schachter and Singer suggested that emotions have two factors: A physiological arousal
factor and a cognitive factor.
• The way we express our emotions and perceive the emotions of others is through non-
verbal or para-verbal communication processes.
• There is some evidence that men and women may differ in the regulation of emotions.
• Three primary models of emotional intelligence identified are the ability model, the trait
model and the mixed model.
• The concept of emotional intelligence has been defined according to the three main per-
spectives: Ability model, trait model or mixed model.
• All the four components of emotional intelligence can be applied to Islamic beliefs and
practices: Self-awareness, social awareness, self-control and interpersonal relationship
management.
• Empathy is another ability that builds on emotional self- and social awareness.
• From an Islamic perspective, the Qur’an expresses human emotion in the most detailed
way.
• Love is regarded as a drive which can make us feel either positive or negative.
• Hope is one of the most important characteristics of a Muslim in that he relies on
Almighty God whatever the circumstances.
• In Islam, we should fear Allah and, at the same time, remain hopeful of His mercy and
rewards.
• Fear and hope should be in equal balance.
1. According to the ________ theory of emotion, emotional experiences arise from physi-
ological arousal.
A. James–Lange
B. Cannon–Bard
C. Schachter–Singer two-factor
D. Darwinian
E. James–Taylor
2. ____ is one’s ability to detect and manage emotional cues and information.
A. Emotional labour
B. Emotional dissonance
C. Emotional intelligence
D. Cognitive dissonance
E. Affective dissonance
3. According to Imām ibn al-Qayyim, the heart is classified into types. What are the types?
A. The Correct and Sound Heart
B. The Dead Heart
C. The Diseased Heart
D. A, B and C
E. A and B only
4. Which of the following statements is TRUE?
A. There is no biological component to emotional intelligence.
B. Emotional intelligence is distinct from intelligence and personality.
C. Emotional intelligence correlates moderately with job performance.
D. There are many standardised measures of emotional intelligence.
E. Emotional intelligence is the same as intelligence quotient.
5. Which theory of emotion has been discredited based on people who have experienced
spinal cord injuries still experiencing emotion?
A. Cannon–Bard theory
B. James–Lange theory
C. Two-factor theory
D. Cognitive-mediational theory
E. Facial feedback theory
6. The patient reported increased heart rate as he was experiencing fear. Which theory of
emotion describes this situation?
A. James–Lange theory
B. Cannon–Bard theory
C. Two-factor theory
D. Cognitive mediational theory
E. Facial feedback theory
7. What characterises the James–Lange view of emotion?
A. Our physiological responses cause emotions.
B. Our emotions cause physiological responses.
C. Our physiological activity strengthens our emotions.
D. Our physiological activity weakens our emotions.
8. Which brain areas are involved in emotionally intense sensations?
A. Amygdala
B. Insula
C. Medial prefrontal cortex
D. Both A and B
E. Hypothalamus
9. During emotional states, epinephrine and norepinephrine are released because of the
activation of which of the following?
A. Sympathetic nervous system
B. Cortex
C. Thalamus
D. Amygdala
E. Parasympathetic nervous system
10. According to the Cannon–Bard theory, what is the relationship between physiological
arousal and the experience of emotion?
A. People experience emotion because they experience physiological arousal.
B. The experience of emotion and physiological arousal occur simultaneously.
C. People have physiological arousal because they experience emotion.
D. None of the above.
E. A and B only.
11. The statement “We are afraid because we tremble” is explained by which theory of
emotion?
A. Darwin’s theory
B. The two-factor theory
C. The James–Lange theory
D. The Cannon–Bard theory
E. The three-factor theory
12. The notion of self-awareness is related to the systematic pursuit of self-development of the
A. Detoxification of the soul
B. Sensitisation of the spirit
C. Purification of the soul
D. Self-analysis
E. Self-reflection
13. A verse in the Qur’an specifically highlights the empathy and understanding of his com-
panions after the battle of Uhud
A. Ar Ra’ad 13:28
B. Ali ‘Imran 3:159
C. Ash-Shams 91:9
D. Al-Isra 17:82
E. Yunus 10:57
14. Which of these can be described as both an emotion and a mood?
A. Pride
B. “Feeling good”
C. Tension
D. Hope
E. Anger
15. Which of these is a universal emotion, which can be identified by a distinct facial
expression?
A. Disgust
B. Love
C. Fear
D. Anxiety
E. Pride
16. When faced with a stressful situation, you are likely to respond with the:
A. Hurt then help response
B. Fist and knees response
C. Tend and befriend response
D. Fight or flight response
E. Emotional response
17. The ability to control one’s emotions is known as:
A. Facial feedback
B. Interpersonal intelligence
C. Emotional regulation
D. Emotional contingency
E. Maturity
18. According to the Cannon–Bard theory of emotion:
A. Emotional experience and physiological arousal occur at the same time.
B. Emotional experience precedes physiological arousal.
C. Physiological arousal precedes emotional experience.
D. We cannot experience different emotions.
19. According to the James–Lange theory of emotion
A. Emotional experience and physiological arousal occur at the same time.
B. Emotional experience precedes physiological arousal.
C. Physiological arousal precedes emotional experience.
D. We cannot experience different emotions.
E. none of the above.
20. According to the two-factor theory of emotion, emotion equals:
A. Arousal plus intelligence
B. Attribution plus explanation
C. Attribution plus cognition

D. Emotion and cognition
E. Arousal plus cognition
21. In Surah Al-Ma'idah (5:54) Allah describes the characteristics of those who truly love
Him. Which one (s)?
A. Humble toward the believers.
B. Powerful against the disbelievers.
C. They strive in the cause of Allah.
D. Do not fear the blame of a critic.
22. Who said the following statements: “A slave should remain between fear and hope. For
the right and approved kind of fear is that which acts as a barrier between the slave and
the things forbidden by Allah.”
A. Ibn Qayyim
B. Ibn Tamiyyah
C. Imam Ghazali
D. Imam Tahâwi
E. Ibn Sina
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House.
Chapter 11
Drive behaviour
Motivation
Learning outcomes
• Explain the concept of motivation.
• State the differences between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.
• Discuss two theories of motivation, their strengths and limitations.
• Discuss intrinsic motivation from an Islamic perspective.
• Explain the basic concepts associated with Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.
• Discuss the critiques of Maslow’s model from an Islamic perspective.
• Discuss the features of spiritual motivation from an Islamic perspective.
• Give examples of spiritual capital, ethical intelligence, ethical identity, intrinsic-extrin-
sic motivation and intention.
• Discuss one theory of motivation from an Islamic perspective.
What is motivation?
Motivation as a concept is an internal process which is derived from the word “motive.”
The word motive is referred to as needs, goals, desires, wants or drives. It is the process of
a goal-directed behaviour that enables the desire for change, either internal or external. The
expected change may be either in the self or the environment. The classical definition of
motivation is “any internal process that energises, directs, and sustains behaviour” (Reeve,
2016, p.31). However, Baumeister (2016) suggests a much simpler definition of motivation
as “wanting change.” Motivation is inherently close to emotion. Baumeister (2016) high-
lighted the central role of motivation in all spheres of our psychological world as motivation
is driver of cognition, action and emotion. He also holds the view that motivation is primary
to emotion. That is, the occurrence of emotion depends solely on whether the events are moti-
vationally relevant. However, not everyone is motivated, and the term amotivation is used to
describe such individuals.
Amotivation is described as “lack of intentionality and motivation— that is, to describe
the extent to which they are passive, ineffective, or without purpose with respect to any given
set of potential actions” (Ryan and Deci, 2017, p.16). Three types of amotivational behav-
iours have been identified by Ryan and Deci (2017). With the first type there is no activity,
because people think that the goals or objectives are unattainable, or they cannot control the
outcomes. This inability to control outcomes is a form of universal helplessness due to lack
of competence. This may be due to learned helplessness (Seligman and Peterson, 2001), and
conflict with role adequacy. The second type is when people remain amotivated due to lack of
interest, relevance or value rather than mere competence. The individuals have the efficacy or
competence to act, but the outcomes have little relevance or appropriateness in fulfilling their
needs. The final type of amotivation concerns defiance or resistance to a specific act which
motivates the individuals to engage in oppositional behaviour, doing the opposite of what is
one expected to do. It is assumed that people will move from one form to another depending
on their personality, context and control of outcomes.
Extrinsic and intrinsic motivation

Motivation has been categorised as being intrinsic (arising from internal factors) or extrin-
sic (arising from external factors). Extrinsic motivation refers to “Engaging in an activity
with expectations to receive a reward separate from the activity itself, or to accomplish
something to make an impression on others by showing one’s competency” (Hsieh, 2011).
Extrinsic motivation is akin to the behavioural theory of operant conditioning associated
with B.F. Skinner (1963). In the operant model, an association is made between a behaviour
and a consequence for that behaviour (Straddon and Cerutti, 2003). In contrast, intrinsic
motivation “refers to people’s spontaneous tendencies to be curious and interested, to seek
out challenges and to exercise and develop their skills and knowledge, even in the absence
of operationally separable rewards” (Di Domenico and Ryan, 2017). Intrinsic motivation is
a self-directed internal goal for personal satisfaction and reward. The sense of satisfaction
is the behaviour; and the behaviour itself is its own reward (Lee et al., 2012). A question
arises when we have both intrinsic and extrinsic behaviour for undertaking the same activ-
ity. Ryan and Deci (2017) have developed a theoretical framework for an understanding
of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. The self-determination theory (SDT), according to
Ryan and Deci (2017), “is an empirically based, organismic theory of human behaviour and
personality development. SDT’s analysis is focused primarily at the psychological level,
and it differentiates types of motivation along a continuum from controlled to autonomous”
(p.3). This theory is based on the premise that people are not only more or less motivated,
but they can be motivated by intrinsic and by varied types of extrinsic motivations, often
simultaneously.
If it is the case that people use both controlled (extrinsic) motivation and autonomous
(intrinsic) motivation, then what is the evidence that extrinsic motivations have an influence
on intrinsic motivation? For instance, the use of rewards and incentives (extrinsic) has been
found not to decrease intrinsic motivation, even after the incentive was stopped (Czaicki
et al., 2018). This finding indicates that expected or unpredicted external rewards do not influ-
ence the nature of intrinsic motivation. There is also evidence to suggest that the higher the
perceived probability of receiving personal rewards (extrinsic), the higher the intrinsic moti-
vation (Fischer, Malycha and Schafmann, 2019). Praise and reward can help to increase both
extrinsic and intrinsic motivation. The findings from several studies (Henderlong and Lepper,
2002; Hill, 2018) have showed that praise and positive feedback have a significant effect on
intrinsic motivation. There is also the case when rewards or incentives are overloaded for
completing a particular task, and this may decrease intrinsic motivation. The findings from
Warneken and Tomasello’s study (2008) provide evidence “for an overjustification effect in
which extrinsic rewards undermined children’s intrinsic altruistic motivation” (p.46). The
overjustification effect is also supported in the study of Levy et al. (2017). However, the
Eurocentric psychology of intrinsic motivation has been recently called into question regard-
ing its lack of spiritual dimension of motivation.
Drive behaviour 243
Theories of motivation
Despite the enormous effort made in the theory development of motivation, there is no sin-
gle theory of motivation that is universally accepted (Guillen, Ferrero and Hoffman, 2015).
There are several motivational theories that have been developed and categorised, and in this
chapter we will focus on the instinct theory, drive-reduction theory, incentive theory, human-
istic theory (Maslow’s hierarchy of needs) and spiritual theory of motivation.
Instinct theory of motivation

Instinct theory is also called the evolutionary theory of motivation and is based on the prem-
ise that people are programmed with innate biological tendencies that help them to adapt and
survive. People are motivated to behave in certain ways because it is the instincts that drive
all behaviours. These instincts are the result biological or genetic programming of human
behaviour which is the drive for motivation. The concept of instinct was coined by Wilhem
Wundt in 1870s, a term that was used to refer to any repeated behaviour. William McDougall
was one of the first to write about an instinct theory of motivation, which was characterised by
being unlearned, having the uniformity of expression and being universal. Three components
form part of the instinct theory: Perception, behaviour and emotion. A number of instincts
were identified by McDougall, based on the three components, such as maternal instinct,
comfort, sex, hunger, laughter and curiosity. William James was also an important contribu-
tor to early research into motivation, and theorised that behaviour was driven by a number of
instincts. He identified a number of human instincts that included attachment, play, shame,
anger, fear, shyness, modesty and love. Sigmund Freud also suggested that human behav-
iour was driven by two motivation instincts: The life instincts (Eros) and the death instincts
(Thanatos). Mandal (2010) set out criteria by which a behaviour might be considered instinc-
tual: “automatic; irresistible; happens at some point in one’s development; triggered by an
environmental occurrence; happens in each member of the species; unmodifiable; and does
not require training” (p.47). While some behaviours may be considered as instinctual, others
are not. Motivational instincts are not a universal phenomenon, and there are differences in
level of motivation between individuals. The theory does not explain behaviours across dif-
ferent situations and cross-culturally. The theory also fails to consider the role of learning in
shaping the diversity of human behaviours.
The drive-reduction theory

The drive-reduction theory was initially developed by Clark Hull and was a popular theory
to explain learning, behaviour and motivation in the 1950s. The main focus of this theory is
the reduction of drives, the prime factor behind motivational behaviour. Drive, according to
Hull, refers to the state of increased arousal caused by biological needs. Hull’s theory is based
on the concept of homeostasis, which is the tendency of an organism to maintain many of its
internal physiological processes in a certain state of balance or equilibrium within a biologi-
cal system. For example, homeostasis acts like a thermostat in the regulation of body tem-
perature to maintain an equilibrium between hot and cold. Drives are categorised as primary
or secondary. Primary drives are directly related to survival and include thirst, hunger and the
need for warmth, whereas secondary or acquired drives are those that are learned or cultur-
ally determined, such as the drive for social affiliation, intimacy, social approval or to obtain
money. Hull explained that when an individual is in a state of need, for example a person is
hungry or thirsty, his survival is threatened. This would create a tension which needs to be
reduced, and the person will begin to seek out ways to satisfy his biological needs. The limi-
tations of Hull’s drive-reduction theory are that it fails to explain how secondary reinforcers
reduce the biological needs. Another problem with the theory is that it does not provide an
explanation about eating disorders or sexual behaviours.
From an Islamic perspective, Allah has endowed human beings with biological needs pri-
marily for the purpose of self-preservation and survival of the human race. These biological
needs include food, water, shelter and sex. However, the biological drives in aid of survival
need to be fulfilled in accordance with Islamic jurisprudence (the Sharī’ah). However, grati-
tude is a purpose of our creation. The believers always show gratitude to Allah for the favours
that He has provided including health and life. Allah says (interpretation of the meaning):
• Then is He who creates like one who does not create? So will you not be reminded?
And if you should count the favours of Allah, you could not enumerate them. Indeed,
Allah is Forgiving and Merciful. (An-Nahl 16:17–18)
The issue of gratefulness and thankfulness to Allah has been examined in the Qur’an. Allah
reminds us (interpretation of the meaning):
• Be grateful to Allah. And whoever is grateful is grateful for [the benefit of] himself.
(Luqman 31:12)
• And Allah has extracted you from the wombs of your mothers not knowing a thing, and
He made for you hearing and vision and intellect that perhaps you would be grateful.
(An-Nahl 16:78)
The biological need of hunger, and the need to relax and avoidance of heat and cold, tired-
ness and pain are mentioned several times in the Qur’an: Allah says (interpretation of the
meaning):
Regarding hunger:
• Who has fed them, [saving them] from hunger and made them safe, [saving them] from
fear. (Quraysh 106:4)
Regarding the need for sleep and relaxation:
• It is He who made for you the night to rest therein and the day, giving sight. Indeed in
that are signs for a people who listen. (Yunus 10:67)
• And it is He who has made the night for you as clothing and sleep [a means for] rest and
has made the day a resurrection. (Al-Furqan 25:47)
Regarding avoidance of heat and cold, tiredness and pain:
• And Allah has made for you from your homes a place of rest and made for you from
the hides of the animals tents which you find light on your day of travel and your day of
encampment; and from their wool, fur and hair is furnishing and enjoyment for a time.
And Allah has made for you, from that which He has created, shadows and has made
for you from the mountains, shelters and has made for you garments which protect you
Drive behaviour 245
from the heat and garments which protect you from your [enemy in] battle. Thus does
He complete His favour upon you that you might submit [to Him]. (An-Nahl 16:80–81)
The biological need of preserving the human race is fulfilled via sexual relations between a
man and woman within the framework that Islam prescribes. Allah says (interpretation of the
meaning):
(Al-Hujurat 49:13)
There are many injunctions in Islam to reduce the likelihood of sexual needs being met in an
unlawful manner by abstaining from fornication and adultery, and by avoiding the unlawful
mixing between the two sexes. These injunctions are in place to protect both the individual
and the society.
The incentive theory of motivation

The essence of the incentive theory of motivation is that human behaviour is extrinsically
motivated by a desire for reinforcement or incentives. That means it is a reward or incentive
that propels people to perform activities. This theory holds that behaviour is primarily extrin-
sically motivated rather than intrinsically motivated by internal drives. Incentives can be a
reward or punishment to engage an individual into action. Positive incentives fulfil the needs
and satisfaction of the individual. In employment, for instance, bonuses, annual increments
of salary, allowances and promotions are all positive incentives. Whereas negative incentives
threaten the stability of the individual and inflict pain or punishment. This may be demotion
or changing role status.
The incentive theory of motivation is primary a behaviourist approach where positive and
negative reinforcement and punishment are involved.
The limitation of this approach is that people may depend on extrinsic rewards for contin-
ued performance. However, this approach has been used widely in diverse populations and
settings. The findings of studies have showed that the use of incentives has been found to be
very effective in promoting a wide range of socially valuable behaviours, that is, promoting
desirable behaviour by the use of incentives such as privilege, exchange tokens or finan-
cial reward, for instance, changing to desirable behaviour in preventive health care (Bassani
et al., 2013), abstinence from drugs (Lussier et al., 2006), medication adherence (Defulio
and Silverman, 2012), HIV prevention (Operario et al., 2013), smoking cessation (Cahill,
Hartmann-Boyce and Perera, 2015) and health behaviours (Haff et al., 2015).
Islam also has its own incentive approach to motivation, as rewards and punishments are
mentioned often in the Qur’an. In contrast with the modern psychology incentive theory
of motivation, Islamic incentive is based on “delayed gratification,” rather than immediate
gratification. The delayed gratification entails the rewards that Allah has promised in the
hereafter, which the believers earn through the maintenance of self-control, correct beliefs
and righteousness in deeds and actions.
• But as for he who feared the position of his Lord and prevented the soul from [unlawful]
inclination, Then indeed, Paradise will be [his] refuge. (An-Nazi’at 79:40–41)
According to Ibn Kathir,
(But as for him who feared standing before his Lord and forbade himself from desire.)
meaning, he fears the standing before Allah, he fears Allah’s judgement of him, he pre-
vents his soul from following its desires, and he compels it to obey its Master. (Verily
Paradise will be his abode.) meaning, his final abode, his destination, and his place of
return will be the spacious Paradise.
• So Allah will protect them from the evil of that Day and give them radiance and happi-
ness. And will reward them for what they patiently endured [with] a garden [in Paradise]
and silk [garments]. [They will be] reclining therein on adorned couches. They will not
see therein any [burning] sun or [freezing] cold. And near above them are its shades,
and its [fruit] to be picked will be lowered in compliance. And there will be circulated
among them vessels of silver and cups having been [created] clear [as glass], Clear
glasses [made] from silver of which they have determined the measure. And they will
be given to drink a cup [of wine] whose mixture is of ginger. [From] a fountain within
Paradise named Salsabeel. (Al-Insan 76:11–18)
• And when you look there [in Paradise], you will see pleasure and great dominion.
Upon the inhabitants will be green garments of fine silk and brocade. And they will be
adorned with bracelets of silver, and their Lord will give them a purifying drink.[And it
will be said], “Indeed, this is for you a reward, and your effort has been appreciated.”
(Al-Insan 76:11–18)
The greatest delayed gratification and reward in the hereafter will be obtaining the pleasure of
Allah. It is narrated by Abu Saìd Al-Khudri: Allah’s Messenger ( ) said,
Allah will say to the people of Paradise, “O the people of Paradise!” They will say,
“Labbaik, O our Lord, and since You have given us what You have not given to anyone
of Your creation?” Allah will say, “I will give you something better than that.” They
will reply, “O our Lord! And what is better than that?” Allah will say, “I will bestow My
pleasure and contentment upon you so that I will never be angry with you after for-ever.”
(Bukhari)
In fact, the ultimate positive incentive for the believers will be gazing upon the Face of Allah
as He confirms in the Qur’an (interpretation of the meaning):
• [Some] faces, that Day, will be radiant, Looking at their Lord. (Al-Qiyamah 75:22–23)
This verse is also supported by a Hadith. It was narrated that Suhaib said:
The Messenger of Allah ( ) recited this Verse: “For those who have done good is the
best reward and even more.” Then he said: “When the people of Paradise enter Paradise,
and the people of the Fire enter the Fire, a caller will cry out: ‘O people of Paradise!
You have a covenant with Allah, and He wants to fulfil it.’ They will say: ‘What is it?
Has Allah not made the Balance (of our good deeds) heavy, and made our faces bright,
and admitted us to Paradise and saved us from Hell?’ Then the Veil will be lifted, and
Drive behaviour 247
they will look upon Him, and by Allah, Allah will not give them anything that is more
beloved to them or delightful, than looking upon Him.”
(Ibn Majah)
Negative reinforcement and punishment have been described in the Qur’an for disbelievers.
Allah has provided many warnings in the Qur’an about deviating from the path of Allah and
His Messenger ( ). Allah says in the Qur’an (Interpretation of the meaning):
• And indeed, for those who have wronged is a punishment before that, but most of them
do not know. (At-Tur 52:47)
• Indeed, those who disbelieve in Our verses – We will drive them into a Fire. Every time
their skins are roasted through, We will replace them with other skins so they may taste
the punishment. Indeed, Allah is ever Exalted in Might and Wise. (An-Nisa 4:56)
• Indeed, We have prepared for the wrongdoers a fire whose walls will surround them.
And if they call for relief, they will be relieved with water like murky oil, which scalds
[their] faces. Wretched is the drink, and evil is the resting place. (Al-Kahf 18:29)
According to Abu Bakr Al-Hisni (2020),
There is no doubt that the punishment in the Hereafter shall be enduring given the per-
manency of its cause; that is harbouring the intention to hold on to disbelief. There is
no doubt that had the disbelievers lived forever, they would have held on to disbelief.
Similarly, the believer deserves to abide in Paradise eternally for the same reason.
The system of reward and punishment is clear in the Qur’an for the believers and disbe-
lievers. So the true motivation of the believers is to be righteous, to have hope and fear of
Allah and to accomplish the tasks on earth to be rewarded in the hereafter. Utz (2011) has
suggested that
For further effectiveness in enhancing the motivation of humans, Allah has arranged a
system of recording—akin to a behaviour management system—in which an ongoing
account is maintained. This is knowledge that He could have kept hidden, but in His
wisdom, He revealed it to humankind in order to motivate us to do good. He also created
angels who record our deeds. Each of us has two angels who are always present, who
accurately record every minute detail.
(p.143)
So, there is a check and balance of our deeds. The incentives are there, but we have a choice
in either choosing material incentives or spiritual incentives.
Humanistic theory of motivation

One of the most popular humanistic theories of motivation that has been used in almost every
field of social and management sciences is Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, which
presents different motivations at different levels. Maslow’s theory is based on the premise
that humans are motivated by needs that are hierarchically ranked that span the spectrum of
Figure 11.1 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.
motives including the biological, social, psychological and higher needs. These needs are
often depicted as a pyramid comprising a five-tier model of human needs. Figure 11.1 rep-
resents Maslow’s hierarchy of needs model. The first four levels of Maslow’s hierarchy of
needs are often referred to as deficiency needs (D-needs). These are essential needs, and if
individuals are deprived of those biological, social and psychological needs, then individu-
als will be motivated to seek and fulfil those needs. In other words, if there is a deficiency,
this creates a tension which is the driving force to motivate people. The self-actualisation
component which is the top level is known as growth or being needs (B-needs). This is a
linear model where lower needs have to be met before reaching the higher, more complex
needs.
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is a motivational theory in psychology often depicted as
hierarchical levels within a pyramid which house the five different needs components. The
first two levels are biological in nature, the third level, psychosocial, the fourth level psycho-
logical and cognitive and the last level is the existential level. At the base of the pyramid are
all of the physiological needs that are necessary for survival. These include air, food, drink,
shelter, clothing, warmth, sex, sleep. These are basic needs as the human body cannot func-
tion optimally without these biological needs. Once physiological needs are satisfied, people
tend to become concerned about safety needs. Are they safe from danger, pain or an uncertain
future? At this stage they will be motivated to direct their behaviour toward obtaining shelter
and protection in order to satisfy this need. The next stage is the safety and security needs.
This is the protective need that becomes salient once the physiological needs are satisfied.
Drive behaviour 249
This may include law and order, freedom from fear, social stability, property, health and
wellbeing, emotional security and financial security.
The next phase, the needs for love and belongingness, is social and involves feelings
of belongingness and being affiliated. These include social attachments, bonding, need to
be accepted and love, social, familial and interpersonal relationships, intimacy and trust.
The esteem needs are the fourth level which Maslow classified into two categories: (1) self-
esteem and (2) the need for respect and status. That is, there is the desire to be accepted,
valued and approved by others. Finally, the last stage is self-actualisation needs which focus
on growth and personal development and the realisation of a person’s potential. This is the
ultimate utopian stage in seeking self-fulfilment and self-actualisation. That is a desire “to
become everything one is capable of becoming” (Maslow, 1987, p.64). It seems as though
self-actualisation is a continuing life-long process; only a small percentage of people actually
achieve a self-actualised state (Francis and Kritsonis, 2006).
Initially, Maslow (1943) suggested that the lower needs like the biological or safety needs
have to be fulfilled before progressing on to meet higher level needs and eventually the
growth needs. Maslow stated that “At once other (and ‘higher’) needs emerge and these,
rather than physiological hungers, dominate the organism. And when these in turn are satis-
fied, again new (and still “higher”) needs emerge and so on. This is what we mean by saying
that the basic human needs are organized into a hierarchy of relative prepotency” (Maslow,
1943, p.375). Maslow (1987) refined his theory over a period of time and later revised his
original version of the five-level hierarchy of needs and proposed that the order in the hierar-
chy “is not nearly as rigid” (p.68) as he may have implied in his earlier description. That is, an
individual does not require that his “need must be satisfied 100 percent before the next need
emerges” (1987, p.69). Maslow’s five-level hierarchy of needs was expanded to include cog-
nitive and aesthetic needs (Maslow, 1970a) and later transcendence needs (Maslow, 1970b).
Maslow included the cognitive needs in his hierarchy because humans had the need to
expand knowledge so as to have a better understanding of the world around them. This is about
being curious and inquisitive in order to try to solve problems. Aesthetic needs are a human
desire involved in the search for beauty and its form in the environment. Transcendence needs
are the pillar of existential experiences or the cosmology of human consciousness. This could
be in the form of mystical experiences, dream experiences and revelation. What motivates
the individual behaviour, according to this theory, is not the tension of one level but that “any
behaviour tends to be determined by several or all of the basic needs simultaneously rather
than by only one of them” (Maslow 1987, p.71). Despite the popularity of Maslow’s hierar-
chy of needs, there are inherent limitations in his methodological approach of biographical
analysis and bias sampling in his study of self-actualisers. In addition, the linear approach of
Maslow’s hierarchy concerns the assumption that the lower needs must be satisfied before
a person can achieve peak experiences and self-actualise. In reality, in many cultures, lower
needs do not have to be fulfilled in order to reach the higher level of the growth needs. This is
supported by the findings of a study by Tay and Diener (2011) that across cultures universal
human needs appear to exist but the ordering of the needs within the hierarchy was invalid.
Muslim scholars’ perception of Maslow’s model

This is a brief review of Muslim scholars’ perception of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. From
a historical viewpoint, it is worth noting that the 12th-century Islamic scholar and philoso-
pher, Fakhr al-Dīn al Rāzī, preceded Maslow in his theory of needs (Choudhury, 1999). In
Al-Rāzī’s model, the hierarchy of needs begins with fulfilment of obedience to Allah and is
a continuum as opposed to a hierarchy. From the 9th century onward and during the Golden
Age of Islam, Islamic scholars have examined human motivation, but this narrative has been
absent in Judeo-Christian psychology narratives. Some contemporary authors have discussed
the humanistic approach to psychology rather than examining Maslow’s approach from an
Islamic perspective. I have selected only those referring to Maslow’s approach to motivation.
Rajab (1997) asserted that Maslow’s “Theory of Metamotivation” is akin “in every way,
like the spiritual dimension of most religious teachings” but is bound by the constraints of
“cultural taboos of the scientific community in which he functions.” Rajab went on to suggest
that He [Maslow] “thus imposes on the reader his unwarranted and unsubstantiated denial
of anything of a supernatural nature. He gives us mere assertions in this particular respect,
without ever proving them” (p.44). What Rajab was suggesting is that Maslow denied the
metaphysical and supernatural phenomenon of nature and was handicapped by adopting the
Western scientific paradigm which is devoid of the soul and spirituality.
The paper by Alias and Samsudin (2005) took a more critical view of Maslow’s hierar-
chy of needs. The limitation of Maslow’s approach is the “lack of the inclusion of religion
as a basic human need” (p.10). The model also fails to explain for instance, the Prophet’s
( ) Companions’ motivated behaviour in giving priority “to go for Jihad fi sabilillah (war
in the path of Allah) because religion is prioritised over life” (p.10). Alias and Samsudin
(2005) considered Maslow’s model as relevant but the principles of “Maqāṣid al-Sharī‘ah”
(the objectives of Islamic law) should be used to explain the hierarchy of needs. The beauty
of the theory of “Maqāṣid al-Sharī‘ah” the authors claimed is its flexibility in interpretation
compared to Maslow’s theory.
It would be an added value to this discussion to view the observation made by Dr Jasser
Auda (2008), who is the Executive Director of the Maqasid Institute, on Maslow’s hierarchy
of needs. He writes:
I find the levels of necessity reminiscent of the twentieth century’s Abraham Maslow’s
hierarchy of human (rather than “divine”) objectives or “basic goals,” which he called,
“hierarchy of needs.” Human needs, according to Maslow, range from basic physiologi-
cal requirements and safety, to love and esteem, and, finally, “self-actualisation.” In
1943, Maslow suggested five levels for these needs. Then, in 1970, he revised his ideas
and suggested a seven level hierarchy. The similarity between Al-Shatibi’s theory and
Maslow’s theory in terms of the levels of goals is interesting. Moreover, the second
version of Maslow’s theory reveals another interesting similarity with Islamic “goal”
theories, which is the capacity to evolve.
(p.8)
The aforementioned contents imply that Islamic scholars including Al-Shatibi and Al-Ghazâlî
have based human needs on a hierarchy which is analogous to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.
Imam Abû Ishâq Al-Shatibi (2013), prominent scholar, categorises these universal higher
objectives known as Maqāṣid al-Sharī‘ah. These five objectives are the preservation of the
self, the preservation of reason, the preservation of religion, the preservation of property/
monetary and the preservation of lineage. According to Al-Shatibi (1997), the benefits
derived from the higher objectives of Islamic law are based on three levels: Daruriyyat (basic
or essential needs), Hajiyyat (exigencies, support/complimentary needs) and Tahsiniyyat
Drive behaviour 251
Table 11.1 Al-Syatibi’s levels of needs
Levels of needs Description Maintenance
Daruriyyat Basic or primary needs. Religion (hifdz al-din).

Spiritual and materials well-being. Protecting the soul (hifdz
These needs must be fulflled to derive the al-nafs).
benefts of the world and the hereafter. If Nurturing reason (hifdz al-‘aql).
these needs are not met, human behaviours protecting offspring (hifdz
will be restricted or disturbed. The human al-nasl).
will lose pleasure and will feel a clear loss in Keeping up properties (hifdz
the hereafter (Al-Syatibi 1:6). almal).
Hajjiyyah Secondary or support/complementary needs. Relief law (rukhshah): Mandates
The absence of Hajjiyyah: They do not threaten several laws when it is
the human’s safety, but the individual will diffcult to carry out the
experience diffculties. commands of Shar’īah.
Tahsiniyyah Complementary or additional needs to Convenience and pleasure to
Daruriyyat and Hajjiyyah. human life.
Adapted from Al-Syatibi (1997); Diallela and Ahmad Khilmy bin Abdul Rahimb (2020); Al-Qaradawi (1993); Masri
et al. (2017).
(embellishments, comfort/desirable needs). Table 11.1 provides an overview of Al-Shatibi’s

levels of needs.
These above statements are the rationale for Auda’s (2008) observations of the similarities
between Al-Shatibi’s theory and Maslow’s theory in terms of the levels of goals and potential
to evolve or for growth and development.
Bouzenita and Boulanouar’s (2016) paper examined an Islamic critical analysis of
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. They stated that the use of Maslow’s model of the hierarchy
of needs is common in many academic specialisations. After a brief review of the model,
different critiques are examined. One missing component of the model is spiritual aspects
of human existence. Bouzenita and Boulanouar (2016) argued that “Although Maslow calls
for spirituality, he was doubtless aware that within secular materialist Western academic
scholarship his call would not be taken up.” And they went on to suggest that “Maslow’s
locus of ‘spirituality’ as a source has not been pursued with any real vigour in the literatures”
(p.68). The article describes the diverse perception of Islamic scholars towards the model.
The authors do not offer critiques on the nature and use of the model themselves but echo the
critiques of the Islamic scholars and authors. Some of these critiques from the Islamic circles
could have been avoided due to their repetitions of criticism from available literature. In addi-
tion, a couple of Muslim authors brought nothing new to the debate. The authors concluded
that attempts at harmonising the model with the higher objectives Maqāṣid of the Sharī’ah
“do not do justice to either model” (p.59).
Spirituality and motivation

During the last few decades most of the theories of motivation have been expanded in order
to provide integrated motivation models to broaden our understanding of the concept of moti-
vation. However, most of the theories and models have either minimised or neglected the
importance of the spiritual dimension of motivation. Spirituality has been defined in many
different ways, secular and non-secular, and there is little consensus about it. Spirituality has
been referred to as “an actualising tendency that directs an individual towards knowledge,
love, meaning, hope, transcendence, connectedness, and compassion … creativity, growth,
and the development of a value system” (Miller, 1999, p.499). Spirituality may also be defined
as “the journey to find a sustainable, authentic, meaningful, holistic and profound understand-
ing of the existential self and its relationship/interconnectedness with the sacred and the trans-
cendent” (Karakas, 2010, p.91). In a more direct way, spirituality is simply “a search for inner
identity, connectedness, and transcendence” (Zsolnai and Bouckaert, 2011, p.7). Religion, as
a concept, is perceived by many (in the West) as not being interchangeable with spirituality. In
this context, the concept of spirituality has a broader meaning than religion and encompasses
philosophical ideas about life, its meaning and purpose (Dyson et al., 1997). Rassool (2000)
maintained that, in the West, there is an inherent difficulty in the synergy of spirituality and
religious beliefs. In Islam, there is no distinction between religion and spirituality as the con-
cept of religion is embedded in the umbrella of spirituality. Spirituality is an integral and vital
element in the lives of many individuals. Human nature is not only based on biopsychosocial
needs but also has a spiritual dimension. It is the values, goals and motivation that serve to
create a purpose of living for any individual (Shafranske and Sperry, 2005).
Spiritual model of motivation

Spiritual motivation is one aspect of motivation that focuses on prioritising the moral good
and implementing ethical actions over other behavioural goals. Utz (2011) suggested that
the spiritual motivation within us is an innate aspect of our being, and its fulfilment is our
ultimate objective in life. This motive, or drive, compels us to reflect upon God and His
creation, our purpose in life, and our final destiny. It directs us to acknowledge Allah as
our Creator and Sustainer, and to worship and thank Him for the blessings that He has
bestowed upon us.
(p.133)
In this section, we will examine the taxonomies of the spiritual model of motivation from
an Islamic perspective. These include intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, spiritual capital and
ethical intelligence which form the basis of the spiritual model of motivation. Figure 11.3
depicts the model of spiritual motivation.
Hill and Pargament (2008) suggested that the nature of humans’ spiritual motivation and
religiosity can not only be explained by intrinsic motivations but also extrinsic motivations.
An interesting proposition is that both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation represent intention-
ally caused actions (Ryan and Deci, 2017). That is, the basis of every action of human beings
are based on their intention of both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Intention (Niyyāh)
is one of the most important principles in the religion of Islam and an essential component
influencing both deeds and actions. The meaning of intention (Niyyāh) and its derivatives is
found in the Qur’an. Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawziyyah (a) defined intention “as the knowledge of
a doer of what he is doing and what is the purpose behind (this action)” (p.104). From an
Islamic jurisprudence (Fiqh) position, intention (Niyyāh) refers to “the intent in the heart
that must accompany and precede any act of worship” (Zarabozo, 2008, p.104). From an
Drive behaviour 253
Figure 11.2 Model of knowledge and action (Rassool 2020).
Islamic perspective, it is the heart that is the hub of all our motivations, emotions, desires,
remembrance, attention and intellect. It is the heart that governs the soul. Thus, intrinsic and
extrinsic motivation are embedded with words like volition (al-iraada), purpose (al-qasd)
and determination (al-azm). According to Zarabozo (2008), all these terminologies entail
“they want to do or not to do something specific” and indicate both knowledge and action
(p.98). Zaraboso (2008) explained this as follows:
First there must be knowledge of the act that one wants to fulfil. Then the action must
follow, as long as there are no preventative factors. In fact, no action will be completed
unless it has three components: knowledge of the act, want to do the act and ability to
do the act.
(pp.106–107)
Figure 11.2 shows a representation of this model .

Imam Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawziyyah (b) explains that in a person’s life, every action they
take has a purpose toward some aim or goal. He categorises these goals into intrinsic (murād
li-nafsih) and extrinsic (murād li-ghayrih). He suggests that it is the extrinsic goals that are
sought after because they will bring about another desired goal (p.68). According to Abdul-
Rahman (2018),
An intrinsic goal is the ultimate Truth that organises all extrinsic goals. It represents
the purpose of your life. It unifies all a person’s aims to provide clarity, meaning, and
purpose to all a person’s pursuits. This unification of life’s pursuits under one ultimate
purpose is the essence of the Unification of the Divine (Tawḥīd).
Figure 11.3 A model of spiritual motivation (Rassool, 2020).
The principle of intention is based on the notion that any action or deed that is performed
has an intention to it, and the basis of any good deed. In order for any action or deed (with
intention) to be accepted and thus rewarded by God, it must be done purely for the sake of
God. This is termed the “purity of intention.” There is a famous Hadith that fully explains
what intention in Islam means. It is narrated on the authority of Amir al-Mu’minin (Leader
of the Believers), Abu Hafs ‘Umar bin al-Khattab who said: I heard the Messenger of Allah
( ) say:
Surely, all actions are but driven by intentions, and verily every man shall have but that
which he intended. Thus, he whose migration was for Allah and His messenger, the
migration will be for the sake of Allah and his Messenger. And he whose migration was
to achieve some worldly benefit or to marry a woman, then his migration will be for the
sake of whatever he migrated for.
(Bukhari and Muslima)
This particular Hadith of the Prophet ( ) is one of the most important principles in the reli-
gion of Islam, specifically as it touches upon almost every deed in Islam. The key principles
discussed in this Hadith are purity of intention and sincerity. According to Zaraboso (2008),
“every conscious ‘free willed’ act has an intention behind it that is driving it and bring it
about.” But “it is not sufficient for the motive to be pure and then the deed itself not to be
correct according to the Sharī’ah” (p.148).
some scholars including Ibn Jareer At-Tabari, and Abu Taalib Al-Makki agree that
“action” in this Hadith covers all aspects of our lives. This means any deed, does not
matter how mundane it seems, done with an intention of pleasing Allah and according to
Sharī’ah can become an Ibadah [worship] for us.
(Wordpress.com, 2014a)
Drive behaviour 255
This principle is also reflected in the Hadith of the Prophet ( ) narrated by Abu Dharr:
Some people said to Messenger of Allah ( ) “O Messenger of Allah, the rich have
taken away (all the) reward. They observe Salat (prayers) as we do; and give Sadaqah
(charity) out of their surplus wealth.” Upon this he (the Prophet ( )) said, “Has Allah
not prescribed for you (a course) following which you can (also) give Sadaqah? In every
declaration of the glorification of Allah (i.e., saying Subhan Allah) there is a Sadaqah,
and in every Takbir (i.e., saying Allahu Akbar) is a Sadaqah, and in every celebration
of praise (saying Al-hamdu lillah) is a Sadaqah, and in every declaration that He is One
(La ilaha illallah) is a Sadaqah, and in enjoining of good is a Sadaqah, and in forbidding
evil is a Sadaqah, and in man’s sexual intercourse (with his wife) there is a Sadaqah.”
They (the Companions) said: “O Messenger of Allah, is there reward for him who satis-
fies his sexual need among us?” He said, “You see, if he were to satisfy it with something
forbidden, would it not be a sin on his part? Similarly, if he were to satisfy it legally, he
should be rewarded”.
(Muslim (a))
It is worth pointing out that an action that is performed has two components: The action itself
and the motivation or intent behind it. Both of them should be acceptable and morally good.
On the hypothesis that intrinsic or extrinsic motivation is operated when undertaking deeds
for the sake of God, with the purity of intention, the modus operandi reflects the internal
aspect of individuals, rooted in spiritual motivation. This essence of spiritual motivation only
seeks delayed gratification for the hereafter.
From an Islamic perspective, spiritual capital is referred to as spiritual knowledge, beliefs
and practices in accordance with Islamic theology that is demonstrated in intentional and
behavioural actions. It is an integration of an individual’s ethical intelligence, set beliefs,
attitudes, cognition and personality characteristics. Spiritual capital is likely to govern the
intrinsic/extrinsic–intention and ethical intelligence–ethical identity paradigms. Two main
concepts are entrenched in the conceptual framework of spiritual capital: Belief (Iman) and
God consciousness (Taqwa). Iman (faith or belief) is to believe in something. To have faith
means unconditional acceptance without proof or argument, without reference to cognition or
rationality, and knowledge or insight. Allah gives a comprehensive and an objective defini-
tion of Iman in the Qur’an (interpretation of the meaning):
• Righteousness is one who believes in Allah, the Last Day, the Angels, the Book, and the
Prophets. (Al-Baqarah 2:177)
Faith is broken down into six maxims (known as Arkān al-īmān): Belief in the existence
and oneness of God (Allah); belief in the existence of angels; belief in the existence of the
books of which God is the author: the Qur’an (revealed to Muhammad ( ), the Gospel
(revealed to Jesus), the Torah (revealed to Moses) and Psalms (revealed to David); belief in
the existence of all Prophets: Muhammad ( being the last of them; belief in the existence
of the Day of Judgement; and belief in the existence of God’s predestination. Abu Hurairah
reported:
One day the Messenger of Allah ( ) appeared before the public that a man came
to him and said: Prophet of Allah, “Inform me about Iman.” He (the Messenger of
Allah) answered, “It is that you believe in Allah and His angels and His Books and His
Messengers and in the Last Day, and in Qadar (fate), both in its good and in its evil
aspects.”
(Muslim (b))
The second concept is Taqwa, an Islamic term meaning God consciousness, cognisance of
God or piety, fear of God. According to Tafsir ibn Kathir, the root meaning of Taqwa is to
avoid what one dislikes. It is reported that the pious predecessors described Taqwa
to be like a bird flying to Allāh Subhanahu-wa-Ta’ala. The body of the bird is ‘ilm
[knowledge], the head is love, the wings are hope and fear. Taqwa, therefore, consist of
four fundamental elements: 1) knowledge, 2) love, 3) hope and 4) fear.
(Wordpress.com, 2014b)
According to Imam Ibn Al-Qayyim Al-Jawziyyah (c), there are three levels of Taqwa:
• The first: Protecting the heart and limbs from sins and all forbidden matters.
• The second: Protecting the heart and limbs from disliked matters.
• The third: Protecting oneself from the curiosity and what does not concern him.
The first gives the servant his life, the second gives him health and strength and the third
enables him to gain happiness, contentment and light. “The Messenger of Allah ( ) said,
‘Taqwa is here,’ and he pointed to his chest” (Muslim (c)). It was reported that Umar bin
al-Khattaab (may Allah be pleased with him) asked Ubay ibn Kaàb (may Allah be pleased
with him) about Taqwa. Ubay said: “Have you ever walked on a path that has thorns on it?”
Umar said: “Yes.” Ubay said: “What did you do then?” He said: “I rolled up (my garment)
and struggled (through the path).” Ubay said: “That is Taqwa.” Muadh ibn Jabal (may Allah
be pleased with him) says, “On the Day of Judgement, it will be announced: ‘Where are the
ones who had Taqwa?’ So they (one with Taqwa) will stand up from under the Shelter of
The Compassionate. Allah will not be invisible to them.” People asked Muadh who the ones
with Taqwa are. He replied, “Those who stay away from shirk and worshiping idols and then
purify their religion for Allah.” Finally, according to Ahmad (2020)
Taqwa should not be considered confined to certain visible rituals such as regular obser-
vance of prayer (Salah) or fasting (Saum) but a 360-degree observance of virtue, morality
and manners (Akhlaq) and etiquette (Adab) based on oneness of God (Tawheed), justice
(Adl), human dignity, promotion of life etc, on total human behaviour as individual, a
member of family or a member of society and a member of global community (Ummah).
Rassool’s spiritual model is still under construction and needs further refinements in its theo-
logical and conceptual framework. The secular model of motivation has neglected, if not
omitted entirely, the importance of the ethical and spiritual dimensions of motivation. This
has led to a model of the driving force of human behaviour as amoral, and non-spiritual.
Within the framework of the model of spiritual motivation is the significance of intention
Drive behaviour 257
which is embedded on the intrinsic-extrinsic factors. Intention in the premise of behaviour and
the process by which the believer transforms and creates and puts their vision into practice.
Abdul-Rahman (2018) presented the spiritual foundation of motivation from the work of
Imam Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawziyyah. He reported that Imam Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawziyyah (d)
captured this tension by describing the struggle between the Nafs ammāra bis-sū’ (nature
within our soul that inclines to evil) and the Nafs muṭma’inn (the nature within our soul
that inclines towards a higher existence) in vivid detail.
(p.328)
However, it is beyond the scope of this chapter to examine the self (Nafs). The reality is that
life is both moral and spiritual, which are the determinants of human behaviours.
The second component of the spiritual model of motivation is the spiritual capital. Spiritual
capital is here defined as “a ‘subset’ of social capital and is therefore, the effects of religious
and spiritual practices, beliefs, networks and institutions that have a measurable impact on
individuals, communities and societies” (Hansell, 2006). This definition is broad and encom-
passes both aspects of religious and spirituality beliefs and practices and does not assume a
connection to any particular spirituality or belief system. However, for Berger and Hefner
(2006), spiritual capital is “referring to the power, influence, knowledge, and dispositions
created by participation in a particular religious tradition” (p.3). This definition is more inclu-
sive and embraces the cognitive, social and religious spiritual dimensions of spiritual capital.
Baker and Skinner (2006) talked about “energises religious capital by providing a theological
identity and worshipping tradition” (p.9). Similarly, Baker and Smith (2010) stressed “spir-
itual values and vision for the future that we express in activities such as prayer and worship”
(p.27). Although these foundations were from a Christian orientation, this is also applicable
to Islamic theology. Moreover, Berger and Hefner (2006) observe that “the Islamic example
indicates that, rather than attributing a single form of spiritual capital to a particular religion,
as Weber did, we should recognise that there are competing varieties of spiritual capital
operative within each religion or civilization” (p.5). This means that each denomination and
religion would determine their own spiritual capital according to their creed, ethical behav-
iours and practices. For Muslims it is the Shari’ah (Islamic jurisprudence).
Ethical intelligence, or ethical intrinsic motivation, is the second component of the spir-
itual model of motivation. It is defined as the ability to apply or embody Islamic ethical
standards and espouse Shari’ah values in behavioural decision and daily functioning. As
Ahmad (2020) reminds us
The Islamic paradigm is founded on universal ethics and morality as contained in the
Qur’an and the Sunnah. Ethics and morality in Islam are neither situational nor a product
of local culture. It is Universal, transcendental and objective. Whenever human mind
interacts with divine principles of ethics and morality it leads to development of sub-val-
ues and ways and means of translating divine values in human conduct and behaviour.
He further informs us that
ethical intelligence draws its authenticity from the basic Islamic teachings of Halal [per-
missible] and Haram [forbidden] as well as Taqwa [God-conscious] and Ihsan (excel-
lence) which determine ethical judgment of an individual as well as of a community. It
does not deny role of mind (cognitive aspects) nor of heart (emotions) but applies ethics
and morality i.e. halal and haram as a filter prior to pure intellectual or emotional (amyg-
dala) response.
Ethically intelligent individuals have the knowledge of when and how to behave ethically as
part of the moral good. However, this is not just about using the knowledge of what is per-
missible and morally wrong but having the potential to do what is morally right. Allah, the
Almighty, stated in the Qur’an (interpretation of the meaning):
Prophet Muhammad ( ) also mentioned, in a Hadith narrated by Sa’id Al-Khudri, “enjoin-

ing good and forbidding wrong” (Bukhari and Muslimb (b)). One of the characteristics of
having ethical intelligence is to know and act in enjoining what is right and forbidding what
is wrong. It was narrated that Tariq bin Shihab said:
Abu Sa’eed Al-Khudri said: “I heard the Messenger of Allah ( ) say: Whoever among
you sees an evil and changes it with his hand, then he has done his duty. Whoever is
unable to do that, but changes it with his tongue, then he has done his duty. Whoever is
unable to do that, but changes it with his heart, then he has done his duty, and that is the
weakest of Faith.”
(An Nasa’i)
The Hadith illustrates the role of ethical identity in enjoining what is right and forbidding
what is wrong.
The concept of ethical identity is a hybrid of ethical or moral development and identity
formation. It is assumed ethical identity is embedded in personality traits which enable indi-
viduals to enjoin the moral good in behaviours. It is not our memory capacity or other cogni-
tive abilities that are the determinant of our self-identity, but our moral behaviour is the prime
factor in the development “who one is” or our self-identity (Strohminger and Nichols, 2015).
It has been suggested that our ethical identity is the intersection of nature and nurture which
influences whether and how we perceive ethical problems and respond to them (Haidt, 2013).
Ethical identity is about having ethical sensitivity and making judgements about whether our
cognitions and behaviours in certain actions are right and wrong. Ethical identity is analogous
to moral identity. Moral identity generally refers to “the degree to which being a moral per-
son is important to an individual’s identity” (Hardy and Carlo, 2011, p.212). Ethical identity
is also about being a positive role model and acting as an ethical transformational agent.
Islamic models of motivation

Several models of Islamic motivation have been developed over the past decades. The mod-
els predominantly focus on the integration of Islamic theological texts (Qur’an and Sunnah),
classical Islamic works and Judeo-Christian theories. There are limited studies investigating
Islamic motivation solely through Islamic concepts. Abdul Cader (2016) suggested that exist-
ing scholarship in Islamic motivation has taken four distinct directions:
Drive behaviour 259
(a) analysis of levels of existence (Nafs) through needs theory (Ali, 2009; Nusair, 1985);
(b) studies on Islamic motivation through integration with existing Western models
(Alias and Samsudin, 2005; Saefullah, 2012); (c) Islamic motivation specifically through
the expectancy model (Abdel-Kawi and Kole, 1991; Khan and Sheikh, 2012); and (d)
basic motivator of belief (Imān) and a moderator (patience, piety, repentance, or arousal)
(Alawneh, 1998; Ather et al., 2011; Ghauri, 2011; Zaman et al., 2013).
(p.91)
A selected few of the models of motivation will be briefly examined here. Nusair’s (1985)
work is based on the analysis of levels of existence (Nafs) through needs theory. He refuted
the existence of the hierarchy of needs but suggested that it is the hierarchy of the human
psyche that directs needs. Nusair (1985) proposed three needs: Physiological, spiritual and
mental. He also used the stages of the self which are found in the Qur’an and the work of
classical Islamic scholars. The Nafs are: Al-nafs al-ammārah (evil) (Yusuf 12:53), Al-nafs
al-lawwāmah (self-reproach) (Al-Qiyamah 75:2) and Al-nafs al-muṭma’innah (serenity
and satisfaction) (Al-Fajr 89:27). He maintained that physiological, spiritual and mental
needs correspond to the stages of the Nafs. He cited the narrative of Prophet Joseph (Yusuf)
(Yusuf 12:75) and the woman who tried to seduce him to illustrate as at the stage of Al-nafs
al-ammārah (self’s injunction towards evil) where Prophet Yusuf’s decision-making is based
on the knowledge of the consequences of good and evil. Al-nafs al-lawwāmah (self-reproach)
is related to the moral good of what is right and wrong and this is the stage where repentance
(Tawbah) is conducive. Al-nafs al-muṭma’innah is a state of serenity and satisfaction in that
which Allah, the Almighty, is happy and pleased with. In Maslow’s hierarchy of needs this
is equivalent to the self-actualisation stage. What is prominent in his model is the spiritual
dimension in Islamic motivation which is redundant in Western concepts of motivation.
One can add the work of Rosbi and Sanep (2010), who fit in the category studies on
Islamic motivation through integration with existing Western models. Rosbi and Sanep
(2010) suggested the integration of the higher objectives of Islamic Law (referred to as
“needs”) as stipulated in Maqāṣid al-Sharī‘ah (fulfil five basic needs, namely religion, physi-
cal life, knowledge, family and wealth) and Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. In this model, there
is the integration of these two dimensions which has led to the combination of the needs. For
example, Maslow’s concept of self-actualisation is equated with religion, based on the differ-
ence in ranking awarded to both Maslow’s self-actualisation (ranking last) and “religion” as
a “need” (ranking first) respectively. Other combinations include: Physical self is related to
safety; family is related to self-esteem; knowledge is related to social; and wealth related to
the biological needs. These integrations are difficult to understand, for example, how wealth
is related to physiology or biological needs. One significant factor resulting from this model
is that the combination of religion and self-actualisation is the utmost important need (Rosbi
and Sanep, 2011).
Alias and Samsudin’s (2005) paper examined the Islamic perspective on the psychology
of motivation. In addition, the authors provided various primary and secondary needs based
on Islamic beliefs and practices, integrated various motivation theories to form an Islamic
model of motivation and presented an Islamic motivation model from the biography of the
Prophet ( ).
Alias and Samsudin (2005) based their model on the work of Alawneh (1998) who pro-
posed that motivating factors can be classified into: (1) instincts, (2) incentives, (3) drives,
Theories Questions Moderator
Is it one of the instincts inborn in me?

Instinct
yes
Drive-reduction Do I feel uncomfortable and need to

move to the balanced state?
yes
Arousal Do I feel aroused to do it?
yes Soul
Intrinsic/Extrinsic Do I enjoy doing it? Do I enjoy the

consequences of doing it?
yes
Need hierarchy Have I fulfilled the lower level needs?
yes
Religious Does it fulfill my role as servant and

vicegerent of Allah?
yes
Current State of Motivation
Figure 11.4 The Islamic model of motivation (Alias and Samsudin, 2005).
(4) needs and (5) motives. Alias and Samsudin (2005) examined the biological motives and
psychological motives. They maintain that minimal attention is provided in the motivational
literature on the religious motive.. They suggest adding the element of the soul in order to
give a more comprehensive representation of human motivation. Alias and Samsudin (2005)
develop a model that integrates the self (soul) with Western theories of motivation including
instinct theory, drive reduction theory, arousal theory, intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. Figure 11.4 depicts the Islamic model of motivation.
The development of the model of human motivation, according to the authors, is not based
on past cumulative research but a proposal of a provisional model to guide future develop-
ment and research. The model indicates that different theories may explain motivated behav-
iour at different stages and that it is the self (soul) that moderates each theory in a hierarchical
linear progression or is involved in different types of motivated behaviours. Religious moti-
vation is the highest order in the level of hierarchy (in the diagram it is the lowest rank).
Drive behaviour 261
Alias and Samsudin (2005) use the behaviour of the Ṣaḥābah (Prophet’s companions)
and the application of Jihād (struggles) to explain the Islamic concept of motivation. Abdul
Cader (2016) comments on the usefulness of the model as it only applies Western theories
based on an Islamic perspective. He argues that “The interpretive analysis of Islamic texts
does not align with this integration since the model isolates the self without integrating key
Islamic concepts, such as Imān (faith)” (p.93). Alias and Samsudin’s model remains limited
and incomplete.
Conclusion
The majority of current models of motivation by Islamic scholars are integrated models of
motivation, that is, a blend of traditional, secular theory of motivation that has been Islamised.
Some of them are traditional models but sprinkled with Islamic theological concepts, and oth-
ers are not integrated or derived from Western models. The Islamisation of Western-oriented
models of motivation is challenging due to the absence of the spiritual dimension and the
influence of the soul in motivating behaviour. As Abdul Cader (2016) stated: “Islam provides
a unique spiritual perspective of the relationship of motivators and the self, which Western
models do not capture” (p.86).
The integration of the higher objectives of Islamic Law (Maqāṣid al-Sharī‘ah) with
Maslow’s model is also fraught with difficulties because mixing the two models with differ-
ent orientations and values does not do justice and fairness to both models respectively. More
work needs to be done on a pure model of Islamic motivation revolving on the foundation of
Tawheed (Unicity of God) and the concept of Nafs (self) based on the theological injunctions
of the Qur’ān and Prophetic traditions. Abdul Cader (2016) suggested that
The ultimate goal of Islamic motivation is to guide the Nafs to the state of tranquillity
where the individual, driven by implementation of Tawheed and Īmān, strives for good
and seeks the pleasure of Allah in order to receive reward in this life and the afterlife.
(p.105)
This is a challenge for all interested.

• Motivation as a concept is an internal process which is derived from the word “motive.”
• Motivation is inherently close to emotion.
• Amotivation is described as lack of intentionality and motivation.
• Motivation has been categorised as being intrinsic (arising from internal factors) and
extrinsic motivation (arising from external factors).
• The self-determination theory (SDT) is an empirically based, organismic theory of
human behaviour and personality development.
• Instinct theory is also called the evolutionary theory of motivation which is based on the
premise that people are programmed with innate biological tendencies that help them to
adapt and survive.
• The main focus of drive-reduction theory is the reduction of drives that are the prime
factor behind motivational behaviour.
• From an Islamic perspective, Allah has endowed human beings with biological needs
primarily for the purpose of self-preservation and the survival of the human race.
• The biological need of hunger, and the need to relax and the avoidance of heat and cold,
tiredness and pain are mentioned several times in the Qur’an.
• The essence of the incentive theory of motivation is that human behaviour is extrinsi-
cally motivated by a desire for reinforcement or incentives.
• Islam also has its own incentive approach to motivation as rewards and punishments are
mentioned often in the Qur’an.
• The greatest delayed gratification and reward in the hereafter will be obtaining the pleas-
ure of Allah.
• Negative reinforcement and punishment have been described in the Qur’an for
disbelievers.
• Maslow’s theory is based on the premise that humans are motivated by needs that are
hierarchically ranked that span the spectrum of motives including the biological, social,
psychological and higher needs.
• The 12th-century Islamic scholar and philosopher, Fakhr al-Dīn al Rāzī, preceded
Maslow in his theory of needs.
• The limitation of Maslow’s approach is the “lack of the inclusion of religion” as a basic
human need.
• Imam al-Shatibi, there are there vital needs or motives categorised as Daruriyyat (basic
or essential needs), Hajiyyat (exigencies, support/complimentary needs) and Tahsiniyyat
(embellishments, comfort/desirable needs).
• Intention (Niyyāh) is one of the most important principles in the religion of Islam and an
essential component influencing both deeds and actions.
• Spiritual motivation is one aspect of motivation that focuses on prioritising the moral
good and implementing ethical actions over other behavioural goals.
• From an Islamic perspective, it is the heart that is the hub of all our motivations, emo-
tions, desires, remembrance, attention and intellect.
• Iman (faith or belief) is to believe in something.
• The second concept is Taqwa, an Islamic term meaning God consciousness, cognisance
of God or piety, fear of God.
• Ethical intelligence, or ethical intrinsic motivation, is the second component of the spir-
itual model of motivation.
• Ethical intelligence is defined as the ability to apply or embody Islamic ethical standards
and espoused values (Shari’ah) in behavioural decisions and daily functioning.
• In Islamic psychology motivation has taken four distinct directions: Analysis of lev-
els of existence (Nafs); studies on Islamic motivation through integration with exist-
ing Western models; Islamic motivation specifically through the expectancy model; and
basic motivator of belief (Imān) and a moderator (patience, piety, repentance or arousal).
1. Motivation is
A. A component of ability
B. Personal traits and desire
C. An attitudinal trait
D. An internal process which is derived from the word “motive”
Drive behaviour 263
2. Which type of motivation is associated with activities that are rewarding or satisfying in
themselves?
A. State motivation
B. Intrinsic motivation
C. Trait motivation
D. Extrinsic motivation
E. Ethical traits
3. The self-determination theory falls into which school of thought?
A. Humanistic
B. Behavioural
C. Cognitive
D. Social-cognitive
E. Experiential
4. Meeting all of Maslow’s needs should result in which of the following?
A. Unconditional positive regard
B. Self-actualisation
C. Loci on control
D. Self-efficacy
E. Biological needs
5. Which of the following contains an aspect that would not fall into the category of basic
needs?
A. Water and rest
B. Security and warmth
C. Intimate relationships
D. Food and water
E. Safety and security
6. Which is the correct order of needs according to Maslow’s hierarchy?
A. Physiological, safety, belongingness, esteem, self-actualisation
B. Safety, physiological, love, self-actualisation, esteem
C. Physiological, safety, self-actualisation, respect, belongingness
D. Love, self-actualisation, respect, physiological, safety
7. Which theory of human motivation proposes that humans seek homeostasis and avoid
disequilibrium?
A. Attribution theory
B. Drive theory
C. Goal theory
D. Self-determination theory
E. Incentive theory
8. Which one in incorrect? The features of amotivational behaviours have been identified
as:
A. There is activity because people do think that the goals or objectives are attainable.
B. This inability to control outcomes is a form of universal helplessness due to lack of
competence.
C. When people remain amotivated due to lack of interest, relevance or value rather
than mere competence.
D. The individuals have the efficacy or competence to act but the outcomes have little
relevance or appropriateness in fulfilling their needs.
E. Concerns defiance or resistance to a specific act which motivates the individuals to

engage in oppositional behaviour.
9. Motivation that is due to factors within individuals or inherent to the task is called:
A. Amotivation.
B. Extrinsic motivation.
C. Intrinsic motivation.
D. Behavioural motivation
E. Effective motivation
10. Which criticism of instinct theory is incorrect?
A. Instincts can’t explain all behaviours.
B. Instincts are not something that can be readily observed.
C. Does nothing to explain why some behaviours appear in certain instances but not
in others.
D. A and B only.
E. Instincts can be tested.
11. The drive reduction theory was developed by
A. B.F. Skinner
B. Clark Hull
C. A. Maslow
D. W. McDougall
E. S. Freud
12. A theory of motivation stating that behaviour is directed toward attaining desirable stim-
uli and avoiding unwanted stimuli.
A. Drive reduction theory
B. Instinct theory
C. Incentive theory
D. Optimal arousal theory
E. Spiritual theory
13. A theory of motivation stating that motivation arises from imbalances in homeostasis.
A. Optimal arousal theory
B. Instinct theory
C. Drive reduction theory
D. Incentive theory
E. Recessive theory
14. A view that explains human behaviour as motivated by automatic, involuntary and
unlearned responses.
A. Drive reduction theory
B. Instinct theory
C. Optimal arousal theory
D. Incentive theory
E. Intrinsic theory
15. For Muslims, the ultimate positive incentive for the believers is
A. Delayed gratification
B. Immediate reward
C. Gazing upon the Face of Allah
D. Promise of paradise
E. All sins will be removed
Drive behaviour 265
16. A 12th-century Islamic scholar and philosopher, preceded Maslow in his theory of needs.
A. Fakhr al-Dīn al Rāzī
B. Ibn Sina
C. Marmaduke Picktall
D. Ibn Qayyim
E. Ibn Tamiyyah
17. Which one is correct? The limitations of Maslow’s approach from an Islamic perspective
are:
A. Lack of the inclusion of religion
B. Denied the supernatural phenomena of nature
C. Denied the metaphysical phenomena of nature
D. Handicapped by adopting Western scientific paradigm
E. All of the above
18. Imam Al-Shatibi stated that vital needs or motives are categorised as
A. Essentials
B. Exigencies
C. Embellishments
D. All of the above
E. A and B only
19. Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation are embedded with words like
A. Volition (al-iraada)
B. Purpose (al-qasd)
C. Determination (al-azm)
D. A and B only
E. All of the above
20. The spiritual model of motivation includes the following except:
A. Intrinsic motivation
B. Incentive motivation
C. Spiritual capital
D. Ethical intelligence
E. Ethical identity
21. In order for any action or deed (with intention) to be accepted and thus rewarded by God,
it must be done purely for the sake of God. This is termed
A. Purity of intention
B. Sincere intention
C. Purity of Brethren
D. Unity of intention
E. Genuine intention
22. According to Imam Ibn Al-Qayyim Al-Jawziyyah, the levels of Taqwa include
A. Protecting the heart and limbs from sins and all forbidden matters
B. Protecting the heart and limbs from disliked matters
C. Protecting oneself from the curiosity and what does not concern him
D. A and C
E. A, B and C
23. The characteristics of spiritual capital are
A. A “subset” of social capital
B. The effects of religious and spiritual practices, beliefs, networks and institutions
C. Referring to the power, influence, knowledge and dispositions created by participa-

tion in a particular religious tradition
D. That do not have a measurable impact on individuals and communities
E. Spiritual values and vision for the future that we express in activities such as prayer
and worship
24. Ethical intelligence draws its authenticity from the basic Islamic teachings except
A. Halal (permissible)
B. Haram (forbidden)
C. Fitra (innate nature to believe in Oneness of God)
D. Taqwa (God-conscious)
E. Ihsan (excellence)
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Chapter 12
Prosocial behaviour
Altruism and helping behaviours
Learning outcomes
• Compare and contrast altruism and reciprocal altruism.
• Discuss one of the theories of altruistic behaviour.
• Explain altruistic behaviour from an Islamic perspective.
• Describe the degree of altruism from the work of Imam Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawziyyah.
• Explore the difference between helping and altruistic behaviours.
• Describe the different types of health behaviours.
• Discuss helping behaviours from an Islamic perspective.
• Review Latané and Darley’s decision model of helping and indicate the social psycho-
logical variables that influence each stage.
• Outline some of the research studies on the relationship between religiosity and proso-
cial behaviours.
Altruism
Calamities and disasters often bring people together as a cohesive group and people start
acting out of concern for the welfare and health of others. In dire circumstances, people
show empathy and have a desire to help and support others. This is what is known as altru-
ism or altruistic behaviours. It was the 19th-century French philosopher Auguste Comte
who coined the word “altruism” from French, as “altruisme,” for an antonym of egoism to
denote an ethical doctrine that places great value on helping others accomplish their goals
(Compte, 1875). The Online Etymology Dictionary defines it as “unselfishness, devotion
to the welfare of others, opposite of egoism.” The International Encyclopedia of the Social
Sciences (Darity Jr., 2008) defines psychological altruism as “a motivational state with the
goal of increasing another’s welfare.” Trivers (1971) defined altruistic behaviour as “behav-
ior that benefits another organism, not closely related, while being apparently detrimental to
the organism performing the behavior, benefit and detriment being defined in terms of con-
tribution to inclusive fitness” (p.35). Another definition of altruism refers to any behaviour
that is designed to increase another person’s welfare, and particularly those actions that do
not seem to provide a direct reward to the person who performs them (Dovidio et al., 2006).
All the above definitions have some common themes: Helping, devotion to the welfare of
others, increasing others’ welfare and no reward expected. This is in contrast with egoism
whose goal is to increase one’s own welfare. In true cases of altruism, people put their life
or health in danger in order to help others without any form of reward or gratification. For
Prosocial behaviour 271
instance, this is clearly seen amongst healthcare and other workers during the COVID-19
pandemic.
However, sometimes people will help and support others with the expectation that they
offer help in return or they get some form of reward or gratification. This is known as recipro-
cal altruism (Trivers, 1971; Cortes and Dweck, 2014). Reciprocal altruism refers to the idea
that, if we help other people now, there is an expectation that they will return the favour in
our time of need. That is, there is an exchange of benefits for both sides. From evolutionary
psychology, reciprocal altruism is the basis of helping others for the reproductive success and
survival of the human species. It has been suggested that the parts of the brain that are most
involved in empathy, altruism and helping are the amygdala and the prefrontal cortex, areas
that are responsible for emotion and emotion regulation (Lieberman, 2010).
Why does altruism exist?

Psychologists and philosophers have long argued about the reasons for the existence of altru-
istic behaviours. There are two different ideologies about its existence. One approach is that
if people help and support others without the expectation of a reward, it is an act of self-
lessly doing the moral good. In contrast, it is argued that altruistic behaviour has an ulterior
motive as it is done for people’s approval or to appear charitable in the eyes of the commu-
nity. Wilson (2015) suggested that “Those who challenge the existence of altruism do not
deny that these are seemingly altruistic acts but question whether they are based on altruistic
motives” (p.3). A number of different explanations for why altruism exists have been pro-
posed by psychologists. Is altruistic behaviour innate or learned?
Evolution/biological reasons
In evolutionary biology, the notion of altruism is not identical to the use of the concept in
psychology. Altruistic behaviour in this context is based on the cost and benefit analysis of
reproductive fitness. It is stated that
The costs and benefits are measured in terms of reproductive fitness or expected number
of offspring. So by behaving altruistically, an organism reduces the number of offspring
it is likely to produce itself but boosts the number that other organisms are likely to
produce.
(Okasha, 2013)
It has been suggested that it is the goal of the “selfish gene” (Dawkins, 1989). One of the evo-
lutionary approaches is that people are more likely to help those who are kin because it will
ensure the continuation of shared genes. According to McAndrew (2002), the survival of the
individual’s genes is more important than the survival of the individual. What is important
is that there is the transmission of the gene pool for the survival of future generations of the
same species. It has been suggested that “Evolution explains why biological organisms have
traits that cause them to aid close relatives. Humans are no exception” (Kurzban, Burton-
Chellew, and West, 2015, p.592).
This statement is supported by previous studies linking genetic relatedness which showed
people’s willingness to help different family members (Madsen et al., 2007; Stewart-
Williams, 2007; Tifferet et al., 2016). In summary, existing research evidence suggests
that humans are more willing to help kin than non-kin and when choosing between family
members, preference is given to family members with closer genetic relatedness (Schriver
et al., 2019).
Socio-environmental reasons
In the previous section, we discussed reciprocal altruism, and this not only applies to close
relatives but also total strangers. This is based on the assumption that, by behaving in the
moral good and helping people, they may later on return the help. There are also the societal
norms and behaviour which create expectations whether or not people engage in altruistic
behaviour. There is also what is known as the norm of reciprocity which is a social norm
where you feel obliged to help someone if the person has provided you help. There is an
expectation of obligation to return the favour. This is based on a cost-benefit analysis where
the evaluation of the benefits to themselves outweigh the costs of helping. The basic notion
in this approach is to maximise our gains or rewards and minimise our costs. Homans (1961)
observed that “when an action (or sentiment) emitted by one man is rewarded (or punished)
by the action issued by another man, then, regardless of the type of emitted behaviour, we say
that these two people interact” (p.35).
Social exchange theory proposes that social behaviour is the result of an exchange pro-
cess. The purpose of this exchange is to maximise benefits and minimise costs. The principles
of social learning suggest that people will be more likely to help when there is an incentive
for doing so. But the
frequency and patterning of that behaviour and the motivations underlying it are largely
determined by the social learning history of that person. In other words, a person is hon-
est, generous, helpful, and compassionate to the degree to which he has learned to be so.
Thus, moral responses are acquired in much the same way as are other types of social
behaviour-through “the laws of learning.”
(Rushton, 1982, p.434)
However, social learning theory specifies more precisely how people learn these prosocial
behaviours like helping through the process of reinforcement. The reward or reinforcement,
imitation and social modelling also play an important role in altruistic behaviours. In recip-
rocal inhibition, the findings of studies have shown that people preferred direct cooperative
behaviour or are more likely to help more attractive members of the opposite sex (Farrelly,
Lazarus and Roberts, 2007).
The characteristics of the person and the context can also have a powerful impact on
whether or not people engage in helping behaviours. The immediate need of a person in dis-
tress also attracts people to help, but it all depends on the person with a high level of empathic
concern.
Studies have showed that empathic responses to witnessing another in pain are usually
experienced as aversive (Lamm et al., 2011). However, there is evidence to suggest that the
number of bystanders witnessing distress or suffering affects the likelihood of their helping
(the bystander effect). The attempt to understand why people do not always help became
the focus of bystander intervention research (Latané and Darley, 1969). In fact, the find-
ings of studies (Latané & Darley, 1970); Hudson and Brukman, 2004;) also indicated that
greater numbers of bystanders at the site of an accident or where someone needs help can
also decrease individual feelings of responsibility. This is known as diffusion of responsibil-

ity (Darley & Latané, 1968). In fact those bystanders with a high level of empathic concern
are likely to assume personal responsibility entirely regardless of the number of bystanders
(Batson, 2011a).
Nurture also plays an important role in the development of prosocial behaviour like altru-
istic behaviour. The findings of the following study reject the notion that altruism may be
largely controlled by genetics. There is evidence to suggest that interactions and relationships
with others have a major influence on altruistic behaviour (Klimecki et al., 2014). In fact
what this study showed is the role of socialisation in the development of altruistic behaviours
in one- and two-year-old children.
Neuro-cognitive reasons
Neuro and cognitive scientists have been fascinated with whether a philanthropist’s extrin-
sic behaviour has an intrinsic source within the brain’s neural and cognitive circuitry. The
findings of a study by Moll et al. (2006) showed that pure monetary rewards and charitable
donations activated the mesolimbic reward pathway, a primitive part of the brain that usually
responds to food and sex. The authors showed that the mesolimbic reward system is engaged
by donations in the same way as when monetary rewards are obtained. A brain region that
has been associated with the contribution to learning altruistic behaviour such as empathy is
the subgenual anterior cingulate cortex/basal forebrain (Lockwood et al., 2016). The findings
from a study by Klimecki et al. (2014) demonstrated that the areas of the brain associated
with the reward system, including the dopaminergic ventral tegmental area and the ventral
striatum, are stimulated when people engage in compassionate behaviours.
There is a clear association between the concept of empathy and altruistic behaviour.
Empathy has been found to lead to altruistic behaviour rather than egoistic behaviour
(Batson et al., 1981). Egoistic motivation is motivation where the helpers are more con-
cerned with their own cost–benefit outcomes and do not generally emphasise with the vic-
tims. There is the empathy–altruism model (Batson, 2011a) which explains the intrinsic
altruistic behaviour with the expectation of a reward or incentive. The significant compo-
nent of this model for altruistic behaviour is to empathise with the “victim.” There are eight
variants of empathy:
Knowing another person’s internal state, Including thoughts and feelings; Adopting the
posture or matching the neural responses of an observed other; Coming to feel as another
person feels; Intuiting or projecting oneself into another’s situation; Imagining how
another is thinking and feeling; Imagining how one would think and feel in the other’s
place; Feeling distress at witnessing another person’s suffering; and feeling for another
person who is suffering (empathic concern).
(Batson, 2011a, p.4)
The empathic concern is an affective reaction when perceiving someone in need (Batson,
2011b), and this enables the motivating factor in the provision of desired care (Batson, 2011a;
Winczewski et al., 2016). When taking one variant or a combination of variants of empathy
and having empathic concern, the helper, despite the risks, becomes attuned to the needs of
the victim and provides necessary care or attention. However, there is no empathy without
acceptance and understanding of the victim.
Altruism from an Islamic perspective

In Islam, the concept “Ithaar” (altruism) is the notion of “preferring others to oneself.”
Altruistic behaviours, the principle of living for others, are illustrated in both the Qur’an and
Sunnah. Allah says in the Qur’an (interpretation of the meaning):
• They love those who emigrated to them and find not any want in their breasts of what the
emigrants were given but give [them] preference over themselves, even though they are
in privation. (Al-Hashr 59:9)
According to Ibn Kathir, (and give them preference over, even though they are in privation)
means
They preferred giving to the needy rather than attending to their own needs and began
by giving the people before their own selves, even though they too were in need. An
authentic Hadith stated that the Messenger of Allah said, The best charity is that given
when one is in need and struggling.
The above verse was actually revealed in relation to the altruistic behaviours between the
residents of Medina (the Ansar) and the immigrants fleeing persecution in Mecca (the
Muhajiroon). The residents of Medina (the Ansar) “on account of their generosity and hon-
ourable conduct, loved those who emigrated to them and comforted them with their wealth.”
Imam Ahmad recorded that Anas said, “The Muhajirin said, ‘O Allah’s Messenger! We have
never met people like those whom we emigrated to; comforting us in times of scarcity and
giving us with a good heart in times of abundance. They have sufficed for us and shared their
wealth with us so much so, that we feared that they might earn the whole reward instead of
us’.” Perhaps, this was one of the greatest acts of collective altruism ever witnessed in the
history of mankind.
Another illustration of true altruistic behaviour was during the battle of Yarmouk between
the fledgling Rashidun Caliphate and the Roman Empire. The battle took place near the
Yarmouk River (now the borders of Syria–Jordan and Syria–Israel (Palestine), east of the Sea
of Galilee). The great Muslim fighters Harith bin Hisham, Ayyash bin Abi Rabiah (cousin
of Khalid bin Waleed) and Ikrima bin Abu Jahl were wounded. Harith cried for water; when
it was brought to him, he saw Ikrima looking at it. He asked the person to give water first to
Ikrima, but when it was brought to Ikrima, he saw Ayyash looking at it. He said, “Give it first
to Ayyash.” But when the water was brought to Ayyash, he died before drinking it. Then the
person turned toward Ikrima and Harith to give them water, but both had died. This is a clear
example of the principle of living for others (self-sacrifice), that is, the best charity is given
when one is dire need. Allah says in the Qur’an (interpretation of the meaning):
• Never will you attain the good [reward] until you spend [in the way of Allah] from that
which you love. And whatever you spend – indeed, Allah is Knowing of it. (Ali 'Imran
3:92)
It is narrated by Anas that when Àbdur-Rahman bin Àuf married an Ansari woman, the
Prophet ( ) asked him, “How much Mahr did you give her?” Àbdur-Rahman said, “Gold
equal to the weight of a date stone.” Anas added: When they (i.e. the Prophet ( ) and his
companions) arrived at Medina, the emigrants stayed at the Ansar’s houses. Àbdur-Rahman
bin Àuf stayed at Sa`d bin Ar-Rabi's house. Sa`d said to Àbdur- Rahman, “I will divide and
share my property with you and will give one of my two wives to you.” Àbdur-Rahman said,
“May Allah bless you, your wives and property (I am not in need of that; but kindly show
me the way to the market).” So Àbdur-Rahman went to the market and traded there gaining
a profit of some dried yoghurt and butter and married (an Ansari woman). The Prophet ( )
said to him, “Give a banquet, even if with one sheep” (Bukhari (a)). There is another Hadith
which captures the essence of altruistic behaviour. It was narrated from Anas bin Malik that
the Prophet ( ) said: “None of you has believed until he loves for his brother what he loves
for himself” (An-Nasa’i (a)).
Degree of altruism
Imam Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawziyyah divided altruism into varying degrees.
The first level is to favour others over yourself in that which does not diminish your com-
mitment to the religion, hinder your path [to Allah] or waste your time; this means that
you favour their interests over your own, such as when you feed them while you are hun-
gry, dress them while you are still unclothed and offer them water while you are thirsty.
However, this should not lead you to commit anything Islamically prohibited. Thus, any
act that results in reforming your heart, time and standing with Allah The Almighty,
should not be an object of sacrifice. If you favour others at the expense of such acts, you
are actually ignorantly favouring Satan over Him.
In the first degree, Imam Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawziyyah is advising us to put the needs of others
before our own needs. He warned us not to commit forbidden acts or behaviour. In other
words acting like a Robin Hood. However, he also warned us that there is no sacrifice when
it come to the matter of religion and way of life.
The second degree is to give preference to the pleasure of Allah, The Almighty, over the
satisfaction of people, even if its repercussions are so severe that one’s body and faculties
cannot afford them. This act entails that one wants and does whatever pleases Him, although
it may result in the anger of His creatures. This is the degree of the Prophets of Allah, whereas
the Messengers were at a higher level, and the resolute Messengers, may Allah exalt their
mention, even more esteemed. In the second degree of altruistic behaviour, preference to the
pleasure of Allah should be given priority over mundane things or pleasing people. Allah
• And I did not create the Jinn and mankind except to worship Me. (Adh Dhariyat 51:56)
According to Ibn Kathir, (And I created not the Jinn and mankind except that they should
worship Me) means
“I, Allah, only created them so that I order them to worship Me, not that I need them.”
Allah the Exalted, the Blessed created the creatures so that they worship Him Alone
without partners. Those who obey Him will be rewarded with the best rewards, while
those who disobey Him will receive the worst punishment from Him. Allah stated that
He does not need creatures, but rather, they in need of Him in all conditions. He is alone
their Creator and Provider.
Allah warned us in the Qur’an (interpretation of the meaning):
• It is not for a believing man or a believing woman, when Allah and His Messenger
have decided a matter, that they should [thereafter] have any choice about their affair.
And whoever disobeys Allah and His Messenger has certainly strayed into clear error.
(Al-Ahzab 33:36)
Imam Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawziyyah further maintained that
However, the Prophet ( ) occupies the highest level of all, as he resisted the whole
world, devoted himself to calling others to Allah The Almighty, bore the animosity of
both relatives and strangers for His sake and favoured His pleasure over anyone else’s,
in all aspects, fearing the criticism of no one. His intention, concern and endeavours were
all dedicated to satisfying Allah The Almighty, conveying His message, rendering His
Words the uppermost and fighting His enemies until His religion became superior over
all others, its argument established against the worlds and His favour perfectly bestowed
on the believers. The Prophet ( ) conveyed the message, delivered the trust, advised
the Ummah, strove ardently in the way of Allah The Almighty and worshipped Him
until he passed away. Therefore, no one attained as exalted a degree of altruism as the
Prophet ( ).
Imam Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawziyyah observes that
As for a person who favours people’s approval over that of Allah, The Almighty, it is His
unchangeable tradition that He makes their satisfaction impossible to achieve and he or
she is forsaken by them, with only him/herself to blame. Indeed, someone whose praise
is sought will eventually vilify and the one whose satisfaction is desired, will become
displeased. Accordingly, the person who seeks the approval or delight of others will
neither achieve his or her goal, nor attain the reward of the pleasure of the Lord; and this
is the weakest and most foolish person.
What Imam Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawziyyah is saying is that seeking approval from others con-
tinuously can become a problem in itself. Our aim of pleasing people and trying to fit with
what other people expect of us rather than be guided by our real “self” is a perilous journey
between “Scylla and Charybdis” (which means to be caught between two equally unpleasant
alternatives).
The third and final degree of altruism
is to attribute this quality to Allah, The Almighty, and not one’s own self, and to admit
that these self-sacrificing acts are by His Command, thereby submitting them to Him.
Consequently, if we do favour others over our own self, it means that it is Allah The
Almighty Who did so in reality, for He is the actual Giver. Allah commands and guidelines
for how to live one’s life should always take precedence over the commands of anything.
Imam Ash-Shaafi‘i said, “Satisfying people is an unattainable goal. Therefore, adhere to
what makes you righteous; and that is possible only if we favour the satisfaction of the
Lord over that of others.”
Help behaviours
Helping behaviours and altruistic behaviours are prosocial behaviours and as such are closely
related concepts in psychology. Helping behaviour is not a motivational behaviour but an
intentional behaviour to assist or support someone. However, the intention to help someone
may be purely egoistic, for practical reasons or to make one feel good. In contrast, altruism
is a motivational factor for prosocial behaviour where no external reward is expected and
there is no room for self-interest. In helping behaviour, there is the potential or expectation to
gain intrinsic or extrinsic reward and both parties may gain from this interaction. In altruistic
behaviour, the person would help and assist someone without expecting a reward and without
a cost–benefit analysis.
Almost all world religions have some version of the Golden Rule: “Treat others how you
want to be treated.” Or “treat the people in the most agreeable way), and do not make things
difficult for them.” It is narrated by Abu Musa: that when Allah’s Messenger ( ) sent him
and Muàdh bin Jabal to Yemen, he said to them,
Facilitate things for the people (treat the people in the most agreeable way), and do not
make things difficult for them, and give them glad tidings, and let them not have aversion
(i.e. to make the people hate good deeds) and you should both work in cooperation and
mutual understanding, obey each other.
(Bukhari (b))
Research indicates that helping others lessens anxiety and increases positive feelings and
feelings of satisfaction (Nilsson Sojka and Sojka, 2003).
Types of helping behaviours

One of the few psychological classifications of helping with an empirical basis is the tax-
onomy by Pearce and Amato (1980). They classified helping behaviours into three dimen-
sions: Planned/formal help versus spontaneous/informal help; emergency helping versus
non-emergency (unserious) helping; and direct helping/doing versus indirect helping/giving.
In the first dimension, the level of planning can range from spontaneous help to formal or
informal help, for instance, working in a counselling centre as a volunteer a few hours per
week. Or it can be very spontaneous and informal, like helping someone who has dropped
some money in the shopping centre. The second dimension of helping behaviour focuses on
emergency helping versus non-emergency (unserious) helping. That is, in an emergency the
seriousness of the need should be considered. The consequences of the non-emergency situa-
tion are very small, as compared to the consequences of the emergency situation which could
mean the difference between life and death. The final dimension about the directness of help
refers to level of contact with the recipient of help from very direct to very indirect. This is
about helping someone directly or helping the community through a helping agency. Aydinli,
Bender and Chasiotis (2013) summarise various studies on the three dimensions of helping
behaviour. The authors suggested that
Whether helping is more or less likely to occur in a particular context strongly depends
on the type of helping and the target of helping. The findings suggest that providing
spontaneous and low-effort aid to a stranger is more frequent in traditional, less affluent,
and rural areas than in modern, affluent, and urban environments, whereas the opposite
is the case for planned and long-term helping directed at out-group members, namely
volunteering.
(p.12)
McGuire (1994) described four different types of helping behaviours.
• Casual helping: Doing the odd small favour for casual acquaintances.
• Personal helping: This is extensive help over an extended time, so the helpee can receive
the accrued benefits.
• Emotional helping means providing intense emotion support like listening, counselling
or giving advice.
• Emergency helping is assisting someone who has an acute problem.
McGuire’s (1994) classifications of helping behaviour ranged from casual support to provid-
ing emotional or psychological support for those in distress.
Helping behaviours from an Islamic perspective

The Islamic tradition has both mandated and encouraged helping behaviours, and these behav-
iours are outlined in the Qur’an and Sunnah. Helping others is considered a requirement of
faith and also should be part of the characteristics of the righteous. Sadaqah means “charity,”
“benevolence”; but in Islamic terminology, Sadaqah means “worshipping Allah by giving
money without that being made obligatory in Shari’ah” (Islam Q&A, 2008). Sadaqah is very
wide term and used in the Qur’an to cover all kinds of charity. Sadaqah is an umbrella term
which encompasses a broad range of prosocial behaviours. The following Hadith illustrates
the extension of Sadaqah. Abu Dharr narrated that the Messenger of Allah ( ) said:
Your smiling in the face of your brother is charity, commanding good and forbidding
evil is charity, your giving directions to a man lost in the land is charity for you. Your
seeing for a man with bad sight is a charity for you, your removal of a rock, a thorn or a
bone from the road is charity for you. Your pouring what remains from your bucket into
the bucket of your brother is charity for you. (Tirmidhi)
Charity also extends to the environment, for example planting a tree. Jabir reported: The
Messenger of Allah ( ) said, “When a Muslim plants a tree, whatever is eaten from it is
charity from him and whatever is stolen is charity and whatever is subtracted from it is char-
ity.” Another narration says: “If a Muslim plant a tree or sows a field and men and beasts and
birds eat from it, all of it is charity from him” (Muslim (a)). Charity also extends to life-style
and behaviours. Abu Dharr reported that it was said, “Messenger of Allah ( ), the wealthy
people have taken all the rewards. They pray as we pray. They fast as we fast, but they give
Sadaqah from their excess wealth.” He said, “Has Allah not given you something to give as
Sadaqah? Every time you praise or glorify Allah, that is Sadaqah. There is Sadaqah is sexual
intercourse.” He was asked, “Is there Sadaqah in satisfying one’s appetite?” He replied, “If
he does it in a haram manner, is that not a wrong action? Similarly if he does it in a halal
manner, he receives a reward” (Al-Adab Al-Mufrad).
Charitable acts can also take the form of what is known as an endowment or Waqf, which
is one of the greatest acts by which the Muslim draws closer to Allah, the Almighty. A Waqf
is designed to provide for the permanent maintenance of a person, a structure, building or an
institution. The legitimacy of this act was indicated in the Qur’an and Sunnah. The evidence
is from the following verse in the Qur’an. Allah says (interpretation of the meaning):
• Never will you attain the good [reward] until you spend [in the way of Allah] from that
which you love. And whatever you spend – indeed, Allah is Knowing of it. (Ali 'Imran
3:92)
The giver of charity can see the blessing of God from his/her wealth and his wealth will not
be decreased as a result of charitable acts. Abu Hurairah reported Allah’s Messenger ( ) as
saying: “Charity does not in any way decrease the wealth and the servant who forgives Allah
adds to his respect, and the one who shows humility Allah elevates him in the estimation
(of the people)” (Muslim (b)). What is the meaning of not decreasing in wealth? Imam An
Nawawi(n.d.) explained that:
The scholars mentioned that it means two things: First, the wealth will be blessed and
protected from dangers. Thus the decrease will be covered with this abstract bless. It can
be felt by senses, and habits. Second, if in fact the wealth looks decreased, this decreas-
ing will be covered by the rewards of giving charity.”
Waqfs are a form of Sadaqah known as Sadaqah Jariyah or ongoing charity. Sadaqah
Jariyah is one of the most rewarding good deeds that can be done in our lives. Allah informs
us that the reward of spending in charity is like a seed that grows. Allah says in the Qur’an
• The example of those who spend their wealth in the way of Allah is like a seed [of grain]
which grows seven spikes; in each spike is a hundred grains. And Allah multiplies [His
reward] for whom He wills. And Allah is all-Encompassing and Knowing. (Al-Baqarah
2:261)
This is a parable that Allah made of the multiplication of rewards for those who spend
in His cause, seeking His pleasure. Allah multiplies the good deed ten to seven hundred
times. This Ayah (verse) indicates that Allah “grows” the good deeds for its doers, just
as He grows the plant for whoever sows it in fertile land. The Sunnah also mentions that
the deeds are multiplied up to seven hundred folds.
It was narrated from Abu Hurairah that the Messenger of Allah ( ) said: “Every deed of
the son of Adam will be multiplied for him, between ten and seven hundred times for each
merit” (Ibn Majah).
Sadaqah Jariyah is an ongoing charity and is one of the most rewarding good deeds we
can do in our lives. Sadaqah Jariyah can be reaped now, and also continue to benefit us
and our loved ones after we have passed away. It was narrated from Abu Hurairah that the
Messenger of Allah ( ) said: “When a man dies all his good deeds come to an end except
three: Ongoing charity (Sadaqah Jariyah), beneficial knowledge and a righteous son who
prays for him” (An-Nasa’i (b)).
Sadaqah also means legal alms for which the word Zakat is used in the Qur’an and the
Sunnah. Zakat has been called Sadaqah because it is also a kind of compulsory charity.
Ordinary Sadaqah is a voluntary deed. From the Shari’ah definition: “Zakat means worship-
ping Allah by giving that which He has enjoined of different kinds of Zakat to those who are
entitled to them, according to the guidelines prescribed in Shari’ah” (Islam Q&A, 2008). The
characteristics of Zakat (Islam Q &A, 2008) are:
• Zakat is enjoined in Islam on specific things, which are: gold, silver, crops, fruits,
trade goods and livestock, i.e., camels, cattle and sheep.
• Zakat is subject to the conditions that one full Hijri [Islamic year] have passed since
acquiring the wealth, and that the wealth meet the minimum threshold (Nisaab), and
it is a specific portion of wealth.
• Allah has enjoined that Zakat be given to certain types of people, and it is not per-
missible to give it to anyone else. They are the people mentioned in the verse (inter-
• Zakat expenditures are only for the poor and for the needy and for those employed
to collect [zakat] and for bringing hearts together [for Islam] and for freeing
captives [or slaves] and for those in debt and for the cause of Allah and for the
[stranded] traveller – an obligation [imposed] by Allah. And Allah is Knowing and
Wise. (Al-Tawbah 9:60)
• Whoever dies and owes Zakah, his heirs must pay it from his wealth, and that takes
precedence over the will (Wasiyah) and inheritance.
• The one who withholds Zakah is to be punished.
• According to the four schools of law, it is not permissible to give Zakah to one’s
ascendants or descendants. Ascendants include one’s mother, father, grandfathers,
and grandmothers; descendants include one’s children and their children.
• It is not permissible to give Zakah to one who is rich or who is strong and able to
earn a living.
• In the case of Zakah, it is better for it to be taken from the rich of a land and given
to their poor. Many scholars are of the view that it is not permissible to send it to
another country unless that serves an interest. But charity may be spent on those
who are near and those who are far.
• It is not permissible to give Zakah to Kuffaar [one who denies and conceals the
truth] and Mushrikeen [worship someone other than Allah].
• It is not permissible for a Muslim to give Zakah to his wife.
It is worth noting that Zakah is based on income and the value of all of one’s possessions. It is
customarily 2.5% (or 1/40) of a Muslim’s total savings and wealth above a minimum amount
known as Nisab. The personal sacrifice of giving one’s possessions, no matter how small,
for the sake of helping those in need is a blessing and means purifying our souls and wealth.
The uniqueness of the Islamic tradition is all forms of charity are pure prosocial altruistic
behaviours.
Positive and negative moods on helping behaviours

This is a brief review of research studies on the effects of positive and negative moods on
helping behaviours. Research findings showed that the procedures designed to induce posi-
tive moods are when the task has pleasant consequences; negative moods, when the task is
likely to be unpleasant (Shaffer and Graziano, 1983). People have been observed to be in
good mood helpful for mundane things such as finding a coin in a phone booth, listening
to a comedy recording, having someone smile at you or even smelling the pleasant scent of
perfume (Baron and Thomley, 1994; Guéguen and De Gail, 2003; Isen and Levin, 1972). In
a study by van Baaren et al. (2004), the subjects interacted with an experimenter who either
mimicked them by subtly copying their behaviours without their awareness or did not mimic
them. The findings showed that the subjects who had been mimicked were more likely to
help, by picking up pens that had fallen on the floor and by donating to a charity. In general,
the influence of mood on helping is substantial (Carlson, Charlin and Miller, 1988). There are
many reasons why people who have a positive mood are helpful. I have a simple hypothesis
which is termed learned helpfulness. Learned helpfulness is behaviour exhibited by a subject
after experiencing repeated positive intrinsic pleasure. The subject requires more of the same
dosage of pleasure to boost their self-esteem and self-confidence, thus repeating the same
prosocial behaviour.
Negative moods can also increase helping behaviour. It has been suggested that peo-
ple engaged in wrongdoing behave charitably in order to reduce a general, negative affec-
tive state. Research studies have showed how those who have dispositions to guilt relate to
unethical behaviour (Cohen et al., 2012; Tangney et al., 2011). The findings from a study
by Cialdini, Darby and Vincent (1973) showed that the people demonstrated helpful behav-
iours when they were experiencing negative feelings. By being helpful, the person is try-
ing to sublimate these emotional negative behaviours. Guilt has also been associated with
helping behaviour. Research indicates a positive correlation between personal experience of
perceived guilt and helping behaviour (Miller, 2010) and also that certain individuals who
transgress in private are predisposed to act more ethically than others even when wrongdoing
is private (Cohen, Panter and Turan, 2012). Individuals that have a personality trait of guilt
proneness are “predisposed to experience negative feelings about personal wrongdoing, even
when the wrongdoing is private” (Cohen et al., 2012, p.2). However, Torstveit, Sütterlin and
Lugo, 2016) suggested that “guilt proneness may predispose the individual to think, feel and
act ethically and therefore might have an effect on helping behaviour” (p.261). So both posi-
tive and negative moods can increase helping behaviour, depending on the type of helping
behaviours, the set (personality, attitudes and expectancies, physical condition) and the set-
ting (the influence of the physical and social setting within which the help is needed).
Latané and Darley’s decision model of helping

Social psychologists are interested in trying to understand why people do not always help, as
shown in research on bystander intervention (Latané and Darley, 1970). Latané and Darley
Figure 12.1 Latané and Darley’s decision model of helping.
(1970) became interested in the Kitty Genovese case. In brief, the Kitty Genovese murder
in Queens, New York, in 1964 is one of the most famous murder cases to come out of New
York City and into the national spotlight. The press coverage alleged that the murder had
many witnesses who refused to come to Kitty Genovese’s defence. Latané and Darley were
concerned about how people react in an emergency situation and that people frequently do
not really know how to react when they encounter an emergency. Latané and Darley’s deci-
sion model of helping is presented in Figure 12.1. Latané and Darley’s decision model of
helping outlines a process of five stages that will determine whether a bystander will respond
or not in a helping situation. The process is initiated at the identification and recognition of
the emergency problem to the final response of helping. Latané and Darley suggested that it
may be an individual’s interpretation of the situation that may be more influential on whether
or not they respond than the individual’s motivation.
Stage 1: Recognising the problem

Basically, the bystanders must recognise whether there is a problem or not. This is a quick
assessment on whether the occurring event is normal, usual or uncommon. Is there a prob-
lem? Noticing or recognising the event is the prime factor.
Stage 2: Interpreting the problem as an emergency

As shown in Figure 12.1, if the bystander decides that this is not normal occurrence, Stage 2
is followed. In Stage 2, it is about how the bystander views and interprets the problem as an
emergency. The problem begins when other bystanders are present. This creates an uncer-
tainty on how to interpret the event as we look for answers from others. This is the dichotomy
as the other bystanders are in the same situation and are unsure how to interpret the situation,
and they are looking to us for information at the same time we are looking to them. This is the
stage of what is known as pluralistic ignorance. Pluralistic ignorance “occurs when people
think that others in their environment have information that they do not have and when they
base their judgments on what they think the others are thinking.” Every bystander has rec-
ognised that this is a problem, but they are not responding because they do not see an emer-
gency. Maybe there is a cost–benefit analysis which results in the avoidance of bystanders
to see it as an emergency. It is easy to assume that others are going to take the responsibility
to act. The study by Fischer et al. (2011) showed the important role of interpretation. Their
findings showed that the differences were smaller when the need for helping was clear and
dangerous and thus required little interpretation.
Stage 3: Assuming responsibility

Once Stage 1 is recognised and the situation has been interpreted as an emergency (Stage 2),
the decision to act would be based on whether one has a responsibility to act. If a bystander is
the only person around, then the responsibility lies with the bystander during an emergency.
However, when there are other bystanders present and aware that help is needed, the level
of personal responsibility can become diffused. Diffusion of responsibility occurs when we
assume that others will act and, therefore, we do not act ourselves. The paradox, of course, is
that a bystander is more likely to help when he or she is alone in the situation than when there
are others around. Diffusion of responsibility occurs when we assume someone else is going
to take the responsibility. Fischer et al. (2011) found evidence to support the idea that people
helped more when fewer others were present.
Stage 4 and Stage 5: Deciding how to assist and action

Assuming that Stages 1, 2 and 3 are complete, Stages 4 and 5 are followed. Stage 4 of Latané
and Darley’s model is having the knowledge, competence and confidence to help in a specific
context (for example, a bystander unfamiliar with first aid might hesitate before giving cardiac
resuscitation (CPR) compared to a bystander who is a first aider). The problem is that many
of us do not have the competence or confidence to help another person in an emergency or we
are unclear what to do. This stage is closely followed by the actual decision to help – Stage 5.
Latané and Darley discuss Stages 4 and 5 together and note that once an individual reaches
Stage 4, it is highly likely that he or she will continue with the Stage 5. Stage 5 involves some
sort of intervention. Latané and Darley’s decision model is an important theoretical framework
in the understanding of bystander intervention. In addition, the model helps us to understand
the role of situational variables in helping behaviours. Some aspects of the model have been
successfully applied to many other situations, ranging from preventing someone from driving
drunk to deciding about whether to donate a kidney to a relative (Schroeder et al., 1995).
Religiosity and helpful behaviours

The notion of prosocial behaviours of sharing, donating and helping others are common
amongst three of the largest religions (Christianity, Islam and Judaism). The role of religi-
osity in helping behaviours has been addressed by research studies. The findings from sev-
eral studies have suggested that high levels of religiosity are correlated with more prosocial
behaviours, with religious factors acting as a motivating factor in helping behaviours (Clary
and Snyder, 1991; Saroglou et al., 2005; Einhoff, 2011). Another study’s findings showed
a significant positive relationship between religiousness and prosocial concerns such as
empathy, moral reasoning and responsibility in urban high school students (Furrow, King,
and White, 2004). There is also evidence to suggest that religious people do indeed report
being more helpful than the less religious (Penner, 2002), and those who prayed more often
were more good, friendly and cooperative toward others (Morgan, 1983). Other studies have
sought to understand religiosity as a predictor of prosocial behaviours and whether they are
directed toward family or in-group members (Blogowska, Lambert and Saroglou, 2013;
Krause and Hayward, 2014). Saroglou (2006) suggested that religiosity might have a posi-
tive role in helping relatives and neighbours but not strangers, non-believers or members of
other religions.
Although most studies investigating the role of religion in prosocial behaviour like altruis-
tic behaviour have been correlational, there is also some experimental research showing that
activating symbols relating to religion causes increased altruism. Shariff and Norenzayan
(2007) argue that
If religiosity and prosocial behaviour are found to be correlated, it is just as likely that
having a prosocial disposition causes one to be religious, or that some third variable
such as guilt proneness or dispositional empathy causes both cooperative behaviour and
religiosity, as that religious beliefs somehow cause prosocial behaviour. Only rarely
have studies induced supernatural beliefs to examine them as a causal factor.
(p. 803)
The findings from Shariff and Norenzayan’s (2007) study showed that participants who had
seen religious words were more likely to donate money to an anonymous recipient than were
a control group of people who had been exposed to nonreligious control words.
There has been a dearth of research on the impact of religiosity on helping and altruistic
behaviours in Muslim populations. In Turkey, the findings from the study by Ayten (2010)
showed that religious people reported that they themselves were benevolent people and also
that they were perceived as benevolent people by others. In another study (Ayten, 2018), the
findings showed that religiosity has a positive effect on helping behaviours and life satisfac-
tion. The findings also indicated that empathy and religiosity are a mediating factor in the
relationship between helping and life satisfaction. In Morocco, the findings from a study
by Duhaime (2015) indicated that religious salience did increase prosocial behaviour. The
audibility of the Muslim call to prayer (Adhan) was found to increase donations to charity
compared to those who participated in the study when the call to prayer was not audible. This
finding complements a growing literature that shows that religious rituals play a role in ena-
bling prosocial behaviour. A study of Indonesian Muslim adolescents assessed how parents’
religiosity related to adolescent prosocial behaviour. The findings of the study (French et al.,
2013) showed that adolescent religiosity was found to be a mediator for prosocial but not
antisocial behaviour. They also found that both parental religiosity and adolescent religiosity
strongly correlated to prosocial behaviours.
A controversial study by Decety et al. (2015) with data from over 1,151 (5- to 12-year-
old) children from schools in Chicago, Toronto, Cape Town, Istanbul, Izmir, Amman and
Guangzhou was undertaken. The children participated in a version of the “Dictator Game.”
Their findings showed that children from Christian and Muslim households behaved less
altruistically than their peers from non-religious homes. However, the findings of this study
have been refuted and the original claims have been challenged by Shariff et al. (2016). When
Shariff et al. examined the original dataset, they found that the authors had made a mistake in
carrying out their intended analysis. Their findings about a difference in altruistic behaviour
that should have been attributed to country were instead attributed to religious affiliation. In
a conversation by e-mail, Shariff explained:
Decety et al., collected data from 6 quite different countries. Places like Jordan and
Turkey were essentially all Muslims. On the other hand, places like China were pre-
dominantly non-religious. So were the differences due to religious differences or to dif-
ferences between country (or other unmeasured variables related to country, such as
number of siblings)? Since other studies had found country level differences on exactly
this task, it was important to control for country. The original authors intended to but did
not do so properly. So we just ran their intended analyses with the appropriate controls.
The article was retracted at the request of the authors. Decety et al. stated that
When we reanalysed these data to correct this error, we found that country of origin,
rather than religious affiliation, is the primary predictor of several of the outcomes. While
our title finding that increased household religiousness predicts less sharing in children
remains significant, we feel it necessary to explicitly correct the scientific record, and
we are therefore retracting the article. We apologise to the scientific community for any
inconvenience caused.
This is a prime example of manipulating the statistics to provide evidence for a particular
hypothesis.
In summary, the findings from the above studies have been mixed with some findings sup-
porting religiosity as playing a role in helping behaviours (Stamatoulakis, 2013), and not in
others (Sappington and Bake, 1995; Hunsberger and Platonow, 2001; Krause and Hayward,
2014; Heineck, 2014). Some studies failed to consider intervening variables such as personal-
ity or environmental influences, level of religiosity and social norms that may have influenced
helping or prosocial behaviours. However, most of the research on prosocial behaviours and
altruistic and helping behaviours has focused on Judeo-Christian populations. For Muslims,
Islam is a way of life and as such altruistic and helping behaviours may be intrinsic to Islamic
values and practices. Abu (Hurairah) narrated that the Messenger of Allah ( ) said:
If anyone relieves a Muslim believer from one of the hardships of this worldly life, Allah
will relieve him of one of the hardships of the Day of Resurrection. If anyone makes it
easy for the one who is indebted to him (while finding it difficult to repay), Allah will
make it easy for him in this worldly life and in the Hereafter, and if anyone conceals the
faults of a Muslim, Allah will conceal his faults in this world and in the Hereafter. Allah
helps His slave as long as he helps his brother.
(Muslim (c))

• Nineteenth-century French philosopher Auguste Comte coined the word “altruism” from
French, as “altruisme.”
• Psychological altruism is “a motivational state with the goal of increasing another’s
welfare.”
• One approach is that people help and support others without the expectation of a reward;
it is an act of selflessly doing the moral good.
• Another approach is that altruistic behaviour has an ulterior motive as it is done for peo-
ple’s approval or to appear charitable in the eyes of the community.
• In evolutionarybiology – altruistic behaviour is based on the cost and benefit analysis of
reproductive fitness.
• Social exchange theory proposes that social behaviour is the result of an exchange
process.
• The areas of the brain associated with the reward system, including the dopaminergic
ventral tegmental area and the ventral striatum, are stimulated when people engage in
compassionate behaviours.
• Altruistic behaviours, the principle of living for others, are illustrated in both the Qur’an
and Sunnah.
• Imam Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawziyyah divided altruism into varying degrees.
• Helping behaviour and altruistic behaviour are prosocial behaviours and as such are
closely related concepts in psychology.
• Pearce and Amato classified helping behaviour into three dimensions: Planned/for-
mal help versus spontaneous/informal help; emergency helping versus non-emergency
(unserious) helping; and direct helping/doing versus indirect helping/giving.
• The Islamic tradition has both mandated and encouraged helping behaviours, and these
behaviours are outlined in the Qur’an and Sunnah. Helping others is considered a require-
ment of faith and also should be part of the characteristics of the righteous.
• Sadaqah means “charity,” “benevolence” but in Islamic terminology; Sadaqah means
“worshipping Allah by giving money without that being made obligatory in Shari’ah.”
• Positive moods have been shown to increase many types of helping behaviours, includ-
ing contributing to charity, donating blood and helping co-workers.
• Negative moods can also increase helping behaviour. It has been suggested that people
in a wrongdoing situation behave charitably in order to reduce a general, negative affec-
tive state.
• Latané and Darley’s decision model of helping outlines a process of five stages that will
determine whether a bystander will respond or not in a helping situation.
• In summary, the findings from the above studies have been mixed with some findings
supporting religiosity as playing a role in helping behaviours and others not.
1. Which of the following is a valid observation of altruism?

A. Individuals are more likely to be altruistic toward people who are closely related to
them.
B. Altruism is less likely to be passed on to subsequent generations.
C. Altruism is not a basic feature of human nature.
D. Altruism involves actions that seem to provide a direct reward to the person who
performs them.
2. Darley and Latané’s (1968) diffusion of responsibility model suggests that bystanders
are least likely to intervene in situations where:
A. They perceive that other potential helpers are present.
B. They perceive that other potential helpers are not present.
C. They perceive that the victim is a personal acquaintance.
D. They perceive that the victim is an ingroup member.
3. The idea that people are more likely to help where they experience compassion for oth-
ers and a desire to help someone in need is an example of which approach to prosocial
behaviour?
A. Negative state relief
B. Diffusion of responsibility
C. Empathy-altruism theory
D. Arousal cost-reward
E. Empathy-reward theory
4. In the fourth step of Latané and Darley’s decision model of bystander intervention, peo-
ple must decide how to help. What will make it easier for people to choose to help at this
stage of the model?
A. If there is a solution that is readily apparent to the bystander.
B. If there are a lot of other people around to consult with.
C. If the situation is ambiguous.
D. If they are pressed for time.
5. Which of the following occurs when people think that others in their environment have
information that they do not have and base their judgments on what they think the others
are thinking?
A. Pluralistic ignorance
B. Conditional ignorance
C. Cognitive dissonance
D. Cultural dissonance
E. Social dissonance
6. _____ refers to the idea that, if we help other people now, those others will return the
favour should we need their help in the future.
A. Reciprocal altruism
B. Dissonance
C. Pure altruism
D. Reciprocal apathy
E. Cognitive dissonance
7. Which of the following is a key difference, observed in helping behaviour, between large
cities and rural towns?
A. People who live in large cities are more likely to help than those who live in smaller
towns.
B. Large cities are more helpful for emergencies whereas small towns are more for
simple issues.
C. People who live in large cities and those who live in smaller towns have the same
probability of helping others.
D. People who live in smaller towns are more likely to help than those who live in
large cities.
E. A and B only.
8. Which of the following situations is caused by pluralistic ignorance?
A. Julie drives the car really fast when there are no policemen or cameras on the roads.
B. Sarah does not point out the speaker’s mistake when listening to a speech with a
hundred people.
C. Individuals tend to behave differently during job interviews.
D. Individuals often fail to express their opinions in a one-to-one meeting.
9. An act which ends in itself with no benefit to the individual would be which of the
following?
A. Altruistic
B. Hedonic
C. Sadistic
D. Prosocial
E. All of these
10. Latané and Darley’s (1969) study featured which of the following events?
A. A staged assault
B. A robbery
C. A good Samaritan
D. A stooge having a seizure
E. A murder
11. The bystander effect is believed to originate through which of the following?
A. Morality
B. Evaluation apprehension
C. Group inclusion
D. Diffusion of responsibility
E. Altruism
12. How many stages of decision-making for prosocial behaviour did Latané and Darley’s
(1969) identify?
A. 8
B. 10
C. 5
D. 20
E. 14
13. What term is applied to the theory that we can increase the likelihood of our genes sur-
viving if we ensure the survival of our relatives?
A. Prosocial
B. Hedonism
C. None of these
D. Altruism
E. Inclusive fitness
14. Which of these is an example of altruism?
A. A person gives a homeless man a sandwich for no other reason than to help him out.
B. A person helps a co-worker on a report so that the co-worker will “owe him one.”
C. A person shares his food with his brother because he wants his relatives to survive.
D. All are examples of altruism.

E. A and B only.
15. According to the theory of kin selection, which of these people are you most likely to
help?
A. Your brother
B. Your cousin
C. Your best friend
D. A stranger
E. Your neighbour
16. Empathic understanding is which ONE of the following?
A. Empathic understanding is the ability to see the incomplete picture that clients
paint with their words.
B. Empathic understanding is the ability to feel with clients, as opposed to feeling for
clients.
C. Empathic understanding is the ability to communicate and demonstrate genuine
caring and concern for clients.
D. Empathic understanding is the ability to deal with the here-and-now factors that
operate within the helping relationship.
17. Positive moods have been shown to increase many types of helping behaviours, includ-
ing contributing to
A. Charity
B. Donating blood
C. Helping co-workers
D. A, B and C
E. A and B only
18. Abu Hurairah narrated that the Messenger of Allah ( ) said: “When a man dies all his
good deeds come to an end except
A. Ongoing charity (Sadaqah Jariyah)
B. Beneficial knowledge
C. A righteous son who prays for him
D. A, B and C
E. A and B only
19. Charity also extends to life-style and behaviours. Sadaqah is
A. Every time you praise or glorify Allah
B. Sexual intercourse
C. Planting a tree or sowing a field
D. All of the above
E. Only A and C
20. Imam Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawziyyah divided altruism into varying degrees, with the excep-
tion of
A. The first level is to favour others over yourself.
B. Give preference to the pleasure of Allah, The Almighty, over the satisfaction of
people.
C. This act entails that one wants and does whatever pleases Him.
D. To attribute this quality to Allah, The Almighty, and not one’s own self.
E. Any act that results in reforming your heart,
21. Never will you attain the good [reward] until you spend [in the way of Allah] from that
which you love. And whatever you spend – indeed, Allah is Knowing of it.
A. Adh Dhariyat 51:56
B. Ali 'Imran 3:92
C. Al-Ahzab 33:36
D. Al-Hashr 59:9
E. Al-Baqarah 2:65
22. Charitable acts can also take the form of what is known as an endowment or
A. Sadaqah
B. Ithaar
C. Waqf
D. Zakat
E. Sadaqah Jariya
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Part IV
Cognitive psychology
Chapter 13
State of consciousness, sleep and

dreaming
Learning outcomes
• Define consciousness.
• Discuss how philosophers and psychologists view consciousness.
• Discuss the relationship between psychology, neuroscience and consciousness.
• Explain the term altered state of consciousness.
• Describe the different stages of sleep.
• Identify some of the psychological and medical conditions associated with sleep
deprivation.
• Discuss the Islamic perspectives on sleep etiquette.
State of consciousness
The psychology of consciousness has fascinated philosophers, psychologists and neurosci-
entists in the understanding of the nature and process of consciousness. Koch (2004) refers
to consciousness as the subjective awareness of ourselves and our environment. It is the total
awareness of our cognitions, memories, feelings, emotions, sensations and the environs. In
order to experience consciousness, one needs to be wide-awake, mindful and present. Despite
consciousness being a fact and fundamental to human nature it remains an elusive concept in
our scientific view of the world. Blackmore (2005) questions the essence of
What is consciousness? This may sound like a simple question, but it is not. Consciousness
is at once the most obvious and the most difficult thing we can investigate. We seem
either to have to use consciousness to investigate itself, which is a slightly weird idea, or
have to extricate ourselves from the very thing we want to study.
(p.1)
From a different perspective, Searle (2002) stated that
By “consciousness” I simply mean those subjective states of sentience or awareness that

begin when one awakes in the morning from a dreamless sleep and continue through-
out the day until one goes to sleep at night, or falls into a coma, or dies, or otherwise
becomes, as one would say, “unconscious.”
(p.7)
298 Cognitive psychology
Although Searle’s definition captures the contrast between consciousness and unconscious-
ness, it has been subjected to criticism based on current neuroscientific knowledge. Berlucchi
and Marzi (2019) argue that although
there is a strong association between wakefulness and consciousness, but to be awake

does not necessarily mean to be conscious, and to be asleep does not necessarily mean to
be unconscious. Brain damaged patients in the vegetative state are persistently unaware
of themselves and their environment, despite exhibiting irregular sleep-wake cycles
whereby waking occurs with eye opening, but without any meaningful contact with the
environment.
(p.2)
Psychologists know what consciousness means but they fail to agree what it is.
One of the early philosophers that wrote about consciousness was John Locke, a 17th-
century British philosopher, Oxford academic and medical researcher. He believed that our
identity is tied to our consciousness (mind, or memories) but not to our physical bodies, and
that it can survive even after our physical bodies die. Locke held the view that our conscious-
ness could be transferred from one soul to another. René Descartes, French philosopher,
mathematician and scientist, also addressed the idea of consciousness in the 17th century
and came up with his theory of Cartesian dualism. Descartes believed that the mind (or soul)
and the body are separate entities. That is, the mind is separate from (although connected
to) the physical body. Sigmund Freud, medical doctor and father of psychoanalytic theory,
was also interested in consciousness which had a significant role in his theory of human
nature. Freud’s personality theories differentiated between the unconscious and the conscious
aspects of behaviour. Freud divides human consciousness into three levels of awareness: The
conscious, preconscious and unconscious. Contemporary psychologists distinguish between
unconscious (automatic) and conscious (controlled) behaviours and between implicit or
automatic (unconscious) and explicit or declarative (conscious) memory (Shanks, 2005;
Zimmermann, 2014; Squire and Dede, 2015).
Psychology of consciousness
The different sub-disciplines of psychology have also developed their own perspectives on
consciousness but are not necessarily mutually exclusive. Consciousness may be viewed as a
developmental process which changes over time during the “rites de passage.” In a study on
the developmental aspects of consciousness (Perner and Dienes, 2003), the findings showed
that children become consciously aware between 12 and 15 months (+/– 3 months). Both
psychological and neurological dysfunctions may also affect consciousness. From a social
psychology perspective, Allport (1924) referred to psychology as a science which studies
behaviour and consciousness. This means that social psychology is not only the study of
social behaviour but also the social consciousness of the individual. In a classical work of
Cooley (1907), he stated that
Social consciousness, or awareness of society, is inseparable from self-consciousness,

because we can hardly think of ourselves excepting with reference to a social group
of some sort, nor of the group except with reference to ourselves. The two things go,
State of consciousness, sleep and dreaming 299
together, and what we are really aware of is a more or less complex personal or social
whole, of which now the particular, now the general aspect is emphasized.
(p.666)
Thus, our consciousness is a product of our cultural and religious influences which prime
our feelings, thoughts, beliefs, intentions and goals, and these, sequentially, influence our
interactions with society. Language also plays an important role in transmitting a mode of
consciousness, as much of our consciousness is shaped by language.
Neuropsychologists view consciousness as imbedded in the neural connections systems
and global organic brain structures. Consciousness, in this context, is
seen as a global function of the brain in action which can be interfered with by nervous
tissue damage or malfunctioning from a variety of factors. Large portions of the brain
which are certainly known to be involved in consciousness can be removed without caus-
ing loss of consciousness, as in the case of the ablation of a whole cerebral hemisphere.
(Berlucchi and Marzi, 2019, p.1)
Even though previous studies have shown that the presence of “double consciousnesses,”
with the right hemisphere possessing a different consciousness than the left (Kerr, 2013;
Universiteit van Amsterdam (UVA), 2017), a new study contradicts the established view
that so-called split-brain patients have a split consciousness. A study by Pinto et al. (2017)
found strong evidence showing that despite being characterised by little to no communica-
tion between the right- and left-brain hemispheres, split brain does not cause two independent
conscious perceivers in one brain. So, the idea of having so-called “double consciousnesses”
has been refuted. The modern theories of consciousness include the oscillation theory of con-
sciousness (Grazaiano, 2016) and the integrated information theory (Tononi, 2012; Tononi
and Koch, 2015). Researchers, in their quest for the elusive construct of consciousness, con-
tinue to explore the domain of consciousness including the neuropsychological, social, cul-
tural and psychological influences that contribute to our conscious awareness.
Consciousness, free will and divine predestination

The study of consciousness is fundamental to our sense of morality and the presence of free
will. It has been suggested that
Humans have a profound sense of having free will. Accordingly, they hold themselves
and others accountable. Such belief is necessary for social order, legal constraints on
behaviour, and most religious belief systems. But identifying bad consequences of an
absence of free will does not provide evidence that it exists.
(Klemm, 2016a, b)
Not all scientists and philosophers adhere to the idea that humans have free will, and this is
due to the popularity of a reductionistic worldview. However, List (2019) explains that free
will is, like other real phenomena, indispensable for explaining our world.
From an Islamic perspective, the concepts of free will and divine predetermination have
been some of the great topics in the philosophical and theological discourse. The Qur’an
and Sunnah appear to support simultaneously both divine predestination and human free
will, with an emphasis on the individual’s responsibility for their own actions. The term for
“divine providence in Islam is Al-Qada’ wa’l-Qadar, literally ‘the decree and the measure.’
It is a combination of two terms, which signifies the dual aspects of providence” (Parrot,
2017). In Islam, predestination (Qadar) is one of Islam’s six articles of faith and the concept
of divine destiny. The Qur’an affirms predestination in numerous verses. Allah says in the
• Indeed, We sent it [The Qur’an] down during a blessed night [Night of Qadr]. Indeed,
We were to warn [mankind]. (Ad-Dukhaan 44:3–4)
In an explanation of these verses, Ibn Kathir (n.d.) (may Allah have mercy on him) said:
That is, on Laylat al-Qadr the decrees of the coming year are transferred from al-Lawh
al-Mahfooz, [Preserved Tablet] ordaining what is to happen during the year of deaths
and provision, and what is to happen until the end of the year. The phrase “On that night
is made distinct every precise matter” means something which has been determined and
cannot be altered or changed.
In other verses, Allah says (interpretation of the meaning):
there within the darkness of the earth and no moist or dry [thing] but that it is [written]
in a clear record. (Al-An’aam 6:59)
• No disaster strikes upon the earth or among yourselves except that it is in a regis-
ter [Book of Decrees] before We bring it into being – indeed that, for Allah, is easy.
(Al-Hadid 57:22)
• And you do not will except that Allah wills – Lord of the worlds [mankind, jinn and all
that exists]. (Al-Takweer 81:29)
• Indeed, all things We created with predestination. (Al-Qamar 54:49)
On the question of free will, it is
The belief of Ahl al-Sunnah wa’l-Jamaa’ah is that a person has freedom of will, and
hence he will be rewarded or punished. But his will is subject to the will of Allah, and
nothing can take place in the universe that is not willed by Allah.
(Islam Q&A, 2003)
As humans with endowed intellect and reasoning, we have the choice to follow whatever path
(good and evil) we want but at the end point you will find what Allah has decreed for you,
• Indeed, We guided him to the way, be he grateful or be he ungrateful. (Al-Insan 76:3)

• And have shown him the two ways (good and evil). (Al-Balad 90:10)
• And say, “The truth is from your Lord, so whoever wills – let him believe; and whoever
wills – let him disbelieve.” (Al-Kahf 18:29)
An individual is free to choose and have control over their actions. In Islam, there is no
compulsion in religion. Utz (2011) stated that “An individual can never be forced to submit
to Allah and His commandments; he or she must freely choose to do so. Outward demonstra-
tions of submission are worthless if the heart has not surrendered” (p.69). Allah says (inter-
• There shall be no compulsion in [acceptance of] the religion. (Al-Baqarah 2:256)
The intriguing question is how we maintain this duality to act on free will while at the same
time remaining bound to divine predestination. As Muslims we have to have faith in both
notions. However, having free will make us accountable and responsible. This is reflected in
the last verse in Surah Baqarah. Allah says (interpretation of the meaning):
• Allah does not charge a soul except [with that within] its capacity. It will have [the con-
sequence of] what [good] it has gained, and it will bear [the consequence of] what [evil]
it has earned. “Our Lord do not impose blame upon us if we have forgotten or erred. Our
Lord and lay not upon us a burden like that which You laid upon those before us. Our
Lord and burden us not with that which we have no ability to bear. And pardon us; and
forgive us; and have mercy upon us. You are our protector, so give us victory over the
disbelieving people.” (Al-Baqarah 2:286)
From an Islamic psychology perspective, the fact of divine predestination should not be used
as a rationalisation for our behaviour or to avoid our sense of responsibility and accountability.
Altered states of consciousness

Alteration of the level of consciousness usually begins during wakeful situations with
reduced awareness of one’s self, and the environment. We can experience an altered state
of consciousness during hallucination, hypnotic state, trance state and meditation. Altered
states of consciousness may result from many causes and are always related to abnormal
brain function. Psychoactive substances can often induce a state of temporary dissociation
(detachment from physical and emotional experience). The psychoactive substances include
alcohol, LSD, tiletamine (zolazepam), marijuana (cannabis), dextromethorphan, PCP, meth-
oxetamine, salvia (herbal mint plant) and muscimol (isolated from the mushroom Amanita
muscaria). In Islam, any substance that befogs the mind or alters consciousness is regarded as
forbidden or haram. The cases of hypnotherapy, some meditational practices, yoga and some
of the Sufi esoteric practices, alcohol and drugs would fall into this banned category. The
Sharī’ah supports a type of meditation known as Murāqabah in the Arabic language. This is
the development or purification of our soul. Ibn Al-Qayyim (1996) and Al-Ghazâlî (1980)
examined the merits and realities of Murāqabah.
Another example of an altered state of consciousness is Jinn possession or possession syn-
drome (Rassool, 2019). Jinn are mentioned several times in the Qur’an, and in the Sunnah,
and it becomes mandatory for Muslims to believe in their existence. It is alleged that a spirit
or Jinn has entered an individual which then controls the individual, altering him- or her-
self and causing physical and mental health problems. It is prototype of an altered state of
consciousness. A positive effect of altered state of consciousness has been uncovered in a
study of the neurophysiology of worship including prayer (Salat) and remembrance of Allah
(Dhikr). Newberg et al. (2015) used neuroimaging of Muslims performing both prayers and
remembrance of Allah. The findings of the study showed that the worship was associated
with a decrease in frontal lobe activity, as measured by cerebral blood flow. The authors
suggested that the act of surrendering to God and connectedness with God may underlie the
decreased frontal lobe activity found in this study.
Sleep
Sleep is one of the biological needs of humans and is an important part of survival. About
one-third of our biological clock is spent on sleep. It is a complex and dynamic process
where the brain remains active though there is a loss of consciousness during sleep. From
an Islamic perspective, sleep is defined as: “to soften the nerves of the brain, with the mois-
ture of oxygen to the brain” (Al-Isfahani). According to another Islamic classical scholar,
Al-Kindi (n.d.), sleep is “to allow the soul to be used by all senses. If we do not see, hear, feel,
taste, touch, without any usual illness (causing it) and we are in a normal state, then we are
said to be sleeping.” Culture, religion and other socio-demographics factors have a significant
influence on the nature and pattern of sleep. It has been suggested that “Cultural practices
pertaining to sleep, including when, where and with whom one sleeps, can all impact sleep
duration and quality” (Knutson, 2013 p.9). The National Sleep Foundation (Ohayon et al.,
2017) recently released the key indicators of good sleep quality, as established by a panel of
experts. The key determinants of quality sleep include:
• Sleeping more time while in bed (at least 85% of the total time).
• Falling asleep in 30 minutes or less.
• Waking up no more than once per night.
• Being awake for 20 minutes or less after initially falling asleep.
It is reported that
that sleep plays a housekeeping role that removes toxins in your brain that build up while
you are awake, and that research shows that a chronic lack of sleep, or getting poor qual-
ity sleep, increases the risk of disorders including high blood pressure, cardiovascular
disease, diabetes, depression, and obesity.
(NINDH, 2019)
There are several brain structures that are involved with sleep including the hypothalamus,
suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), brain stem, thalamus, pineal gland, basal forebrain, mid-
brain and the amygdala. Table 13.1 shows the anatomy of sleep.
Sleep stages and rapid eye movement

Rapid eye movement (REM) during sleeping periods was discovered by Aserinsky and
Kleitman in 1953. They also reported that the dream experience almost exclusively accom-
panies these sleep periods. The key brain structure for generating REM sleep is the brainstem,
particularly the pons and the adjoining portions of the midbrain. The neurons and the neuro-
chemical transmitters closely linked to REM sleep within these regions have been identified.
There are two basic types of sleep: REM sleep and non-REM sleep, with three different
Table 13.1 Anatomy of sleep
Brain structure Location Functions
Hypothalamus Deep inside the brain structure Control centres affecting sleep
and arousal
Suprachiasmatic nucleus Within the hypothalamus Controls behavioural rhythm
(SCN)
Brain stem (pons, medulla Base of the brain Communicates with the
and midbrain) hypothalamus to control the
transitions between wake
and sleep
Thalamus Just above the brain stem Relay for information from
Between the cerebral cortex and the senses to the cerebral
the midbrain cortex
Pineal gland Within the brain’s two Receives signals from the SCN
hemispheres and increases production of
the hormone melatonin
Basal forebrain Near the front and bottom of Promotes sleep and
the brain wakefulness
Midbrain Within the brainstem Between Acts as an arousal system
the forebrain and the hindbrain Release of adenosine (a
chemical by-product of
cellular energy consumption)
Amygdala Deep and medially within the Processing emotions, becomes
temporal lobes of the brain increasingly active during
REM sleep
stages of sleep. Each type of sleep pattern is linked to specific brain waves and neuronal
activity. During a typical night, an individual goes through both non-REM and REM sleep
several times. However, the longer and deeper REM-sleep periods occur toward the morn-
ing. It is reported that each of the sleep stages has its own distinct pattern of brain activity
(Dement and Kleitman, 1957). The stages of sleep are presented in Table 13.2.
Sleep disorders: Problems in sleeping

Sleep, being a biological need, is a requirement for healthy living because sleep is for restor-
ing functioning and vitality, promoting memory consolidation and maintaining immune func-
tion. In the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (APA, 2013) (DSM-5)
sleep-wake disorders comprise 11 diagnostic groups:
• Insomnia disorder
• Hypersomnolence disorder
• Narcolepsy
• Obstructive sleep apnoea hypopnea
• Central sleep apnoea
• Sleep-related hypoventilation
• Circadian rhythm sleep-wake disorders
• Non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep arousal disorders
Table 13.2 Stages of sleep
Stage Period Length Physiological changes
Stage 1 Changeover from Several minutes Heartbeat, breathing and eye movements
non-REM wakefulness to light sleep slow
sleep Muscles relax with occasional twitches
Brain waves begin to slow from their daytime
wakefulness patterns
Stage 2 Light sleep before Heartbeat and breathing slow
non-REM deeper sleep Muscles relax even further
body temperature drops
Eye movements stop
Brain wave activity slows but is marked by
brief bursts of electrical activity
Stage 3 Deep sleep that Longer periods Heartbeat and breathing slow to their lowest
non-REM you need to feel during the levels
refreshed frst half of Muscles are relaxed
Diffcult to be the night Brain waves become even slower
awakened
REM sleep 90 minutes after 25% of our total Eyes move rapidly from side to side behind
falling asleep sleep time closed eyelids
Mixed frequency brain wave activity becomes
closer to that seen in wakefulness
Breathing becomes faster and irregular
Heart rate and blood pressure increase to
near waking levels
Dreaming occurs during REM sleep, although
some can also occur in non-REM sleep
Arm and leg muscles become temporarily
paralysed, which prevents you from acting
out your dreams
As you age, you sleep less of your time in
REM sleep
Memory consolidation most likely requires
both non-REM and REM sleep
• Nightmare disorder
• Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep behaviour disorder
• Restless legs syndrome and substance-/medication-induced sleep disorder
The short-term consequences of sleep disruption in healthy adults,
include increased stress responsivity, somatic pain, reduced quality of life, emotional dis-
tress and mood disorders, and cognitive, memory, and performance deficits. For adoles-
cents, psychosocial health, school performance, and risk-taking behaviours are impacted
by sleep disruption. Behavioural problems and cognitive functioning are associated with
sleep disruption in children. Long-term consequences of sleep disruption in otherwise
healthy individuals include hypertension, dyslipidaemia, cardiovascular disease, weight-
related issues, metabolic syndrome, type 2 diabetes mellitus, and colorectal cancer.
(Medic et al., 2017)
It is reported that untreated sleep disorders can increase the risk of heart disease, motor vehi-
cle accidents, memory problems, depression and impaired functioning (Daley et al., 2009;
Chung et al., 2013).
The term insomnia is frequently used to denote an individual’s report of difficulty with
sleep. Insomnia can result from physical and psychological disorders. It may be due to illness,
trauma, noise pollution, stress, financial worries, relationship problems, night shift, changes in
sleep patterns, jet lag and seasonal time adjustments. Several risk factors have been identified
including age and gender, comorbid medical conditions, the onset of menses and menopause
and psychiatric disorders (National Institutes of Health, 2005). One of the most significant
risks of insomnia is chronic illness. It has been suggested that approximately 75%–90% of
people with insomnia have an increased risk of comorbid medical disorders leading to res-
piratory disorders, gastroesophageal reflux disease, pain conditions and neurodegenerative
diseases (Katz and McHorney, 1998). Narcolepsy is a rare neurological disorder that causes
an individual to suddenly fall asleep at inappropriate times. In this condition, people have
excessive, uncontrollable daytime sleepiness. Narcolepsy is characterised by abnormalities in
the regulation of REM sleep due to a lack of neurotransmitters that are important in keeping
us alert (Taheri et al., 2002); and massive damage to the REM-generating region can abolish
REM sleep (Siegel, 2017). The National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (2019)
provides some steps that can be used to combat insomnia, and they include the following:
• Getting enough sleep is good for your health.

• Set a schedule – go to bed and wake up at the same time each day.
• Exercise 20 to 30 minutes a day but no later than a few hours before going to bed.
• Avoid caffeine and nicotine late in the day and alcoholic drinks before bed.
• Relax before bed – try a warm bath, reading or another relaxing routine.
• Create a room for sleep – avoid bright lights and loud sounds, keep the room at a com-
fortable temperature, and do not watch TV or have a computer in your bedroom.
• Do not lie in bed awake. If you cannot get to sleep, do something else, like reading or
listening to music, until you feel tired.
• See a doctor if you have a problem sleeping or if you feel unusually tired during the day.
Most sleep disorders can be treated effectively (without recourse to medications).
Sleep from an Islamic perspective

In Islam, sleep is considered an important issue as both the Qur’an and Hadith discuss types
of sleep, the importance of sleep and sleep etiquette. Sleep is actually considered a sign from
Allah. In the Qur’an, Allah says (interpretation of the meaning):
• And of His signs is your sleep by night and day and your seeking of His bounty. Indeed,
in that are signs for a people who listen. (Qur’an 30:23)
According to Ibn Kathir, this verse relates to
Among His signs is the cycle of sleep that He has created during the night and the day,
when people are able to cease moving and rest, so that their tiredness and exhaustion will
go away. And He has enabled you to seek to earn a living and to travel about during the
day, this is the opposite of sleep.
In another verse Allah mentions another sign about the state of sleep where it is likened to
the state of death. During the state of sleep, Allah, the Almighty, hold a person’s soul without
giving him death. It is Allah who decides whose soul is returned to the body and whose is
not. So, in this life, the soul and the body are together except during sleep when the soul may
leave the body and come back in the morning or Allah may take the soul at that time. This is
reflected in the following verses. Allah says (interpretation of the meaning):
• Allah takes the souls at the time of their death, and those that do not die [He takes]
during their sleep. Then He keeps those for which He has decreed death and releases
the others for a specified term. Indeed, in that are signs for a people who give thought.
(Az-Zumar 39:42)
• And it is He who takes your souls by night [when you sleep] and knows what you have
committed by day. Then He revives you therein [by day] that a specified term may be
fulfilled. Then to Him will be your return; then He will inform you about what you used
to do? (Al-An’am 6:60)
The Qur’an and types of sleep

The word sleep in Arabic is Nawm, but there are other Arabic words for different types of
sleep. The Qur’an mentions sleep or its derivatives in several verses including Al-Baqarah,
2:255; Al-An'am 6:60; Ali 'Imran 3:154; Al-Anfal 8:11; Al-Kahf, 18:18, 18:25; Al-Furqan,
47; Az-Zumar, 39:42; An-Naba, 78:9; and Adh-Dhariyat 51:17. According to BaHammam
(2011), “different Arabic words are used to describe sleep in the Qur’an, and these may cor-
respond to the different sleep stages identified by modern sleep science” (p.187). The types
of sleep identified in the Qur’an are presented in Table 13.3.
Some brief commentaries regarding Table 13.3. The stage of “Sinah” (slumber) corre-
sponds to the beginning of sleep or a very light state of sleep. This is sometimes referred to
as relaxed wakefulness (Green, 2011) and may be identified as Stage 1 of non-REM sleep.
Referring to chapter An-Anfal 8:11, Ibn Kathir reported that
Slumber overcame the believers on the day of Uhud, and this incident is very well-
known. As for this Ayah [verse] (8:11), it is describing the battle of Badr, indicating
that slumber also overcame the believers during Badr. Therefore, it appears that this will
occur for the believers, whenever they are in distress, so that their hearts feel safe and
sure of Allah’s aid, rewards, favour and mercy from Allah with them.
Ibn Kathir also cited that “Abdullah bin Masùd said, ‘Slumber during battle is security from
Allah, but during prayer, it is from Shaytan.’ Qatadah said, ‘Slumber affects the head, while
sleep affects the heart.’” This state of slumber is also repeated in Ali 'Imran 3:154.
The term “Ruqood” (Al-Kahf, 18:18; 18:25) has several derived forms and interpreta-
tions. “Ruqood” and “Hojoo” mean sleeping, or sleeping at night (BaHammam, 2011; Kashif
Abdul-Karin, 2015). Referring to Adh-Dhariyat 51:17, Hojoo means little sleep as the
believers sleep very little and spend more hours of night asking forgiveness and worshipping
(Hedidari et al., 2014). Subaat is the Arabic word meaning disconnecting from the environ-
ment (Al-Abid Zuhd, 2010). In the verse (An-Naba 78:9) Ibn Kathir commented that it is “a
cessation of movement in order to attain rest from the frequent repetition and going about in
search of livelihood during the day.” BaHammam (2011) considered this to relate to “deep
sleep, corresponding to the slow wave sleep as identified by sleep scientists” (p.188). It has
Table 13.3 Types of sleep in the Qur’an
Sleep stages Stages Characteristics Verse of the Qur’an
Sinah 1 Slumber or dozing off for a Neither drowsiness (Sinah) overtakes Him
very short period nor sleep. (Al-Baqarah 2:225)
Arousal following
environmental stimulation
Nu’ass 1–2 Short nap [Remember] when He overwhelmed you
with drowsiness (Nu’ass) [giving] security
from Him. (Al-Anfal 8:11)
He sent down upon you security [in the form
of] drowsiness (Nu’ass).
(Ali-Imran 3:154)
Hojoo 3 Sleep at night They used to sleep but little of the night, And
in the hours before dawn they would ask
forgiveness. (Adh-Dhariyat 51:17–18)
Ruqood 3 Sleep for a long period And you would think them awake, while they
were asleep (Ruqood). (Al-Kahf 18:18)
And they remained in their cave for three
hundred years and exceeded by nine.
(Al-Kahf 18:25)
Subaat Slow wave Disconnection from the And made your sleep [a means for] rest.
sleep surrounding environment (An-Naba 78:9)
during sleep
Deep sleep
Source: Adapted from BaHammam, A.S. (2011). Sleep from an Islamic perspective. Annal of Thoracic Medicine, 6(4),
187–192.
also been suggested that the stages of sleep should be: Sinah and Nu’ass, Hojoo, Ruqood and
Subaat (BaHammam, 2011).
Short nap or Qailullah

Short nap (or siesta in Spanish) is a short midday or afternoon nap or rest that is most often
taken in the Mediterranean, Middle East, Southern Europe, mainland China and Hispanic
American countries. It varies across world-wide cultures. From an Islamic perspective,
Qailullah refers to a short rest or midday nap occurring about an hour before Zuhr (the
afternoon prayer) period or within the duration of Zuhr period (before Asr) (BaHammam,
2011; BaHammam and Gozal, 2012; Tumiran et al., 2018). The Qailullah takes a religious
dimension for some Muslims in following the Sunnah (emulating the practice of Prophet
Muhammad ( )). Table 13.4 presents Qailullah in Prophetic and other traditions.
The following statements provided details about the timing of the nap:
• “Sleeping early in the day betrays ignorance, in the middle of the day is right, and at the
end of the day is stupid” (Ibn Hajar al-Asqalâni).
• “We used to offer the Jumn’ah prayer with the Prophet ( ) and then take the afternoon
nap” (Bukhari (a)).
• Ishâq ibn ʻAbdullâh said, “Taking a nap is one of the deeds of good people. It revitalises
the heart and helps one to pray Qiyaam al-Layl” (Islam Q&A, 2000).
Table 13.4 Qailullah in Prophetic and other traditions
Narration Hadiths References
Anas Take a short nap, for Devils do Al- Tabarâni (a). Al-Saheehah, 2647. Cited in
not take naps. Islam Q&A (2000). Ways to Help Oneself
Pray Qiyaam al-Layl. Fatwa 3749.
Anas bin Malik We used to offer the Jumu’ah Sahih al-Bukhari 905. In-book reference: Book
prayer early and then have an 11, Hadith 29
afternoon nap. USC-MSA web (English) reference: Vol. 2,
Book 13, Hadith 28.
Anas We used to offer the Friday Sahih al-Bukhari 940. In-book reference: Book
prayer early and then have 11, Hadith 64
the afternoon nap. USC-MSA web (English) reference: Vol. 2,
Book 13, Hadith 62.
It is not necessary to sleep, but rather to lie down during the daytime for some time to relax. In
fact, the practice of siesta provides benefits for all ages (Milner and Cote, 2009) and has been
linked to positive effects on cardiovascular mortality (Stang et al., 2007). Researchers found
that a midday nap as short as 10 minutes can improve alertness and performance for 2.5–4
hours and can also reduce coronary mortality by about one-third among men and women
(Naska et al., 2007). The findings of this study showed that people who took siestas regularly,
defined by the researchers as napping at least three times per week for an average of at least
30 minutes, had a 37% lower coronary mortality than those not taking siestas (Naska et al.,
2007). The findings of another study (Ficca et al., 2010) showed that those who napped at
least three times weekly for about half an hour had 37% lower coronary mortality than those
who did not nap. The National Sleep Foundation (2020) reported that naps can
restore alertness, enhance performance, and reduce mistakes and accidents. Naps can
increase alertness in the period directly following the nap and may extend alertness a few
hours later in the day. Napping has psychological benefits. A nap can be a pleasant lux-
ury, a mini vacation. It can provide an easy way to get some relaxation and rejuvenation.
A 20-minute nap is all that is required to wake up refreshed and get all the benefits.
Sleep etiquette
The Sunnah of the Prophet Muhammad ( ) is to be followed by practicing Muslims prior
to sleeping. There are certain sleep etiquette and sleep hygiene rules that need to be adhered
to, and this corresponds with evidence from contemporary scientific evidence.
Ablution
It is recommended to perform ablution before going to sleep. The Prophet ( ) said: “When
you go to bed, do wudu (ablution) as for prayer” (Bukhari and Muslim (a)). This means that
the person should be in a state of purity both physically and spiritually before sleeping. It is
worth noting the benefits of wudu (ablution). An-Nawawi said:
if a person has wudu’, that is sufficient for him, because the point is to go to sleep having
wudu’, lest he die in his sleep, and so that his dreams will be more true, and so that the
Shaytan will be less likely to play with his dreams and terrify him.
(Islam Q&A, 2001)
Dusting and cleaning the bed before sleeping

It is narrated that Abu (Huairah) (may Allah be pleased with him) said: The Prophet ( )
said: When one of you goes to his bed, let him dust off his bed with the inside of his lower
garment, for he does not know what came onto it after he left it. Then let him say: Bismika
Rabbee wada’tu janbi wa bika arfa’uhu wa in amsakta nafsi farhamhaa wa in arsaltahaa
fahfazhaa bimaa tuhfaz bihi ‘ibaadika al-saaliheen (In Your name, my Lord, I lie down, and
in Your name I rise. If You should take my soul then have mercy on it, and if You should
return my soul then protect it as You protect Your righteous slaves). (Bukhari and Muslim (b))
Sleep position
Sleep position is another dimension of sleep that is recommended by Prophet Muhammad
( ). For example, sleeping on the right side is strongly encouraged whereas the prone posi-
tion is discouraged. As stated in the previous section, the Prophet ( ) recommended that
“When you want to go to bed, perform ablution as you do for prayer, then lie down on your
right side” (Bukhari (b)). It is narrated by Hafsah, Ummul Mu’minin that when the Messenger
of Allah ( ) wanted to go to sleep, he put his right hand under his cheek and would then say
three times: “O Allah, guard me from Thy punishment on the day when Thou raisest up Thy
servants” (Abu Dawud). Taking a sleeping position on the right side is strongly encouraged
and has been scientifically found to have certain health benefits. These include lower nervous
system activity, which reduces heart rate and blood pressure. There is evidence to suggest
that there is a beneficial effect of right lateral decubitus position on the nervous system. The
findings of a study with elderly adults found that the right lateral decubitus position may
lessen sympathetic nerve activity (Sasaki et al., 2017). It has also been suggested that “some
scientists think the age-related preference for right-side sleeping is an instinctive, protective
response for the heart. Studies show that people with heart failure tend to avoid sleeping on
their left sides” (Breus, 2019).
Sleeping in the prone position or on the stomach is disliked and discouraged. Shaykh
Muhammed Sâlih al-Munajjid (1999) states that
the reason for this is that it was forbidden by the Prophet ( ), who left no good thing,
but he told us about it and left no evil thing, but he warned us against it. Ya’eesh ibn
Tihfah al-Ghifaari reported that his father said: “I stayed as a guest with the Messenger
of Allah ( ) with those of the poor whom he hosted. The Messenger of Allah ( )
came out in the night to check up on his guests, and saw me lying on my stomach. He
prodded me with his foot and said, ‘Do not lie in this manner, for it is a way of lying
that Allah hates.’” “The ruling of the Scholars of the Standing Committee stated that ‘It
is makrooh to sleep on the stomach, because of the report narrated by Abu Dawud from
Takhfah ibn Qays al-Ghifaari.’”
(Islam Q&A, 2007a)
There are many factors that have been linked with sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) but
one of the factors linked to a baby’s increased risk of SIDS is the baby sleeping on the stom-
ach. Evidence is emerging that co-sleeping (or sleeping in the same bed as parents) reduces
the risk of SIDS by about 50% (McKenna and McDade, 2005) The American Academy of
Pediatrics (AAP) guidelines recommend the following: “Always put a baby to sleep on its
back. (This includes naps.) DO NOT put a baby to sleep on its stomach” (Task Force on
Sudden Infant Death Syndrome, 2005).
Supplications before sleeping

There are so many sound supplications for sleeping that were narrated in the Prophet’s ( )
Sunnah. It was narrated from ‘Aishah (may Allah be pleased with her) that
the Prophet ( ) went to his bed every night, he would put his cupped hands together,
then blow into them, then recite into them Qul Huwa Allahu ahad, Qul a’oodhu bi Rabb
il-Falaq and Qul a’oodhu bi Rabb il-Naas [i.e., the last three chapters of the Qur’an), then
he would wipe his hands over as much of his body as he could, starting with his head and
face, and the front part of his body. He would do that three times.
(Bukhari (c))
Table 13.5 presents some supplications and recitations of the Qur’an before sleeping.
Dream
A dream is a succession of sensations and emotions by means of imagery that occur during
periods of REM sleep. Throughout history dreams have been associated with divine rev-
elation and prophecy. Oneirology is the study of dreaming. There are different models and
theories of dreams. Sigmund Freud, the father of psychoanalytic theory, believed that dreams
allow our repressed needs and fantasies to be fulfilled. He used dream analysis to understand
his patients’ unconscious needs and desires or internal conflicts. He differentiated between
the manifest content of the dream (images, action) and its latent content (unconscious mean-
ing of the dream). It is by uncovering the real meaning of dreams, through dream analysis,
that people could better understand their inner problems and conflicts resolve them. Carl
Gustav Jung, a disciple of Freud, also believed in the existence of the unconscious as more
spiritual rather than instinctual, or sexual. He came up with the idea of a shared, collective
unconscious which is the source of all mythology for all mankind. Jung’s understanding of
dreaming is that it is a pathway to the unconscious, and it serves to guide the conscious self
to achieve harmony and balance.
Other theories of dreaming include the activation-synthesis theory (Hobson and McCarley,
1977; Hobson, 2004). According to this theory, it is the firing of neurons in the brain stem, acti-
vated during REM sleep, which causes areas of the limbic system involved in emotions, sensa-
tions and memories to become active. It is the subjective interpretation of the brainstem to find
meaning in these signals which results in dreaming. Another theory is the information-process-
ing theory based on the developments in the cognitive neuroscience of memory. In this theory,
dream experience is viewed as one of several forms of spontaneous offline cognition

involving the reactivation and processing of memory during resting states. There is now
Table 13.5 Some supplications and recitations of the Qur’an before sleeping
Qur’an Hadith Sources
Al-Baqarah Whoever recites the last two verses of Surat Bukhari (5009) and
2:285–286 al-Baqarah every night, they will suffce him Muslim (808)
[protection from harm or replacing the silent night
prayer].
Al-Kafrun 109 Recite “Say: O disbelievers” [Al-Kafrun109], then go Abu Dawud (5055)
to sleep at the end of it, for it is a disavowal of shirk.
Al-Isra’ 17 The Prophet (blessings and peace of Allah be upon Tirmidhi (3402)
Az-Zumar him) would not sleep before he recited Bani
Israa’eel [al-Isra’] and az-Zumar.
When the Prophet (blessings and peace of Allah Bukhari (6324)
be upon him) wanted to sleep, he would say,
“Allahumma bismika ahyaa wa amoot (O Allah, in
Your name I live and die)”, and when he woke up he
would say “Al-hamdu Lillaah alladhi ahyaanaa ba’da
ma amaatanaa wa ilayhi al-nushoor (Praise be to
Allah who has brought us back to life after causing
us to die, and to Him is the resurrection).”
Shall I not tell you of something that is better for you Bukhari (5362) and
than that? When you go to sleep, glorify Allah (by Muslim (2727)
saying Subhaan Allah) thirty-three times, praise Allah
(by saying Al-hamdu Lillah) thirty-three times, and
magnify Him (by saying Allahu akbar) thirty-four
times.
Bismillahi wada‘tu janbi, Allahumm aghfr li dhanbi wa Abu Dawud (5054)
akhsi’ shaytaani wa fukka rihaani waj‘alni f’n-nadi
al-a‘laa (In the name of Allah I lie down. O Allah,
forgive me my sins, suppress my shaytaan, ransom
me and join me with the highest assembly [meaning
the angels on high]).
substantial empirical evidence to suggest that, during sleep, the neural-level “replay”
of recent experience plays a critical role in the consolidation and evolution of memory,
helping us to process our past experiences and prepare for future events.
(Wamsley and Stickgold, 2010, p.2)
That means dreaming is simply a by-product or even an active part of this information-processing.
Dreaming from an Islamic perspective

Dreaming is part of the Islamic tradition. Both Qur’anic verses and Hadiths mention dreams
and dream analysis. Divine revelations and instructions came in the form of dreams for
some Prophets. In the Qur’an, dreaming is described for different purposes in three verses.
Sūrah 12: Yusuf (Joseph) focuses on the story of Yusuf and the warning given to him by his
father Prophet Yacoub not to tell his brothers of his dream of 11 stars and the sun and the
moon bowing to him. The Sūrah also focused on dream interpretation by Yusuf. In Sūrah 37,
As-Sāffāt (Ranks), the main focus is on Allah’s command to the Prophet Abraham to sacrifice
his son, Ibrahim. Sūrah 8, Al-Anfāl (Spoils of War): This Sūrah describes a dream of Prophet
Muhammad ( ). Allah says in the Qur’an (interpretation of the meaning):
• [Remember, O Muhammad], when Allah showed them to you in your dream as few;
and if He had shown them to you as many, you [believers] would have lost courage and
would have disputed in the matter [of whether to fight], but Allah saved [you from that].
Indeed, He is Knowing of that within the breasts. (Al-Anfāl 8:43)
This verse relates to the Battle of Badr. According to Ibn Kathir, Mujahid said, "In a
dream, Allah showed the Prophet the enemy as few. The Prophet conveyed this news to his
Companions and their resolve strengthened.'' Similar was said by Ibn Ishaq and several oth-
ers. (If He had shown them to you as many, you would surely, have been discouraged) mean-
ing that you would have cowardly abstained from meeting them and fell in dispute among
yourselves.
According to the Messenger of Allah ( ), there are three types of dreams (Tirmidhi):
• The true dream (good dream) (Rahmaani).
• Dreams about something that has happened to the dreamer (Nafsaani).
• Dreams in which the Shaytan (the devil) frightens someone (Shaytaani).
The good dream or true dream is from Allah, the Almighty. It has been suggested that “they
may be meant as good news, or warning against evil, or helping and guiding. It is Sunnah to
praise Allah for them and to tell one’s loved ones, but not others, about them” (Islam Q&A,
2008). Abu Hurairah reported Allah’s Messenger ( ) as saying: “When the time draws
near (i.e., near the end of the world), the dream of a believer can hardly be false; and the
dream of a believer represents one part from forty-six parts of Prophethood” (Bukhari and
Muslim(c)). Shaykh Ibn ‘Uthaymeen (may Allah have mercy on him) said:
The meaning of the words of the Prophet ( ), “The dreams of the believer are one of
the forty-six parts of Prophethood” is that the dreams of the believer come true, because
they are like parables that the angel gives to the one who sees them. They may tell of
something that is happening or that is going to happen, so it happens in accordance with
the dream, so these dreams are like the wahy [revelation] of Prophethood in that they
come true, yet they are different from it. Hence, they are one of the forty-six parts of
Prophethood.
Bad dreams cause distress, fear and grief to the dreamer.

The bad dreams are from the devil. Bad dreams are those in which the sleeper sees bad
things; they come from the Shaytan. It is Sunnah to seek refuge with Allah from them and
to spit to the left three times, and not to talk about them, but if a person does that it will not
harm him. It is also Mustahaab to turn onto one’s other side, and to pray two rak’ahs [two
units of prayer].
(Islam Q&A, 2008)
Shaykh Ibn ‘Uthaymeen (may Allah have mercy on him) said:
Alarm comes from the Shaytan. The Shaytan depicts to a person in his sleep things
that alarm him with regard to himself, his wealth or his family, or in his community,
because the Shaytan loves to make the believers sad, as Allah says (interpretation of the
meaning): Private conversation is only from Satan that he may grieve those who have
believed, but he will not harm them at all except by permission of Allah. And upon Allah
let the believers rely.
(Al-Mujadila 58:10)
Ibn Hajar maintains that “A person should praise Allah for the good dream; He should feel
happy about it; and He should talk about it to those whom he loves but not to those whom he
dislikes” (Islam Q&A, 1999).
In summary, with bad dreams the individual should seek refuge with Allah from the evil
of the dream; seek refuge with Allah from the evil of the Shaytan as stated previously. Thus,
from an Islamic perspective, a dream may act as guidance or early warning system to the
individual or significant others in relation to errors, sins, deviation from the right path or
misguidance. That is, action needs to be taken by the individual dreamer.
Dream analysis
Dream interpretation been an important psychoanalytic technique, and Freud (1900) con-
sidered dreams to be the royal road to the unconscious. It is through the process of dreams,
according to his theory, that the ego’s defences are lowered so that some of the repressed
material comes through to awareness. Freud proposed that dreams perform important func-
tions for the unconscious mind in the fulfilment of wishes. Dream analysis is also used by
gestalt therapists, art therapists and cognitive-behavioural therapists. The techniques used in
dream analysis include free association, amplification and “Take the Part of.” In free asso-
ciation, the client speaks freely without censoring the contents. The client can also write
the contents. Amplification, a technique rooted in Jungian dream analysis, involves the use
of symbolic, mythic, historical and cultural parallels. The individual’s interpretations are
explored within the context of accepted cultural beliefs in making sense of the symbols. The
technique “Take the Part of” refers to a technique used in gestalt dream analysis. The client is
asked to record everything they can remember about the dream and act out parts of the dream
through role play.
In Islam, only select individuals, like Prophets are given the ability to interpret dreams.
Prophet Muhammad ( ) would frequently listen to and interpret the dreams of his
Companions, usually after the morning prayer. It is narrated by Samura bin Jundub that
Allah’s Apostle very often used to ask his companions, “Did anyone of you see a dream?”
So, dreams would be narrated to him by those whom Allah wished to tell. One morn-
ing the Prophet ( ) said, “Last night two persons came to me (in a dream) and woke
me up and said to me, ‘Proceed!’ I set out with them and we came across a man Lying
down, and behold, another man was standing over his head, holding a big rock. Behold,
he was throwing the rock at the man's head, injuring it. The rock rolled away, and the
thrower followed it and took it back. By the time he reached the man, his head returned
to the normal state. The thrower then did the same as he had done before. I said to my
two companions, ‘Subhan Allah! Who are these two persons?’ They said, ‘Proceed!’ So
we proceeded and came to a man lying flat on his back and another man standing over
his head with an iron hook, and behold, he would put the hook in one side of the man’s
mouth and tear off that side of his face to the back (of the neck) and similarly tear his
nose from front to back and his eye from front to back. Then he turned to the other side
of the man’s face and did just as he had done with the other side. He hardly completed
this side when the other side returned to its normal state. Then he returned to it to repeat
what he had done before. I said to my two companions, ‘Subhan Allah! Who are these
two persons?’ They said to me, ‘Proceed!’ So, we proceeded and came across something
like a Tannur (a kind of baking oven, a pit usually clay-lined for baking bread).” I think
the Prophet said, “In that oven there was much noise and voices.” The Prophet added,
“We looked into it and found naked men and women, and behold, a flame of fire was
reaching to them from underneath, and when it reached them, they cried loudly. I asked
them, ‘Who are these?’ They said to me, ‘Proceed!’ And so, we proceeded and came
across a river.” I think he said, “… red like blood.” The Prophet added, “And behold, in
the river there was a man swimming, and on the bank, there was a man who had collected
many stones. Behold, while the other man was swimming, he went near him. The former
opened his mouth and the latter (on the bank) threw a stone into his mouth whereupon
he went swimming again. He returned and every time the performance was repeated,
I asked my two companions, ‘Who are these (two) persons?’ They replied, ‘Proceed!
Proceed!’ And we proceeded till we came to a man with a repulsive appearance, the
most repulsive appearance, you ever saw a man having! Beside him there was a fire and
he was kindling it and running around it. I asked my companions, ‘Who is this (man)?’
They said to me, ‘Proceed! Proceed!’ So, we proceeded till we reached a garden of deep
green dense vegetation, having all sorts of spring colours. In the midst of the garden
there was a very tall man and I could hardly see his head because of his great height,
and around him there were children in such a large number as I have never seen. I said
to my companions, ‘Who is this?’ They replied, ‘Proceed! Proceed!’ So, we proceeded
till we came to a majestic huge garden, greater and better than I have ever seen! My two
companions said to me, ‘Go up and I went up.’” The Prophet added, “So we ascended
till we reached a city built of gold and silver bricks and we went to its gate and asked
(the gatekeeper) to open the gate, and it was opened and we entered the city and found
in it, men with one side of their bodies as handsome as the handsomest person you have
ever seen, and the other side as ugly as the ugliest person you have ever seen. My two
companions ordered those men to throw themselves into the river. Behold, there was a
river flowing across (the city), and its water was like milk in whiteness. Those men went
and threw themselves in it and then returned to us after the ugliness (of their bodies)
had disappeared and they became in the best shape.” The Prophet further added, “My
two companions (angels) said to me, ‘This place is the Eden Paradise, and that is your
place.’ I raised up my sight, and behold, there I saw a palace like a white cloud! My two
companions said to me, ‘That (palace) is your place.’ I said to them, ‘May Allah bless
you both! Let me enter it.’ They replied, ‘As for now, you will not enter it, but you shall
enter it (one day).’ I said to them, ‘I have seen many wonders tonight. What does all that
mean which I have seen?’ They replied, ‘We will inform you: As for the first man you
came upon whose head was being injured with the rock, he is the symbol of the one who
studies the Qur’an and then neither recites it nor acts on its orders, and sleeps, neglecting
the enjoined prayers. As for the man you came upon whose sides of mouth, nostrils and
eyes were torn off from front to back, he is the symbol of the man who goes out of his
house in the morning and tells so many lies that it spreads all over the world. And those
naked men and women whom you saw in a construction resembling an oven, they are the
adulterers and the adulteresses; and the man whom you saw swimming in the river and
given a stone to swallow, is the eater of usury (Riba) and the bad looking man whom you
saw near the fire kindling it and going round it, is Malik, the gatekeeper of Hell and the
tall man whom you saw in the garden, is Abraham and the children around him are those
children who die with Al-Fitra (the Islamic Faith).’” The narrator added: Some Muslims
asked the Prophet, “O Allah’s Apostle! What about the children of pagans?” The Prophet
replied, “And also the children of pagans.” The Prophet added, “My two companions
added, ‘The men you saw half handsome and half ugly were those persons who had
mixed an act that was good with another that was bad, but Allah forgave them.’”
(Bukhari (d))
Prophet Yusuf was also given the ability to interpret dreams. Allay says in the Qur’an (inter-
• My Lord, You have given me [something] of sovereignty and taught me of the interpreta-
tion of dreams… (Yusuf 12:101)
In the Qur’an, Allah narrated this incident thus
• And the king (of Egypt) said: “Verily, I saw (in a dream) seven fat cows, whom seven
lean ones were devouring, and seven green ears of corn, and seven others dry. O nota-
bles! Explain to me my dream if it be that you can interpret dreams.” They said: “Mixed
up false dreams and we are not skilled in the interpretation of dreams.”' Then the man
who was released, now at length remembered and said: “I will tell you its interpreta-
tion, so send me forth.” (He said): “O Yusuf, the man of truth! Explain to us seven fat
cows whom seven lean ones were devouring, and seven green ears of corn, and (seven)
others dry, that I may return to the people, and that they may know.” Yusuf said: “For
seven consecutive years, you shall sow as usual and that which you reap you shall leave
it in the ears, (all) except a little of it which you may eat. Then will come after that,
seven hard (years), which will devour what you have laid by in advance for them, (all)
except a little of that which you have guarded (stored).Then thereafter will come a year
in which people will have abundant rain and in which they will press (wine and oil).”
(Yusuf 12:43–49)
Imam Al-Baghawi said that
Know that the interpretation of dreams falls into various categories. Dreams may be
interpreted in the light of the Qur’an or in the light of the Sunnah, or by means of the
proverbs that are current among people, or by names and metaphors, or in terms of
opposites.
Table 13.6 shows some examples of dream interpretation from Imam al-Baghawi.
In the Islamic world, one of popular book is Ibn Sirin’s (1994) on The Interpretation of
Dreams. Because of its popularity, dream analysis has been subjected to and mixed with
fortune telling, superstition and myths. According to Bilal Philips,
Ibn Sirin, without a shadow of a doubt, did not write any book on dream interpretation.
He did, however, write a compilation of Abu Hurairah’s narrations from the Prophet
Table 13.6 Examples of dream interpretation
Image/symbol/interpretation Qur’anic verse/Hadith /proverb
Rope – meaning a covenant And hold frmly to the rope of Allah all together and do
not become divided. (Al ‘Imran 3:103)
Crow – immoral man Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) called
it such.
Meanings of proverbs: Digging a hole Whoever digs a hole will fall in it.
meaning a plot
Meanings of names Such as seeing a man called Raashid meaning wisdom.
Meanings of opposites: Such as fear And He will surely give them in exchange a safe security
meaning safety after their fear. (al-Noor 24:55)
Adapted from Imaam Al-Baghawi Sharh al-Sunnah, 12/220.
( ) along with the opinions of Abu Hurairah. This text was kept by his brother, Yahyaa
ibn Sirin, because Muhammad ibn Sirin, in his later days, did not like to keep books.
Consequently, English translations based on it as well as other books, like Ibn Sirin's
Dictionary of Dreams and Dreams and Interpretations, are all unauthentic.
Bilal Philips went on to say that
In the Introductory of Ibn Sirin's Dictionary of Dreams, Al-Akili further recommends

that the dream interpreter have knowledge about astrology, numerology, lucky days of
the week and lucky hours of the day and night, all of which are from the realm of for-
bidden pseudo-sciences based on shirk (idolatry). The Dictionary of Dreams is not only
unauthentic, it is misleading and cannot be relied upon by sincere Muslims for guidance.
Bilal Philips (1996) outlines five principles regarding the interpretation of dreams:
• Dreams may be interpreted by other than the Prophets.

• Interpretation should only be provided for good dreams.
• Good dreams should only be given positive interpretations.
• Only the interpretations of Prophets were 100% accurate; interpretation by other humans
may be either correct or incorrect.
• It is permissible to implement what has been seen in a good dream.
Conclusion
In the past few decades, there has been a significant increase in our knowledge of sleep
physiology and biorhythms, sleep disorders and the importance of sleep. New techniques are
being developed to help those who have difficulty in falling asleep. According to Sculin et al.
(2018), bedtime worry, including worrying about incomplete future tasks, is a significant
contributor to difficulty falling asleep. The findings of Sculin’s study (2018) showed that “to
facilitate falling asleep, individuals may derive benefit from writing a very specific to-do list
for 5 minutes at bedtime rather than journaling about completed activities” (p.139). Islam has
also provided significant information about the different types of sleep, the importance of
naps (Qailulah), sleep etiquette for good sleep, dreams and dream interpretation. It is worth
noting that an individual will not be held accountable for his deeds during sleep.

• Consciousness, our subjective awareness of ourselves and our environment.
• Sleep consists of two major stages: REM and non-REM sleep.
• Non-REM sleep has three substages, known as stage N1, N2 and N3.
• Sleep is essential for adequate functioning during the day.
• Sleep disorders include insomnia, sleep apnoea and narcolepsy.
• Dreams occur primarily during REM sleep.
• Some theories of dreaming, such Freud’s, are based on the content of the dreams.
• The Qur’an describes different types of sleep, and these correspond with different sleep
stages identified by modern sleep scientists.
• Prophet Muhammad ( ) stressed the importance of sleep for good health.
• A nap (Qailulah) is a well-established practice in Islamic culture.
• Modern sleep scientists acknowledge the beneficial effect of short naps.
• Dream interpretation is an established science in Islamic culture.
• In Islam, an individual will not be held accountable for deeds during sleep.
1. Which of the following is a characteristic of slow wave sleep?

A. Increased blood flow to the cerebral cortex
B. Increased muscle tone
C. Increased parasympathetic activity
D. Rapid eye movements
2. Dement and Kleitman (1957) found that when most subjects were woken up during
REM sleep they:
A. Reported dreaming.
B. Claimed they had not been sleeping.
C. Reported they felt “sleepy” and were disinclined to answer the experimenter’s
questions.
D. Could not remember anything.
E. Could remember everything.
3. As sleep cycles progress over the course of an average night, the amount of time spent in
REM sleep:
A. Doesn’t change much
B. Becomes zero (i.e. REM eventually drops out of the sleep cycle)
C. Increases
D. Decreases
E. Remains the same
4. Over the lifespan the greatest proportion of REM sleep occurs in:
A. The first months of life
B. Old age
C. The onset of adolescence
D. In the later part of gestation
E. Middle age
5. If there is any consistent effect of sleep deprivation on humans it is on:
A. Mood
B. The performance of complex mental tasks that require concentration
C. Paranoia
D. Tasks involving coordinated movement
E. Delusion
6. Wish fulfilment is an aspect of which theory of dreaming?
A. Freudian
B. The problem-solving theory
C. Evolutionary
D. Cognitive-behavioural
E. The restorative theory
7. How many stages comprise non-REM sleep?
A. 2
B. 1
C. 4
D. 5
E. 3
8. What is the duration of healthy stages of sleep?
A. 50–90 minutes
B. 90–110 minutes
C. 20–50 minutes
D. 110–210 minutes
E. 5–20 minutes
9. What is another name for N3 stage sleep?
A. Rapid eye movement sleep
B. Beta wave sleep
C. Dream sleep
D. Slow wave sleep
E. Nap sleep
10. According to the activation-synthesis theory of dreaming, dreams are triggered by the
random firing of neurons in the:
A. Right temporal lobe
B. Suprachiasmatic nucleus
C. Brain stem
D. Hypothalamus
E. Cerebellum
11. What did Freud call the hidden psychological content of a dream?
A. Its manifest content
B. Its literal content
C. Its latent content
D. Its soporific content

E. Its exotic content
12. _____________is a state of rest accompanied by altered consciousness and relative
inactivity.
A. Excitement
B. Relaxation
C. Sleep
D. Dementia
E. Emotion
13. A sleep disorder characterised by difficulty in falling asleep or staying asleep throughout
the night is known as
A. Somnambulism
B. Cataplexy
C. Narcolepsy
D. Insomnia
E. Epilepsy
14. In Islam, sleep is considered an important issue because of
A. The yypes of sleep
B. He importance of sleep
C. Sleep etiquette
D. Sunnah of sleep
E. All of the above
15. The stage of ____________corresponds to the beginning of sleep or a very light state of
sleep
A. Ruqood
B. Hojoo
C. Sinah
D. Nu’ass
E. Adh-Dhariyat
16. Qailullah refers to a short rest or midday napping occurring about an hour
A. Before Zuhr period
B. Within the duration of Zuhr period (before Asr)
C. After Fajr
D. Answer A and B
E. Answer A, B and C
17. Sleep position is another dimension of sleep that is recommended by Prophet Muhammad
( ). Which is the correct answer?
A. Sleeping on the left side
B. Sleeping on the right side
C. Sleeping in the prone position
D. Sleeping on stomach
E. Sleeping on the back
18. Carl Gustav Jung, a disciple of Freud, also believed in the existence of the unconscious
as more
A. Sexual
B. Spiritual
C. Instinctual
D. Emotional
E. Mythological
19. In the Qur’an, dream is described for different purposes in which verses.
A. Surah 12, Yusuf (Joseph)
B. Surah 37, As-Sāffāt (Ranks)
C. Surah 8, Al-Anfāl (Spoils of War)
D. A and B only
E. A, B and C
20. Which one is incorrect? According to the Messenger of Allah ( ), there are types of
dreams including
A. The true dream
B. Dreams about something that has happened to the man himself
C. Dreams about something that has happened to the Nafs
D. Dreams in which the Shaytan (the devil) frightens someone
21. Why did Bilal Philips reject Ibn Sirin’s Interpretation of Dreams and Dictionary of
Dreams?
A. Authentic.
B. Inauthentic.
C. Data was old.
D. He used an analytical method.
22. Bilal Philips (1996) outlines the principles regarding the interpretation of dreams: Which
is incorrect?
A. Dreams may be interpreted by other than the Prophets.
B. Interpretation should only be provided for good dreams.
C. Good dreams should only be given positive interpretations.
D. Interpretation by other humans is correct.
E. It is permissible to implement what has been seen in a good dream.
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Tirmidhi. Sahih (Darussalam). English reference: Vol. 4, Book 8, Hadith 2280. Arabic reference: Book
34, Hadith 2449.
Tumiran, M. A., Rahman, N. N. A., Saat, R. M., Kabir, N., Zulkifli, M. Y., and Adli, D. S. H. (2018).
The concept of Qailulah (midday napping) from neuroscientific and Islamic perspectives. Journal
of Religion and Health, 57(4), 1363–1375. doi:10.1007/s10943-015-0093-7.
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Chapter 14
Memory
Nature, types, stages and memorisation
Learning outcomes
• Describe the different types of memory.
• Compare and contrast explicit and implicit memory.
• Describe the three distinct memory storage resources.
• Summarise the capacities of short-term memory and long-term memory.
• Describe the processes that are central to long-term memory.
• Explain how working memory is used to process information.
• Discuss the factors involved in remembering and forgetting.
• Discuss the memorisation of the Qur’an.
The nature of memory

Humans are in dire need of memory to function in the activities of daily life. It is the stor-
age of information or experience over time (Matlin, 2005), consisting of sounds, images
and meaning. From a cognitive perspective, the term memory refers to different forms of
acquiring, storing and accessing information and experience. The contents of memory are
an interaction between the individual, the cognitive process and the environment. Memory
can be categorised into types, stages and processes. There are two types of memory: Explicit
memory and implicit memory. The stages of memory include sensory, short-term and long-
term memory. The three processes that are central to long-term memory are encoding, stor-
age and retrieval.
Types of memory
There are two types of memory: Explicit memory and implicit memory. Explicit memory
refers to cases of conscious recollection (Roediger, Zaromb and Goodge, 2008). This type
of memory is also referred to as declarative memory. Basically, when we ask an individ-
ual about his recent holidays or travel, we are measuring explicit memory. That is, we
may ask the person to give us the names, dates, places, facts and events of the travel or
holiday. Figure 14.1 presents the two types of memory. Explicit memory is itself subdi-
vided into the categories of semantic and episodic memory (Schacter and Tulving, 1994).
Episodic memory is referred as “the capacity to consciously remember personally experi-
enced events and situations. It is one of the major mental (cognitive) capacities enabled by
the brain” (Tulving and Szpunar, 2009). It has been suggested that the structured contents
Figure 14.1 Types of memory.
of the semantic memory system are related to our knowledge of facts and concepts and
the phenomenological experience as “knowing” (Gardiner and Richardson-Klavehn, 2000).
Explicit memory is assessed using measures which include essay, multiple-choice questions
and relearning (see Nelson, 1985).
There are three general types of implicit memory: Procedural memory, classical condi-
tioning effects and priming. Implicit memory, according to Dharani (2015)
is also called non-declarative memory, motor memory or procedural memory, and it

cannot be described in words. For this memory to form, overt conscious appreciation of
memory is not necessary; for example, performing skilled tasks using the hands, such as
buttoning a shirt or tying a shoelace, do not need continuous attention – they are done
almost automatically.
(p.62)
Implicit memory involves the unconscious influence on cognitive and behavioural skills.
Procedural memory is part of our memory system which enables us to do things without
consciously thinking about how we are doing it, for example, riding a bicycle or using your
mobile phone, or even speaking in a different language. This is a type of automaton without
any conscious thought.
The second subset of implicit memory is known as priming. It occurs whenever exposure
to a stimulus can later alter behaviour or thoughts. This is a form of associative learning.
For example, exposing someone to the word “hospital” will evoke a faster response to the
word “Nurse” than it would to unrelated words like “television.” This is because hospital and
nurse are more closely linked in memory, so people respond faster when the second word
is presented. There are several different types of priming in psychology including: Positive
and negative priming, semantic priming, associative priming, repetition priming, perceptual
priming and conceptual priming. A third subset of implicit memory is classical conditioning.
This involves the pairing of a neutral stimulus (such as a bell or sound) with another stimulus
(such as food), which results in a learned response such as salivation. This has been covered
Memory 327
in Chapter 7. There are several medical conditions and disorders that can affect memory.
It is reported that specific neurological disorders, such as global amnesia and Alzheimer’s
disease, can affect some forms of memory while leaving others relatively intact (Fleischman
et al., 2005).
Stages of memory
Humans, unlike computers, have three distinct memory storage resources (not including
permanent deletion): Sensory memory, short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory
(LTM). The memory stores deal with what kind of information is retained in memory,
how much can be stored at any time (capacity of the memory) and how long the memory
lasts for (duration). The kind of information, the capacity of the memory and the duration
of the memory will determine whether any information is stored on a short-term or long-
term basis. This approach is linear and follows the pattern of information gathering in
the sensory memory, moving to short-term memory and eventually moving to long-term
memory.
Sensory memory
Sensory memory refers to the information we receive through the senses; it is briefly stored
sensory information (a few seconds). If the information is encoded or rehearsed (like a tel-
ephone number) it will go to the short-term memory. However, if the information is not
encoded for more processing, this information is lost or forgotten. The purpose of sensory
memory is to transmit the information rather than consciously store it. This type of memory
has no control as to what is stored, or the duration of the storage. It acts a filter for information
derived from the input of the senses. There are three main types of sensory memory: Visual
(iconic), auditory (echoic) and touch (haptic). Iconic memory is known as visual sensory
memory. It is photoreceptor cells in the eyes that identify the visual information, and subse-
quently this is sent to the occipital lobe in the brain. Iconic memory was first studied by the
psychologist George Sperling (1960).
Echoic memory is also known as audio memory, and this memory can hold information
for about four seconds (Cowan, Lichty and Grove, 1990). Once a sound is heard, this travels
to the temporal lobe of the brain so that it can be processed and understood. The purpose of
echoic memory is to store audio information for the brain to process the sound which gives
meaning to the overall sound. In contrast with the iconic memory, the bits of audio informa-
tion can only be scanned once. Echoic memory is thought to not only play a crucial role
in many different cognitive processes but also in language development. It is reported that
deficits in short-term memory functioning are believed to cause problems in language acqui-
sition (Baddeley, 2003), language disorders (Montgomery, 2003) and dyslexia (Jeffries and
Everaatt, 2004; Smith-Spark and Fisk, 2007).
The third type of sensory memory is the haptic memory. The term haptic memory can be
defined as “the ability to retain impressions of haptically [tactile] acquired information after
the original stimulus is absent” (Shih, Dubrowski and Carnaham, 2009). This type of memory
focuses on the sensations of touch (tactile stimulation), and it is collected through feelings of
pain and stimulation. Sensory memory is an ultra-short-term memory and decays or degrades
very quickly, typically in the region of 1/5–1/2 second. Echoic memory is now thought to
last up to three or four seconds. Haptic memory is short-lived (less than two seconds) and
Figure 14.2 The three types of sensory memory.
has a duration and decay like visual iconic memory (Shih, Dubrowski and Carnaham, 2009).
Figure 14.2 presents the three types of memory.
Short-term memory (STM)

Information from the sensory memory is usually loss or forgotten but information that is
attended to or focused on may pass into short-term memory. It has been suggested when the
information in our sensory memory is transferred to our consciousness or our awareness,
the STM takes over (Cantor and Engle, 1993). The information we process, modify, inter-
pret and store in the STM is known as working memory. This so-called working memory
has a limited capacity and stores information for a brief period. The bits of information
can be temporarily kept for less than one minute (Baddeley, Vallar and Shallice, 1990).
At any given time, we can remember approximately “seven plus or minus two” pieces of
information as the “magic number 5 to 9” (7 +/– 2) pieces of information in our short-term
memory (Miller, 1956). The maximum amount of information we can hold in our short-
term memory is about nine pieces. However, without rehearsal or active maintenance by
the individual, the information may be lost in the STM. It is through rehearsal (verbally),
for example a list of numbers and letters, that the information will be held in STM. This is
called acoustic coding.
What happens to our short-term memory when we are competing for different bits of
information? Or when the STM is overloaded and another bit of information enters? That
means the new bits of information will displace the old information. For example, some-
one says another set of numbers or letters and this, instantaneously, makes you forget some
of the numbers or letters. In order to increase the short-term memory capacity, the memory
techniques of chunking and rehearsal are used. For example, it is easier to remember a
hyphenated phone number than a single long number because it is broken into chunks.
For instance, a phone number with a sequence of 2-1-2-2-9-9-8 would be chunked into
212-2998. By having two blocks of numbers, information becomes easier to retain and
recall. Rehearsal is the process in which information is kept in short-term memory by
visualisation, saying it aloud or mentally repeating it. When the bits of information the
rehearsed each time, that information is re-entered into the short-term memory. Noise
pollution and distractions may inhibit the process of rehearsal and cause disturbances in
short-term memory retention.
Memory 329
Long-term memory (LTM)

If the information is chunked or rehearsed or both in the STM, it may register into LTM.
This memory storage can hold information for days, months and years. The capacity of
long-term memory is large and it has the capability to store a massive number of objects
with complex details (Brady et al., 2008). It is the storage for more permanent knowledge,
skills and values that are redundant, but which are needed to enable comprehension and
understanding. Eichenbaum (2010) identified three major forms of memory that have dis-
tinct operating principles and are supported by different brain systems: Declarative memory
for the recollection of facts and events; procedural memory subsystems that mediate habit
formation and sensorimotor adaptations; and a circuit that mediates the attachment of affec-
tive status and emotional responses to previously neutral stimuli. This includes semantic
memory, factual knowledge like the meaning of words, concepts (Lesch and Pollatsek,
1998; Lum et al., 2012) and episodic memory and memories of events and situations (Rubin
and Umanath, 2015). It has been argued that both episodic and semantic systems often
work together in forming new memories (Tulving, 1983, 2002). In the declarative memory,
the process of continuing learning is the key to permanent memory storage. For example,
if the information is learned and stored, it is more likely that this learning will remain in
explicit memory permanently. The implicit or procedural memory systems are referred to
as nondeclarative memory. This type of memory is affected by prior experience and is
less accessible to conscious awareness and enables gradual learning of habits and skills
(Hayne et al., 2000). It is involved in the learning and use of rule-governed aspects of gram-
mar (Ullman and Pierpont, 2005; Newman et al., 2010) and the comprehension of spoken
language (Misyak et al., 2010). The procedural memory is also involved in processes for
completing actions. That is, we complete an action or physical activity because of extensive
practice and conditioning. Another subsystem of implicit memory is called classical condi-
tioning. This type of memory involves making automatic associations between stimulus and
response. The third memory subsystem is priming, which involves using prior information
out of storage in order to learn new information. By connecting prior and new information,
an individual can retain the new information more effectively. Figure 14.3 depicts the types
of long-term memory.
Figure 14.3 Types of long-term memory.

Stages of memory: Encoding storage and retrieval

Figure 14.4 outlines the different stages of memory: Encoding, storage and retrieval.
Information from the short-term memory needs to be processed and transformed in a form
that can be stored. This is referred to as encoding which is the first stage of the memory pro-
cess. There are three main areas of encoding memory that make the journey possible: Visual
encoding, acoustic encoding and semantic encoding. However, the findings from Baddeley’s
(1966) study showed that STM relies heavily on acoustic coding in contrast to LTM which
relies primarily on making use of semantic coding (by meaning). For example, when an
individual is asked whether the letter R is before or after T in the English alphabet, the indi-
vidual may use the alphabet song: A, B, C, D, E, F, G… So, the repetition of words or putting
information into a song or rhythm uses acoustic encoding. The same applies to reading or
speaking aloud before doing a presentation.
The next stage in the process is the storage of information. The Atkinson and Shiffrin
theory (1968) has three systems in memory storage. The systems are sensory memory, short-
term memory and long-term memory. The storage capacity of the three types of memory has
been discussed in previous sections. Memory retrieval occurs when information that has been
retained in long-term memory is accessed. This retrieval is achieved by recall and recognition
which is the process of remembering information stored in long-term memory. However, if
no learning or acquiring of information has taken place, recall and recognition are impos-
sible. In recall, the encoded and stored information must be recovered from memories; for
example, when studying for a written examination, the goal is to remember information in
such a way that it can be automatically and easily recalled. Recognition describes memory
retrieval based on a visual trigger or cue (object or a scene). That is, any stimulus or retrieval
cues presented will enable the individual to effectively access the information in memory.
The information stored in STM and LTM is retrieved differently because of their differ-
ences in duration and capacity. There is evidence to suggest that STM is stored and retrieved
sequentially (for example, a sequential list of numbers) whereas LTM is stored and retrieved
through association (Roediger and McDermott, 1995). For example, you remember where
ENCODING
Visual (Picture) Acoustic (Sound) Semantic (Meaning)
STORAGE
Short Term Memory (STM) and Long Term Memory (LTM)
RETRIEVAL
STM is Stored and LTM is Stored and Organizing Information
Retrieved Sequentially Retrieved by Association can Help Aid Retrieval
Figure 14.4 Stages of memory: Encoding storage and retrieval.

Memory 331
you put your glasses by returning to the room where you first used your glasses. A recog-
nition task is a memory task employed, for example, when in a multiple-choice-question
examination.
Forgetting and remembering

In order to remember any information, it must be encoded and stored, and then retrieved.
Not all the information we receive from sensory memory is encoded as some information
never reaches the LTM. Forgetting may be due to the information no longer available, pos-
sibly was not encoded in the first place or cannot be retrieved. Loftus and Loftus (1976) cite
four major reasons for forgetting: Retrieval failure, interference, failure to store and moti-
vated forgetting. Some of the theories of forgetting include the interference theory, the decay
theory of forgetting, the retrieval failure theory and the cue-dependent theory of forgetting.
The interference theory suggests that forgetting is the result of different memories inter-
fering with one another. In other words, memory can be interfered by previously stored infor-
mation with information we will learn in the future. It is the interference from other memories
that causes forgetting (Baddeley and Logie, 1999; Darby and Sloutsky, 2015). There is an
interference phenomenon that is known as the serial-position effect. This is the tendency for
an individual to recall the first and last items in a series test, and the recalling of the middle
items is worse (Troyer, 2011). Two ways have been identified in which interference can
cause forgetting:
• Proactive interference (pro = forward) occurs when old information in the memory sys-
tem interferes with newly acquired information. For example, this kind of interference
happens when trying to learn two different things. When trying to recall a new mobile
telephone number, the old mobile telephone number you had will interfere with the
recall of the new number.
• Retroactive interference (retro = backward) occurs when you forget a previously learnt
task due to the learning of a new task. In other words, later learning interferes with ear-
lier learning – where new memories disrupt old memories. As a teacher you might have
recently learned the names of a group of students in one class and later you might have
learned the names of students in a different class. The difficulty arises when you want
to recall the names of the students in the first class. The new information interferes with
the old information.
Although there is evidence to support this theory (Darby and Sloutsky, 2015; Sosic-Vasic
et al., 2018), there remained a number of issues with interference theory as an explanation of
forgetting including how much forgetting can be attributed to interference and the role of the
cognitive and affective processes. Another theory of forgetting is the trace decay theory in
which forgetting is the result of automatic decay or fading of the memory trace. It has been
suggested that the lack of rehearsal of information in short-term memory, which lasts several
seconds, quickly diminish the neurochemical trace of the memory (McKeown et al., 2019).
This theory posits that the events between learning and recall have no effect of any kind on
recall. However, it is the duration of time the information must be retained that is important.
That is, the longer the duration, the more pronounced the decay. There is limited support for
decay theory as an explanation for forgetting due to methodological problems. The retrieval
failure theory focuses on the retrieval of information from long-term memory. Although the
information has been encoded, the information is not accessible. In the cue-dependent theory
of forgetting, although the information is present in memory, it cannot be recalled due to
the absence of retrieval cues. It is when both the context (environment, situations, settings,
people, etc) and the bio-psychosocial state of the individual are different at encoding and
retrieval that forgetting may occur. If the context or state of the individual at encoding do
not match the context or state of the individual at retrieval, the information is not accessible.
Numerous theories exist to explain how and why we forget. It is possible that some of the
information never reached the LTM or is not encoded effectively. Other reasons include the
decay of memory trace when the information had not been used or rehearsed (re-learned) for
an extended period. Perhaps, we are genetically pre-programmed to erase or delete redun-
dant and non-meaningful data. From a psychological perspective, there is the mental defence
mechanism of repression, and the loss of memory (amnesia) due to organic or psychological
factors.
Memorisation of the Qur’an from an Islamic perspective

The memorisation of the Qur’an by Muslims is a tradition dating back to the time of Prophet
Muhammad ( ) to preserve the authenticity of the contents of the Qur’an. Ḥāfiẓ is the title
accorded to a Muslim who memorises the entire Qur’an, and the word Taḥfīẓ al Qur’an refers
to the activity of Qur’anic memorisation. It is stated that
The Holy Quràn occupies a pivotal position in Islam. According to the teachings of
Islam the Quràn is Allah’s eternal speech, in terms of its meaning as well as its letter and
sound. It is the Book of Allah; the book that was revealed to Prophet Muhammad ( )
as the last revelation to mankind.
(Nawaz and Jahangir, 2015, p.288)
Despite the heterogeneous cultural and language background, Muslims are encouraged not
only to read and reflect on the teaching of the Qur’an, but also to memorise it. Allah has
made the Qur’an easy to memorise and easy to understand. Allah says (interpretation of the
meaning):
• And We have certainly made the Qur’an easy for remembrance, so is there any who will
remember? (Al-Qamar 54:17)
Prophet Muhammad ( ) is considered the first memoriser of the Qur’an. The Messenger
of Allah ( ) is instructed to follow the recitation of the Qur’an. Allah says (interpretation
of the meaning):
• So when We have recited it [through Gabriel], then follow its recitation.

Then upon Us is its clarification [to you]. (Al-Qiyamah 75:18–19)
(So when We have recited it) meaning when the angel [Gabriel ] has recited it to you
from Allah, (then follow its recitation.) meaning, listen to it then recite it as he taught you
Memory 333
to recite it. (Then upon Us is its clarification) meaning, after memorising it and reciting
it, We will explain it to you, clarify it and inspire you with its meaning according to what
We intended and legislated.
Whenever a verse was revealed the Prophet ( ) would recite it and store it in his memory,
never forgetting it. The Qur’an (interpretation of the meaning) confirmed this:
• We will make you recite, [O Muhammad], and you will not forget. (Al-A’la 87:6)
This is Allah informing and promising the Prophet ( ) that He will teach him a recita-
tion that he will not forget. The Prophet’s ( ) Companions and wives also memorised the
Qur’an, and some of the prominent among them included Abu Bakr as-Siddeeq; Umar ibn
al-Khattab; Uthman ibn ‘Affaan; Ali ibn Abi Talib; Ubayy ibn Ka‘b; Abdullah ibn Mas‘ood
ibn Ghaafil; Zayd ibn Thaabit ibn ad-Dahhaak; Abu Moosa al-Ash‘ari; ‘Abdullah ibn Qays;
Abu’d-Darda’ ‘Uwaymir ibn Zayd al-Ansaari; Abu Hurairah ad-Dawsi; Abdullah ibn
‘Abbaas ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib; Abdullah ibn as-Saa’ib ibn Abi’s-Saa’ib; Mu‘aadh ibn Jabal;
Abdullah ibn ‘Umar ibn al-Khattab; Abdullah ibn ‘Amr ibn al-‘Aas; Uqbah ibn ‘Aamir;
Aa’ishah bint Abi Bakr, the wife of the Prophet; Hafsah bint ‘Umar ibn al-Khattab), the wife
of the Prophet; Umm Salamah Hind bint Abi Umayyah, the wife of the Prophet.
There are special privileges granted to those who memorise the Qur’an. It is narrated by
Ùthman bin Àffan: that the Prophet ( ) said, “The most superior among you (Muslims)
are those who learn the Qur’an and teach it” (Bukhari (a)). In another Hadith narrated by Ibn
Ùmar, Allah’s Messenger ( ) said, “The example of the person who knows the Qur’an
by heart is like the owner of tied camels. If he keeps them tied, he will control them, but if
he releases them, they will run away” (Bukhari (b)). It is narrated by Abu Hurairah that the
Prophet ( ) said:
The one who memorised the Qur’an shall come on the Day of Judgement and (the reward
for reciting the Qur’an) says: “O Lord! Decorate him.” So he is donned with a crown of
nobility. Then it says: “O Lord! Give him more!” So he is donned with a suit of nobil-
ity. Then it says: “O Lord! Be pleased with him.” So He is pleased with him and says:
“Recite and rise up and be increased in reward with every Ayah.”
(Tirmidhi)
One of the virtues of the recitation of the Qur’an according to the Prophet Muhammad ( ) is
The one who was devoted to the Qur’an [the companion of the Qur’an] will be told on
the Day of Resurrection: “Recite and ascend (in ranks) as you used to recite when you
were in the world. Your rank will be at the last Ayah you recite.”
(Abu Dawud and Tirmidhi)
It is stated that
Most of the scholars said that what is meant by the “Companion of the Qur’an” is the
one who fulfilled two criteria: memorisation and action, not just memorisation without
acting upon what one has memorised, and not only reciting with precision but without
memorising.
Furthermore, this Hadith also indicates that the one who has memorised it precisely is not like
the one who has memorised it imprecisely. So the degree of the rise in status will depend on
how much of the Qur’an one can recite by heart, and the recitation of one who has memorised
it precisely will excel the recitation of one who has memorised it imprecisely, verse by verse.
Precision in memorisation points to sleepless nights, effort during the day and patience in striv-
ing to memorise, repeating verses and words. Justice dictates that the reward for the one who
has memorised it precisely should be higher than the reward for the one who has memorised it
imprecisely (Islam Q&A, 2012). Shaykh al-Albani (2012) (may Allah have mercy on him) said:
It should be noted that what is meant by the words “the Companion of the Qur’an” is the
one who memorises it by heart, based on the words of the Prophet ( ). “The people
should be led in prayer by the one who knows most of the Book of Allah,” i.e. the one
who has memorised the most. So differences in status in Paradise are based on memori-
sation in this world, not recitation on that Day and reciting a great deal, as some people
imagine. This clearly shows the virtue of the one who memorises the Qur’an, but that is
on condition that he memorises it for the sake of Allah alone, may He be glorified and
exalted, and he does not do it for worldly gain or to acquire wealth.
The stages of the memorisation of the Qur’an entail encoding, storing and retrieving the text
when required. These involve the rehearsing, practicing and reciting of the text of the Qur’an.
Several effective techniques have been developed for the memorisation of the entire Qur’an in
a predetermined period (Ariffin et al., 2013; Salehi et al., 2017). There is also the Qur’an App
for the memorisation with features that focus on memorisation techniques and gamification
(Quran Academy, 2017). The memorisation of the Qur’an also has been found to have a
positive effect on academic performance and socio-cultural life (Nawaz and Jahangir, 2015).
There is a body of literature, albeit limited, on the health effects of the listening, reciting or
repeating the text of the Qur’an. There is evidence to suggest that listening to Qur’anic recita-
tion (15 and 18 min, respectively) increased the mental health score (Kazemi et al., 2003) and
reduced anxiety in cardiac patients (Babaii et al., 2015). The findings of a study by Saquib
et al. (2017) showed that there was a linear trend between the quantity of Qur’an memorisa-
tion and disease outcomes. The findings indicate that the “likelihood of participants having
hypertension, diabetes, and depression decreased across the increased categories of memori-
sation. In particular, the benefit was strong and significant for participants who memorised at
least 10 sections of Qur’an” (p.4). In a systematic review of the effect of listening to Noble
Qur’an recitation on anxiety (Ghiasi and Keramat, 2018), the findings indicate that Qur’anic
recitation can be used as a useful non-pharmacological treatment to reduce anxiety. In a meta-
analysis of 40 papers by YektaKooshali et al. (2019), the findings showed that
the sound of the Qur’an can significantly play a role in reducing the amount of anxiety, men-
tal health, pain intensity, improvement of patients’ health, signs and physiological function
of different tissues of the body, immune system, and patients’ levels of satisfaction.
(p.136)
Although the findings from various studies showed the positive effects of Qur’anic recita-
tions, these studies have some limitations. For example, the systematic reviews have been
Memory 335
conducted in one particular country with a homogeneous sample. There is a need to use
robust methodology with strong randomised controlled trials, and a more representative, het-
erogeneous sample from a wider geographical area.

• Human memory is the storage of information or experience over time.
• There are two types of memory: Explicit memory and implicit memory.
• There are three general types of implicit memory: Procedural memory, classical condi-
tioning effects and priming.
• Three distinct memory storage resources: Sensory memory, short-term memory (STM)
and long-term memory (LTM).
• Sensory memory refers to the information we receive through the senses; it is briefly
stored sensory information (a few seconds).
• The information we process, modify, interpret and store in the STM is known as work-
ing memory.
• The capacity of long-term memory is large and it has the capability of storing a massive
number of objects with details.
• The different stages of memory: Encoding, storage and retrieval.
• Forgetting may be due to the information no longer being available, possibly was not
encoded in the first place or cannot be retrieved.
• Four major reasons for forgetting: Retrieval failure, interference, failure to store and
motivated forgetting.
• The memorisation of the Qur’an by Muslims is a tradition dating back to the time of
Prophet Muhammad ( ) to preserve the authenticity of the contents of the Qur’an.
• The stages of the memorisation of the Qur’an entail encoding, storing and retrieving the text
when required. These involve the rehearsing, practicing and reciting of the text of the Qur’an.
• The sound of the Qur’an can play a significant role in reducing anxiety, improving men-
tal health, lessening pain intensity, improving of patients’ health, signs and the physi-
ological function of different tissues of the body, improving the immune system and
increasing patients’ levels of satisfaction.
1. ___________is another name for short-term memory.

A. Sensory memory
B. Episodic memory
C. Working memory
D. Short-term memory
E. Implicit memory
2. The storage capacity of long-term memory is ___________.
A. Essentially limitless
B. Seven bits, plus minus two
C. One or two bits of information
D. Limited
E. Chunking
3. Memory and remembering denote the same comprehensive process which includes:
A. Thinking, intuition, intelligence and learning
B. Imagination, intuition, learning and retention
C. Learning, retaining, recall and recognition
D. Intuition, imagination, thinking and problem-solving
4. Recognising is remembering something in its presence, whereas recalling is:
A. Recognising it in its presence
B. Remembering it in its absence
C. Reconstructing it in its presence
D. Relearning it in its absence
5. Nonsense materials are difficult to learn because:
A. They cannot be easily associated with one another.
B. They can be associated with one another.
C. They are unknown materials.
D. They are not connected with our daily life.
6. Short-term remembering is based on:
A. Episodic memory
B. Activity traces
C. Semantic memory
D. Past experience
7. The more an item is rehearsed, the more likely it is to become part of:
A. Short-term memory (STM)
B. Long-term memory (LTM)
C. Retention
D. Free recall
8. The effect of preceding learning activity on the learning of a new task is called:
A. Transfer
B. Retroactive inhibition
C. Proactive inhibition
D. Reminiscence
9. Retroactive inhibition is interference from:
A. Later acquired responses
B. Former acquired responses
C. Past experience
D. Similar experience
10. Amnesia is considered to be an extreme case of:
A. Regression
B. Rationalisation
C. Displacement
Memory 337
D. Repression
11. The retrieval of what has been stored in memory is called:
A. Recognition
B. Recall
C. Relearning
D. Reconstruction
12. The memory we merely remember as long as it is in our eyes, casting an image in our
retina, is:
A. Sensory memory
B. Iconic memory
C. Episodic memory
D. Semantic memory
13. The memory for the image lasts in our eyes for only about:
A. A few minutes
B. A few second
C. Two minutes
D. Three minutes
E. One minute
14. What we remember for a long time is called:
A. Long-term memory
B. Short-term memory
C. Amnesia
D. Qualitative memory
E. Mood
15. If you know the multiplication tables by heart, it would be difficult to forget them over-
night. This is a bright example of:
A. Short-term memory
B. Rote learning
C. Episodic memory
D. Long-term memory
16. The “decay theory” is sometimes called:
A. Trace theory
B. Interference theory
C. Leaky-bucket theory
D. Levels-of-processing theory
17. Which theory of forgetting gives an explanation by pointing to the weakening of the
memory trace formed by experience with the passage of time?
A. Trace theory
B. Interference theory
C. Decay theory
D. Levels-of-processing theory
18. A protective mental mechanism to which an individual resorts to escape unpleasant,

unsatisfactory and humiliating experiences is called:
A. Repression
B. Regression
C. Rationalisation
D. Sublimation
E. Escapism
19. Information seems to be stored in semantic memory:
A. In a highly organised way
B. In a highly disorganised way
C. In different levels of processing
D. In a systematic pattern
20. Which type of memory consists of long-term memories of specific things that have hap-
pened to us at a particular time and space?
A. Semantic memory
B. Iconic memory
C. Episodic memory
D. Levels of processing
21. Which type of memory has a biographical reference?
A. Semantic memory
B. Iconic memory
C. Episodic memory
D. Levels-of-processing
22. The short-term storage holds information for up to about:
A. 30 seconds
B. 20 seconds
C. 50 seconds
D. 40 seconds
E. 80 seconds
23. A distinction is made in memory research between ______ memory and ______ mem-
ory. The former refers to ______, whereas the latter refers to ______.
A. Episodic; autobiographical; memory for personally meaningful events; memory
for general knowledge
B. Semantic; short-term; memory for personally meaningful events; memory held in
temporary storage
C. Semantic; episodic; memory for general knowledge; memory for personally mean-
ingful events
D. Semantic; procedural; memory for general knowledge; memory for personally
meaningful events
E. Semantic; short-term; memory for personally meaningful events; memory for gen-
eral knowledge
24. The structure most greatly implicated in LTP is the:
A. Amygdala
B. Para-hippocampal gyrus
C. Hypothalamus
Memory 339
D. Hippocampus
E. Pons
25. ______ describes a partial or total loss of memory. There are two subtypes: ______,
which refers to an inability to recall events prior to injury, and ______, which refers to
an inability to ______.
A. Partial amnesia; anterograde amnesia; retrograde amnesia; remember events subse-
quent to brain injury
B. Amnesia; retrograde amnesia; anterograde amnesia; remember personally mean-
ingful events
C. Dysphasia; anterograde amnesia; partial amnesia; remember events subsequent to
brain injury
D. Amnesia; retrograde amnesia; anterograde amnesia; remember events subsequent
to brain injury
E. Partial amnesia; anterograde amnesia; not remembering events subsequent to brain
injury
26. The memory deficit seen in LTM is best described as ______ because the individual______.
A. Retrograde amnesia; was unable to store long-term information but could keep
material in STM
B. Retrograde amnesia; was able to store long-term information but was unable to
keep material in STM
C. Anterograde amnesia; was unable to store long-term information but could keep
material in STM
D. Anterograde amnesia; was able to store long-term information but was unable to
keep material in STM
27. The memorisation of the Qur’an by Muslims is a tradition dating back to the time of
Prophet Muhammad ( ) because
A. It preserves the authenticity of the contents of the Qur’an
B. It occupies a pivotal position in Islam
C. Of the virtues of memorising and reciting the Qur’an
D. All of the above
E. A and B only
28. ___________ is the title accorded to a Muslim who memorises the entire Qur’an.
A. Taḥfīẓ
B. Hufaz
C. Ḥāfiẓ
D. Fiz
29. Allah has made the Qur’an easy to memorise and easy to understand. Allah says
(interpretation of the meaning): “And We have certainly made the Qur’an easy for
remembrance, so is there any who will remember?” Which chapter and verse of the
Qur’an?
A. Al-A’la 87:6
B. Al-Qamar 54:17
C. Al-Qiyamah75:18–19
D. Al-Baqarah 2:118
E. Al-Qamar 54:18
30. The stages of the memorisation of the Qur’an entail

A. Encoding
B. Storing
C. Retrieving
D. All of the above
E. A and C only
31. The ability to manipulate information in memory temporarily, while remembering some-
thing else, is called:
A. Episodic memory
B. Semantic memory
C. Working memory
D. Short-term memory
E. Iconic memory
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Chapter 15
Reason, wisdom and intelligence
Learning outcomes
• Explain what is meant by reason in psychology.
• Discuss reason as a concept from an Islamic perspective.
• Describe the meaning of Aql in the Qur’an and from the scholars.
• Explain what is mean by wisdom in psychology.
• Identify the characteristics of wisdom.
• Describe the perspectives of wisdom from an Islamic worldview.
• List the advice Luqman gave to his son.
• Explain what is meant by intelligence.
• Outline some of the theories of intelligence.
Reasoning
Reason as an instinctive faculty given to humans is a poorly understood concept in psychol-
ogy. The concept of reason is from the French language “raison,” from which the English
word is derived. The concept has been examined from different perspectives: Philosophical,
logic, linguistics, psychology cognitive science and artificial intelligence. Article 1 of the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights (United Nations, 1948) states that all human beings
are “endowed with reason.” The psychology of reasoning is the study of how people use their
intellect to arrive at a conclusion. Leighton (2004) defined reason as “the process of drawing
conclusions to inform how people solve problems and make decisions” (pp.3–4). The themes
that emerged from the definitions include intellect, problem-solving, decision-making and
drawing conclusions. In some way, there must be a logical step in attempting to analyse the
cause and effect relationship of an event or problem to arrive at a potential solution.
There are three types of reasoning: Inductive, deductive and abductive. Inductive rea-
soning is defined as “reasoning” from particular cases to general principles (Hamad, 2007).
This is called inductive logic. Inductive reasoning is more practical in the real world and
may lead to faulty inferences. A faulty example of inductive reasoning is, “I saw two black
cats in my garden; therefore, the cats in this neighbourhood are all black.” In contrast,
“Deductive reasoning, or deduction, starts out with a general statement, or hypothesis, and
examines the possibilities to reach a specific, logical conclusion” (Herr, 2007). A syllogism
is a form of deductive reasoning in which two statements reach a logical conclusion. For
example, all cats are animals, Minouche is a cat; therefore, Minouche is an animal. This is
sometimes called bottom-up logic which is a basic form of valid reasoning. New paradigms
in the psychology of reasoning have emerged linking social and individual reasoning and
set recent developments in the psychology of reasoning in the wider context of cognitive
science (see Johnson-Laird, 2010; Oaksford and Chater, 2020). Another type of reason-
ing is abductive reasoning which is based on creating and testing hypotheses using all the
evidence available. This approach is to add up elements or cues to generalise a conclusion
(Folger and Stein, 2017). Examples of abductive reasoning include legal reasoning or juries
making legal decisions based on available evidence and a doctor making a diagnosis based
on primary and collateral evidence. The decision-making process is based on the available
evidence.
Where does the intellect reside? Heart or brain

Where does the intellect reside, in the heart or the brain? In fact, there have been two com-
peting views regarding where the intellect is in the body: The heart, the cardiocentric model
(heart-centred) and the brain, the encephalocentric model (brain-centred). Contrary to our
current knowledge about the intellect and the nervous system, the “organ of intellect” was
not always known to be the brain. Aristotle identified the heart as the most important organ
of the body, and the seat of intelligence, motion and sensation. It is reported that Aristotle
was pushing for a cardiocentric model, which argued that the heart is in fact the organ of
intelligence (Frampton, 1991). More recent studies have showed that the heart has its own
intrinsic nervous system. Armour (2008, 2013) introduced the concept of a functional “heart
brain.” He discovered that the heart has its own intrinsic nervous system and calls the heart’s
intrinsic nervous system the “little brain in the heart.” Basically, the heart’s brain is an intri-
cate network of several types of neurons, transmitters, proteins and support cells that allow
it to act independently of the nervous system and have the potential to learn, remember and
have feeling and sensation. There is further evidence to suggest that the intracardiac nervous
system plays a crucial role in cardiac physiology (Campos et al., 2018). Rahman and Hassan
(2013) have highlighted the point that several scientists talk about the neurons in the heart
which provide the ability of thinking, sensing and maintaining its operation. It has been sug-
gested that “The Qur’an shares with the Hadiths a metaphorical description of the heart as a
possessor of emotional faculties, thus giving the heart many characteristics that modern sci-
ence attributes to the brain” (Loukas et al., 2010, p.21).
Reason (Aql): An Islamic perspective

The word Aql is an Arabic language term meaning “intellect,” intelligence or the rational fac-
ulty of the soul or mind in Islamic philosophy. In Islamic theology, it means natural human
knowledge (Esposito, 2003). It has also been suggested that the characteristics of intellect
may include reason, understanding, comprehension, discernment, insight, rationality, mind
or intellect (Wehr, 1974, p.630). The companions of the Messenger of Allah ( ) and clas-
sical Islamic scholars provided various but related meanings of Aql. Al-Jawzi (2004) pro-
vided four meanings in the use of Aql. The first meaning is the innate property of man which
distinguishes him from other living animals. This is having the ability to learn and reason;
the capacity for knowledge and understanding. Intellect enables man to think rationally and
discern right from wrong, truth from falsehood. The second meaning implies that which is
used to select the self-evident truth. The third meaning of Aql is that which is gained through
experience, and the newly acquired experience is called Aql. This is attained by the process of
Reason, wisdom and intelligence 345
education and socialisation. The final meaning implies the inherent principle, by which one
controls the soul from following his heart’s vain desires (Ibn Al-Jawzi, 2004).
In view of these meanings, Aql generally focuses on two distinct characteristics: The
knowledge of excellence and acting upon that knowledge. That is, having such meritorious
knowledge and applying it for the moral good. Ibn Al-Jawzi (2004) considers one who with-
holds or restrains himself from doing that which is not suitable and befitting as Al-Aqil. Ibn
Taymiyyah provided the essence of reason by the following summary résumé:
Reason is collectively: knowledge by which what is beneficial is distinguished from

what is harmful and then acting upon the dictates of that knowledge, as in, what this
knowledge necessitates of action, hence a person traverses the ways to attain what is
beneficial and traverse the ways by which harm is avoided.
Furthermore, Ibn Taymiyyah suggested that a naïve person, who acted contrary to his knowl-
edge, deserves not to be called al-Aqil (wise or intelligent). It is worth pointing out that
reason (Aql) is something that is ascribed to the soul (Nafs) and to the body (Badan). Thus,
Aql is a God-given instinctive faculty of humankind so that we can acquire the right kind of
knowledge, recognise the truth as ordained and understand the reality of our existence in this
world and the hereafter. Imam Al-Ghazâlî writes:
Reason is the source and fountainhead of knowledge, as well as its foundation. Knowledge
sprouts from it as the fruit does from a tree, as light comes from the sun, and as vision
comes from the eye. How then could that which is the means of happiness in this life and
the Hereafter not be considered the most honoured? Or how could it be doubted?
(p.83)
The meaning of Aql in the Qur’an

The concept of intellect or reasoning is well promoted in the Qur’an and Sunnah. It has been
reported that the verses appearing in the Qur’an
could be divided into 2 main categories, which are: Verses inviting mankind in general
to use their Aql and reflect upon the creations and signs of Allah, and verses addressing
specific groups of people with regards to the use of their Aql.
(Abdul Karim and Harith, 2008)
Allah, the Almighty, says (interpretation of the meaning):
• So have they not travelled through the earth and have hearts by which to reason and ears
by which to hear? For indeed, it is not eyes that are blinded, but blinded are the hearts
According to the exegesis of Ibn Kathir, the statement (Have they not travelled through the
land) means
have they not travelled in the physical sense and also used their minds to ponder. Ibn
Abi Ad-Dunya said in his book At-Tafakkur wal-I`tibar, “Some of the wise people said,
‘Give life to your heart with lessons, illuminate it with thought, kill it with asceticism,
strengthen it with certain faith, remind it of its mortality, make it aware of the calami-
ties of this world, warn it of the disasters that life may bring, show it how things may
suddenly change with the passing of days, tell it the stories of the people of the past, and
remind it what happened to those who came before.’” Walk through their ruins, see what
they did and what became of them, meaning, look at the punishments and divine wrath
that struck the nations of the past who belied.
He further explained that (For indeed, it is not eyes that are blinded, but blinded are the hearts
which are within the breasts) means “let them learn a lesson from that the blind person is not
the one whose eyes cannot see, but rather the one who has no insight. Even if the physical
eyes are sound, they still cannot learn the lesson.” The above verses of the Qur’an address
both categories of people. These verses are inviting people to use their intellect to reflect
upon the creations and signs of Allah, to learn the lesson from previous generations and to
use their intellect to understand the message of the Qur’an and the Prophets.
The following verses address those who fail to use the intellect and reflect on the messages.
They refused to believe and submit to the Unicity of Allah, even though there were invited
to contemplate upon the creations and signs of Allah and His messengers. Allah says (inter-
• Indeed, the worst of living creatures in the sight of Allah are the deaf and dumb who do
not use reason. (Al-Anfal 8:22)
• And they will say, “If only we had been listening or reasoning, we would not be among
the companions of the Blaze.” (Al-Mulk 67:10)
• Indeed, in that are signs for a people who reason. (Ar-Ra’d 13:4)
• And it is not for a soul to believe except by permission of Allah, and He will place defile-
ment upon those who will not use reason. (Yunus 10:100)
Of course, there are other verses that are directed to the believers and those who have been
blinded by ignorance on the question of the use of intellect and reason. Nevertheless, believ-
ers need to continue to use their intellect by reflecting on the relevant verses of the Qur’an.
Aql in the Islamic Shari’ah

In Islam, the significance of Aql cannot be overemphasised. Scholars have identified five
essential values of life that are universal necessities on which human lives depend. The
absence of these five necessities would lead to total disruption and chaos. These five neces-
sities, as examined in a previous chapter, have been labelled as the higher objectives and
intents of Islamic law (Maqāṣid al Shari’ah). However, the preservation of intellect does
not focus on a single activity or objective but may serve boundless number of activities.
According to Imam A Shatibi, “the preservation of the faculty of reason has to do that which
will not corrupt it and is found in the Qur’an” (p.142). Whereas Imam Al-Ghazâlî suggests
that “preserving the faculty of reason is evidenced by the prohibition against alcoholic bever-
ages” (cited in Al-Raysuni, 2013, p.16).
The Islamic law mandates Muslims to preserve their intellect or reason so that they
may serve them well in adhering to ethical and moral values to keep mankind away from
corruption. If the intellect is not corrupted and it remains firm in the moral good in all spheres
of life, that would be a clear testimony of its adherence to divine laws.
Concept of Aql according to scholars

There are divergent opinions between the scholars of Islam concerning the anatomical seat of
the intellect, whether it is in the brain or heart. Shaykh Al-Islam Ibn Taymiyyah observed that
And as for his saying “Where does intellect, reason (Aql) reside within it (the body)?”
Then reason is established with the soul that displays reason (grasps, understands). And
as for the body, then it is connected to his heart, just as Allah, the Most High said, “So
have they not travelled through the earth and have hearts by which to reason.” (Al-Haj
22:46). And it was said to Ibn Abbas, “How did you acquire knowledge?” He said, “With
an inquisitive tongue and an understanding ear.” “The intellect is in the brain” as is said
by many of the physicians and it has been narrated from Imam Ahmad, and it is said from
a faction of his associates too, (that) the foundation of intellect is in the heart and when
it completes it arises to the heart. However, that which is correct (in the matter) is that
the spirit which is the soul, it has a connection to this (the heart) and to that (the brain),
and that which it is described of intellect is connected to both this and that. However, the
starting point of thought and observation is in the brain. And the starting point of desire
is in the heart. And both knowledge and action can be intended by (the word) reason.
For the foundation of knowledge and chosen action is desire and the foundation of desire
is in the heart. And the one who desires cannot be desirous except after imagining that
which is desired. Hence, it is necessary that the heart imagines, and hence it will have
this (imagination) and this (desire). And that (imagination) commences in the brain and
its effects (after going to the heart) rise back to the brain. Hence, from (the brain) is the
commencement and to it is the final completion. And both sayings (regarding the intel-
lect) have a correct angle.
(pp.53–55)
Iyaad (2013) summarises Ibn Taymiyyah’ comments in the following way. He suggests that
The faculty of reason or intellect is not isolated and specified to just one organ in the
body exclusively, rather it is ascribed to the soul and body combined and then in turn,
as it relates to the body, it is “connected” to the heart and brain. Note also that is not an
independent entity but an attribute that can be absent or present and can have strength
and weakness, abundance and scarcity in a person.
Imam Al-Shafi’i was also of the view that the intellect is located in the heart. This is based on
the evidence from the Qur’an. Allah says (interpretation of the meaning):
• So have they not travelled through the earth and have hearts by which to reason and ears
by which to hear? For indeed, it is not eyes that are blinded, but blinded are the hearts
• Indeed in that is a reminder for whoever has a heart or who listens while he is present
[in mind]. (Qaf 50:37)
There is a hypothesis put forward by Ibn Taymiyyah to explain that cognition [social and reli-
gious] is related to both the heart and brain; the foundation of the will and decision-making
is in the heart, and the foundation of thought is the brain. According to these scholars, Qalb
(heart) was used to designate intellection simply because it is its seat (Ibn Al-Jawzi, 2004).
'Iyad ibn Khalifa heard 'Ali say at Siffin, “The intellect is located in the heart” (Al-Adab
Al-Mufrad). Shaykh Muhammad ibn Salih Al-Uthaymeen (1995) also commented on the
role of the heart as the seat of intellect. Shaykh Al-Uthaymeen stated that the heart has the
intellect, understanding and the ability for decision-making. He used the Qur’anic verses
(Al-Haj 22:46, see above) to provide evidence that the mind is in the heart and the heart is in
the chest. Shaykh Al-Uthaymeen also supported his argument by the Hadith of the Prophet’s
( ) words. “Verily, there is a piece of flesh in the body, if it is healthy, the whole body is
healthy, and if it is corrupt, the whole body is corrupt. Verily, it is the heart” (Bukhari and
Muslim). He concluded that
the heart is the place for intellect which directs man. Without a doubt, the heart has com-
munication with the brain. Therefore, when the brain is absent the thoughts are idle, and
the intellect is ruined. The mind and the heart are connected. The intellect thinks about
thoughts in the heart. And the heart is in the chest.
What is wisdom?
The rightful place for the study of the psychology of wisdom should be in the domain of
positive psychology (Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). This positive individual trait
is included in positive psychology as it is interrelated to both reason and intelligence. The
question of wisdom, or what it means to be wise, has had an arduous examination in the
fields of philosophy, religion, psychology and neurobiology from antiquity to the present
day. According to the Qur’an, wisdom is of the greatest value and blessing for a human being.
There is a verse in Chapter Al-Baqarah which states (interpretation of the meaning):
• Whoever has been given wisdom has certainly been given much good. (Al-Baqarah
2:269)
This verse views wisdom as the “highest good” (summum bonum). In the Islamic tradition,
Hikmah (wisdom) would always be associated with Prophet and King Suleiman (Solomon)
who would later even be referred to as Sulaimān al-Ḥakīm (Solomon the Wise).
The particular construct is more elusive than other psychological constructs, and accord-
ing to Staudinger and Baltes (1994) this construct seems to defy any attempt to lend itself to
empirical study. Despite this cautionary narrative there has been a proliferation of research
studies in five areas of psychological wisdom: “providing a lay definition of wisdom, con-
ceptualising and measuring wisdom, understanding the development of wisdom, investigat-
ing the plasticity of wisdom, and applying psychological knowledge about wisdom in life
context” (Staudinger and Glück, 2011, p.216). Like many constructs in psychology, there are
several definitions or explanations of the concept of wisdom. Jeste and Lee (2019) referred
to wisdom as “a complex human trait with several specific components: social decision mak-
ing, emotion regulation, prosocial behaviours, self-reflection, acceptance of uncertainty,
decisiveness, and spirituality” (p.127). For Compton and Hoffman (2013), wisdom “implies
knowledge that is social, interpersonal and psychological” (p. 200). Labovie-Vief (1990)
proposed that wisdom is
an integration of two forms of knowledge: logos and mythos. Logos comes from formal
structures employing logic. Logos is knowledge gained through the use of analytical,
propositional and other formal structures of logic. Mythos is knowledge gained through
speech, narrative, plot, and dialogue.
(cited in Compton and Hoffman, 2013, p.200)
Other psychologists have viewed wisdom as “cognitive competencies” (Baltes and Smith,
1990; Sternberg, 1990a, 2001a,b); the “integration of cognition and affect” (Kramer, 2000;
Pascual-Leone, 1990); the “transcendental self or ultra-self” (Pascual-Leone, 1990); “intel-
ligence, creativity, common sense, and knowledge” (Sternberg, (n.d.); integrating cognitive,
reflective, and affective personality characteristics (Ardelt, 2004); “capacity to reflect on,
and grapple with difficult existential issues” (Kramer, 2000, p.99); “knowledge hard fought
for, and then used for good” (Peterson and Seligman, 2004) p. 39). Baltes and Staudinger
(2000) define wisdom as “expertise in the fundamental pragmatics of life” (p.132). Finally,
Sternberg’s balance theory of wisdom (n.d.) defines wisdom as “the use of one’s intelligence,
creativity, common sense, and knowledge and as mediated by positive ethical values toward
the achievement of a common good.”
The above definitions and labels attached to the concept of wisdom are wide and varied
and based on different models and approaches to the study of wisdom. We still do not have a
clear definition of wisdom. The conceptualisations of wisdom have focused on the cognitive
dimension, affective dimension and the synthesis of the cognitive and affective dimensions.
Then there is the complex interaction of both the development of the ego and personality in
the cognitive-affective paradigm. In addition, the question of attaining higher knowledge,
reflective or meta-analytical abilities; clear vision; insight regarding values and priorities;
and dealing with uncertainty are all enmeshed in the wisdom syndrome. What is interesting
to note with all the above definitions is that there is only one mention that wisdom is related
to ethical values. It seems we have secularised the concept of wisdom so as to evaluate from
a Western scientist paradigm. The “soul” has been taken away from the concept of wisdom
and is manifestly devoid of the moral good.
Perspectives on wisdom
In the field of psychology, most empirical research on wisdom has focused on providing a
conceptualisation of wisdom. However, now research studies are going beyond definitions
and characteristics and moving towards the examination and exploratory research of the
nature and process of everyday beliefs, folk conceptions, cognitive, affective and behavioural
aspects of wisdom. What are the characteristics of people with wisdom? Do wise people have
more value-added characteristics than others? Clayton (1976) identified that three character-
istics are typical of wise people:
• Affective characteristics such as empathy and compassion.

• Reflective processes such as intuition and introspection.
• Cognitive capacities such as experience and intelligence.
This means the characteristics are all related to the cognitive and affective dimensions.
Sternberg (1985a) examined the relationship between wisdom and characteristics such as
creativity and intelligence. He identified six aspects which define the components of wisdom.
These are reasoning ability, sagacity (acuteness of mental discernment and soundness of
judgement), learning from ideas and the environment, judgement, expeditious use of infor-
mation and perspicacity (perceptiveness). There was a big similarity between intelligence
and wisdom, though sagacity was found to be specific to wisdom. In a factor analytical study
(Holliday and Chandler, 1986), the two characteristics of a wise person are “exceptional
understanding of ordinary experience” and “judgment and communication skills.” This is
mainly the cognitive aspect of wisdom. More recently, research studies have focused on traits,
beliefs, motivations and values, in the development of wisdom. Glück and Bluck (2013) sug-
gested that it is the core personal resources, including a sense of mastery, openness, reflec-
tivity and emotion regulation/empathy, that are necessary to make use of life experiences to
enhance wisdom. The use of reflection is a necessary antecedent to achieving high levels of
wisdom. There are a number of traits or qualities that people with wisdom are assumed to
possess. These include good judgement skills (Clayton, 1982; Dittmann-Kohli and Baltes,
1990; Sternberg, 1990b, 1998), a mature and integrated personality (Csikszentmihalyi and
Rathunde, 1990; Kramer, 2000; Pascual-Leone, 1990), humour (Webster, 2003), autonomy
(Kekes, 1983, 1995; Rathunde, 1995) and psychological health (Birren and Fisher, 1990;
Kekes, 1983, 1995; Taranto, 1989). All the above traits or characteristics are an amalgam of
cognitive, reflective and affective dimensions of wisdom.
A growing body of evidence suggests that wisdom is a complex concept that contributes to
mental health and happiness. For example, the findings from a study by Webster, Westerhof
and Bohlmeijer (2012) showed a strong association between wisdom and well-being. They
showed that people with wisdom had better mental health by pursuing meaningful activities.
According to Jeste and Lee (2019),
Emerging research suggests that wisdom is linked to better overall health, well-being,
happiness, life satisfaction, and resilience. Wisdom likely increases with age, facilitating
a possible evolutionary role of wise grandparents in promoting the fitness of the species.
Despite the loss of their own fertility and physical health, older adults help enhance their
children’s well-being, health, longevity, and fertility – the “Grandma Hypothesis” of
wisdom.
(p.127)
The importance of the social environment has also been found to contribute to the develop-
ment of wisdom (Igarashi, Levenson and Aldwin, 2018).
Wisdom from an Islamic perspective

Hikmah (denoting “wisdom”) is a positive term used repeatedly in the Qur’an and one of the
missions of the Prophets and Messengers of Allah was to impart Hikmah to their respective
people or to humankind. Cicero, a Roman statesman and philosopher, has been attributed
as saying that “The function of wisdom is to discriminate between good and evil.” Plato, an
ancient Greek philosopher, suggests that the four cardinal virtues are wisdom, courage, self-
control and justice. In Islam, wisdom is always linked to virtue and ethical behaviours. The
Qur’an is referred to as the Wise Qur’an (full of wisdom) (Yasin 36:2), a “Book of Wisdom”
in which the wisdom of judgment is clear (Yunus 10:1; Ar-Ra’d 13:2). The messages and
guidance provided by Divine Revelation have continually referred to wisdom. Allah, the
Almighty, addressing the Prophet Jesus (Isa, son of Maryam) stated that (interpretation of
the meaning):
• And He will teach him writing and wisdom and the Torah and the Gospel. (Ali 'Imran
3:48)
In the Qur’an (Al-Baqarah 2:129), Allah mentioned the supplication of Prophet Abraham
(Ibrahim) who prayed by invoking Allah to send a Messenger from his offspring. Allah says
• Our Lord, and send among them a messenger from themselves who will recite to them
Your verses and teach them the Book and wisdom and purify them. Indeed, You are the
Exalted in Might, the Wise.” (Al-Baqarah 2:129)
This is illustrated in the following verse of the Qur’an where Allah says (interpretation of the
Qur’an):
• Indeed, We have made it an Arabic Qur'an that you might understand. And indeed, it
is, in the Mother of the Book with Us, exalted and full of wisdom. (Az-Zukhruf 43:3–4)
Virtue in Islam is ethical and moral excellence and is the foundation of the moral good. The
principle of the Islamic knowledge of virtue is the notion that believers are to “enjoin what is
right and forbid what is wrong” (al-amr bi-l-maʿrūf wa-n-nahy ʿani-l-munkar) in all spheres
of life (Ali 'Imran 3:110). Having good virtues is inextricable from being righteous. The cri-
teria for righteousness in Islam include faith, steadfastness in prayer, spending in charity (for
the sake of Allah and not for worldly gains), fulfilment of contracts and patience in adverse
circumstances as highlighted in the Qur’an (Al-Baqarah 2:177). Hikmah is used repeatedly in
the Qur’an as a characteristic of the righteous, and as a quality of those who truly understand
and reflect. To be accorded Hikmah is to have one of the greatest blessings of Allah, for Allah
• He gives wisdom to whom He wills, and whoever has been given wisdom has cer-
tainly been given much good. And none will remember except those of understanding.
(Al-Baqarah 2:269)
Pertaining to the verse (He gives wisdom to whom He will.) Ibn Kathir noted that
Àli bin Abi Talhah reported that Ibn Àbbas said, “That is knowledge of the Qur'an.
For instance, the abrogating and the abrogated, what is plain and clear and what is not
as plain and clear, what it allows, and what it does not allow, and its parables.” Imam
Ahmad recorded that Ibn Masùd said that he heard the Messenger of Allah ( ) say-
ing, (There is no envy except in two instances: a person whom Allah has endowed with
wealth and he spends it righteously, and a person whom Allah has given Hikmah and he
judges by it and teaches it to others.)
[Bukhari, Muslim, An-Nasa’i, Ibn Majah]
Allah also bestowed favours upon Prophet David (Dawud). Allah says (interpretation of the
meaning):
• Allah gave him the kingship and prophethood and taught him from that which He willed.
(Al-Baqarah 2:251)
Referring to the descendants of Prophet Abraham (Ibrahim), Allah says (interpretation of the
meaning)
• But we had already given the family of Abraham the Scripture and wisdom and con-
ferred upon them a great kingdom. (An-Nisa’ 4:54)
One important criterion when conveying the message of Islam to humankind is to deliver the
message with wisdom in the best manner, with kindness, gentleness and good speech. Allah
• Invite to the way of your Lord with wisdom and good instruction. (An-Nahl 16:125)
Wisdom demands that one should appeal to people’s hearts, not minds.
The Messenger of Allah’s ( ) wisdom

Prophets and Messengers of Allah were accorded Hikmah for their role in passing the mes-
sage and providing guidance to people. Prophet Muhammad ( ) was given a privilege for
Allah’s wisdom, and this is exemplified in the following Hadith. On the authority of Malik b.
Sa'sa', the Messenger of Allah ( ) said:
While I was at the House in a state midway between sleep and wakefulness, (an angel
recognised me) as the man lying between two men. A golden tray full of wisdom and
belief was brought to me and my body was cut open from the throat to the lower part of
the Àbdomen and then my Àbdomen was washed with Zamzam water [is the name of
a famous well in al-Masjid al-Haram, the Sacred Mosque in Makkah] and (my heart was)
filled with wisdom and belief.
(Bukhari (a))
This wisdom given to the Prophet ( ) is mentioned in the Qur’an in several verses. Allah
says in the Qur’an regarding Prophet Muhammad ( ) (interpretation of the meaning):
• It is He who has sent among the unlettered a Messenger from themselves reciting to them
His verses and purifying them and teaching them the Book and wisdom – although they
were before in clear error. (Al-Jumu’ah 62:2)
• And Allah has revealed to you the book and wisdom and has taught you that which you
did not know. And ever has the favour of Allah upon you been great. (An-Nisa 4:113)
• … And remember the favour of Allah upon you and what has been revealed to you of
the book [the Qur’an] and wisdom [the Prophet’s Sunnah] by which He instructs you…)
(Al-Baqarah 2:231)
• And [recall, O People of the Scripture], when Allah took the covenant of the prophets
[saying]: Whatever I give you of the scripture and wisdom and then there comes to you
a messenger confirming what is with you, you [must] believe in him and support him…
(Ali 'Imran 3:81)
This wisdom of the Prophet ( ) is in reality his Sunnah, which is the ultimate guidance for
leading a productive, successful life. The Prophet ( ) was the best positive role model for
all Muslims and mankind in general of what it means to live as a wise human being. Yet, the
Sunnah of the Prophet ( ) has already provided us with lots of wisdom that we are not even
aware of. We need to follow the Sunnah not only for our personal gain but out of love for
Allah and His Messenger. Prophet Muhammad ( ) had advised us in a Hadith. Abu Dawud
reported from al-’Irbaad ibn Saariyah, (may Allah be pleased with him), that
the Messenger of Allah ( ) led us in prayer one day, then he turned to us and exhorted
us strongly … (he said), “I enjoin you to fear Allah, and to hear and obey even if it be an
Abyssinian slave, for those of you who live after me will see great disagreement. You
must then follow my Sunnah and that of the rightly-guided caliphs. Hold to it and stick
fast to it.”
(Abu Dawud (a))
Hikmah is the lost property of the believer

The following are some of the statements made by the Messenger of Allah ( ) regard-
ing wisdom. Anas narrated that Allah’s Messenger ( ) said: “Keeping silent is considered
as (an act of`) wisdom, but very few practice it” (Bulugh al-Maram). It is narrated by Ibn
'Abbas: “The Messenger of Allah ( ) pulled me close to him and said: ‘O Allah, teach him
Al-Hikmah (wisdom)’” (Tirmidhi (a)). It was narrated that Ibn 'Abbas said: “The Messenger
of Allah ( ) embraced me and said: ‘O Allah, teach him wisdom and the (correct) interpreta-
tion of the Book’” (Ibn Majah). It is narrated by Ibn Masùd: I heard the Prophet ( ) saying,
There is no envy except in two: a person whom Allah has given wealth and he spends it
in the right way, and a person whom Allah has given wisdom (i.e. religious knowledge)
and he gives his decisions accordingly and teaches it to the others.
(Bukhari (c))
It is narrated by Abdullah ibn Abbas: “A desert Arab came to the Prophet ( ) and began
to speak. Thereupon the Messenger of Allah ( ) said: In eloquence there is magic and in
poetry there is wisdom” (Abu Dawud (b)). It is narrated by 'Abdullah that the Messenger of
Allah ( ) said: “Indeed there is wisdom in (some) poetry” (Tirmidhi (b)).
The wisdom of Luqman

Luqman al-Hakeem, or Luqman bin Ànqa' bin Sadun, was a pious man and another exam-
ple of a human bestowed with great wisdom, as mentioned in the Qur’an. Chapter 31 in the
Qur’an is Luqman. According to Ibn Kathir, “The majority favoured the view that he was a
righteous servant of Allah without being a Prophet. He was short with a flat nose and came
from Nubia. Allah gave him wisdom but withheld prophethood from him.” Allah gave him
understanding, knowledge and eloquence. Allah says in the Qur’an (interpretation of the
meaning):
• And We had certainly given Luqman wisdom [and said], “Be grateful to Allah.” And
whoever is grateful is grateful for [the benefit of] himself. And whoever denies [His
favour] – then indeed, Allah is Free of need and Praiseworthy. (Luqman 31:12)
Luqman advised his son, who deserved to be given the best of his knowledge. In the Qur’an,
Allah mentions ten pieces of advice Luqman al-Hakeem offered his son. Allah says (inter-
• And [mention, O Muhammad], when Luqman said to his son while he was instructing
him: O my son, do not associate [anything] with Allah. Indeed, association [with Him]
is great injustice.
• And We have enjoined upon man [care] for his parents. His mother carried him, [increas-
ing her] in weakness upon weakness, and his weaning is in two years. Be grateful to Me
and to your parents; to Me is the [final] destination.
• But if they endeavour to make you associate with Me that of which you have no knowl-
edge, do not obey them but accompany them in [this] world with appropriate kindness
and follow the way of those who turn back to Me [in repentance]. Then to me will be your
return, and I will inform you about what you used to do.
• [And Luqman said]: O my son, indeed if it [a wrong] should be the weight of a mustard
seed and should be within a rock or [anywhere] in the heavens or in the earth, Allah will
bring it forth. Indeed, Allah is Subtle and Acquainted.
• O my son, establish prayer, enjoin what is right, forbid what is wrong, and be patient
over what befalls you. Indeed, [all] that is of the matters [requiring] determination.
• And do not turn your cheek [in contempt] towards people and do not walk through the
earth exultantly. Indeed, Allah does not like anyone self-deluded and boastful.
• And be moderate in your pace, and lower your voice; indeed, the most disagreeable of
sounds is the voice of donkeys. (Luqman 31:12–19)
These above verses detail the specifics of wisdom, the gist of which is: Do not ascribe part-
ners to Allah; fulfil the rights of the parents; do not forget that Allah is watching everything
you do; establish prayer; enjoin people for good and forbid from evil; observe patience; do
not be arrogant; adopt a moderate approach in life; be moderate in walking; keep your voice
unraised. Allah grants this wisdom to whom He wishes, and these people are called “people
of understanding” in the Qur’an (Al Baqarah 2:269). Islam views wisdom through an ethical-
moral lens informed by knowledge of the spiritual, psychosocial and emotional world.
Intelligence
Intelligence is the most debated construct among psychologists, social scientists, socio-
biologists, neuroscientists and many others to determine exactly what it is. Different
researchers have emphasised different aspects of intelligence in their definitions based on
an orientation of the development of intelligence through nature, nurture or a combina-

tion of both. Psychologists have suggested that intelligence is a single, universal ability,
while others believe that intelligence encompasses a range of cognitive abilities, skills and
talents. Conceptually intelligence has been is defined “as the ability to learn from previ-
ous experiences, to solve problems, and to use knowledge to manage novel situations”
(Myers and DeWall, 2017, p.431). The American Psychological Association views intel-
ligence as an intellectual functioning. Stenberg (2017) viewed human intelligence as the
“mental quality that consists of the abilities to learn from experience, adapt to new situ-
ations, understand and handle abstract concepts, and use knowledge to manipulate one’s
environment.” For Stenberg (2017), it is the adaptation to the environment that provides
a better understanding of what intelligence is and what it does. He suggested that effec-
tive adaptation involves a number of cognitive processes, such as perception, learning,
memory, reasoning and problem-solving. Stenberg (2017) argued that “The main emphasis
in a definition of intelligence, then, is that it is not a cognitive or mental process per se but
rather a selective combination of these processes that is purposively directed toward effec-
tive adaptation.” The current conceptualisations of intelligence often distinguish between
cognitive (learning, recognition of problems and problem-solving), emotional, social and
spiritual intelligence.
“Intelligence quotient” (IQ) is an attempt to measure intelligence. The term
“Intelligenzquotient” was first coined in the early 20th century by William Stern, a German
psychologist. It was the French psychologist Alfred Binet (1857–1911) who is regarded as
the father of intelligence testing and inventor of the first working test of intelligence. Binet
was the first to introduce the concept of mental age or a set of abilities that children of a
certain age possess (Nicolas et al., 2013). IQ is an intelligence test score that is obtained by
dividing a person’s mental age score, obtained by the specific intelligence test, by the per-
son’s chronological age, and multiplying by 100. For example, a test result of 100 indicates
a performance at exactly the normal level for that age group.
Theories of intelligence: An overview

Different psychologists have proposed a variety of theories to explain the nature of intel-
ligence. A British psychologist, Charles Spearman (1863–1945), believed that intelligence
consisted of one general factor, called g. This g factor underlies all intelligent behaviours,
and it could be measured and compared among individuals. Spearman (1904) suggested that
intelligence, being a general cognitive ability, can be measured and numerically expressed.
Louis L. Thurstone (1887–1955) proposed seven different primary mental abilities instead
of a single, general ability. The abilities that constitute Thurstone’s theory (1938) are ver-
bal comprehension, reasoning, perceptual speed, numerical ability, word fluency, associative
memory and spatial visualisation. Raymond Cattell proposed a theory of intelligence that
divided general intelligence into two components: Crystallised intelligence and fluid intel-
ligence (Cattell, 1963). Later the theory was further developed into the theory of crystallised
and fluid intelligence (Horn and Cattell, 1966, 1967). Fluid intelligence is referred to as the
ability to reason, think flexibly and solve problems. This problem-solving ability is independ-
ent of previously existing knowledge (Kievit et al., 2016). Crystallised intelligence involves
knowledge that comes from prior learning and past experiences (Barbey, 2018). Basically,
crystallised intelligence is characterised by the accumulation of knowledge, facts and skills
that are acquired throughout life, and the ability to retrieve them.
A popular contemporary theory of intelligence is Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple

intelligences. Gardner’s theory is based on the notion that there is not one kind of intelligence
but eight, which are relatively independent of the others. This theory of multiple intelligences
goes beyond the standardised measurements of verbal and mathematical aptitudes that are
common in intelligence tests. The eight kinds of intelligence Gardner (2011) described are:
• Visual-spatial intelligence: Ability to perceive the world correctly and to evaluate and
transform aspects of the visual world.
• Verbal-linguistic intelligence: Ability to use language, written and spoken skills.
• Bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence: Ability to use the body skilfully and to handle objects
cleverly.
• Logical-mathematical intelligence: Skills of numbers and logic, ability to handle chains
of reasoning and to recognise patterns and order.
• Interpersonal intelligence: Ability to understand people and relate to others.
• Musical intelligence: Sensitivity to pitch, melody, rhythm and tone.
• Intrapersonal intelligence: Access to one’s emotional life as a means of understanding
oneself and others.
• Naturalistic intelligence: Skill in understanding the natural world.
Gardner believes that each of these domains of intelligence has a biological basis but cultural
influences that may also have an impact on the development of each intelligence.
Robert Sternberg (1985b) developed and proposed a triarchic theory of intelligence
based upon three aspects of cognitive abilities in order to achieve the desired goals.
Sternberg (1985b) proposed what he referred to as “successful intelligence,” which
involves three different factors: Analytical intelligence, creative intelligence and practical
intelligence
• Analytical intelligence: Problem-solving abilities. It is how people use and process

information to solve problems.
• Creative intelligence: Potential in dealing with new situations using prior experiences
and current skills.
• Practical intelligence: Ability to adapt to a changing environment.
IQ: To test or not to test?

To have a better understanding of the concept of intelligence, several intelligence tests have
been developed in an attempt to evaluate this concept. However, many questions are still
being asked about intelligence and IQ testing. The goal of IQ tests is to predict someone’s aca-
demic potential and seek to evaluate an individual’s cognitive ability, problem-solving skills
and aptitudes. The most commonly used individual tests of intelligence are the Binet–Simon
Scale, the Stanford–Binet Scale and the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale. The findings of
a study by Hampshire et al. (2012) showed that IQ tests are poor indicators of intelligence.
In addition, the findings suggest that there is absolutely no evidence for the idea that a single
measure of intelligence, such as “IQ,” captures all of the differences in cognitive ability. The
authors identified at least three factors that were essential to predicting intelligence: “short-
term memory; reasoning; and finally, a verbal component.”

• Reason as an instinctive faculty given to humans is a poorly understood concept in
psychology.
• Intellect is a cardiocentric (heart-centred) model and a encephalocentric (brain-centred)
model.
• The word Aql is an Arabic language term meaning “intellect,” intelligence or the rational
faculty of the soul or mind in Islamic philosophy.
• The concept of intellect or reasoning is well promoted in the Qur’an and Sunnah.
• Scholars have identified five essential values of life: Religion (Ad-Deen), physical safety
(An Nafs), ancestry and lineage (An-Nasl, or An-Nasab), intellect (Al-Aql), property
(Al-Maal).
• There are divergent opinions between the scholars of Islam concerning the anatomical
seat of intellect, whether it is in the brain or heart.
• According to the Qur’an, wisdom is of greatest value and blessing for a human being.
• The Sternberg’s balance theory of wisdom defines wisdom as “the use of one’s intel-
ligence, creativity, common sense, and knowledge and as mediated by positive ethical
values toward the achievement of a common good.”
• A growing body of evidence suggests that wisdom is a complex concept that contributes
to mental health and happiness.
• In Islam, wisdom is always linked to virtue and ethical behaviours.
• Hikmah is the lost property of the believer.
• The wisdom of Luqman: Do not ascribe partners to Allah; fulfil the rights of the parents;
do not forget that Allah is watching everything you do; establish prayer; enjoin people
for good and forbid from evil; observe patience; do not be arrogant; adopt a moderate
approach in life; be moderate in walking; and keep your voice unraised.
• Intelligence is the capacity to acquire and apply knowledge.
• Intelligence includes the ability to benefit from experience, act purposefully, solve prob-
lems and adapt to new situations.
• Charles Spearman proposed a general intelligence factor g that underlies all intelligent
behaviour.
• Howard Gardner proposed that there are eight domains of intelligence.
• Robert Sternberg distinguished among three aspects of intelligence.
• The most commonly used individual tests of intelligence are the Binet–Simon Scale, the
Stanford–Binet Scale and the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale.
1. Which one is correct? The types of reasoning include:

A. Deductive reasoning
B. Abductive reasoning
C. Inductive reasoning
D. A, B and C
E. A and B only
2. Spearman’s general intelligence factor – g …

A. Is thought to be the basis of all cognitive processes and performance.
B. Can be observed directly using special intelligence tests.
C. Is related to schooling.
D. Is affected by the culture of the person.
E. Is related to socio-economic status.
3. Al-Jawzi (2004) provided meanings in the use of Aql. Which one is not a meaning?
A. The innate property of man which distinguishes him from other living animals.
B. Implies that which is used to select the self-evident truth.
C. Implies one who acted contrary to his knowledge.
D. That which is gained through experience and the newly acquired experience.
E. Implies the inherent principle, by which one controls the soul from following one’s
heart’s vain desires.
4. Which of the following theories emphasised the differences between the ability to solve
novel problems and learned knowledge?
A. Spearman’s general intelligence
B. Gardner’s multiple intelligences
C. Cattell’s fluid and crystallised intelligence
D. Thurstone’s primary mental abilities
E. Binet single intelligence
5. What do the initials IQ stand for?
A. Intellect quotient
B. Intelligence quotient
C. Emotional quotient
D. Intelligence question.
E. Investment in education quotient
6. Which one of the following is NOT a form of intelligence, according to Gardner (2011)?
A. Interpersonal
B. Spatial
C. The visual-auditory dimension
D. Bodily kinaesthetic
E. Intrapersonal intelligence
7. The preservation of these human necessities does not include
A. Religion (Ad-Deen)
B. Physical safety (An Nafs)
C. Ancestry and lineage (An-Nasl, or An-Nasab)
D. Intellect (Al-Aql)
E. Self (An-Nafs)
8. There is a hypothesis put forward by Ibn Taymiyyah to explain that cognition [social and
religious] is related to
A. Heart
B. Brain
C. Heart and brain
D. Soul and brain
E. Mind and brain
9. Hikmah (wisdom) would always be associated with Prophet
A. Prophet Joseph (Yusuf)
B. Prophet Solomon (Suleiman)

C. Prophet Abraham (Ibrahim)
D. Prophet Jesus (Isa)
E. Prophet Moses (Musa)
10. Clayton (1976) identified characteristics that are typical of wise people:
A. Affective characteristics such as empathy and compassion
B. Reflective processes such as intuition and introspection
C. Cognitive capacities such as experience and intelligence
D. A and C only
E. All of the above
11. Emerging research suggests that wisdom is likely to increase
A. With wealth
B. With intellect
C. With age
D. With fertility
E. With family
12. Which one is not a criterion for righteousness in Islam?
A. Faith
B. Steadfastness in prayer
C. Spending in charity
D. Writing of contracts
E. Patience in adverse circumstances
13. Allah gave him the kingship and prophethood and taught him from that which He willed.
(Al-Baqarah 2:251) Which one?
A. Prophet Moses
B. Prophet David
C. Prophet Abraham
D. Prophet Solomon
E. Prophet Noah
14. Which one is not part of the advice Luqman gave to his son?
A. Do not ascribe partners to Allah.
B. Fulfil the rights of the parents.
C. Establish prayer.
D. Enjoin people for good and forbid from evil.
E. Observe silence.
15. Robert Sternberg (1985b) developed and proposed a triarchic theory of intelligence.
Which one is not correct?
A. Analytical intelligence
B. Creative intelligence
C. Practical intelligence
D. Electrical intelligence
E. All of the above
16. Who said the following: “Reason is the source and fountainhead of knowledge, as well
as its foundation. Knowledge sprouts from it as the fruit does from a tree, as light comes
from the sun, and as vision comes from the eye. How then could that which is the means
of happiness in this life and the Hereafter not be considered the most honoured? Or how
could it be doubted?”
A. Ibn Abi Ad-Dunya

B. Imam Al-Ghazali
C. Ibn Al-Jawzi
D. Imam A Shatibi
E. Imam Al-Shafi’i
17. All human beings are “endowed with reason.” Who made this statement?
A. Oaksford and Chater
B. Aristotle
C. United Nations
D. Rahman and Hassan
E. Plato
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Part V
Health psychology
Chapter 16
Health psychology
Models and perspectives
Learning outcomes
• Define health psychology.
• Identify the factors that lead to the emergence of health psychology as a discipline.
• Describe some of the Hadiths related to the importance of health in Islam.
• Describe behaviours that are health enhancing and health impairing.
• Identify the reasons why people believe in an internal or external locus of control.
• Explain the spiritual locus of control.
• Identify some of the issues of locus of control and Islamic beliefs.
• Discuss the different models and theories in the understanding of health behaviours and
their limitations.
Health and health psychology

The concept of health in the Western tradition is derived from an Anglo-Saxon word mean-
ing “whole, holy, and healthy.” In essence the term health encompasses holism. The World
Health Organization (n.d.) defines health as “A state of complete physical, mental and social
well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.” Though this definition empha-
sises the biopsychosocial, holistic nature of health, it fails to consider the social, political and
economic determinants of health, and ignores another dimension of health which is wellness.
In addition, the criticism of the WHO definition “concerns the absoluteness of the word
‘complete’ in relation to wellbeing. The problem is that it unintentionally contributes to the
medicalisation of society” (Huber et al., 2011). In addition, it would be absolutely impractical
to attain complete health.
From an Islamic perspective, the omission of a spiritual definition in the WHO’s definition
of health is not compatible with Islamic belief and practices. From an Islamic perspective,
ten centuries ago the Muslim scholar ‘Ali ibn al-ʻAbbâs Al-Majusi, physician and psycholo-
gist, defined health as, “A state of the body in which functions are run in the normal course.”
This is a positive definition and it means the body is working efficiently to ensure that you
are able to fulfil the normal daily activities. In the 12th century, Abul Waleed Muhammad
ibn Ahamad ibn Rushd, a Muslim polymath, defined health as “A state in which an organ
performs its normal function or undergoes its normal reaction.” This definition of health is
similar to the one defined by Ali ibn Al-ʻAbbâs. That is, the organs of the body maintain
some sort of equilibrium in its functions and reactions. Alâ’ ad-Deen Abul Haasan ‘Ali ibn
Abi Haazm Al-Qarshi ad-Dimashqi, also known as Ibn an-Nafees, was mostly famous for
368 Health psychology
being the first to describe the pulmonary circulation of blood. Seven hundred years ago, Ibn
an-Nafees defined health as “A state of the body in which functions are normal per se while
disease is the opposite state.”
The Muslim scholars have a positive view of health instead of perceiving health as an
absence of disease. The scholars perceived health as the baseline condition and disease as the
reaction of the body due to its abnormal functioning. This is the origin in the development
of the “Wellness” movement. Health becomes the norm and disease is the imbalance of the
body’s functions. For Muslims, spirituality is an integral part of health behaviours. From an
Islamic perspective, health is referred to as a state of balance between physical, psychologi-
cal, social and spiritual wellbeing. The spiritual and biopsychosocial dimensions are inte-
grated and unified within the Islamic worldview. According to Imam Al-Ghazālī, “A proper
understanding and implementation of religion, from the standpoint of both knowledge and
worship, can only be arrived at through physical health and life preservation.”
Health psychology, or behavioural medicine, is the application of psychological theory
and health-related practices in an understanding of people’s experiences of health and ill-
ness. The formal emergence of health psychology in the 1970s was influenced by a variety of
factors ranging from the decline of acute infections in industrialised nations, to advances in
basic biomedical science and its application in public health, the increase in the prevalence of
life-style behaviours, and several chronic diseases. In addition, there were other factors such
as evidence of the relationship between behavioural determinants and social factors of certain
risky life-styles; social psychologists interested in linking beliefs, attitudes and behaviour in
making healthcare decisions or predicting health behaviours; the emergence of alternative or
complementary intervention strategies in the management of chronic illnesses; the self-care
and self-help movements; the empowerment of individuals; and the rising costs of healthcare
services. The demand for effective psychological interventions also contributed to the advent
of the health psychology discipline.
Health psychology can be defined “as the application of psychological knowledge and
methods to the study, prevention, and management of physical diseases and disorders”
(Smith, 2001, p.6602). Evident in this definition is the fact that health psychology is an
applied discipline intended to promote human welfare. But the definition is too restrictive, as
it fails to consider how biological, environmental, psychological and socio-cultural factors
influence health, illness and access to health care. This is because health psychology provides
a holistic perspective on health, understanding the person’s physical illness and symptoms
in the context of socio-cultural and psychological factors. Matarazzo (1982) provides four
broad elements that constitute health psychology:
• The promotion and maintenance of health

• The prevention and treatment of illness
• Identification of aetiology and diagnostic correlates of health, illness and related
dysfunction
• Improving the health care system and health policy
This conceptual dimension of health psychology provides a challenge to health psychologists

by suggesting a role for them in both health promotion and health care policy development.
The Division of Health Psychology of the British Psychological Society does not define
health psychology but provides the goal of health psychology. It
is to study the psychological processes underlying health, illness and health care, and
to apply these findings to the promotion and maintenance of health, the analysis and
improvement of the health care system and health policy formation, the prevention of
illness and disability, and the enhancement of outcomes for those who are ill or disabled.
In the context of this chapter, Islamic health psychology is viewed as an understanding of

the interaction of biosocial, psychological and spiritual factors in health and illness based on
the principles of guidance from the Qur’an and Hadith (Rassool, 2020). In the 21st century,
health issues that health psychologists are engaged in include stress and stress management,
obesity and weight management, smoking cessation, nutrition, reducing risky sexual behav-
iours, harm reduction, dealing with grief bereavement counselling, preventing ill-health, pro-
moting recovery and teaching coping skills.
Importance of health in Islam

The Islamic notion of health is viewed in a holistic “whole person” approach and is clearly
established in the Qur’an and the Sunnah. Ash-shifa' is one of the names of the Qur’an and
Surah Al-Fātiĥah, which has the meaning of “that which heals” or “the restorer of health.”
The Qur’an is not only guidance for the whole mankind, but a spiritual cure and healing for
all types of diseases. In Surah ash-Shu’arâ, Allah mentions (interpretation of the meaning):
• And when I am ill, it is He who cures me. (Ash-Shu’arâ 26:80)
Good health is a blessing from Allah. It should be noted that the greatest blessing after
belief is health, as narrated in the following Hadith: Prophet Muhammad ( ) stated that
“..O Allah, forgive me, guide me, grant me provision and give me good health” (An-Nasa’i).
In another Hadith, the Prophet ( ) defines the relative importance of health and wealth.
Mu’adh ibn 'Abdullah ibn Khubayb al-Juhani related from his father that his uncle said that
the Messenger of Allah ( ) said “There is no harm in wealth for someone who has Taqwa
[God-consciousness], but health for the person who has taqwa is even better than wealth”
(Al-Adab Al-Mufrad). Physical health of a believer is also better in the eyes of God. Abu
Hurairah narrated that the Messenger of Allah ( ) said:
A believer who is strong (and healthy) is better and dearer to Allah than the weak
believer, but there is goodness in both of them. Be keen on what benefits you and seek
help from Allah, and do not give up.
(Muslim )
By contrast, each Muslim has a great responsibility and accountability in matters of personal
and public health to God. Abu Hurairah narrated that the Messenger of Allah ( ) said:
Indeed the first of what will be asked about on the Day of Judgment – meaning the slave
(of Allah) being questioned about the favours – is that it will be said to him: “Did We not
make your body, health, and give you of cool water to drink?”
(Tirmidhī (a))
The next Hadith relates to the essential things in life. Salamah bin 'Ubaidullah bin Mihsan
Al-Khatmi narrated from his father – and he was a Companion – who said:
The Messenger of Allah ( ) said: “Whoever among you wakes up in the morning
secured in his dwelling, healthy in his body, having his food for the day, then it is as if
the world has been gathered for him.”
(Tirmidhī (b))
The importance of making the best use of health and enjoying it, and not wasting our time
due to a negligent attitude is emphasised by the Messenger of Allah ( ). Mujahid narrated
that Ibn 'Umar said that the
The Messenger of Allah ( ) said: “When you wake up in the morning, then do not
concern yourself with the evening. And when you reach the evening, then do not concern
yourself with the morning. Take from your health before your illness, and from your life
before your death, for indeed O slave of Allah! You do not know what your description
shall be tomorrow.”
(Tirmidhī (c))
In a slightly different version of the same Hadith, the Messenger of Allah ( ) said: “Take
[advantage of] your health before times of sickness, and [take advantage of] your life before
your death” (Bukhari (a)). The Prophet ( ) also said, “There are two blessings which many
people lose: (They are) Health and free time for doing good” (Bukhari (b)).
What is interesting and not seen in any international and national legislations is the protec-
tion and rights of the human body. Islam established the rights of health 14 centuries ago. It
is narrated by 'Abdullah bin 'Amr that Allah’s Messenger ( ) said, “No doubt, your body
has right on you” (Bukhari (c)). The preservation of Allah’s blessings can only be achieved
through taking good care of one’s health and taking every measure to maintain and enhance
it. Moreover, both the Qur’an and the Sunnah outline good practices for Muslims on how to
protect and maintain their health and live life in a state of purity.
Health behaviours
The recognition of the importance of thoughts, feelings and behaviours has made us more
cognisant of the important role these behaviours play in affecting health and illness. It was
McKeown (1976 who highlighted the increasing role of individual and life-style behaviours
in contemporary illness. Health behaviours are any behaviours we engage in attaining and
maintaining good physical health and preventing negative behaviours which may lead to
illness or disease. Health behaviour reflects a person’s health beliefs which have a signifi-
cant influence on maintaining positive and negative health behaviours. Health behaviours
have been defined in various ways. For example, Kasl and Cobb (1996) define health behav-
iour as “any activity undertaken by a person believing himself to be healthy for the purpose
of preventing disease or detecting it in an asymptomatic way” (p.531). Gochman (1997)
defines health behaviour as “behaviour patterns, actions and habits that relate to health main-
tenance, to health restoration and to health improvement” (p.3). Conner (2002) noted that
“Behaviours within this definition [Gochman] include medical service usage (e.g., physician
visits, vaccination, screening), compliance with medical regimens (e.g., dietary, diabetic,
antihypertensive regimens), and self-directed health behaviours (e.g., diet, exercise, smok-
ing, alcohol consumption).”
In describing health behaviours, it is common to distinguish between health behaviour,
illness behaviour and sick-role behaviour. Three types of health-related behaviours have been
proposed (Kasl and Cobb, 1996, p.246). Health behaviour is aimed at the prevention of dis-
ease. (For example, eating healthy food, seeking health information, having regular check-
ups, resting, sleeping an adequate number of hours per night, wearing a helmet when riding a
bicycle, using seat belts.) An illness behaviour is a behaviour aimed at seeking a remedy (for
example, self-prescribing of medicines, going to the doctor) and sick-role behaviour involves
any activity for the purpose of getting well (for example, adopting the sick role, resting, pre-
scribed medications, prayers).
Conner (2002) suggested that there are behaviours that are health impairing and health
enhancing. Health-impairing behaviours cause health harms or individuals to have a high
risk of disease. The health-impairing life-styles present a serious threat to population health,
relating to levels of inactivity, nutrition, obesity, alcohol misuse, smoking and high dietary
fat consumption leading to the risk of chronic disease, including cancer, and reduced life
expectancy. It has been suggested that
health behaviours and lifestyles are the second most important driver of health. They
include smoking, alcohol consumption, diet and exercise. For example, while reductions
in smoking have been a key factor in rising life expectancy since the 1950s, obesity rates
have increased and now pose a significant threat to health outcomes.
(Buck et al., 2018 p.4)
In contrast, engagement in health-enhancing behaviours such as exercise, physical activity,

reductions in smoking, consuming five fruits or vegetables per day and harm reduction in
response to blood-borne infections augment health benefits or otherwise protect individu-
als from health harms. The findings of a study (Khaw et al., 2008) showed that four health
behaviours (current non-smoking, not physically inactive, moderate alcohol intake and a
blood vitamin C level) combined predict a four-fold difference in total mortality in men and
women. The findings also indicated that the risk of death, particularly from cardiovascular
disease, decreases as the number of positive health behaviours increases.
Models and theories of health psychology

The models and theories that will be examined in this section include attribution theory, locus
of control, health belief model, theory of planned behaviour and the transtheoretical model
of behaviour change. The basics of each models or theories are described, along with a brief
critique.
Attribution theory
The basis of attribution theory is how people explain the causes of behaviour and events.
It was Heider (1958) who argued that individuals are motivated to understand the causes
of events as a means to make sense of the social world. For example, is someone unhappy
because they are emotionally sensitive or because something bad happened? Fiske and Taylor
(1991) stated that “Attribution theory deals with how the social perceiver uses information to
arrive at causal explanations for events. It examines what information is gathered and how it
is combined to form a causal judgment” (p.23). The beliefs and attributions that people hold
can influence their health by affecting their behaviour, for example, attending an outpatient
department for the control of blood pressure, or attendance at a screening programme, or
whether they take prescribed medication for their blood pressure. Heider (1958) put forward
two main ideas about attributions: Dispositional (internal cause) vs. situational (external
cause) attributions. Dispositional attribution refers to the explanation of behaviour by some
internal characteristic of a person. For example, we attribute the behaviour of a person to
their personality, motives or beliefs. In contrast, situational attribution is assigning the cause
of behaviour to some external cause or event outside a person’s control.
A research study by King (1983) used two empirical studies to describe the testing of the
plausibility of an attributional approach to health behaviours. In a preliminary study investigat-
ing the relationship between health beliefs and illness attributions of heart patients, the findings
showed that health beliefs were found to be significantly related to causal explanations of heart
disease. The main study examined the impact of attributions and health beliefs on health behav-
iour and attendance at a screening clinic for high blood pressure. The findings demonstrated
that if the high blood pressure was seen as external but controllable, the individual was more
likely to attend the screening clinic. However, a patient’s health may also be influenced by the
beliefs and attributions of health professionals. According to Marteau (1989), the beliefs and
attributions of health professionals may affect patient outcomes by influencing the decision
regarding the use of healthcare or medical interventions and by influencing patients’ cognitions.
There are another attributional models such as Kelley’s covariation model (1967, 1973).
His model is based on the evaluation of whether a particular action should be attributed to
some characteristic (dispositional) of the person or the environment (situational). Kelley’s
model applies to all types of psychological effects that lay persons explain the characteris-
tics of attributions including emotional states, academic outcomes, interpersonal relations
and attributions of changes in one’s heart rate. Kelley distinguishes between attributions
to causes that reside within the person (internal), the situational (external) and the circum-
stance. However, the criticism of Kelley’s covariation model is that it does not inform us
about how the search for causality actually proceeds, or about the attributions actually made,
in everyday life (Stiensmeier-Pelster and Heckhausen, 2018). Despite these criticisms from
Stiensmeier-Pelster and Heckhausen, Kelley’s covariation model
has the indisputable advantage of describing a method that can be adopted when we wish
to make rational and accurate causal inferences. It has important implications for thera-
peutic applications, pointing to strategies that might be fruitfully applied in cognitive
behavioural therapy with depressive patients or helpless students.
(p.649)
Health locus of control

Locus of control (Rotter, 1966) is a construct that is said to be an issue of control (internal
or external causality dimension) emphasised in attribution theory. This has been applied to
health in terms of the health locus of control. People have a tendency to understand events
as controllable (an internal locus of control) or uncontrollable (an external locus of control).
Health locus of control (HLOC) is defined as “a person’s beliefs regarding where control
over his/her health lies” (Wallston et al., 1994, p.534). This health locus of control is part of
the health beliefs system that has a central role in health care as HLOC can explain preven-
tive health behaviours and influence people’s preferences in decision-making about treatment
(Hashimoto and Fukuhara, 2004; Janowski et al., 2013). It has been suggested that people
with an internal HLOC have the health belief that their behaviour influences their health. In
contrast, people who believe that their health is influenced by external causes or by fate or
chance have an external HLOC (Wallston et al., 1994). It is widely acknowledged that locus
of control is significantly associated with a variety of health behaviours including the abil-
ity to stop smoking, birth control, ability to lose weight, information-seeking, adherence to
medication regimens, healthy nutrition and physical activity and having a positive relation-
ship with doctors (Wallston and Wallston, 1978; Brincks et al., 2010; Helmer et al., 2012). In
contrast, higher levels of external locus of control were associated with a higher likelihood of
current smoking, lower physical activity and less attention to healthy nutrition (Helmer et al.,
2012). There is also a difference in both seeking health information and delegation of medical
decision-making by those with an internal locus of control and those with an external locus
of control. HLOC patients who have an internal locus of control tend to seek more health
information, whereas patients with an external locus of control delegate decisions to health
care workers or physicians or other “powerful” people (Affleck et al., 1987; Hashimoto and
Fukuhara, 2004). The validity of studies investigating the relationship between locus of control
and health behaviours has been questioned as there is a lack of homogeneity in the findings.
In addition, it has been suggested that “an individual may have a tendency to be internal in
many life areas but have an external belief with regard to the particular health-related behav-
iour in question” (Wigger, 2011).
Spiritual locus of control

Locus of control is an individual’s belief system describing the degree to which they believe
that they have control over the outcome of events in their life. The control could be due to
internal factors or external factors (no control). It is clear from a psychological point of view
that secular Westerners feel that their lives are mainly shaped and determined by internal
forces, where they have some degree of control. The term accorded to the third force of health
control is the spiritual health locus of control and God locus of health control (Welton et al.,
1996; Wallston et al., 1999; Holt et al., 2003; Holt, Clark, and Klem, 2007). The findings
of a study by Debnam et al. (2012) on an examination of the relationships between spiritual
health locus of control beliefs and various health behaviours suggested that dimensions of
spiritual health locus of control beliefs have complex and varying relationships with health
behaviours. A recent study also showed that high overall spiritual health locus of control was
significantly related to higher odds of life satisfaction (Meadows, Nolan, and Paxton, 2020).
However, there is a dearth of literature and current gaps in knowledge, understanding
and reporting of the locus of control which is not internally focused or externally focused. A
review undertaken by Timmins and Martin (2019) showed that
Locus of control has been measured in populations in relation to belief in God or spir-
itual health beliefs; there is no research that explores specific spiritual locus of control.
Moreover, the emerging body of work focusing on spiritual health beliefs relies heavily
on religious and Christian language rather than encompassing broader understandings
of spirituality.
(p.83)
In addition, most of the studies were with mostly Christian populations in the sample. The
connection of locus of control and health in relation to the Islamic faith has not been explored
in depth by psychologists.
Locus of control and Islam

Islam encourages the belief in the Divine decree (Qadar), and human free will and the use of
both internal and external loci of control. Belief in Qadar (Divine decree) is the sixth Islamic
article of faith. Qadar means “that Allah has decreed everything that happens in the universe
according to His prior knowledge and the dictates of His wisdom” (Islam Q&A, 2010). The
position of the majority of traditional Sunni Muslims (Ahlus Sunnah wal Jamaah) on pre-
destination (Qadar) is that God knows all things, but that humans also have the freedom to
choose. Based on the above premises, the reliance solely on an internal locus of control “may
not be congruent with many Muslims’ belief in the power of external forces like God and the
supernatural (e.g., angels, Jinn) in influencing their lives” (Amer and Jalal, 2012, p.100). The
belief in predestination is that Muslims are directed to rely upon Allah. This is indicated in
And sufficient is Allah as Disposer of affairs. (Al-Ahzab 33:48)
This means putting your trust in Allah, and sufficient is Allah as a Trustee. In another
verse, Allah says (interpretation of the meaning):
Say, “Never will we be struck except by what Allah has decreed for us; He is our protec-
tor.” And upon Allah let the believers rely. (At-Tawbah 9:51)
Having absolute trust in Allah (Al-Tawakkul Allah) is a fundamental part of the belief of
Muslims. That means trusting and being dependent on Allah. Allah says in the Qur’an (inter-
• And He will provide him from (sources) he could never imagine. And whoever puts
their trust in Allah, then He will suffice him. Verily, Allah will accomplish His purpose.
Indeed, Allah has set a measure for all things. (At-Talaq 65:3)
• …Then when thou hast taken a decision put they trust in Allah. For Allah loves those
who put their trust (in Him). (Ali Imran 3:159)
Other verses of the Qur’an also deal with putting absolute trust in Allah (Ali Imran 3:160;
At-Tawba 9:51; Ash-Shu’arâ 26:217). Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawziyyah (n.d.) (may Allah have
mercy upon him) stated that:
The condition of the one who relies on Allah is like the condition of the one who is
given a dirham by a king, then it gets stolen from him; so the king says to him: “I have
many times as much as that, so don’t worry. When you come to me, I will give you from
my treasures much more than that.” Thus if (this person) knows the truthfulness of the
king’s statement, and trusts him, and knows that his treasures are full of that, then what
he missed will not make him sad.
However, Islam “encourages the use of both internal and external loci of control. Muslims
believe in fate and destiny as willed by Allah, which encourages an external locus of control”
(Binzaqr, 2017, p.30). It has been suggested that a reliance on God might improve one’s sense
of internal locus of control (Pargament and Hahn, 1986). The following Hadith provides a
Figure 16.1 Tri-locals: Internal, external and spiritual loci of control.
good example of having both our trust in and reliance on Allah (spiritual locus of control) and
making effort to live in this world (internal locus of control). Anas ibn Malik reported: A man
said, “O Messenger of Allah, should I tie my camel and trust in Allah, or should I leave her
untied and trust in Allah?” The Messenger of Allah ( ) said, “Tie her and trust in Allah”
(Tirmidhī (d)). In another Hadith, the Messenger of Allah ( ) said:
Strive for that which will benefit you, seek the help of Allah, and do not feel helpless. If
anything befalls you, do not say, “if only I had done such and such” rather say “Qaddara
Allahu wa ma sha’a fa’ala (Allah has decreed and whatever he wills, He does).”
(Ibn Majah)
The findings of a study by Aflakseir and Mohammad-Abadi (2016) showed that a God exter-
nal locus of control was similarly beneficial to mental health as an internal locus of control,
while powerful human others remained detrimental to mental health.
Having a dual locus of control (internal and external) for some people has been labelled
as bi-local. Wong and Sproule (1984) state “bi-locals cope more efficiently by having a mix
of internal control (personal responsibility) and external control (faith in outside resources)”
(p.320). For Muslims, I would suggest being “tri-local,” that is having an internal, external
and spiritual locus of control. Figure 16.1 presents the tri-local: Internal, external and spir-
itual loci of control.
Finally, Hasse (2018) argued that “if Muslims and Christians, believe in God’s provi-
dence and human free agency, how can the two seemingly contradictory doctrines both be
true?” (p.8). He observed that Packer (1961) called this an antimony. This is “A contra-
diction between two beliefs or conclusions that are in themselves reasonable” (The Oxford
Dictionary [online]). In Islam, the belief in predestination
does not contradict the idea that a person has free will with regard to actions in which
he has free choice. He can choose whether to or not to do things that he is able to do of
acts of worship or sinful actions. Shari’ah and real life both indicate that people have
this will.
(Islam Q&A, 2010)
Hasse (2018) quoted that “Packer posits that while God—through His written and natural
revelations—has taught humanity many things, there are still many things He has never
revealed” (p.8). In Islam, for example, Allah has not revealed the knowledge of the unseen
which is something that Allah has kept for Himself. This is indicated by the texts of the
Qur’an and Sunnah. Allah says (interpretation of the meaning):
• Say, “None in the heavens and earth knows the unseen except Allah, and they do not
perceive when they will be resurrected.” (Al-Naml 27:65)
there within the darkness’s of the earth and no moist or dry [thing] but that it is [written]
in a clear record. (Al-An’aam 6:59)
The Prophet ( ) explained these keys as referring to five things which are mentioned in
Surah (Chapter) Luqman, where Allah says (interpretation of the meaning):
Indeed, Allah [alone] has knowledge of the Hour and sends down the rain and knows what
is in the wombs. And no soul perceives what it will earn tomorrow, and no soul perceives in
what land it will die. Indeed, Allah is Knowing and Acquainted. (Luqman 31:34)
In Tafheem ul Qur’an, Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi (2013) states the following:
In contrast to the man of the world, whatever the man of God does, he does it to please
Him and trusts in Him and not in his own powers nor in material resources. Therefore
he is neither exultant over his success in the cause of Allah nor loses heart by failure, for
he believes that it is the Will of God that is working in both the cases. Therefore he is
neither disheartened by disasters nor is filled with conceit by successes. This is because
he believes that both prosperity and adversity are from Allah and are nothing but a trial
from Him. Therefore his only worry is to do his best to come out successful in His test.
Besides, as there are no worldly ends before him, he does not measure his success or
failure by the achievement or failure of his ends. On the other hand, the only object
before him is to sacrifice his life and wealth in the Way of Allah, and he measures the
success or failure of his efforts by the standard he achieves in the performance of this
duty. Therefore if he is satisfied that he has done his best to perform this duty, he believes
that he has come out successful by the grace of God, though he might not have been able
to accomplish anything from the worldly point of view; for he believes that his Allah
in Whose cause he has expended his life and wealth will not let go waste the reward of
his efforts. As he does not depend on the material resources only, he is neither grieved if
they are unfavourable, nor feels exultant when these are favourable. His entire trust is in
God Who is the controller of all the resources; therefore he goes on doing his duty even
under the most unfavourable circumstances with the same courage and perseverance that
is shown by the worldly people unfavourable circumstances alone. That is why Allah
asked the Holy Prophet to say to the hypocrites, “There is a basic difference between you
and us in regard to the conduct of affairs. We believe that both the good and the bad are
from Allah: therefore the apparent result does not make us happy or sad. Moreover, we
depend on Allah in our affairs and you depend on material resources: so we are content
and happy in all circumstances.”
The idea of accepting trials and tribulations as part of Allah’s Divine plan for humanity is a
revered belief in Islam. Muslims use a combination of internal, external and spiritual loci of
control as part of their health beliefs system in both health and illness. As Hasse (2018) con-
cluded “Therefore, in ways beyond our extremely limited understanding, God’s providence
and human free agency can both be true” (p.9). Notwithstanding the view that true faith
requires total reliance on God (Al-Tawakkul Allah), recourse to an internal locus of control is
not viewed as a weakness of belief, even if ill-health can also be seen as trials and tribulations
by God meant for atonement and development in the purification of the soul.
Health belief model

The health belief model (HBM) is a cognition model, and one of the first psychological
models that attempted to explain and predict health behaviours by focusing on the attitudes
and beliefs of individuals. The HBM was conceived by Rosenstock (1966) and has under-
gone revision and development, primarily by Becker (1974). This model has been adapted to
examine behavioural and life-style concerns, including sexual risk behaviours and the trans-
mission of HIV/AIDS, and clinical nutrition-related risk factors, such as high blood choles-
terol or diabetes. The key variables of the HBM (Rosenstock, Strecher and Becker, 1994) are
presented in Table 16.2. The basics of the health belief model are presented in Figure 16.1.
The model assumes that health-seeking behaviour is influenced by an individual’s percep-
tion of the threat posed by a health problem. For example, Muslims who do not think they
are at risk of lung cancer are unlikely to stop shisha smoking. If the consequence of the threat
Table 16.1 The key variables of the HBM
Key variables Description
Susceptibility to illness This refers to an individual’s perception that a health problem is

personally relevant or that there is a risk of contracting a health
problem.
Severity of illness This refers to an individual’s feelings concerning the severity of a health
problem with potential medical and psychosocial consequences.
Perceived benefts This refers to the individual’s belief that a given intervention will cure
the illness or help to reduce the threat of illness.
Perceived costs This includes the complexity, duration and accessibility of the health
interventions.
Health motivation This includes the need to take action due to the threat of illness, in
other words, complying with health interventions.
Behavioural cues This refers to internal and external cues that may nudge the individual to
behavioural action.
Demographic factors These include personality variables and socio-demographic factors (age,
gender, socio-economic status and ethnicity).
Source: Adapted from Rosenstock et al. (1994).

Table 16.2 Variables on the theory of reasoned action
Variables Descriptions
Behaviour
Intention The intent to perform behaviour is the best predictor that a desired
behaviour will actually follow.
Attitude An individual’s positive or negative feelings toward performing the defined
behaviour.
Behavioural beliefs Behavioural beliefs are a combination of an individual’s beliefs regarding
the outcomes of a defined behaviour and the person’s evaluation of
potential consequences.
Subjective norms An individual’s perception of other people’s opinions regarding the
defined behaviour.
Normative beliefs Normative beliefs are a combination of an individual’s beliefs regarding
other people’s views of a behaviour and the individual’s readiness to
conform to those views.
Perceived behavioural Perceived behavioural control refers to people’s perceptions of their
control ability to perform a given behaviour.
Source: Adapted from Fishbein et al. (1994).
Perceptions &
Modifying Factors
Assessments
Age, Race, Ethnicity etc.

Peers, Personality, Demographic,
Social/Psychologic Cost / Benefit
Social Pressure etc.
al and Structural Analysis
Prior contact or
Variables
Knowledge about the
disease
Likelihood of Action
How dangerous is it? Perceived

Perceived
Seriousness &
Threat
Will I get it? Susceptibility
Can you action
Media Campaigns Lay

Advice, Reminders from
G.P., Magazines, Articles
etc.
Figure 16.2 Health belief model.

is serious, there is a probability that a person will change their health behaviours. For exam-
ple, people are more likely to use social distancing due to the seriousness of the COVID-19
pandemic. If people are convinced that there is no cost or some benefit for them, then they
would be likely to change their health behaviours. If people perceive barriers in terms of
effort, money and time, they will not change their health behaviours. The demographic fac-
tors are enabling or modifying factors. These enabling factors either facilitate or moderate the
relationship between key HBM constructs and the likelihood of taking action. Two elements,
cues to action (external events that prompt a desire to make a health change) and self-efficacy
(a person’s belief in his/her ability to make a health-related change), were added to HBM
in order to meet the challenges of life-style negative behaviours including being sedentary,
smoking and overeating.
Evidence in support of the HBM is from preventive health education in sexuality educa-
tion programmes and the exploration of sexual risk behaviours and the transmission of HIV/
AIDS. However, a review by Taylor et al. (2007) identified “no evidence indicative of the
extent to which the use of HBM based interventions has contributed positively to improved
health outcomes in the United Kingdom” (p.5). There are several weaknesses inherent in the
health belief model. It fails to consider a role for emotional and social factors that influence
health behaviour and focuses mainly on rational decision-making. The health belief model
lacks the dynamic element as it implies that beliefs do not change over time. It also fails to
consider a person’s attitudes, beliefs or other individual determinants that dictate a person’s
acceptance of a health behaviour. The role of intention as a driving force for most behaviour
is absent in this model.
Theory of planned behaviour

The theory of planned behaviour (TPB) was developed by Ajzen and colleagues (Ajzen,
1985, 1987; Ajzen and Madden, 1986). This theory links beliefs and behaviour and is based
on the premise that individuals make logical, reasoned decisions to engage in specific behav-
iours by evaluating available information. Within this framework, the determinants of behav-
iour are behavioural intentions to engage in that behaviour and perceived behavioural control
over that behaviour. That is, it is the intention of the individual and the perception that the
behaviour is within their control that determine the performance of the behaviour. The model
provides a construct that links individual beliefs, attitudes, intentions and behaviour (Fishbein
et al., 1994). The variables of the model are presented in Table 16.2.
The key component to this model, behavioural intent, suggests that an individual’s behav-
iour is determined by his intention to perform the behaviour. This intention is determined
by three things: Attitude toward the specific behaviour, their subjective norms and their per-
ceived behavioural control. The key component is the behavioural intention which combines
with behavioural control to produce the health behaviours. The best predictor of behaviour is
an individual’s motivation to perform or adopt a given behaviour.
For example, people may believe that quitting smoking improves health and saves money
(behavioural beliefs), that their spouses, family and the government think they should quit
smoking (normative beliefs) and that the thought of putting on weight and not being able
to relax without smoking make it difficult to quit or reduce smoking (control belief). Taken
together, the total set of behavioural beliefs of improving health and saving money produces
a favourable or unfavourable attitude toward the behaviour. The total set of normative beliefs
of spouses, family and the government results in perceived social pressure to quit or not to
Attitude Toward
Behaviour
Subjective Norm Behavioural Behaviour

Intention
Perceived
Behavioural
Control
Figure 16.3 Theory of planned behaviour (TPB).
quit smoking. The control beliefs give rise to a sense of self-efficacy, that one can quit smok-
ing. TPB has been used successfully to predict and understand a wide range of health behav-
iours and intentions. The areas in which TPB has been applied include exercise intentions and
behaviours, weight gain prevention and eating behaviour, addiction-related behaviours such
as smoking and alcohol abuse, HIV prevention and condom use, blood donation, oral hygiene,
clinical screening and driving behaviours. Figure 16.3 depicts the theory of planned behaviour.
The strength of the theory of planned behaviour is that it is more applicable in public
health than the health belief model. It is a linear model; as such it assumes that people’s
behaviour operates according to a linear decision-making process. It fails to consider other
variables such as fear, threat, mood or prior experience and learning. Socio-economic factors
that may influence a person’s intention to perform a set behaviour. It assumes that the person
has acquired self-efficacy and self-control in performing the desired behaviour competently.
It has been suggested that adding the role of beliefs and moral and religious norms would
enable the predictive ability of the models to be improved (Godin and Kok, 1996). The find-
ings of a review on the impact of health outcomes in using the TPB model identified
no evidence relating to the extent to which the use of TPB informed interventions has
contributed to either improved or reduced health outcomes in the United Kingdom, over
and above changes achievable via other theoretically or non-theoretically based inter-
ventions. This can in large part been explained by the fact that TPB based studies have
mainly been aimed at predicting and understanding intentions and behaviours.
(Taylor et al., 2007, p.10)
The trans-theoretical model of behavioural change

The trans-theoretical model (TTM) was developed by Prochaska and DiClemente at the start
1980s when they were studying how smokers were able to give up their habits or addiction. It
uses a sequential dimension, the stages of change (SoC) construct, as a basic framework for
Precontemplation
Enter
Maintenance
Contemplation
The Stages of
Change Model
Relapse
Determination
Action
Exit & Re-enter at any Stage
Figure 16.4 Transtheoretical model of change.
the promotion of behavioural change (Prochaska et al., 1994; Prochaska and Velicer, 1997;
Velicer et al., 1998). TTM is different from the attribution theory, the health belief model and
the theory of planned behaviour because of its application in the clinical situation. It has been
observed that some of the components the TTM are identical to other social cognition-based
models of health behaviour change (Noar and Zimmerman, 2005). TTM was initially devel-
oped as a tool for understanding and actively promoting behaviour change in the context of
tobacco smoking, smoking cessation and prevention. TTM has also been applied to dietary
change, exercise and activity promotion, sexually transmitted disease, pregnancy prevention,
breast cancer screening, alcohol use control and treatment adherence. The essence of TTM
is based on emotions, cognitions and behaviour. Its basic premise is that behaviour change is
a process and not an event, and that individuals are at varying levels of motivation, or readi-
ness, to change. Individuals will be at different stages in this process of change, and interven-
tion strategies should match their particular stage. The TTM construes change as a process
involving progress through a series of six stages: Precontemplation, contemplation, action,
maintenance, termination and relapse. This is shown in Figure 16.4.
Precontemplation
In this stage, the individuals have no insight into the problem or are unaware of the problem
(such as reducing alcohol intake, taking part in more physical activity, reducing or stopping
smoking or reducing weight). This is a stage of resistance to change; the individual is unmo-
tivated and in a state of denial.
Contemplation
The individuals are seriously thinking about a change in behaviour. They are becoming more
aware of the pros and the cons of behavioural change. The constant evaluation of the costs
and benefits of behavioural change may lead to ambivalence. The individuals may be trapped
in this stage for long periods of time, and this characteristic is termed as chronic contempla-
tion or behavioural procrastination.
Preparation
At the preparation stage, individuals realise that change is needed and are making final
adjustments before changing behaviour, that is, to take action in the immediate future which
is usually measured as the next month. The preparation stage is viewed as a transition rather
than a stable stage, with individuals intending to progress to action in the next 30 days. This
is the stage of seeking health information, getting advice from the lay referral system even
turning to a health professional.
Action
Action is the stage in which people have implemented their plan of action. The plan of action
may include targets to reach, for instance, reducing the daily cigarette intake from 20 to 15,
undertaking physical activity 4 or 5 times a week or the reduction of alcoholic beverages over
a period of time. This has to be done in small steps with attainable goals. In this stage, indi-
viduals must attain adequate changes in reducing their high-risk behaviours. This is a critical
stage where there is the possibility of relapse.
Maintenance
This is the most difficult stage in the maintenance of the new health behaviour or healthier
life-style. At this stage, the individuals continue with acceptable actions and are working to
prevent relapse. Maintainers are distinguishable from those in the action stage in that they
report the highest levels of self-efficacy and are less frequently tempted to relapse (Prochaska
and DiClemente, 1983). However, it is easy to reintroduce the same old negative behavioural
activities into our life-style and return to baseline behaviour.
Termination or relapse
In the termination phase, the individuals have gained adequate self-efficacy to eliminate the
risk of lapse or relapse. Their former life-styles and behaviours are no longer perceived as
desirable. However, relapse is recognised as a definite step in TTM. For example, most drug
users experience relapse on the journey to permanent cessation or the stable reduction of
high-risk behaviours. In relapse, the individual re-introduces a repertoire of unhealthy habits
back into their life-style, reverting back to old behaviours. This relapse phase can occur dur-
ing either action or maintenance phases, and the individual will experience an immediate
sense of failure that can seriously undermine their self-confidence.
This model of change describes behaviour change as dynamic and is a circular rather than
a linear model. The individual may go through several cycles of contemplation, action and
relapse before either reaching maintenance, termination or exiting the system without chang-
ing completely their behaviour. The “revolving-door schema” explains the sequence that an
individual passes through in their efforts, for example, to become free from alcohol or drugs.
The individual enters and exits at any point and often recycles several times in this dynamic
process.
There are several limitations of the TTM. The model is descriptive and has an individu-
alistic focus directed primarily at “cognitive” processes. The TTM deals mainly with factors
(for example, self-esteem, motivation to change) within the individual and tends to neglect
the social context of health behaviour. A review by Public Health Scotland (1999) suggests
that there may be problems in assuming that behaviour changes occur in an ordered and linear
fashion; rather, it might be expected that behaviour change occurs in a less straightforward,
even disordered way. Other limitations include that the TTM
model is flawed even in its most basic tenet, the concept of the “stage”. It has to draw
arbitrary dividing lines in order to differentiate between the stages. This has meant that
these are not genuine stages and to classifying individuals assuming that individuals
typically make coherent and stable plans.
(West, 2005, pp.1036–1037)
Etter and Sutton (2002) have questioned the theoretical and methodological problems with
the concept of stage of change. The validity of the stage of change construct central to the
TTM has been questioned and there have been calls for its abandonment (West, 2005; West
and Hardy, 2006). The review by Taylor et al. (2007) suggests that
Regardless of their relative efficacy, such programmes appear to have contributed

to achieving intermediate health outcomes such as (for example) smoking cessation.
The evidence available is also strongly supportive of the view that in the case of
smoking cessation improved health outcomes will have in time resulted from such
interventions.
(p.18)
Despite its criticism, TTM remains a popular model in understanding health behaviours.
Other models
The protection motivation theory (PMT) (Rogers, 1983) is a major health psychology theory
which expanded the health belief model to include additional factors. It is aimed at explain-
ing the cognitive intervention process of behavioural change in terms of threat and coping
appraisal. Basically, it is how people cope with and make decisions in times of damaging
and/or stressful events in life. The threat appraisal component is composed of the following:
Estimate of the severity of the illness (perceived severity) and the assessment of the chance
of contracting the illness (perceived vulnerability). The coping appraisal consists of expec-
tations of implementing the recommended remedy to remove the threat (response efficacy)
and belief in the ability to implement the recommended course of action effectively (self-
efficacy). There is also a model relating to illness behaviour (Leventhal, Meyer, and Nerenz,
1980; Leventhal, Nerenz and Steele, 1984) called the common-sense model of illness self-
regulation (CSM). Illness beliefs are the common-sense beliefs a person has about their
illness. This model has six core dimensions: Cause, identity, perceived control, severity of
illness, consequences, timeline and illness coherence. Leventhal, Phillips and Burns (2016)
recently reviewed research on the CSM. They described how the CSM “provides a concep-
tual framework for examining the perceptual, behavioural and cognitive processes involved
in individuals’ self-management of ongoing and future health threats” (CSM, 2018).

• The concept of health in the Western tradition is derived from an Anglo-Saxon word
meaning “whole, wholly, and healthy.”
• The World Health Organization defines health as “A state of complete physical, mental
and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.”
• From an Islamic perspective, ten centuries ago the Muslim scholar Ali ibn al-ʻAbbâs
al-Majusi, physician and psychologist, defined health as “A state of the body in which
functions are run in the normal course.”
• Health psychology, or behavioural medicine, is the application of psychological theory
and health-related practices in an understanding of people’s experiences of health and
illness.
• Matarazzo provides four broad elements that constitute health psychology: The promo-
tion and maintenance of health, the prevention and treatment of illness, identification of
aetiology and diagnostic correlates of health, illness and related dysfunction and improv-
ing the health care system and health policy.
• Ash-shifa' is one of the names of the Qur’an and Surah Al-Fātiĥah, which has the mean-
ing of “that which heals” or “the restorer of health.”
• Good health is a blessing from Allah. It should be noted that the greatest blessing after
belief is health.
• Muslims have a great responsibility and accountability in matters of personal and public
health to God.
• Islam established the rights of health 14 centuries ago.
• Health behaviour reflects a person’s health beliefs which have a significant influence on
maintaining positive and negative health behaviours.
• In describing health behaviours, it is common to distinguish between health behaviour,
illness behaviour and sick-role behaviour.
• The basis of attribution theory is how people explain the causes of behaviour and events.
• There are other attributional models such as Kelley’s covariation model.
• People have a tendency to understand events as controllable (an internal locus of control)
or uncontrollable (an external locus of control).
• The term accorded to the third force of health control is the spiritual health locus of con-
trol or God locus of health control.
• Islam encourages the belief in the Divine decree (Qadar), and human free will and the
use of both internal and external loci of control.
• Having absolute trust in Allah (Al-Tawakkul Allah) is a fundamental part of the belief
of Muslims.
• Having a dual locus of control (internal and external) for some people has been labelled
as bi-local.
• The idea of accepting trials and tribulations as part of Allah’s Divine plan for humanity
is a revered belief in Islam.
• The health belief model (HBM) is a cognition model, and one of the first psychological
models that attempts to explain and predict health behaviours by focusing on the atti-
tudes and beliefs of individuals.
• The theory of planned behaviour (TPB) links beliefs and behaviour and is based on the
premise that individuals make logical, reasoned decisions to engage in specific behav-
iours by evaluating available information.
• TTM is identical to other social cognition-based models of health behaviour change.
• TTM construes change as a process involving progress through a series of six stages:
Precontemplation, contemplation, action, maintenance, termination and relapse.
• The protection motivation theory (PMT) is a major health psychology theory which
expanded the health belief model to include additional factors.
• There is also a model relating to illness behaviour called the common-sense model of
illness self-regulation (CSM).
1. The key roles of health psychologists are

A. The promotion and maintenance of health
B. The prevention and management of illness
C. The improvement of the health care system
D. Developing intervention strategies and coping mechanisms in disease management
E. All of the above
2. The World Health Organization definition of health is
A. Health is the state of body and mind in a balanced condition.
B. Health is the reflection of being physically healthy.
C. Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being.
D. Health is a symbol of prosperity.
E. Health is an unattainable objective.
3. Which of the following is unlikely to underpin any health psychology intervention?
A. Social cognition theory
B. Health attitude theory
C. Health locus process
D. Theory of planned behaviour
E. Transtheoretical model of change
4. Who defined health psychology as “the application of psychological knowledge and
methods to the study, prevention, and management of physical diseases and disorders.”
A. Matarazzo (1982)
B. Smith (2001)
C. McKeown (1979)
D. Huber et al. (2011)
E. Jones (2020)
5. Which of the following is not a dimension of health?
A. Physical
B. Psychological
C. Nutritional
D. Social
E. Spiritual
6. Which of these is not an example of a health behaviour?
A. Taking regular exercise
B. Eating healthy food
C. Going to the gym
D. Shisha smoking
E. Sleeping 6–8 hours
7. The models of health behaviour are also known as
A. Locus models of health behaviour
B. Cognition models of health behaviour
C. Planned models of health behaviour
D. Affective models of health behaviour
E. Behavioural models of behaviour
8. Which one of these is a stage in the transtheoretical model of change?
A. Contemplation
B. Behavioural
C. Cognitive
D. Affective
E. Deactivation
9. Which of these is not an element of the health belief model?
A. Threat
B. Expectations
C. Intention
D. Socio-demographic factors
10. Which addition to the theory of planned behaviour independently predicts health
behaviour?
A. Behaviour intention
B. Subjective norm
C. Perceived behavioural control
D. Attitude
E. Expectations
11. Perceived susceptibility is
A. Belief about the potential positive aspects of a health action
B. Factors which trigger action (e.g. media)
C. Belief that one can achieve the behaviour required to execute the outcomes
D. Belief about getting a disease or condition
E. Belief about the seriousness of the condition or leaving it untreated and its
consequences
12. Which approach is adopted by attribution theories?
A. Biological perspective
B. Behavioural perspective
C. Cognitive behavioural perspective
D. Social emotional perspective
E. Social cognitive perspective
13. Wallston and Wallston (1978) described three dimensions of (multi-dimensional) health
locus of control. These are
A. Internal, external and powerful others
B. Powerful others, internal and self-efficacy
C. External, powerful others and self-efficacy
D. Internal, self-efficacy and external
E. Social others, internal and self-efficacy
14. Which of the following is not a criticism of the health belief model?
A. It underestimates the role of social influence.
B. It overestimates the role of threat.
C. It overlooks the role of disease severity.
D. It does not consider how the various elements interact to predict behaviour.
E. It fails to consider personality factors.
15. Which of the following is not a component of the theory of planned behaviour?
A. Preparation
B. Subjective norm
C. Attitude
D. Perceived behavioural control
16. Which of the following is not a stage of change identified in the transtheoretical
model?
A. Maintenance
B. Contemplation
C. Action
D. Disengagement
E. Precontemplation
17. A criticism of health psychology is that health psychology
A. Focuses too much on individuals’ level determinants of health.
B. Does not focus sufficiently on macro-level determinants of health.
C. Does not yet have the technology to change behaviours in large populations.
D. Both A and B.
E. C only.
18. Rosenstock (1966) proposed which theory?
A. Health belief model
B. Social cognitive theory
C. Health locus of control
D. Modified social learning theory
E. Attribution theory
19. Sana is a psychology undergraduate and received top marks for her essay.
She believes she achieved her result owing to her time management and working
hard. According to Rotter, what type of locus of control does she have?
A. External locus of control
B. Concrete locus of control
C. Internal locus of control
D. Abstract locus of control
E. Spiritual locus of control
20. Research studies have indicated that there is an additional external locus of control which
may be relevant to those who believe in God, Allah or other higher power or spiritual being.
A. Local locus of control
B. Spiritual locus of control
C. Internal locus of control
D. Attributional locus of control
E. External locus of control
21. Having a dual locus of control (internal and external) for some people has been labelled as
A. Tri-local
B. Bi-focal
C. Double-local
D. Bi-local
E. No-locus
22. In Islam, the belief in _________ “does not contradict the idea that a person has free will
with regard to actions in which he has free choice.”
A. Predestination
B. Outer locus of control
C. Contemplation
D. Spirituality
E. Destination
23. Which chapter and verse of the Qur’an is the following: “Indeed, Allah [alone] has
knowledge of the Hour and sends down the rain and knows what is in the wombs. And
no soul perceives what it will earn tomorrow, and no soul perceives in what land it will
die. Indeed, Allah is Knowing and Acquainted.”
A. Al-Naml 27:65
B. Al-An’aam 6:59
C. Luqman 31:34
D. At-Talaq 65:3
E. At-Tawbah 9:51
24. Which one is incorrect? TPB has been applied to include
A. Exercise intentions and behaviours
B. Depressive symptoms
C. Weight gain prevention
D. Addiction-related behaviours such as smoking and alcohol abuse
E. Clinical screening
25. The key message of the health belief model is that we must persuade people that
A. The benefits of health behaviour change outweigh the benefits of not changing.
B. They can achieve long-term behavioural change.
C. Behavioural change will result in a health gain.
D. They will be supported in any attempts at behavioural change.
E. There will be a financial incentive.
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Chapter 17
Health psychology model

An Islamic perspective
Learning outcomes
• Explain the term Islamic health psychology.
• State the commonalities and differences between health psychology and Islamic health
psychology.
• Identify the roles of the Muslim health psychologist.
• Outline the model of Islamic health psychology based on the Qur’an–Hadith paradigm.
Introduction
Health psychology examines the biopsychosocial and environmental factors of life, and how
these interact and affect physical health. Within the realm of Islamic health psychology,
another dimension is introduced to this model: The spiritual dimension, which, for Muslims,
cannot be disconnected from the physical body. Islamic health psychology is rooted in the
significant contribution that spirituality brings to humans in relation to their physical, mental
and spiritual health by adhering to the commands of Allah, the Exalted, and the teachings of
the Messenger of Allah ( ). The need for an indigenous model cannot be overemphasised,
and research on Muslim communities, which are heterogeneous, can lead to health, psycho-
social and spiritual interventions that are tailored to Muslims.
This chapter presents a model of Islamic health psychology. Developing a framework in
the understanding of health psychology from an Islamic perspective is important for both
theoretical and applied reasons. The purpose of the model of Islamic health psychology is
to provide a frame of reference for health professionals in the understanding of health from
an Islamic perspective. The assumptions of the model are based on Islamic health theory
which is congruent with the current model of Islamic health psychology. It also assumed
that humans have the potential, capacity and skills to make valid decisions on their own
health based on the Qur’an–Hadith paradigm. In the context of this chapter and the book as
a whole, a definition of health psychology from an Islamic perspective is proposed. Islamic
health psychology is defined as evidence-based contemporary interdisciplinary psychology
blended with Islamic beliefs, knowledge and practices that promote and maintain health. This
definition does not conflict with the general principles of the health psychology approach,
although its focus is based on the holistic approach derived from the guidance of the Qur’an
and Hadith.
Table 17.1 Differences between health psychology and Islamic health psychology
Perspectives Health psychology Islamic health psychology
Orientation to health Biology, psychology, behaviour and Bio-psychosocial + spiritual

social factors factors
Religious relationship Oppositional, secular Integrated
What causes illness? Bio-psychosocial factors Bio-psychosocial +
spiritual factors
Values Individualistic Collectivistic
Focus Physical health Physical and spiritual health
Responses to illness Illness behaviours derived from Illness behaviours derived from
cultural and psychological cultural, psychological and
infuences spiritual infuences
Relationship between Mind–body interaction Mind–body–soul interaction
mind and body
Role Help people change the behaviours Help people change the
for the maintenance of physical behaviours for the
health maintenance of physical health
Treatment Reliance on psychosocial Reliance on
interventions psychosocial interventions and
spiritual interventions
Health psychology and Islamic health psychology

There are significant differences between health psychology and health psychology from an
Islamic perspective (Islamic health psychology) based on the following criteria: Orientation,
religious relationship, causes of illness, values, focus, responses to illness, the mind/body
relationship, role and treatment. Table 17.1 presents the differences between health psychol-
ogy and Islamic health psychology.
This is meant to clarify the distinct orientation, conceptual focus, values, religious rela-
tionship, the mind/body relationship, causes of illness, response to illness, treatment and
spiritual considerations that may be the realities of Islamic health psychologists. There are
many commonalities between health psychology and Islamic health psychology. The main
differences are related to orientation to health, as the spiritual dimension is not included in
health psychology. In terms of religious relationship, health psychology is more secular in
approach. The causation of illness and the relationship between mind and body are also dif-
ferent between the two approaches. Throughout the 20th century, there were challenges to
some of the underlying assumptions of contemporary secular psychology. The main criticism
levelled is that psychology “disregards the reality of human being; specifically the soul, ren-
dering man as nothing more than his physical body, emotion, thought and behaviour” (Utz,
2011, p.29). Muslims tend to have different perception of health and illness behaviours. It
has been suggested that
Muslims’ health beliefs include the combination of religious and cultural beliefs to
explain what causes illness, how it can be cured or treated (medical or religious therapies),
and who should be involved in the process. A Muslim patient whose health belief is that
his illness is a punishment from God for his past sins may not believe that biomedical
Health psychology model 395
care will help him. He may believe that he will only get better when he atones for his sins
through prayers and doing good deeds, like giving to charity.
(Rassool, 2020 p.70)
The main difference is that the fundamental principles of the Islamic model are rooted in the
Qur’an and Hadith.
Role of Islam in health psychology

Health and wellness are highly regarded in Islam, as the religion systematically provides
guidance for an individual’s entire sphere of life. Helping others is very much nurtured in
Islam. Allah says in the Qur’an (interpretation of the meaning):
• Whoever does righteousness, whether male or female, while he is a believer – We will

surely cause him to live a good life, and We will surely give them their reward [in the
Hereafter] according to the best of what they used to do. (An-Nahl 16:97)
In a Hadith narrated by Ibn ‘Umar (may Allah be pleased with him), the Prophet ( ) said:
A Muslim is a brother of another Muslim. So, he should not oppress him nor should he
hand him over to his Shaytan [devil] or to his self which is inclined to evil. Whoever ful-
fills the needs of his brother, Allah will fulfill his needs; whoever removes the troubles of
his brother, Allah will remove one of his troubles on the Day of Resurrection; and whoever
covers up the fault of a Muslim, Allah will cover up his fault on the Day of Resurrection.
(Bukhari and Muslim (d))
From an Islamic perspective, there are diseases of the heart, spiritual and psychological,
which may lead to physical disease. Allah has enjoined the believers to treat these diseases,
by enjoining that which is good and forbidding that which is evil. Allah says (interpretation
of the meaning):
is right and forbidding what is wrong, and those will be the successful. (Ali-‘Imran 3:104)
The health psychologist has a great role to play in influencing an individual’s or group’s behav-
iour and attitude toward changing their unhealthy life-styles and behaviours. In working with
Muslim patients, a Muslim health psychologist may incorporate the spiritual elements in their
intervention strategies rather than using just secular therapies in the context of the Muslim
patient’s worldview. The role of the Muslim health psychologist is presented in Table 17.2.
Model of Islamic health psychology based on the Qur’an–

Hadith paradigm
This model of Islamic health psychology is based on the first layer of an existing framework
developed for health promotion from an Islamic perspective (Maulana, 2002). The “Islamic
health theory” explains the underlying principles of Islamic notions of health through an
elaboration of three major Islamic concepts: “Five pillars of Islam,” “element of Iman – faith”
Table 17.2 Role of the Muslim health psychologist
• To conduct behavioural assessments, clinical interviews and personality tests.

• The clinical assessment should be holistic, including physical, psychological, social and spiritual
dimensions.
• Assessment of a patient or group of patients with health risk behaviours.
• Examine the perception of health and illness behaviours of Muslims. The worldview of the
patient needs to be considered in view of the heterogeneity of Muslim communities.
• Identifcation of psychological aspects of health and illness behaviours in Muslim patients.
• Facilitate interpersonal communications between health care practitioners and patients.
• Promotion of self-care and self-management in chronic illness.
• Develop intervention strategies in modifying health beliefs and positive coping mechanism in
disease management.
• Take into account the religious injunctions regarding the use of medications and treatment
choices.
• Interventions to reduce disability and improve the quality of life (tertiary prevention and
rehabilitation).
• Psychological and spiritual interventions in the maintenance of healthy behaviours and in the
therapeutic interventions of disease.
• Assist patients through chronic disease care, such as diabetes or cardiovascular disease, and
encourage a healthy life-style according to the beliefs and practices of Islam.
• The Muslim health psychologist would develop and implement specialised patient care
programmes during the period of fasting in Ramadan for diabetes patients.
• Provides health education and health promotion specifc for Muslim populations.
• Identify institutional, social and psychological factors in the contributions to illness behaviours
amongst Muslim patients.
• Research in development and prevention of ill-health and recovery factors in Muslim
communities.
and “Islamic jurisprudence.” The current model of Islamic health psychology is constructed
from the concepts derived from the foundation of the Islamic health theory. The model is
based on the firm foundation of the Qur’an and Hadith. The linear aspect of the model sug-
gests movement from one level to another. Figure 17.1 depicts the model of Islamic health
psychology based on the Qur’an–Hadith paradigm.
Every discussion of health or health psychology in Islam must, of necessity, proceed from
the teachings of the Qur’an and Hadith, as they are the sine qua non of Islamic guidance
and provide the ultimate insights into the world and human nature. Health behaviours and
actions of Muslims are governed by the tenets of Islam, which are outlined in the Qur’an
and the Hadith. The Qur’an is not a book of medicine or health but a guidance to mankind
on all aspects of life and behaviours. Prophet Mohammed ( ) has been sent as an example
to mankind so his traditions in matters of health and personal hygiene are also a guide for
his followers. In terms of nutrition, prohibited are dead animals, blood, the flesh of swine
(Al-Ma’idah 5:3; Al-An’am 6:145); intoxicants (Al-Ma’idah 5.91); and wine (Al-Baqarah
2:219). Allah says in the Qur’an (interpretation of the meaning):
• O mankind eat from whatever is on earth [that is] lawful and good. (Al-Baqarah 2:168)
• Say, “I do not find within that which was revealed to me [anything] forbidden to one who
would eat it unless it be a dead animal or blood spilled out or the flesh of swine – for
indeed, it is impure – or it be [that slaughtered in] disobedience, dedicated to other than
Allah.” (Al-An’am 6:145)
Qur’an and Hadith
Islamic Jurisprudence
Pillars of Islam Elements of Faith
Fear of Allah / Divine Decree Belief

Hope (Qadar) (Aqeedah) Trust in Allah
Predisposing Factors Reinforcing / Enabling

Factors
Behavioural
Intervention
Action Health Action Illness

Behaviour Behaviour
Figure 17.1 Model of Islamic health psychology based on the Qur’an and Hadith paradigm.
An explanation is given that
Blood is the reason why it is forbidden to eat meat that has not been slaughtered accord-
ing to Shari’ah. Our Shari’ah intends that the slaughtered animal should be drained of
blood as completely as possible, and that is because of the extreme harm that would
result from eating its blood.
(Islam Q&A, 2001)
Imam Al-Shatibi (2012) stated that “the whole Muslim community, and indeed all other
faiths, agree that the divine law has been set in order to protect the five essential needs: faith,
life, progeny, property and mind” (p.48). Thus, the continuation of the human race cannot be
accomplished if life, progeny and mind cannot be properly safeguarded without the preserva-
tion and maintenance of health behaviours. It is argued that
It is no wonder, then, that we find in God’s book, the Qur’an, and in the Prophet’s
Sunnah many a statement intended to help human being protect and promote his health,
preserve the natural moulding and fair form God has given him, and maintain the health
balance God has placed in him.
(Al-Izz ibn Abd Al-Salam)
For living according to the Divine Law, human beings are guided to surrender to the Lord.
Every action or activity in a Muslim’s life should be devoted to Allah and an expression of
loyalty to God Alone. Allah says in the Qur’an (interpretation of the meaning):
• …let him do righteous work and not associate in the worship of his Lord anyone.
(Al-Kahf 18:110)
Man should be committed to God Alone, but not to any other authority or partner. This is
related to the concept of Tawhid. On a basic level, Tawhid, in Arabic, means “attributing
Oneness to Allah and describing Him as being One and Unique, with no partner or peer in
His Essence and Attributes which is an element of faith and the correct belief in Allah” (Islam
Q&A, 2010). That is, monotheism in the uniqueness of God. With regard to the Shari’ah
definition of Tawhid, it means “believing in Allah Alone as God and Lord and attributing to
Him Alone All the attributes of Lordship and divinity” (Islam Q&A, 2010).
The Qur’an and Hadith, the prime source of Islamic teachings, promote and decree the
doctrine of enjoining what is right and prohibiting what is wrong (amr bil Al-ma’ruf wa
nahy’ an munkar). This principle explains the need and responsibility of Muslims to guide
one another in abstaining what is forbidden (haram) and promoting what is right (halal). The
Qur’an contains verses, which are both explicit and implicit in their directives towards peo-
ple’s behaviours. Allah states in the Qur’an (interpretation of the meaning):
Hadith, which is Arabic for “narrative” or “report,” is a record of Islamic tradition: It is a record
of the words and deeds of the Prophet Muhammad ( ), his family and his Companions. It
is the second most important text in Islam next to the Qur’an. Although not regarded as the
spoken Word of God like the Qur’an, the Hadith is an important source of doctrine, law
and practice. This is an extensive collection of Hadith as organised by Muhammad Ismâ'îl
Al-Bukhârî and Imam Muslim as the most respected of the Hadith collectors and editors.
According to Maulana (2002), under the umbrella of the Qur’an and Hadith emerged
three central clusters: Islam or the five pillars of Islam, Iman, the elements of faith and the
Sharīʿah (Islamic jurisprudence). These three main elements are the cornerstone that gov-
erns the health behaviours and life-styles of Muslims. The third central element in Islamic
jurisprudence is the Sharīʿah (literally, “the path leading to the watering place”) which binds
together the two preceding concepts, the five pillars and the elements of Iman. The Sharīʿah
is seen as the expression of God’s Divine command and constitutes a system of deeds and
actions that are incumbent upon all Muslims. The Sharīʿah governs ritual practices (prayers,
almsgiving, fasting and pilgrimage), ethical and moral standards and legal rules. The Islamic
jurisprudence governs all behaviours, including health behaviours, and set the ground for
the predisposing, enabling and reinforcing factors through its explicit rules. The next layer
(third layer) of the model focuses on predisposing factors. The subsequent layers in the
model are: “Absolute Trust in Allah” (Al Tawakkul Allah); consciousness of God (Taqwa),
“Hope and Fear”; “Divine decree” (Qadar), “Belief system” (Aqeedah) and “Knowledge of
Islam.”
Absolute trust in Allah (Al-Tawakkul Allah)

Tawakkul is a fundamental part of the belief of Muslims and is the Islamic concept of reliance
or dependence on God or “trusting in God’s plan.” To clarify the concept Tawakkul, the fol-
lowing verses of the Qur’an explicitly enjoin Muslims to have reliance on and trust in Allah.
• …Then when thou hast taken a decision put they trust in Allah. For Allah loves those
who put their trust (in Him). (Ali Imran 3:159)
There are other verses in the Qur’an that invite the believers to put their trust in Allah
(At-Talaq 65:3; Ali Imran 3:160; At-Tawba 9:51; and Ash-Shu’arâ 26:217). In an authentic
Hadith, Ibn Abbas (may Allah be pleased with him) reported that the Messenger of Allah
( ) used to supplicate:
O Allah! To You I have submitted, and in You do I believe, and in You I put my trust,
to You do I turn, and for You I argued. O Allah, I seek refuge with You through Your
Power; there is none worthy of worship except You Alone; that You safeguard me
against going astray. You are the Ever Living, the One Who sustains and protects All
that exists; the One Who never dies, whereas human beings and jinn will All die.
(Bukhari and Muslim (a))
According to Islam21c (2012), there are four levels of Tawakkul: The first level is to know
Allah by His qualities and attributes. The second level is to believe that every matter has
a cause or a means. The third level is to remain firm in relying on Allah Alone (Ali Imran
3:160). The fourth level is to depend on Allah wholeheartedly and feel tranquillity when
doing so, to the extent that one does not feel anxious or confused about their provision.
The following Hadith provides a good example on having both our trust and reliance
in Allah, and making effort to live in this world. Anas ibn Malik reported: A man said,
“O Messenger of Allah, should I tie my camel and trust in Allah, or should I leave her
untied and trust in Allah?” The Messenger of Allah ( ) said, “Tie her and trust in Allah”
(Tirmidhī (d)).
God consciousness: Taqwa

This is another concept in the layer that has a significant influence on behaviour and health
behaviour. Imam Ibn Juzayy Al-Kalbi (2010) stated that: “Taqwa’s meaning is fear, clinging
to obedience to Allah and abandoning disobedience to Him. It is the sum of all good.” It also
means “that one must fear or protect himself from Allah’s anger and punishment” (Zarabozo,
2008, p.574) However, Abū Al-a‘lā Mubārakpurī (1990) calls it “the foundation of the reli-
gion” (p.122). It is stated that to have complete Taqwa or protection from Allah’s anger and
punishment, one must perform all of the obligatory deeds that he is capable of and remain
away from all the forbidden acts and doubtful matters (Zarabozo, 2008, p.578). The God-
fearing (Muttaqeen) are the people who possess Taqwa, and their characters are described in
• It is not righteousness that ye turn your faces Towards east or West; but it is righteous-
ness – to believe in Allah and the Last Day, and the Angels, and the Book, and the
Messengers; to spend of your substance, out of love for Him, for your kin, for orphans,
for the needy, for the wayfarer, for those who ask, and for the ransom of slaves; to be
steadfast in prayer, and practice regular charity; to fulfil the contracts which ye have
made; and to be firm and patient, in pain (or suffering) and adversity, and throughout All
periods of panic. Such are the people of truth and they are the Muttaqeen. (Al-Baqarah
2:177)
The importance of Taqwa cannot be over-emphasised, and there are 18 statements in the
Qur’an regarding the importance, blessings and benefits from Taqwa. These benefits include
guidance; help and support; loyalty, protection and support; love; signs of right and wrong;
good and bad; beneficial and harmful solutions; makes things easier; forgiveness; provision
from other sources; accepting deeds; success and glad tidings; entering paradise; spared hell-
fire; seated in the seat of sincerity, remaining above the rest of creation; and no fear of punish-
ment and grief (see Zarabozo, 2008, pp.581–584).
Hope and fear

It is important at this stage to examine briefly hope and fear in the Islamic context. According
to Imam Abu Ja’far Al-Warraq Al-Tahawi Al-Misri,
both certainty and despair both lead to exiting the folds of Islam, but the path of truth for
the people of the Qiblah (Believers) lies between the two (for example, a person must
fear and be conscious of Allah’s reckoning as well as be hopeful of Allah’s mercy.
(p.13)
Ali ibn Abi Al-Izz al-Adhru’i in his commentary stated
that a believer should remain between fear and hope. For, the right and the approved kind
of fear is that which acts as a barrier between the believer and the things forbidden by
Allah. But if the fear is excessive, then the possibility is that the man will fall into despair
and pessimism. On the other hand the approved state of optimism is of a man who does
good in the light of the Shari’ah (Islamic law) and is hopeful of being rewarded for it. In
contrast, if a man indulges in sins and excesses, but is hopeful that he would be forgiven
without doing anything good, then, this is self, more illusion than hope-deception.
Hope and fear for the person are like the two wings of a bird, and both wings must be sound
for the bird to fly. If one of them is defective, then the bird will fall. So a person must be
similarly balanced between having hope and having fear. Allah in the following verse in the
Qur’an praises the people of hope and fear:
• Is one who is devoutly obedient during periods of the night, prostrating and standing
(in prayer), fearing the Hereafter and hoping for the mercy of his Lord, (like one who
does not)? Say, “Are those who know equal to those who do not know?” Only they will
remember (who are) people of understanding. (Az-Zumar 39:9)
Divine decree (Qadar)

Belief in Qadar (Divine decree) is the sixth Islamic article of faith that Allah has decreed
everything that happens in the universe. In relation to the control of health behaviour and
maintenance, in the previous chapter, we examine how this predestination is related to locus
of control, in particular, the spiritual health locus of control. Allah has decreed our destiny,
our health and provision. However, this knowledge does not interfere with man’s choice as we
make decisions based on choices. It is the choice of the individual which determines what hap-
pens to him. That is, there is no conflict between Allah’s will and man’s choice. It is Allah’s
will that gives us the choice, and it is up to us to exercise this freedom of choice in a halal way.
Beliefs (Aqeedah) and knowledge

Aqeedah, according to Shaykh Ibn Al-Uthaymeen, refers to “those matters which are believed
in, with certainty and conviction, in one’s heart and soul. They are not tainted with any doubt
or uncertainty.” The principles of ‘Aqeedah are those which Allah has commanded us to
believe in, as mentioned in the following verse (interpretation of the meaning):
• The Messenger has believed in what was revealed to him from his Lord, and [so have]
the believers. All of them have believed in Allah and His angels and His books and His
messengers, [saying], “We make no distinction between any of His messengers.” And
they say, “We hear, and we obey. [We seek] Your forgiveness, our Lord, and to You is
the [final] destination.” (Al-Baqarah 2:285)
In Islam, the concept of Aqeedah is the matter of knowledge. The Muslim must believe in
his heart and have faith and conviction, with no doubts or misgivings, because Allah has told
him about ‘Aqeedah in His Book and via His Revelations to His Messenger ( ). This is
defined by the Prophet ( ) in the famous Hadith about Imaan (faith) etc.: “That you believe
in Allah, His angels, His Books, His Messengers, The final day and you believe in the divine
decree, the good and the evil thereof” (Bukhari and Muslim (b)). Belief comes first before
having knowledge of the religion. It is stated that this is
the manner in which the Prophet brought up his companions: Imaan first and then the
Qur’an. This is similar to what Imam Abu Hanifa pointed out: Understanding in the reli-
gion first (i.e. Tawhid) and then understanding in the science (for example, the Shar’iah).
(Jundub Ibn Abdullah Al-Bajaly)
So, in Islam, “Aqeedah refers to the matters which are derived from the sources of the Qur’an
and sound Hadith, and which the Muslim must firmly believe in his heart, in acknowledge-
ment of the truth of Allah and His Messenger ( )” (Shaykh Ibn Al-Uthaymeen).
According Imam Ghazālī (1982) “acquisition of knowledge and its teaching are excellent
actions in order to seek good of this world and good of the next and it is most laudable with
the above subject” (p.27). The text of the Qur’an abounds with verses challenging mankind to
be knowledgeable and to seek out knowledge. Because of the importance of knowledge, Allah
commanded His Messenger ( ) to seek more of it. Allah says (interpretation of the meaning):
• …and say: “My Lord! Increase me in knowledge.” (Ta-Ha 20:114)

• but none will understand them except those of knowledge. (Al-Ànkabūt 29:43)
The following Hadiths of Prophet Muhammad ( ) provide the purpose and benefits of
knowledge. Abu Hurairah (may Allah be pleased with him) reported: The Messenger of
Allah ( ) said, “Allah makes the way to Jannah [heaven] easy for him who treads the path
in search of knowledge” (Muslim (b)). He ( ) also said:
He who treads the path in search of knowledge, Allah makes that path easy, leading to
Jannah for him; the people who assemble in one of the houses of Allah, reciting the
Book of Allah, learning it and teaching, there descends upon them the tranquility, and
mercy covers them, the angels flock around them, and Allah mentions them in the pres-
ence of those near Him; and he who lags behind in doing good deeds, his noble lineage
will not make him go ahead.
(Muslim (c))
It is stated that
the best of all branches of knowledge are the sciences of Shari’ah through which man
comes to know his Lord, and his Prophet and religion. This is the knowledge with
which Allah honoured His Messenger; He taught it to him so that he might teach it
to mankind.
(Islam Q&A, 2001)
Our responsibility is to acquire authentic knowledge of Islam and secondly to practice and
preach this knowledge. However, having knowledge about the principles and practice of
the Islamic faith would enable those individuals to cope with illness and the maintenance
of health. Taking risky health behaviours is to engage in behaviours that have the potential
to be harmful or dangerous. There are many directives and commands that provide us with
information to avoid or not come near risky behaviours. Rodham (2010) suggested that “the
health beliefs we hold depend upon the level of knowledge we have, which in turn can impact
upon our ability to recognise or even interpret correctly the symptoms we are experiencing”
(p.28). There is evidence to suggest that the way in which symptoms are interpreted reflects
patients’ beliefs and therefore impacts their help-seeking behaviour and delay in reaching
hospital (Horne et al., 2000). Our health beliefs can be used to validate the engagement of
positive or negative health behaviours. In Muslim communities, where people retain a sense
of the sacred, the influence of religion on shaping individual health and illness behaviours is
often quite considerable. Muslims believe that cure comes solely from Allah, even if this is
practically in the form of a health professional. Cure is ultimately achieved through prayers
and the powers of Allah. Having knowledge of Islam is part of the faith.
Predisposing and enabling factors

There are many factors that have the potential to influence health and illness behaviours.
The use of factors such as predisposing, reinforcing and enabling factors from Green’s
PRECEDE-PROCEED (Green and Kreuter, 1999) model of community health promotion,
planning and evaluation has been incorporated within the model of Islamic health psychol-
ogy. In the context of this model, the term predisposing factors refers broadly to everything
that might predispose a person to behave in a particular way towards the maintenance of
health or illness behaviours. The reinforcing/enabling factors are factors in the social envi-
ronment structure, the role of the Imam and key stakeholders within the Muslim community
that facilitate the endorsement of health behaviour and maintenance. The predisposing fac-
tors of importance operate primarily in the spiritual, metaphysical, physical and psychologi-
cal realms. The predisposing factors include genetics, environmental, knowledge, beliefs,
values, attitudes and socio-demographic factors. Only a selected few of the predisposing
factors will be discussed here. Some of the predisposing factors are not amenable to change.
However, these factors require that individuals be considered in the context of their spiritual
dimension, Islamic principles and practices and not in isolation, when trying to understand
the Muslim patient.
Values and attitudes

Values are the moral and ethical propositions people use to rationalise their actions, the ideas
and beliefs we hold as special about what is good, right and appropriate. Values, like person-
ality, have enduring characteristics and remain constant over time. It is through the teaching
and role models of our parents, teachers, religious leaders and other significant people that we
learn our values. It is through our values that we consider various decision about our health-
related behaviours. Ethical behaviours are part of the value system of Islam as it teaches us
a code of behaviour, safeguarding of social values and gives us a meaning for our existence.
The notion of Fitrah is relevant here. This innate instinct termed Fitrah is defined as
the pristine nature within humans that leads them to acknowledge the truth of Allah’s
existence and to follow His guidance. It is an inborn tendency to affirm a transcendent
being that created us, the world around us, and All that is in it. This gift from Allah is
engraved upon our souls, so that even those who turn away from His guidance continue
to possess these innate characteristics.
(Utz, 2011, p.47)
In addition, it is stated that “Fitrah relates to the individual’s innate reality and also has a
bearing on one’s beliefs, values and attitudes to life, worldview, and interaction with the sur-
rounding environment” (Mohamed, 1995, p.2). Within the Islamic context, beliefs, attitudes
and values are a component in the conceptual framework of Fitrah.
Behavioural intention
Behavioural intention is a central component of the Islamic model of health psychology. It is
a concept that is fundamental to the Theory of Planned Behavior. This has been discussed in
previous chapter on the theories and models of health beliefs. In summary, the main focus of
this theory is that behavioural intention is an antecedent to the actual behaviour.
From an Islamic perspective, the concept of intention (Niyah) is an important and essential
component influencing deeds and actions. The base of every action of a human being lies
on his intention. Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawziyyah (b) defined intention
as the knowledge of a doer of what he is doing and what he is doing and what is the
purpose behind (this action). He stated that the intelligent, voluntary actor does not
do anything without first conceiving it and wanting it. This is the reality of intention.
Intention is not something external to the conceptualization of the person and his purpose
to do it.
(p.104)
Al-Suyooti stated that “Intention describes the driving force in the heart towards when the
person seems to be in conformity with what he wants, of either bringing about good or putting
off harm, both present and future” (p.104).
From a Fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence) standpoint, intention (Niyah) refers to “the intent in the
heart that must accompany and precede any act of worship” (Zarabozo, 2008, p.104). The
following Hadith is indeed one of the greatest and most comprehensive Hadith of the Prophet
( ) as it sets one of the most important principles in the religion of Islam, specifically as it
touches upon almost every deed in Islam. It is narrated on the authority Amirul Mu’minin,
Abu Hafs 'Umar bin al-Khattab who said: I heard the Messenger of Allah ( ) say:
Actions are (judged) by motives (Niyah), so each man will have what he intended. Thus,
he whose migration (Hijrah) was to Allah and His Messenger, his migration is to Allah
and His Messenger; but he whose migration was for some worldly thing he might gain,
or for a wife he might marry, his migration is to that for which he migrated.
(Bukhari and Muslim (c))
Imam Al-Shafi’i stated that this Hadith encompasses half of knowledge, meaning that the
religion concerns both what is external and what is internal. The deeds are the external aspect,
and the intention behind them is the internal aspect (p.91). The meaning of intention (Niyah)
and its derivate are also found in the Qur’an. These words are volition (Al-iraada), purpose
(Al-qasd) and determination (Al-azm). These words all entail “the want to do or not to do
something specific and indicate both knowledge and action” (Zaraboso, 2008). This has been
examined in Chapter 11. It is repeated here for emphasis and reinforcement. Zaraboso (2008)
explained this as follows:
First there must be knowledge of the act that one wants to fulfil. Then the action must
follow, as long as there are no preventative factors. In fact, no action will be completed
unless it has three components: knowledge of the act, want to do the act and ability to
do the act.
(pp.106–107)
In relation to the Islamic health psychology model, knowledge is usually a pre-requisite but
not always a sufficient cause of individual behavioural change. The statement “want to do
the act” is related volition or motivation, and “ability to do the act” means the skills required.
Certain skills are necessary for successfully performing the behaviour and the completion of
a specific health behaviour. This above Hadith that all deeds are based on intention is not only
applicable in the religious realm of Islam but also in mundane living for Muslims.
Conclusion
The Islamic health psychology model outlines a possible synthesis of the three major Islamic
concepts, the predisposing and enabling factors leading to behavioural intention in the
maintenance of health and illness behaviours. The five pillars, elements of faith and Islamic
jurisprudence with the sub-layers of trust in Allah, Divine decree, Aqeedah, fear of Allah and
hope and fear, provide the foundations of Muslims practices which contribute to the various
determinants of health behaviours. The predisposing and enabling factors act as triggers in
influencing a given health-related behaviour, either by promoting the behaviour to happen or
by inhibiting it from occurring. This is followed by behavioural intention which drives the
health outcomes. This is an attempt to develop a model for addressing Islamic health psy-
chology within the wider context of human behaviours and health. However, further critical
examinations are needed to demonstrate the effectiveness of this model, to specify the most
effective and efficient methods and applications of the model and to delineate which compo-
nents of the model are essential and which are more peripheral to its effectiveness.

• Developing a framework in the understanding of health psychology from an Islamic
perspective is important for both theoretical and applied reasons.
• Islamic health psychology is about health behaviour and improved quality of life that
result in wholeness and soundness of body and soul by adhering to the commands of
Allah, the Exalted, and the teachings of the Messenger of Allah ( ).
• The “Islamic health theory” explains the underlying principles of Islamic notions of
health through an elaboration of three major Islamic concepts: “Five pillars of Islam,”
‘element of Iman – faith” and “Islamic jurisprudence.”
• This concept of Islamic jurisprudence is the one that binds together the two preceding
concepts, the five pillars and the elements of Iman.
• Tawakkul is a fundamental part of the Islamic belief system.
• Taqwa is another concept in the layer that has a significant influence on behaviour and
health behaviour.
• A believer should remain between fear and hope.
• The predisposing factors of importance for health psychology from an Islamic per-
spective operate primarily in the spiritual, metaphysical, physical and psychological
realms.
• The concept of intention (Niyah), in Islam, is an important and essential component
influencing deeds and actions.
• Behavioural intention is a central component of the Islamic model of health psychology.
1. What are the pillars of Islam?

A. Belief (Shahadah), prayers (Salah), obligatory charity (Zakah), fasting (Sawm),
pilgrimage (Hajj)
B. Belief (Shahadah), prayers (Salah), fasting (Sawm), pilgrimage (Hajj)
C. Obligatory charity (Zakah), fasting (Sawm), pilgrimage (Hajj)
D. Belief (Shahadah), prayers (Salah), obligatory charity (Zakah), pilgrimage (Hajj)
2. The word 'Aqeedah, in Islamic terminology, means a set of firm beliefs that a person has,
about which he does not entertain any doubts.
A. True
B. False
3. Islamic 'Aqeedah is only important in the life of the Muslim when performing acts of
worship (e.g. prayers, pilgrimage, alms-giving, fasting, etc.).
A. True
B. False
4. In Islamic health psychology, the orientation to health includes
A. Biological
B. Spiritual
C. Social
D. A and C
E. A, B and C
5. Islamic health psychology takes into consideration
A. Mind
B. Body
C. Soul
D. All of the above
6. The role of Islam in health psychology includes
A. Conducting behavioural assessments, clinical interviews and personality tests
B. Identification of psychological aspects of illness behaviours
C. Predicting unhealthy behaviours
D. Enabling the adoption of healthy behaviours
E. All of the above
7. The “Islamic health theory” explains the underlying principles of Islamic notions of
health through an elaboration of major Islamic concepts:
A. Five pillars of Islam
B. Element of Iman – faith
C. Islamic jurisprudence
D. A, B and C
E. A and C only
8. Which one is incorrect? The concept of Tawhid is
A. Attributing Oneness to Allah
B. Describing Him as being One and Unique
C. With partner or peer in His Essence and Attributes
D. An element of faith
E. The correct belief in Allah
9. Which one is incorrect? Tawakkul is a fundamental part of the belief of Muslims
A. Reliance on self
B. Trust in Allah
C. Trusting in God’s plan
D. The verses of the Qur’an that invite the believers to put their trust in Allah (At-Talaq
65:3; Ali Imran 3:160; At-Tawba 9:51; and Ash-Shu’arâ 26:217)
E. Reliance on Allah
10. Which one is not correct? According to Islam21c (2012), the levels of Tawakkul are
A. To know Allah by His qualities and attributes
B. To believe that not every matter has a cause or a means
C. To believe that every matter has a cause or a means
D. To remain firm in relying on Allah Alone
E. To depend on Allah wholeheartedly and feel tranquillity when doing so
11. “That a believer should remain between fear and hope. For, the right and the approved
kind of fear is that which acts as a barrier between the believer and the things forbidden
by Allah.” Who made this statement?
A. Abu Ja’far Al-Warraq Al-Tahawi Al-Misri
B. Abū Al-a‘lā Mubārakpurī
C. Ali ibn Abi Al-Izz al-Adhru’i
D. Imam Ibn Juzayy Al-Kalbi
12. Which one is incorrect? The principles of ‘Aqeedah are those which Allah has com-
manded us to believe in, as mentioned in Al-Baqarah 2:285. Belief in
A. Allah
B. His angels
C. One book
D. His messengers
E. Day of judgement
13. “Acquisition of knowledge and its teaching are excellent actions in order to seek good
of this world and good of the next and it is most laudable with the above subject.” Who
made this statement?
A. Abu Ja’far Al-Warraq Al-Tahawi Al-Misri
B. Abū Al-a‘lā Mubārakpurī
C. Ali ibn Abi Al-Izz al-Adhru’i
D. Imam Ghazālī
E. Imam Ibn Juzayy Al-Kalbi
14. The concept of intention (Niyah), in Islam, is an important and essential component
influencing deeds and actions. It means
A. The knowledge of a doer of what he is doing
B. The purpose behind (this action)
C. The driving force in the heart towards when the person seems to be in conformity
with what he wants
D. A, B and C
E. A and C only
15. Actions are (judged) by motives (Niyah), so each man will have what he intended. This
is from
A. Bukhari and Muslim
B. Muslim
C. Ibn Majah
D. Tirmidhi
E. Ahmad
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Chapter 18
Health promotion
An effective tool for global health
Learning outcomes
• Identify the major approaches to public health practice implemented between ancient
times and the contemporary era.
• Define health promotion.
• Discuss the relationship between Islam and preservation of health.
• Describe the types of prevention strategies.
• Describe the approaches to health promotion/health education.
• Identify the strategies used in social marketing/health promotion.
• Identify the principles of Islamic law in relation to the preservation and maintenance of
health.
• Discuss the individual rights and responsibilities towards health.
Introduction
Health promotion is more relevant today than ever in addressing public health problems
with the newly emerging rise of communicable infections such as the COVID-19 pandemic.
Throughout history, ancient civilisations have practiced folk medicine including personal
hygiene, sanitation, nutrition, hydrotherapy, massage, water supply, inoculating people
against smallpox and methods of avoiding the plague. Early references for physicians’ role in
preserving good health are found in the Code of Hammurabi. It is reported that the
Code of Hammurabi is a set of principles and rules of conduct for physicians and others
who serve the people, composed during the reign of the Persian emperor Hammurabi
(c.1800–1900 BCE). This code emphasised the physician’s duty to preserve good health.
It included rewards for success in this endeavour and drastic punishments, such as ampu-
tation of a hand for failure to prevent or cure disease of an important person.
(Last, 2007)
It has been observed that among the 282 laws in Hammurabi’s Code, 9 pertain to medical
practice and have echoes in modern health policy in the United States (Reinhardt, 2013). The
Law of Moses promoted the weekly day of rest for health, as well as for religious reasons,
and recognised that eating pork could result in illness (Moore and Williamson, 1984). The
ancient Greeks also developed a school of thought that the maintenance of good health and
combatting illness depend on the physical and social environments and not on human behav-
iour (Tountas, 2009). The Romans emphasised that an individual had the greatest influence
Health promotion 411
on health and not the state. The Romans focused on “community health measures, including
the transportation of clean water, paved streets, street cleaning, and sanitary waste disposal.
Public baths were provided to support community health” (Raingruber, 2017, p.25). In medi-
eval times, Islamic thinkers elaborated the theories of the ancient Greeks and made extensive
medical discoveries and developed therapeutic interventions.
While the latter part of the 20th century is typically considered as being most critical in
shaping the nature of health promotion practice (Tountas, 2009), it has been suggested that
Six major approaches to public health practice implemented between ancient times and
the contemporary era, defined more by important milestones than by convention. These
approaches are:
• Public health as health protection, mediated though societies’ social structures;
• The shaping of a distinct public health discipline by the sanitary movement (“miasma
control”);
• Public health as contagion control;
• Public health as preventive medicine;
• Public health as primary health care; and
• The “new public health”-health promotion. (Awofeso, 2004, p.705)
Islam and public health

During the medieval period, Islamic polymath scholars wrote extensively on diseases, psy-
chiatric disorders, pharmacology, diagnoses and therapeutic interventions. The preserva-
tion of good health, a euphemism for health promotion, was promoted by many Islamic
polymaths during the Golden Age of Islam. One of the most important medieval physicians
and clinicians in the Islamic world, Abu Bakr Muhammad ibn Zakariya' Al-Razi, known to
Europeans as Rhazes, was the first to distinguish measles from smallpox. His fame started
with the establishment of a hospital in Baghdad, and he became its chief executive. Al-Razi
is said to have chosen the location of the hospital by hanging pieces of meat in various quar-
ters of the city and finding the quarter in which the putrefaction of the meat was the slowest,
thus, making him the first physician to infer indirectly the bacteriologic putrefaction of meat,
and suggesting the environmental role that contaminated air plays in the spread of infection,
predating by centuries the modern concept of airborne infection (Nagamia, 1998). Ibn Sina,
often known in the West as Avicenna, is regarded as one of the most significant physicians
of the Islamic Golden Age and the father of early modern medicine. Ibn Sina’s magnum opus
is the Kitab al-Qanun fi al-tibb or Canon of Medicine. The Canon was known to Europeans
through the Latin translations of Gerard of Cremona and Andrea Alpago and remained in use
in medical schools at Louvain and Montpellier until the 17th century.
Public health programmes have always been in the forefront of the Islamic health system.
For example, infection controls include both isolation and quarantine. More than 1,440 years
ago, Prophet Muhammad ( ) was teaching his followers hygiene practices that are still appli-
cable in the 21st century. Prophet Muhammad ( ) instituted strategies that are today imple-
mented by public health authorities on a global scale. For example, he instructed his followers
not to travel to places known to be afflicted with illness, and he advised those in the contami-
nated areas or communities not to leave and spread the disease further afield. It is narrated by
Saud that the Prophet ( ) said, “If you hear of an outbreak of plague in a land, do not enter it;
but if the plague breaks out in a place while you are in it, do not leave that place” (Bukhari (a)).
Many scholars embarked on an in-depth study of the Hadith and Sunnah of the Prophet ( )
dealing with health-related matters in much greater depth and detail and submitted elaborate
commentaries on them. These collections were then made available to the Muslim populace
as Prophetic Medicine, Al-Tibb Al-Nabawi, which advocated the use of the traditional medical
practices of the Prophet Muhammad ( ) and those mentioned in the Qur’an.
While examining the affiliation between the medicine of the Prophet ( ) and scientific
medicine, Ibn Al-Qayyim al-Jawziyyah (2003) argues that
The relationship of (scientific) medicine to the Prophetic medicine is similar to scientific

thought in comparison to divine revelations (to the Prophets). Indeed, there are scientific
phenomena and medical therapies to which even the best scientist and doctors have no
real answers. Even to this day despite the advances made by science and technology
many mysteries remain. The results and comfort of spiritual therapies comes only from
faith and trust in God. They come through charity, prayer, repentance and seeking God’s
forgiveness. They are aided by doing good deeds, helping the helpless and relieving the
afflicted. The causes for these cures are varied and defy logical analysis. And the result-
ant cures cannot be explained by scientific experimentation and analysis. All this is in
accordance of the law of God and nothing outside it. When a person’s heart becomes
attuned to the Lord of the world and trusting of the Creator of all ailments and their rem-
edies, medicines which would otherwise be ineffective in an individual who is unbeliev-
ing and indifferent of heart become effective. It has been experienced that when a man’s
belief is strong, his body and soul are strengthened, and they co-operate in repelling
disease and overcoming it. This cannot be denied except by the most ignorant of people.
What is health promotion?

The term health promotion is a legacy of the public health era and was coined in 1945 by
Henry E. Sigerist, who suggested that it was one of the major tasks of medicine. He stated
that the other major tasks of medicine include prevention of illness, restoration of the sick
and rehabilitation. A number of terminologies including health education, preventative health
education, public health and health improvement have been widely used, but ill-defined.
Sometimes, the terms have been used interchangeably. Historically, the role of health edu-
cation, the antecedent of health promotion, was to make people aware of the health conse-
quences of their behaviour by increasing their knowledge or influencing their attitudes. The
approach was that through the dissemination of health information, people would make the
right health behaviour decisions based on informed choice. This was not to be the most effec-
tive approach in changing attitudes and health behaviours. In the seventies “the insight grew
that providing knowledge alone was not enough. To be able to live a healthy life, individual’s
motivation, skills and the influence of the social environment were recognised as very impor-
tant determinants as well” (Pavlekovic, Donev and Kragelj, 2007, p.6). The provision of
health information was inadequate, as people need to be nudged, encouraged and motivated
by various psychosocial interventions, to change their behaviours. Criticisms were also lev-
elled against the health education approach because it was deemed to be too narrow, focused
too much on individual behaviour and life-style and may be liable to become victim-blaming.
Besides, in the 1970s, there was a change of focus and the range of activities undertaken in the
pursuit of better health began to diverge from health education (Scriven, 2005). Some health
psychologists would argue that health promotion is under the umbrella of health education.
Others rejected this idea, claiming that health education and health promotion are two differ-
ent entities with different aims, interventions and health outcomes. There was a gradual shift
from health education to health promotion (Tones, 2002). However, it would be acceptable
to suggest that health education is certainly an important component of health promotion.
So, what is health promotion? Tannahill (2009) argues that there are so many defini-
tions that the term “health promotion” has become meaningless. At a global level, the
WHO definition of health promotion, embedded in the Ottawa Charter, has been widely
adopted and neatly encompasses this: “Health promotion is the process of enabling people
to increase control over, and to improve, their health” (WHO, 1986). In fact, it was the
Lalonde Report (1974), an authoritative policy statement, that suggested that health promo-
tion was determined by issues beyond the medical and healthcare system. This report is cred-
ited with bringing the term health promotion into prominence (Morgan and Marsh, 1998),
and it was incorporated into the Ottawa’s Health for All Initiatives of the World Health
Organization (1986). This was a breakthrough in advocating “a socio-ecological approach”
to improve health in which people and their environments are considered to be inextricably
linked (WHO, 1986, p.3). The Ottawa Charter sets out five key strategies that were needed to
enhance public health. These strategies, in relation to health promotion, include the creation
of supportive environments, development of personal skills, strengthening of community
action, building of healthy public policies and reorientation of health services. Maben and
Macleod Clark (1995) also proposed a definition of health promotion which incorporates the
concept of health education and suggested that health promotion “is concerned with making
healthier choices easier choices” (p.1161). Awofeso (2004) also uses the term health promo-
tion “to describe the health education interventions and related organisational, political, and
economic interventions that are designed to facilitate behavioural and environmental changes
to improve health” (p.707).
The problem with the concept of health promotion is that more terms are added to its
components when discussing the process and outcomes to improve people’s health, for
example, health development, health improvement and health gain, societal factors included.
The Jakarta Declaration (World Health Organization, 1997) describes health promotion as
an essential element of health development. In ratifying the Ottawa Charter, the Jakarta
Declaration on Leading Health Promotion into the 21st Century (1997) states:
Health promotion, through investment and action, has a marked impact on the deter-
minants of health [and can be used] to create the greatest gain for people, to contribute
significantly to the reduction of inequities in health, to further human rights, and to build
social capital.
In the Jakarta Declaration, we have a new terminology of social capital, that is, “stocks” of
social networks in the form of relationships, institutions, shared values and norms that exist
between people. The Bangkok Charter for Health Promotion in a Globalized World (World
Health Organization, 2005) addresses the determinants of health in a globalised world
through health promotion. The four key commitments are to:
• Make the promotion of health central to the global development agenda.

• Make the promotion of health a core responsibility for all of government.
• Make the promotion of health a key focus of communities and civil society.
• Make the promotion of health a requirement for good corporate practice.
The definition of health promotion
is the process of enabling people to increase control over their health and its determi-
nants, and thereby improve their health. It is a core function of public health and con-
tributes to the work of tackling communicable and noncommunicable diseases and other
threats to health.
Whatever the definitions are or purport to be, it seems that some definitions take a “one size fits
all” approach. Some definitions focus on values and principles of heath as a human right and
social justice and other activities or heath interventions. Perhaps, the term “health promotion”
is misleading, and maybe the term health and social improvement would be more appropriate.
Prevention strategy: Types of prevention

In public health or primary health care, health education or promotion activities have been
viewed as existing on three levels: (1) primary, (2) secondary and (3) tertiary prevention.
Primary prevention
Primary prevention is a process that includes reducing the instances of an illness or avoiding
the development of a disease or infections in a healthy population. This also encompasses
activities, for instance in case of a pandemic infection, to try to reduce the risk of new cases
appearing and “flattening the curve” in the infection trends. Primary prevention campaigns
would seek to discourage any alcohol drinking behaviours among young people and those
who are high-risk groups. Other examples of primary prevention include encouraging less
consumption of sugars and vaccinations for infectious diseases like measles, mumps, rubella
and polio. Thus, primary prevention involves the provision of health information/teaching,
media campaigns and the mobilisation of the community.
Secondary prevention
This comprises activities aimed at the prevention of the sequelae of disease, and the identifica-
tion and treatment of pre-symptomatic disease. Secondary prevention also seeks to reduce and
limit further health harms by reducing complications and limiting disabilities before the disease
becomes severe, for example, the use of screening or diagnostic testing in preventing the spread
of communicable diseases. Other examples include the rational use of prescribed medication,
health information on safer alcohol and drug use and safer sexual practices, daily, low-dose aspi-
rin and/or diet and exercise programmes to prevent further heart attacks or strokes, and screening
for breast and cervical cancer. A subcategory of secondary prevention is the harm-minimisation
or reduction approach. “The harm-reduction approach, as part of secondary preventive strate-
gies, has been widely implemented in the drug and alcohol field as a response to the threat pre-
sented by blood-borne viruses such HIV and hepatitis infections” (Rassool, 2017, p.270).
Tertiary prevention
The tertiary level of prevention seeks to limit and reduce further complications or dysfunc-
tions and improve the quality of life. Brownson and Scaffa (2001) defined tertiary prevention
as “treatment and service designed to arrest the progression of a condition, prevent further
disability, and promote social opportunity” (p.656). This is undertaken through effective care,
treatment and rehabilitation services. The rehabilitation services include the coordination of
medical, psychological, social, educational and vocational interventions to restore the patient
to reach the highest possible level of functional ability. The broad outcomes of rehabilitation
measures are the “prevention of the loss of function, slowing the rate of loss of function,
improvement or restoration of function, compensation for lost function, and maintenance of
current function” (World Health Organization, 2011, p.96).
Unlike primary and secondary prevention, tertiary prevention involves actual treatment
for the disease. For example, tertiary prevention measures include insulin therapy for Type II
diabetes or the adjustment of the dose of medications for Muslims fasting during Ramadan.
Other examples include cardiac or stroke rehabilitation programmes and diabetes manage-
ment programmes and self-help groups. It has been suggested that
Recent studies suggest four types of rehabilitation: medical, social, vocational, and psy-
chologic rehabilitations. Each type not only plays a unique role in rehabilitation treat-
ment for a late symptomatic disease, but they also have multiple interactive effects on
the results of the rehabilitation.
(Cited in Liu, 2018)
Framework for classifying prevention

Despite the popularity of the three levels, primary, secondary and tertiary prevention, there is
considerable disagreement about their usage in practice. There is now a proposed framework
for classifying prevention based on Gordon’s (1983, 1987) operational classification of disease
prevention. The system suggested by Gordon consists of three categories: Universal, selective
and indicated. The three categories represent the population groups to whom the interventions
are targeted and apply only “to persons not motivated by current suffering” (Gordon, 1983,
p.108). The strategies are determined by the approaches to health education and promotion.
• Universal prevention
This strategy may target whole communities, schools-based prevention programmes
or mass media campaigns, or parents and families but focusing on children, young peo-
ple or the elderly. The main goal of the programme is to prevent the disease or problem.
For example, preventing or delaying the misuse of alcohol and other drugs, maintenance
of an adequate diet or salt-free diet, use of seat belts, prevention of smoking, immunisa-
tion, prenatal care and use of masks and social distancing.
• Selective prevention
This strategy targets groups or subsets of the population who may be at an increased
risk. The target group may be selected by age, gender, occupation, family history or
other evident characteristics, but a large segment of the population may not be at risk.
Risk groups may be identified based on biological, psychological, social or environmen-
tal risk factors known to be associated with, for instance, cardiovascular disease, hyper-
tension or diabetes. Examples include special immunisations, such as the meningococcal
meningitis vaccine (ACYW135) which is recommended for all persons nine months of
age and older, travelling extensively or on work assignments and persons participating
in Hajj or Umrah or seasonal or pilgrimage work in Hajj and Umrah zones. Or an annual
mammogram for women with a positive family history of breast cancer. In the case of
the selective prevention of alcohol and drug misuse, the aims are to “reduce the influence
of the ‘risk factors’, developing resilience (the protective factors) and preventing sub-
stance use initiation” (Rassool, 2017, p.270).
• Indicated prevention
This strategy is aimed at people who are high risk for the future development of a dis-
ease. These people may be asymptomatic (without symptoms) regarding the disease but
to have a “clinically demonstrable abnormality” (Gordon, 1983). This is clearly seen in
patients with hypertension, who may have a high risk of stroke, but who have no appar-
ent symptoms. Gordon (1983) suggested these groups include those who need medical
control of hypertension and frequent, careful examination of persons from whom a basal
cell skin cancer has been removed. In the case of alcohol and drug misuse,
The aim of indicated prevention programs is not only the reduction in first-time
substance abuse, but also reduction in the length of time the signs continue, delay
of onset of substance misuse, and/or reduction in the severity of substance misuse.
(Institute of Medicine, 1994, p.2)
Rassool (2017) recommends that indicated prevention programmes (harm reduction) tar-
geting those exhibiting problematic drug or alcohol use require specialist interventions.
Health promotion approaches and interventions

The main goal of health promotion, including health education, is to enable an individual
or community to change their life-style and behaviours and adopt desirable health behav-
iours. The health promotion approaches that will be examined include the public health and
medical approach, behaviour change, educational, empowerment and social change. These
approaches will be examined in terms of their different goals, and health interventions. The
framework is descriptive, and health educators or health psychologists may use a combina-
tion of these approaches depending on the need of the population or individual client. A sum-
mary of the approaches, goals, health interventions and examples is presented in Table 18.1.
Medical/public health approach

This approach focuses on activity which aims to reduce morbidity and premature mortality.
It incorporates three levels of intervention: Primary prevention, secondary prevention and
tertiary prevention. Gordon’s (1983, 1987) framework of universal, selective and indicated
categories can be applied to this approach. This approach is popular expert-led, or top-down
type of intervention and is very much a health professional- or doctor-centred approach. This
is the medical model of health behaviours. Due to epidemiological evidence and evidenced-
based immunisation practices (worldwide eradication of smallpox), this approach is highly
regarded by lay people. However, criticisms have been levelled against the public health/
medical model for ignoring the social and environmental dimensions of health and for its
paternalistic approach. Screening and immunisation are the main preventive services targeted
to groups at risk from a particular condition through mass media campaigns, telephone calls,
telephone counselling and reminders from health care professionals. Now and then there is a
resurgence of diphtheria, pertussis (whooping cough), tuberculosis and tetanus that plagues the
modern health care systems. Many countries have managed to attain a 99% rate of immunisa-
tion against diphtheria in children aged between 12 and 23 months. Dillinger (2019) noted that
Table 18.1 Health promotion approaches and interventions
Approach Goals Health intervention Examples
Public health/ Reduction of morbidity Immunisation Specifc group for cervical

medical and mortality Primary/ Screening screening Mammograms to
secondary and tertiary Media Campaigns detect breast cancer
prevention Health Daily, low-dose aspirins and/or
information diet and exercise programmes
to prevent further heart
attacks or strokes
Modifed work so injured or ill
workers can return safely to
their jobs.
Behaviour change Change of life-style and Mass Campaigns to persuade people
behaviour communication to desist from smoking, adopt
Expert-led, top- a healthy diet and undertake
down approach regular exercise
Tailor to meet
individual clients’
needs
Use of social
marketing
techniques
Educational To provide knowledge and Provision of leafets Healthy and safe habits (e.g. eating
information and booklets well, exercising regularly, not
To develop the necessary Visual displays smoking)
skills so that people Face-to-face advice
can make an informed
choice about their
health behaviour
Self- or consumer Enabling individuals to Advocacy Clients identify health needs,
empowerment identify their health Meeting specifc types and access to services
concerns health and Community anti-pollution
socio- needs campaign
Social change Enabling changes to health Lobbying Political Legislation and enforcement
and social policies and social to ban or control the use of
Bringing changes to the actions hazardous products (asbestos)
social environment To mandate safe and healthy
Improvement in health practices
and social equality in Policy development on working
access to services and hours
treatment interventions Reduction of air pollution
Alcohol and drug policy in
workplace
Limit of marketing and advertising
of alcohol and tobacco
Source: Adapted from Rassool (2017).
Vaccination rates are never going to reach 100%, as there are always going to be mem-
bers of the community who cannot safely receive vaccines, such as immunocompromised
individuals. It is the protection of these vulnerable members that makes vaccination even
more important.
Behaviour change approach

This approach views health as an individual responsibility, and as such individuals are encour-
aged adopt healthy behaviours which improve health. In a way, health becomes the property
belonging to the individual rather than the state. It is by adopting a change in their life-style
that people can make real improvement to their lives. For this to happen, attitude changes pre-
cede a change of behaviour. According to this approach, it is by the provision of information,
based on informed choice, that people will make the decision to change their behaviours.
However, making health-related decisions is a complex process and a person must have the
readiness to change. This corresponds to the contemplation stage in Prochaska and Velicer’s
(1997) transtheoretical model of health behaviour change. The National Institute for Health
and Care Excellence (NICE) (2007) suggests that there is overwhelming evidence that chang-
ing people’s health-related behaviour can have a major impact on some of the largest causes
of mortality and morbidity.
However, there is a clear relationship between an individual behaviour and social and
environmental factors. There is evidence to show that “different patterns of behaviour are
deeply embedded in people’s social and material circumstances, and their cultural context”
(NICE, 2007). Health-related behaviour thus becomes a response to the socio-cultural con-
text and environmental factors in which people live, and these factors impinge on their phys-
ical and psychological health. The socio-environmental factors are beyond the individual
control, for example, lead pollution, poor housing, poverty or unemployment. In the NICE
(2014) guidance, the aims are
to help tackle a range of behaviours including alcohol misuse, poor eating patterns, lack
of physical activity, unsafe sexual behaviour and smoking. These behaviours are linked
to health problems and chronic diseases (such as cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes,
and cancer). This means interventions that help people change have considerable poten-
tial for improving health and wellbeing. This includes helping them to: improve their
diet and become more physically active lose weight if they are overweight or obese stop
smoking reduce their alcohol intake practice safe sex to prevent unwanted pregnancies
and a range of infectious diseases such as HIV and chlamydia.
(p.6)
The evidence of the effectiveness of behavioural change approaches is unclear. The unidi-
mensional health promotion and media campaigns depend on the provision of direct advice
and information. This may appeal to those who want to know how to change their behaviour.
It has been suggested that the information provision approach may worsen health inequalities
and have limited impact on the determinants that cause poor health. What is apparent is that a
multidimensional approach is needed to enable people to change their behaviours. It has been
reported that “Sustained behaviour change is most likely to occur when a combination of
individual, community and population-level interventions are used” (NICE, 2014, p.31). This
multidimensional approach is also based on evidence relating to motivation to change (Lai
et al., 2010). Health and social policy are key determinants in shaping the health conditions
of the population. That means if behavioural change approaches have little impact on these
vulnerable, low socio-economic, ethnic groups or at-risk populations, what is required is that
behaviour change approaches would be “better implemented as part of a wider, comprehen-
sive policy framework and not as a single intervention that relies on top-down, communica-
tion strategies to target a specific disease or behaviour” (Laverack, 2017, p.2).
There are various behavioural techniques that have been suggested to be effective under
certain conditions, for example, motivational interviewing, self-monitoring and other self-
regulatory techniques (goal setting, prompting, self-monitoring, providing feedback on per-
formance, goal review) (Michie et al., 2009; Greaves et al., 2011); and focusing on social
practices (patterns of action which bring together different ways of “doing and saying”)
(Shove, 2010). NICE’s guidance (2007) highlights the need to carefully plan interventions
and programmes, considering the local and national context and community needs. The prac-
titioners should be equipped with the necessary competencies and skills to support behaviour
change, using evidence-based tools. Finally, there is a need to evaluate all behaviour change
interventions and programmes.
The educational approach

The educational approach focuses on the provision of knowledge and information, and
developing the essential skills to enable people to make informed choices about their health
behaviours. There are no motivational techniques used in this approach as it is assumed that
people have a readiness to change. This approach relies on a premise about the relationship
between knowledge and behaviour. It is assumed that by providing education and increased
knowledge, the intended outcome is bound to occur, that is, a change in attitudes which may
lead to positive behavioural changes. This approach also assumes that people have the neces-
sary decision-making skills to initiate changes in behaviour. The methods of the educational
approach are the provision of health information in the form of leaflets and booklets, mass
media campaigns, social media, visual displays and one-to-one advice. Small group discus-
sions on nutrition, exercise, physical activity, smoking cessation, etc., may also be imple-
mented. There is a need to teach people how to make the right decision, and decision-making
skills can be developed through role plays or activities.
Self- or consumer empowerment and social change

Empowerment is one of the core principles of the World Health Organization’s approach to
health promotion. The concept of empowerment is defined as “an intentional, ongoing pro-
cess centered in the local community, involving mutual respect, critical reflection, caring, and
group participation, through which people lacking an equal share of valued resources gain
greater access to and control over those resources” (Cornell Empowerment Group, 1989). This
definition suggests that empowerment is a process in which efforts to gain greater access to
services and to exert control are essential. At the community level, empowerment may refer
to collective action to improve the quality of health, access to health resources and advocacy
in health improvement programmes. However, empowerment goes beyond changing health-
related issues and may also be directed to social change. It has been suggested that empower-
ment is “a distinct approach for developing interventions and creating social change. It directs
attention toward health, adaptation, competence, and natural helping” (Wallerstein, 2006, p.4).
Wallerstein (2006) suggests that health promotion should address effective empowerment
strategies, such as
• Increasing citizens’ skills, control over resources and access to information relevant
to public health development.
• Using small group efforts, which enhance critical consciousness on public health
issues, to build supportive environments and a deeper sense of community.
• Promoting community action through collective involvement in decision-making

and participation in all phases of public health planning, implementation and evalu-
ation, use of lay helpers and leaders, advocacy and leadership training and organi-
zational capacity development.
• Strengthening healthy public policy by organizational and inter-organizational
actions, transfer of power and decision-making authority to participants of inter-
ventions, and promotion of governmental and institutional accountability and
transparency.
• Being sensitive to the health care needs defined by community members them-
selves. (p.5)
Social marketing in health promotion

Social marketing is an approach that utilises marketing ideas and strategies to promote healthy
behaviours. If marketing can encourage us to buy cigarettes or alcohol, it can persuade us to
change our behaviours. Andreasen (1995) defines social marketing as
the application of proven concepts and techniques drawn from the commercial sector to
promote changes in diverse socially important behaviours such as drug use, smoking,
sexual behaviour … This marketing approach has an immense potential to affect major
social problems if we can only learn how to harness its power.
As part of a complementary approach to social marketing there is a new concept described as

“specialised health promotion.” It focuses on health and wellbeing outcomes, but specialised
health promotion is differentiated “from the broad goal of health promotion which can, of
course, be embedded in the work of many ‘health promoters’ in the wider workforce, from
care assistants to teachers” (Griffiths, Blair-Stevens and Thorpe, 2008, p.13).
Griffiths, Blair-Stevens and Thorpe (2008) argue that social marketing for health and spe-
cialised health promotion should not be developed separately because this weakens the effec-
tiveness of both. They suggested that both social marketing and health promotion are
concerned with the role of human behaviour in social change, both have a coherent body
of knowledge, and systematic methods and processes. These methods and processes
share much common ground (e.g. both use health education approaches extensively), but
practitioners from each tend to have more experience in using particular combinations
of approaches.
(p.2)
Social marketing has been used in many health improvement programmes to promote a vari-
ety of health behaviours, and the evidence indicates the beneficial effects (Gordon et al.,
2006). These include alcohol and drug use, seat belt use, oral health, smoking, safe sex and
drink-driving (Noar, 2006; Abroms and Maibach, 2008); HIV prevention (Terence Higgins
Trust, 2011); sexually transmitted diseases (Friedman et al., 2016); and obesity prevention
(Luecking et al., 2017). Social marketing uses multidimensional theories of behavioural, per-
suasion and exposure to target changes in health risk behaviour. It has been suggested that
Social marketers use a wide range of health communication strategies based on mass
media; they also use mediated (for example, through a healthcare provider), interpersonal,
and other modes of communication; and marketing methods such as message place-
ment (for example, in clinics), promotion, dissemination, and community level outreach.
Social marketing encompasses all of these strategies.
(Evans, 2006, p.1207)
Social marketing is the application of the four Ps of marketing into programme planning. The
four Ps of marketing are the product, price, place and promotion (Borden, 1964; see CDC,
2010). We can see from above that there are more similarities than differences between social
marketing and health promotion. This particular marketing strategy can be applied in health
care practice. Health and social care workers need to use different psychosocial interventions
to reinforce the media messages.
Health promotion from an Islamic perspective

Health promotion or preventive public health has a very strong and clear basis in Islamic
teachings and is supported by Islamic texts such as the Qur’an and the Sunnah. Muslims’
behaviours and actions are governed by the tenets of Islam, which are well outlined in the
Qur’an and the Sunnah. It has been suggested that from an Islamic worldview
the right to health assigns responsibility in three different directions: to oneself, soci-
ety and the state, all at the same time. It is first a responsibility to oneself. This, as has
already been stated, is unique to Islam, summed up in the Prophet’s ( ) statement:
“Your body has a right over you” (Bukhari(b)).
(Al-Khayat, 2004, p.18)
It is worth, at this point, reinforcing the statement made by Imam Al-Shatibi’s (2012) clas-
sification that
health protection is ensured through two distinct matters. The first is to strengthen its
structure and consolidate its foundation, which means to take good care of what we have
of health, while the second is to protect it against any negative development, present or
future, which means to take care lest it withers away.
(p.8)
The inference that can be made of the Imam Al-Shatibi’s statement is that it is applicable to
both preventive health behaviour and health promotion.
Health (or medicine) in Islam is tied to Islamic law and must fulfil one or more of the
purposes in preserving the essential: Religion, life, progeny, intellect and wealth. It has been
suggested by Kasule (2011) that “Preventive medicine, Tibb Wiqa’i, is a series of pro-active
measures that subsumed under the Islamic concept of prevention, Wiqayat. Prevention is
therefore one of the fixed laws in the universe, Sunan al Allah fi al Kawn.” One of the princi-
ples of Islamic law is the protection and maintenance of human life, Hifdh al Nafs. This pro-
tection of life, according to Kasule (2011), includes health promotion, disease prevention and
treatment. Imam Al-Shatibi (b) also states that “the basic purpose of the religious ordinances
is to secure the welfare and public interest of human beings and to protect them against harm”
(pp.6–7). The principle of harm (dharar) states that an individual should not cause harm nor
reciprocate harm. However, according to the Prophetic tradition from which this ruling is
derived, it is narrated by Ibn 'Abbas that Allah’s Messenger ( ) said: “There should neither
be harming (of others without cause), nor reciprocating harm (between two parties)” (Ahmad
and Ibn Majah). There have been numerous interpretations of this Hadith. One interpretation
is that there shall be no harming others, and there shall be no bringing harm to yourself. Allah
• And do not kill yourselves (nor kill one another). (An-Nisa 4:29)
According to the exegesis (Tafsir) of Ibn Kathir, the above verse relates to the following
Hadith. Abu Hurairah narrated that the Messenger of Allah ( ) said:
Whoever purposely throws himself from a mountain and kills himself, will be in the
(Hell) Fire falling down into it and abiding therein perpetually forever; and whoever
drinks poison and kills himself with it, he will be carrying his poison in his hand and
drinking it in the (Hell) Fire wherein he will abide eternally forever; and whoever kills
himself with an iron weapon, will be carrying that weapon in his hand and stabbing his
abdomen with it in the (Hell) Fire wherein he will abide eternally forever.
(Bukhari (c))
The principle of harm leads to the prevention of self-harm (attempted suicide), and in for-
bidding the use of alcohol and other drugs, and gambling. In the case of smoking, harm to
self (active smoking) and harm to others (passive smoking) are prohibited. This principle
can also be applied to the act of negligence in relation to health behaviours. According to
Al-Khayat (2004),
It is remarkable that Islam considers any negligence in taking such measures a type
of transgression. Sound nutrition, for example, is a health promotion measure, while
neglecting to have proper and good nutrition, without reasonable justification, is contrary
to health care.
(p.18)
This neglect or self-harm is a form of self-transgression. Allah says in the Qur’an (interpreta-
• O you who have believed, do not prohibit the good things which Allah has made lawful
to you and do not transgress. Indeed, Allah does not like transgressors.
• And eat of what Allah has provided for you [which is] lawful and good. And fear Allah,
in whom you are believers. (Al-Ma’idah 5:87–88)
According to Ibn Kathir, (and transgress not) means,
do not exaggerate and make it hard for yourselves by prohibiting the permissible things.
Do not transgress the limits by excessively indulging in the permissible matters; only use
of it what satisfies your need; and do not fall into extravagance.
There is self-transgression in nutrition for those who deviate from the lawful nutrition that
Allah has provided. What is clear from the Qur’an and Sunnah is what is lawful and what
is forbidden. Harm is prevented by eating a balanced diet and bringing a positive health
outcome. Kasule (2011) suggested that harm should be mitigated as much as is possible
or should be relieved. This includes taking proactive actions to maintain homeostasis, and
prevent or treat disease. The seeking of treatment for disease as part of secondary or tertiary
preventive health actions is illustrated in the following Hadith. It is narrated by Usamah ibn
Sharik:
I came to the Prophet ( ) and his Companions were sitting as if they had birds on their
heads. I saluted and sat down. The desert Arabs then came from here and there. They
asked: Messenger of Allah, should we make use of medical treatment? He replied: Make
use of medical treatment, for Allah has not made a disease without appointing a remedy
for it, with the exception of one disease, namely old age.
The principle of necessity states that necessity legalises the prohibited. For instance, dur-
ing the pandemic of COVID-19, coercive public policies such as complete lockdown were
implemented by many countries’ governments to prevent the spread of the virus. This can be
regarded, in the purest sense, as a violation of individual rights. The public interest in the ban-
ning of smoking in public places is more paramount than an individual’s freedom of choice.
However, in Islam, too, coercive public health measures are permitted under this rubric.
Kasule (2011) maintained that
Prevention of a harm has priority over pursuit of a benefit of equal worth. A harmful
new treatment modality is prohibited even if it has some efficacy against disease. If the
benefit has far more importance and worth than the harm, then the pursuit of the benefit
has priority for example when the benefits of the new treatment outweigh its harmful
effects by a very large margin.
However, to be confront with two harmful choices is like being “between Scylla and
Charybdis,”1 and in order to prevent a bigger harm, a lesser harm is selected. This is also
known as “the lesser of the two evils.” A good example is the application of harm reduction
approaches, in some Islamic countries, to control the drug-driven HIV epidemics. According
to Kamarulzaman and Saifuddeen (2010): “Harm reduction programmes are permissible and
in fact provide a practical solution to a problem that could result in far greater damage to the
society at large if left unaddressed” (p.115). Harm reduction practices in countries such as the
Islamic Republic of Iran, Malaysia and Indonesia include needle-exchange programmes and
opioid substitution therapy. Table 18.2 presents an application of the Principles of Harm and
Hardship for Health Promotion.
Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion: An Islamic

perspective
The first International Conference on Health Promotion was held on the 21st November 1986,
to present a charter for action to achieve Health for All by the year 2000 and beyond. This
charter is known as the Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion (World Health Organization,
1986). The logo of the Ottawa Charter is presented in Figure 18.1. Improvement in health
requires a secure foundation in these basic prerequisites: Advocacy for health, enabling pro-
cess to achieve equity in health and finally, mediation between professional and social groups
and health personnel for the pursuit of health. The Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion
Table 18.2 Application of the principles of harm and hardship for health promotion
Principles of law Explanation Health maintenance Prohibition
Principle of An individual should Examples: Smoking (active

harm (Dharar) not harm others Maintain homeostasis, prevent and passive).
or be harmed by or treat disease. Alcohol.
others. Gambling.
A harm should not be Self-harm.
relieved by another Harm to others.
harm.
Principle of Necessity legalises the If the beneft has far more A harmful new
hardship prohibited. importance and worth than treatment modality
(Mashaqqa) Coercive public the harm, then amputation of is prohibited even if
health measures a cancerous limb is a lesser it has some effcacy
are permitted evil than the spread of fatal against disease.
under this rubric. malignancy. Freedom of choice is
Provision of methadone curtailed.
maintenance is better for Prohibition of smoking
addicts, instead of them using in public places.
an adulterated psychoactive
substance.
Adapted from Kasule (2011).
Figure 18.1 The Ottawa Charter.

defines the meaning of health promotion action as building a healthy public policy, creating
supportive environments, strengthening community actions, developing personal skills and
the reorientation of the health services.
De Leeuw and Abdelmoneim (1999) have proposed a model for delivering health promo-
tion from an Islamic perspective using the Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion. The authors
suggested that the Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion may be criticised on the basis that
it reflects “a Western, post-Cartesian value system” (p.347). De Leeuw and Abdelmoneim
(1999) assert that
the Islamic value system which is so often considered to be in opposition to “Western”

perspectives in fact includes many of the notions of end-of-the-millennium health pro-
motion. Such a recognition would lead to a much-needed interculturalization of the
Western health systems, including their health promotion components.
(p.347)
Figure 18.2 presents the Islamic Charter for health promotion.

The core components of the communication process of the Ottawa Charter (enable,
mediate, advocate) may directly be linked to three Islamic concepts/structures. That is
Da’wah, Madrasa and mosque. Da’wah, from Arabic, literally means invitation, inviting
and calling people to know about, and practice in real life, what is beneficial to them and
for the sake of their own welfare and well-being. In Islamic theology, it means to strive
for the propagation of Islam to both Muslims and non-Muslims, that is inviting people to
Quran and Sunnah emphasize

individual and community
rituals, hygiene and Mosque
as Community Unit
Quran and
Sunnah
advocate
Da’wah, Hygiene,
Madrasa, Cleanliness,
Beauty,
Mosque Healthy &
Peaceful
Lifestyles
Shuura, Sharia’h,
Waqf
Figure 18.2 Islamic Charter for Health Promotion.

Islam. It has been suggested that “the goal of Da’wah, then, is merely to share information,
to invite others towards a better understanding of the faith. It is, of course, up to the listener
to make his or her own choice” (Huda, 2020). The obligation of Da’wah has been made
clear in the Qur’an. Allah (glorified and exalted be He) says in the Qur’an (interpretation
of the meaning):
According to Ibn Kathir, “the objective of this Ayah [verse] is that there should be a seg-
ment of this Muslim Ummah fulfilling this task, even though it is also an obligation on
every member of this Ummah, each according to his ability.” It was narrated that Tariq bin
Shihab said:
Abu Sa’eed Al-Khudri said: “I heard the Messenger of Allah ( ) say: Whoever among
you sees an evil and changes it with his hand, then he has done his duty. Whoever is
unable to do that, but changes it with his tongue, then he has done his duty. Whoever is
unable to do that, but changes it with his heart, then he has done his duty, and that is the
weakest of Faith.”
(An-Nasa’i (a))
Da’wah is not only about inviting people to understand the Qur’an and Sunnah and the Islamic
practices but also applies to health, social and familial matters. According to De Leeuw and
Abdelmoneim (1999), the Madrasa and mosques play an important role in the dissemination
of knowledge. Madrasa is the Arabic word for any type of educational institution from basic
primary education to higher learning institutions or universities. Nowadays, it usually refers to
a specific type of religious school or college for the study of the Islamic sciences and, in some
Madrasa, secular studies. The first Madrasa education was at the estate of Zaid bin Arkam
near a hill called Safa, Makkah, where Prophet Muhammad ( ) was the teacher and the stu-
dents were some of his followers. Alatas (2006) suggested that Madrasah was originally used
to refer more specifically to a medieval Islamic centre of learning, mainly teaching Islamic law
and theology, usually affiliated with a mosque, and funded by an early charitable trust known
as Waqf. It has been reported that these schools had the best professors, contained libraries
and provided scholarships to students (Nakosteen, 1964, p.49; Makdisi, 1981, p.27). These
Madrasah “influenced the rise of medieval universities and colleges in Europe, the modern
university must be seen as a multicultural product” (Alatas, 2006, p.124). The mosque also
has an important role in the promotion of health. During the time of the Messenger of Allah
( ), the mosque was not only a place of worship but also acted as a community centre, a
place for socialisation, for Da’wah, for celebration, for meetings and deliberation, for medical
care and for education. The mosque was used for multidimensional purposes, unlike today.
Accordingly, “the Mosques are social and spiritual gathering places where enabling, mediating
and advocating health matters would take place” (De Leeuw and Abdelmoneim, 1999, p.349).
However, health promotion is not restricted to those places only. The concept of Shuura also
plays a pivotal role in the process of reorienting health services. Shuura is an Arabic word
for “consultation.” Both the Qur’an and the Prophet Muhammad ( ) encourage Muslims to
decide their affairs in consultation with others. The Qur’an has a chapter called Ash-Shuraa,
the consultation (Qur’an 42). Allah says in the Qur’an (interpretation of the meaning):
• And those who have responded to their Lord and established prayer and whose affair is
[determined by] consultation among themselves, and from what We have provided them,
they spend. (Ash-Shuraa 42:38)
According to Ibn Kathir, (and whose affair is [determined by] consultation among them-
selves,) means,
they do not make a decision without consulting one another on the matter so that they can
help one another by sharing their ideas concerning issues such as wars and other matters.
This is like the Ayah [verse]: (and consult them in the matter) (Ali 'Imran 3:159). The
Prophet ( ) used to consult with them concerning wars and other matters, so that they
would feel confidant.
Al-Hasan said, “People never seek advice without being guided to the best possibility availa-
ble to them.” Then he recited, “and manage their affairs by mutual consultation” (Ash-Shuraa
42:38) (Al-Adab Al-Mufrad). Other verses in the Qur’an deal with the collective family
decision regarding weaning the child from mother’s milk (Al-Baqarah 2:233) and Prophet
Muhammad’s ( ) consultation with the believers (Ali 'Imran 3:159). It is the Shari’ah,
Islamic jurisprudence, that governs the Shuura.
Waqfs, within the framework of the Islamic health promotion (De Leeuw and Abdelmoneim,
1999), refers to
the Islamic system of endowments toward social and health services, are a precondition
for financing and restructuring the delivery system. Waqfs cannot be considered a form
of taxation; it is a holy obligation of every Muslim to set apart pious endowments.
(p.349)
Waqfs, also known as pious endowments, has
long held a crucial place in the political, economic, and social life of the Islamic world.
Waqfs were major sources of education, health care, and employment; they shaped
the city and contributed to the upkeep of religious edifices. They constituted a major
resource, and their status was at stake in repeated struggles to impose competing defini-
tions of legitimacy and community.
(Isin, 2011, p.253)
It has also been reported that Waqfs have been involved in the establishment of libraries,
hospitals, academia and mosques (Fayzee, 1991).
The Ummah and the Hisba are also part of the system involved in the development
of healthy public policy. Ummah is an Arabic word meaning “community.” The Muslim
Ummah is the whole community of Muslims, unified as one society and not disconnected by
race, ethnicity, gender, colour or nationality. The Ummah’s members
differed from one another not by wealth or genealogical superiority but by the degree
of their faith and piety, and membership in the community was itself an expression
of faith. Anyone could join, regardless of origin, by following Muhammad’s lead.
(Britanica.com)
The Hisba refers to the system of accountability. Gleave (2020) noted that
While enforcing Hisba (“bringing people to account”) is conceived of in these works as

the role of an appointed person, it is recognised that this person is merely performing
the general duty (to which all Muslims are bound) of “promoting good and prohibiting
evil” (al-amr bil-ma˓ruf walnahy ˓an al-munkar). This is a Qur’anic phrase (Ali 'Imran
3:104 and At-Tawbah 9:61) and linking it with the doctrine of Hisba gives Hisba a firm
grounding in the Qur’an.
In the Islamic health promotion framework of De Leeuw and Abdelmoneim (1999), the
“Ummah, Shuura, Hisba and Waqf together constitute the basis of political consideration for
healthy public policies” (p.350).
De Leeuw and Abdelmoneim’s perspective on Islamic health promotion is an interesting
theoretical and conceptual framework. This framework used the principles of the Qur’an and
the Shari’ah with the secular notions of health promotion, such as the role and responsibil-
ity of health authorities, communities and academics to tackle current health behaviours.
However, it does not provide us an operational mechanism that can be applied in Muslim
countries. The authors claimed that “our extensive efforts to identify scientific and empirical
evidence of Islamic ‘Ottawa’ health promotion have yielded minimal results. We can only
speculate as to the reasons for the absence of health promotion projects and evaluations in
the international literature” (p.352). This Islamic health promotion framework should be seen
as agenda setting for academics, researchers, clinicians, policy makers and key stakeholders
to further develop and refine. This framework may also be modified to be used in Western
countries as part of the health promotion strategies through the process of interculturalisation
to meet the specific health needs of the diverse populations. De Leeuw and Abdelmoneim
(1999) suggested that Interculturalization of course is not restricted to Western versus Islamic
value systems. The approach is applicable to any minority or subcultural group.
The Amman Declaration on Health Promotion

The World Health Organization Regional Office for the Eastern Mediterranean convened a
consultation on Islamic life-styles and their impact on health development. The aim was to
contribute to the presentation of this valuable cultural legacy, for the benefit of all humanity.
The Regional Office for the Eastern Mediterranean decided to publish this booklet which
contains the most important decisions reached of how health-related Islamic teachings might
be used to persuade individuals and communities, in Islamic countries, to follow healthy
life-styles. The Consultation on Islamic Lifestyles and their Impact on Health Development
and Human Development in General, held in Amman, Jordan, on 19 to 22 Thul-Qa’da, 1409
(corresponding to 23–26 June 1989) with a view to achieving Health for All by the Year
2000, issued the following Declaration on Health Promotion (Gezairy and Altwaijri, 1989).
• First: Health is a blessing from God, which many people do not appreciate, as is
mentioned in the Hadith.
• Second: Health is but one element of life and cannot be complete unless the other
major elements are provided, including: freedom, security, justice, education, work,
self-sufficiency, food, water, clothing, housing, marriage and environmental health.
• Third: People can preserve their health, as enjoined in the Qur’an, by maintaining
a moderate health balance in a state of dynamic equilibrium, neither exceeding the
bounds, nor falling short in that balance.
• Fourth: Every human being is in possession of a certain health potential, which

they must develop in order to enjoy complete well-being and ward off disease, as is
mentioned in the Hadith.
• Fifth: The lifestyles followed by human beings have a major impact on their health
and well-being.
• Sixth: Islamic lifestyles embrace numerous positive patterns promoting health and
rejecting any behaviour which is contradictory to health.
• Seventh: Islam, as defined in the Qur’an, is the natural course of life which God has
bestowed on humanity. Hence, adhering to Islamic lifestyles is, in itself, a realisa-
tion of the true nature of the human being, and ensures harmony with the laws of
God in body and soul, in the individual, the family and community, and between
human beings and their environment.
• Eighth: A list of the Islamic lifestyles derived from the Qur’an and the Sunnah
of the Prophet ( ), and affecting health development and human development
in general. Ablution, basic needs, behaviour, circumcision, cleanliness, disabled,
drug abuse, ethics, family planning, food contamination, healthy lifestyles, legisla-
tion and human rights, marriage, mental health, mother-child care, nutrition, oral
hygiene, physical fitness, pollution, and water work.
The Declaration identifies some 60 components of life-style where Islamic teachings offer
guidance on healthy and harmful behaviours. These concern the areas of nutrition, food
safety, personal and community hygiene, waste disposal, sexual relationships, breastfeeding
and childcare, mental health, alcohol consumption, substance misuse and violence. From the
Islamic standpoint, the right to health assigns responsibility in three different directions: To
oneself, society and the state, all at the same time.
Health rights and related responsibility

In a previous section in this chapter, health rights and responsibilities are considered
to be based on three dimensions: Self, society and the state. Each person has a self-
responsibility for his health as your body has a right over you. It is beyond the scope
of this chapter to examine in full detail health promotion from an Islamic perspective.
Some selective areas such as personal hygiene, nutrition and general health prevention
are presented in Table 18.3, Table 18.4 and Table 18.5. The Qur’an and Sunnah provide
ample evidence regarding health behaviours. This is because Islam is not only a religion
but also a way of life, both in preventive health and promotion of health. It is stated that
Allah, the Almighty,
marks the body with the characteristics of the Fitrah, namely circumcision, removal of
the pubic hair, trimming the moustache, cutting the nails, plucking the hair from the arm-
pits, rinsing the mouth, rinsing the nose, using the Siwaak (toothbrush made from twigs
from a certain tree) and cleaning oneself after elimination of urine or faeces.
(Imam Ibn Al-Qayyim al-Jawziyyah, p.351)
One of the controversial subjects from an Orientalist world view is the question of circumci-
sion. There is no fixed time for circumcision as it depends on family, region and country.
Some Muslims are circumcised as early as on the seventh day after birth. Some studies have
Table 18.3 Personal hygiene and health promotion
Self-care Qur’anic verses and Hadiths Source
Personal Do not approach prayer while you are intoxicated until An-Nisa: 4:43
hygiene you know what you are saying or in a state of janabah Al-Ma’idah: 5:6
[impurity], except those passing through [a place of Al-Shatibi: Vol. 2, p.8
prayer], until you have washed [your whole body]. Muslim: Book 9,
When you rise to [perform] prayer, wash your faces and Hadith 41
your forearms to the elbows and wipe over your heads Ibn Majah: Vol. 1, Book
and wash your feet to the ankles. 1, Hadith 277
It is incumbent upon any Muslim to wash his head and Bukhari: 165
body once every seven days. : Book 4, Hadith 31
Ablution [i.e. wudu’] is half the Iman [faith]. Ibn Majah; Vol. 1, Book
Only a believer maintains his ablutions. 1, Hadith 593
Perform ablution perfectly and thoroughly. Tirmidhi: Vol. 5, Book
The Prophet ( ) used to wash his hands before eating. 41, Hadith 2759
Ibn Majah: Vol. 1, Book
The Prophet ( ) fxed the time for us paring the 1, Hadith 508
moustache, trimming the fngernails, shaving the pubic An-Nasa’i: Vol. 1, Book
hairs, and plucking the underarm hairs – that we do not 1 Hadith 46
leave it for more than forty days. An-Nasa’i: Book 20,
The Prophet got up during the night and went to the toilet Hadith 24
and relieved himself, then he washed his face and hands,
and went back to sleep.
Tell your husbands to clean themselves with water, for I
am too shy to tell them myself. The Messenger of Allah
( ) used to do that.
When the Prophet ( ) got up to pray at night, he would
brush his teeth with the Siwak [teeth cleaning twig].
Table 18.4 Nutrition and health promotion
Self-care Qur’anic verses and Hadiths Qur’an/Hadiths
Nutrition Eat and drink but be not excessive. Indeed, He likes not those who Al-A’raf: 7:31
commit excess. Al-Baqarah:
Eat from the good things which We have provided for you. 2:172
Eat of the good things which We have provided for you as Taha: 20:81
sustenance, but do not transgress therein. Al-An’ām: 6:141
Eat of [each of] its fruit when it yields and give its due [zakah] on An-Nahl: 16:5
the day of its harvest. And be not excessive. Indeed, He does not An-Nahl:
like those who commit excess. 16:14
And the grazing livestock He has created for you; in them is warmth Muslim; 2059 d:
and [numerous] benefts, and from them you eat. 36, Hadith 245
And it is He who subjected the sea for you to eat from it tender meat Tirmidhi: 2380:
Food for one (person) suffces two, and food for two (persons) 36, Hadith 77
suffces four persons and food for four persons suffces eight
persons.
I heard the Messenger of Allah ( ) saying: The human does not fll
any container that is worse than his stomach. It is suffcient for the
son of Adam to eat what will support his back. If this is not possible,
then a third for food, a third for drink, and third for his breath.”
Table 18.5 General health prevention
Self-care Qur’anic verses and Hadiths Qur’an/Hadiths
Heath prevention: They ask you about wine and gambling. Say, “In them Al-Baqarah: 2:219
Alcohol and drugs, is great sin and [yet, some] beneft for people. But
gambling their sin is greater than their beneft.
Indeed, intoxicants, gambling, [sacrifcing on] stone Al-Ma’idah: 5:90
alters [to other than Allah], and divining arrows
are but deflement from the work of Satan, so
avoid it that you may be successful.
Satan only wants to cause between you animosity Al-Ma’idah: 5:91
and hatred through intoxicants and gambling and
to avert you from the remembrance of Allah and
from prayer.
Every intoxicant is Khamr [wine], and every Bulugh al-Maram: Book
intoxicant is prohibited.” Related by Muslim. 10, Hadith 1287
Every intoxicant is Khamr.' An-Nasa’i: 5584. 51,
Hadith 46
Intoxicants are unlawful in small or large amounts. An-Nasa’i: 5698.51,
Hadith 160
Avoidance of And do not approach unlawful sexual intercourse. Al-Isra: 17:32.
infectious There is nothing I fear for my ummah more than the Tirmidhi, 1457; Ibn
diseases deed of the people of Loot [homosexuality]. Majah, 2563
If you hear the news of an outbreak of an epidemic Bukhari: 6973. 90,
(plague) in a certain place, do not enter that place: and Hadith 20
if the epidemic falls in a place while you are present in
it, do not leave that place to escape from the epidemic
Source: Adapted from Al Khayat (2004).
shown that circumcision in men reduces the incidence of cancer of the penis. Some of the
health benefits of circumcision are the protection against local infection in the penis, or infec-
tions of the glans (tip) of the penis, reduced infections of the urethra (Al-Barr, 2005) and
reduced risk of HIV among men (Lei et al., 2015; Dave et al., 2017). Researchers have noted
that the wives of circumcised men have less risk of getting cervical cancer than the wives of
uncircumcised men, and there is protection against cancer of the penis (Al-Barr, 2005, p.76).
One of the self-health promotions is dealing with nutrition (see Table 18.4). There is a
paradox here as in some Arab and Muslim countries obesity is prevalent among the well-
to-do and under-nutrition among low-socio-economic populations. This “dual burden” of
malnutrition and obesity is growing rapidly in Arab and Muslim countries (Rassool, 2014).
This has been referred as the “The Qur’anic Seven Lean and Seven Fat years are occurring
simultaneously (Yusuf 12:43–48)” (The Economist, 2007). One of the most unknown of
the Qur’an’s health teachings is its promotion of women and children’s health, specifically
breastfeeding. Breastfeeding benefits mother and child both physically and psychologically.
This has been covered in Chapter 11.
The prevention of harm to others is not only the responsibility of the individual but also
a community obligation. This is reflected in the Hadith quoted elsewhere: “There should be
neither harming nor reciprocating harm.” This edict covers harms in relation to the body,
wealth, progeny and protection of human life. It is narrated by 'Abdullah bin 'Umar: Allah’s
Messenger ( ) said: “It is enough for a person to be considered sinful, that he neglects those
whom he is responsible to sustain” (An-Nasa’i (b)).
Finally, some of the approaches to preventive health care and health maintenance were
put into practice in the first Islamic State established by Prophet Muhammad ( ) in Medina
in 622 ce, under the Constitution of Medina. This is the first constitution on human rights.
According to Al-Khayat (2004), the sick had the right to medical care provided by the state.
All children were entitled to care and a form of child allowance and maintenance allowance
was provided to the child’s guardian. The disabled and elderly people were also entitled to
state care. Al-Khayat (2004) stated that
It is clear from all these examples that the Islamic state considers the right to health
a human right applicable to all human beings with no discrimination on the basis of
colour, race or religion. All human beings, whatever their status or affiliation, were, in
the Islamic state, entitled to equal health care, preventive or curative. This is indeed the
essence of the goal advocated fourteen centuries later by the World Health Organization,
defined as “Health for All”.
(p.32)
Above all, health is a human right in Islam.

• Health promotion is more relevant today than ever in addressing public health problems
with the newly emerging rise of communicable infections.
• During the medieval period, Islamic polymath scholars wrote extensively on diseases,
psychiatric disorders, pharmacology, diagnoses and therapeutic interventions.
• Public health programmes have always been in the forefront of Islamic health
systems.
• Health promotion is the process of enabling people to increase control over, and to
improve, their health.
• In public health or primary health care, health education or promotion activities have
been viewed as existing on three levels: (1) primary, (2) secondary and (3) tertiary
prevention.
• The system suggested by Gordon consisted of three categories: Universal, selective and
indicated.
• The health promotion approaches include the public health and medical approach,
behaviour change, educational, empowerment and social change.
• Social marketing is an approach that utilises marketing ideas and strategies to promote
healthy behaviour.
• From an Islamic worldview the right to health assigns responsibility in three different
directions: To oneself, society and the state, all at the same time.
• Health (or medicine) in Islam is tied to Islamic law, and must fulfil one or more of the
purposes in preserving the essential: Religion, life, progeny, intellect and wealth.
• De Leeuw and Abdelmoneim have proposed a model for delivering health promotion
from an Islamic perspective using the Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion.
• The Amman Declaration identifies some 60 components of life-style where Islamic
teachings offer guidance on healthy and harmful behaviours. These concern the areas
of nutrition, food safety, personal and community hygiene. waste disposal, sexual rela-
tionships, breastfeeding and childcare, mental health, alcohol consumption, substance
misuse and violence.
• Some of the approaches to preventive health care and health maintenance were put into
practice in the first Islamic State established by Prophet Muhammad ( ) in Medina in
622 ce, under the Constitution of Medina.
1. Which of the following charters defined health promotion as “the process of enabling
people to increase control over, and to improve, their health”?
A. Charter of the United Nations (1945)
B. Tokyo Charter (1946)
C. Ottawa Charter (1986)
D. Amman Declaration (1989)
E. WHO (2011)
2. Which of the following statements is correct?
A. Health promotion is the process of enabling people to increase control over, and to
improve, their health.
B. Health promotion “is concerned with making healthier choices easier choices.”
C. Health promotion can refer to any event, process or activity that facilitates the pro-
tection or improvement of the health status of individuals, groups, communities or
populations.
D. The objective of health promotion is to prolong life and to improve quality of life.
3. This approach to health promotion aims to improve and promote health by addressing
socioeconomic and environmental determinants of health within the community.
A. Behaviour change approach
B. Medical approach
C. Public health
D. Social change or consumer empowerment
E. Educational approach
4. This approach views health as an individual responsibility and as such individuals are
encouraged to adopt healthy behaviours which improve health.
A. Behaviour change approach
B. Medical approach
C. Public health
D. Social change or consumer empowerment
E. Educational approach
5. ___________refers to an approach that utilises marketing ideas and strategies to pro-
mote healthy behaviour.
A. Consumer health
B. Social marketing
C. Health education
D. Consumer health
E. Self-empowerment
6. One of the most important medieval physicians and clinicians in the Islamic world who
was the first to distinguish measles from smallpox.
A. Ibn Sina
B. Hammurabi
C. Al-Razi
D. Imam Ghazali
E. Ibn Al-Qayyim
7. It sets out that five key strategies that were needed to enhance public health. These strate-
gies, in relation to health promotion, include the creation of supportive environments,
development of personal skills, strengthening of community action, building of healthy
public policies and reorientation of health services.
E. WHO (2011)
8. “A new terminology of social capital, that is ‘stocks’ of social network in the form
of relationships, institutions, shared values and norms that exist between people” is
from
A. The Bangkok Charter
B. Jakarta Declaration
C. Tokyo Charter (1946)
D. Ottawa Charter (1986)
E. Amman Declaration (1989)
9. What does secondary prevention include?
A. Making sure that patients are compliant with the treatment.
B. Early detection (and such things as screenings, for instance).
C. Seeks to reduce, and limit further health harms by reducing complications and
limiting disabilities before the disease becomes severe.
D. Making sure that the patient takes the prescribed medication.
10. What are four Ps of social marketing?
A. Pharmacy, pharmacists, products and promotion
B. Product, price, place and promotion
C. Physicians, physicians’ assistant, pharmacists and patients
D. All of the above
11. Gordon’s operational classification of disease prevention consisted of which categories?
A. Universal
B. Selective
C. Indicated
D. A, B and C
E. A and C only
12. This approach focuses on activity which aims to reduce morbidity and premature
mortality.
A. Social change approach
B. Consumer approach
C. Medical approach
D. Behavioural change approach
E. Ecological approach
13. Who stated the following: “health protection is ensured through two distinct matters.
The first is to strengthen its structure and consolidate its foundation, which means to take
good care of what we have of health, while the second is to protect it against any negative
development, present or future, which means to take care lest it withers away.”
A. Al-Khayat
B. Imam Al-Shatibi
C. Kasule
D. Bukhari
E. Abu Hurairah
14. The principle of necessity states that necessity legalises the
A. Prohibited
B. Accepted
C. Neglected
D. Protected
E. Selected
15. These health programmes are permissible and in fact provide a practical solution to a
problem that could result in far greater damage to the society at large if left unaddressed.
This is known as
A. Risk reduction
B. Low reduction
C. Harm reduction
D. Primary reduction
E. Selective reduction
16. Da’wah, from Arabic, literally means
A. Invitation, inviting
B. Calling people to know about
C. Striving for the propagation of Islam
D. All of the above
E. A only
17. In the Islamic health promotion framework of De Leeuw and Abdelmoneim the follow-
ing … together constitute the basis of political consideration for healthy public policies.
A. Ummah
B. Shuura
C. Hisba
D. Waqf
E. All of the above
18. Islam, as defined in the Qur’an, is the natural course of life which God has bestowed
on humanity. Hence, adhering to Islamic life-styles is, in itself, a realisation of the true
nature of the human being, and ensures harmony with the laws of God in body and soul,
in the individual, the family and community, and between human beings and their envi-
ronment. This is from the
E. WHO (2011)
19. The Qur’anic Seven Lean and Seven Fat years occurring simultaneously is found in
A. Yusuf 12:43–48
B. Al-Baqarah 2:233
C. Ash-Shuraa 42:38
D. Ali 'Imran 3:104
E. Al-Baqarah 2:234
20. “There should neither be harming (of others without cause), nor reciprocating harm
(between two parties)” is from
A. Imam Al-Shatibi
B. Kasule
C. Ahmad and Ibn Majah
D. Ibn Sina
E. Abu Hurairah
Note
1 Scylla and Charybdis, Greek mythology, means to be caught between two equally unpleasant alter-
natives.
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Chapter 19
Biological, psychological, social and

spiritual aspects of aggression
Learning outcomes
• Define aggression.
• Differentiate between affective and instrumental aggression.
• Explain what is meant by microaggression.
• Discuss three main theories of aggression.
• Discuss the psychosocial interventions in the management of aggressive behaviour and
anger.
• Discuss the emotion of anger from an Islamic perspective.
• Discuss the prevention and management of anger from an Islamic perspective.
Defning aggression
One of the negative dimensions of human behaviour and experience is aggression. Thomas
Hobbes (n.d.), considered to be one of the founders of modern political philosophy, bemoaned
that the state of nature of man, characterised by the state of war, is “solitary, poor, nasty, brut-
ish, and short.” However, the status of man has evolved to be more prosocial, co-operative and
less warmongering. Aggression has been examined by philosophers, psychologists, sociolo-
gists and political scientists, in trying to study the problem of aggression and understand its
nature. The extent of state-sponsored conflicts, civil war, political instability, regional con-
flicts, the spread of global terrorism and Islamophobia have contributed to the relevance of
the understanding of aggressive behaviours. In addition, conflicts may also arise as a result of
limited resources, such as scarcity of food, water and territories. Aggression is defined accord-
ing to the orientation and academic discipline of the author, the intent and the context in which
aggression takes place. These factors tend to impinge on an operational definition of aggres-
sion because of the complexities of the variables involved. Generally, most social psycholo-
gists define human aggression as any intentional behaviour that causes harm to another person
who wants to avoid the harm. Geen (2001) defines the term aggression as “the delivery of an
aversive stimulus from one person to another, with intent to harm and with an expectation of
causing such harm, when the other person is motivated to escape or avoid the stimulus” (p.3).
The features of this definition are that human aggression has a behavioural, an intentional and
a harm dimension. This type of behaviour focuses on a clear intention of harming an unwill-
ing victim. However, Geen (2001) asserts that his definition has severe limitations including
the failure to consider the role of emotion in many aggressive actions, the complex cognitive
decisions that often precede aggression and that aggression is often reciprocal.
Aspects of aggression 441
Affective and instrumental aggression

Psychologists have conceptualised human aggression as affective or instrumental. In affective
or hostile aggression, the behaviour is impulsive in nature and there is a clear motivation to
harm someone. This type of aggression is emotionally driven and is considered to be impul-
sive and reactive. In contrast, it has been suggested that instrumental aggression is conceived
as being premeditated, and cold-blooded (Crick and Dodge, 1996; Anderson and Bushman,
2002), and does not necessarily involve the intention to cause pain (Berkowitz, 1993).
Instrumental aggression is more cognitive than affective. However, instrumental aggression
has been found to be associated with lack of guilt and empathy (Del Vecchio, 2011), and is
based on the social learning model of aggressive behaviour. The affective approach to aggres-
sion is called reactive and the instrumental approach is proactive in nature. In affective-based
aggression, there is evidence to suggest that the main brain regions involved in the reaction
to a threat include the “amygdala, hypothalamus, and periaqueductal gray (PAG)” (Blair,
2016, p.7). Depending on the intent and context of aggression, it is sometimes difficult to
distinguish between instrumental and emotional aggression. It has been suggested that per-
haps we need to consider affective and instrumental aggression as part of a continuum rather
as distinct categories (Bushman and Anderson, 2001). In addition, according to the authors,
the affective-instrumental approach fails to consider aggressive acts with multiple motives.
Forms of aggression
Social psychologists categorise aggression in a variety of forms including verbal, paraver-
bal, physical, psychological and emotional. Physical aggression is behaviour that is directed
to harm others physically, for instance, hitting, biting, pushing, kicking, using weapons or
shooting. Nonphysical aggression is aggression that is psychological, verbal, paraverbal and
emotional and does not involve physical harm. Verbal aggression includes screaming, yelling,
swearing and name calling. In psychological aggression, there is the intention to humiliate,
criticise, blame, dominate, isolate, intimidate and threaten one’s partner (Follingstad, Coyne
and Gambone, 2005). Psychological aggression is both a verbal and emotional act whereas
emotional aggression is to harm emotions and inflict emotional pain on the victim. The focus
of psychological-emotional aggression is on attacking and harming a victim’s sense of self
and psychological well-being, with residual long-term psychological effects (Murphy and
Hoover, 1999). There is also the relational or social aggression which refers to behaviours
that are intended to significantly damage another person’s social relationships, friendships
or feelings of inclusion by the peer group (Crick and Grotpeter, 1995). For instance, this
includes spreading rumours, rejection, manipulation and damage of their peer relationships,
excluding others from peer friendship or giving others the “silent treatment.” The “silent
treatment” is a way to inflict pain by excluding and ignoring people.
Microaggression is a term coined by Harvard Medical School psychiatrist Chester Pierce
in the 1970s. Microaggression, as form of prejudice, refers to a subtle, intentional actions
and behaviours that have harmful effects directed at marginalised groups. According to Sue
(2010), microaggressions are “the everyday verbal, nonverbal, and environmental slights,
snubs, or insults, whether intentional or unintentional, which communicate hostile, deroga-
tory, or negative messages to target persons based solely upon their marginalised group mem-
bership.” Sue and Spanierman (2020) categorise microaggression by race, gender and sexual
orientation.
Theories of aggression
There are several theories as to why aggression exists. The theories include: Evolutionary,
ethological, genetic, neural and hormonal, social-psychological and psychological.
Evolutionary explanations of aggression

The notion of the evolutionary origin of aggression is based on the premise that aggression
is an adaptive feature for humans. According to Carrier (2009), “Aggressive behaviour has
evolved in species in which it increases an individual’s survival or reproduction, and this
depends on the specific environmental, social, reproductive, and historical circumstances of
a species.” In some way we may have been programmed genetically for aggressive behaviour
as a useful evolutionary role in defending both territory, space and offspring. However,
Evolution didn’t just shape us to be violent, or peaceful, it shaped us to respond flexibly,

adaptively, to different circumstances, and to risk violence when it made adaptive sense
to do so. We need to understand what those circumstances are if we want to change things
(Cashdan, 2008).
Buss and Shackelford (1997) and Buss (2004) have identified seven adaptations of aggres-
sion in humans: Co-opting the resources of others, defending against attack, inflicting costs
on same-sex rivals, negotiating status and power hierarchies, deterring rivals from future
aggression, deterring mates from sexual infidelity and reducing resources expended on genet-
ically unrelated children.
Aggression and gender differences

There are gender differences in the display of aggressive behaviours. Andaç Demirtaş-
Madran (2018) maintains that “From an evolutionary perspective, gender differences in jeal-
ousy could be explained through evolution-based differences in parental investment, and that
males exhibit increased jealousy in response to sexual infidelity, whereas females become
jealous in response to emotional infidelity” (p.1). It has been reported that men are more
likely than women to show aggression (Wilson and Daly, 1985) and commit homicide (Daly
and Wilson, 1994) and familicides (the killing of family members) (Wilson and Daly, 1997).
Jealousy is one of the factors that contribute to aggression in both males and females and is
almost universal. Jealousy is “a complicated reaction in response to a perceived threat, which
would end or destroy a relationship that is considered important” (Pines, 1998, p.2). The
findings of a systematic review by Edalati and Redzuan (2010) showed that there is a strong
relationship between jealousy and aggression, such as loss of fondness, refusal, distrustful,
lack of self-confidence, sentimental support, decreased feeling of incomparability and fear.
In addition, it was suggested that jealousy may play a significant role in aggression between
couples, and jealousy is a cause for aggression after marriage. There is also evidence that
jealousy is a predictor of aggressive behaviour (Adams, 2012), and it seems that aggressive-
ness is also a predictor of jealousy (Facebook-related jealousy) (Andaç Demirtaş-Madran,
2018). Perrin et al. (2011) point out that an evolutionary psychology approach to gender
differences is reductionistic in its attempt to explain all gender differences as instinctual and
fails to consider contextual variables, such as ethnicity, race and social class.
Neural and hormonal explanation of aggression

Aggression is controlled in large part by the limbic system which includes the hypothalamus
and amygdala. In brief, it is the amygdala that is responsible for regulating our perceptions
and reactions to aggression. In connection with other neural mechanisms, it is involved in
the release of neurotransmitters related to stress and aggression. Evidence from studies sug-
gests that it is the amygdala, hypothalamus and periaqueductal grey (PAG) that are involved
in affective-based aggression (Blair, 2016). However, negative emotions and aggression are
controlled by a neural connection between the amygdala and regions of the prefrontal cortex
(Gibson, 2002).
Most research studies examining the role of neurochemical transmitters have been only
with animals. For example, low levels of serotonin are linked to increased aggression (Delville
et al., 1998). The gene which is linked to the production of the hormone serotonin inhibits
aggressive behaviours. However, when the PET-1 gene is damaged, aggressive behaviours
tend to re-occur (Hendricks et al., 2003). Hormones are also important in creating aggres-
sion. Research with human subjects shows a relationship between low levels of serotonin
(5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5-HIAA)) and violent behaviours, suggesting that a lack of
serotonin is linked to aggression (Linnoila and Virkunen, 1992). Lidberg et al. (1985) com-
pared serotonin levels of violent criminals with non-violent controls, finding the lowest levels
of serotonin among individual who are more prone to acts of violence in states of emotional
turmoil. Hormones, such as the male sex hormone testosterone, are also important in the
development of aggression. Research studies are continuing in examining the hormones and
neurochemical transmitters underlying aggression. The evidence continues to point to andro-
gens and serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, or 5-HT) gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and
dopamine as major hormonal and neurotransmitter factors in aggressive behaviour (Nelson,
2006; Narvaes and de Almeida, 2014).
However, the limitations of these findings are that most of the evidence linking, for exam-
ple, low levels of serotonin and aggression is only correlational and does not indicate causal-
ity. In addition, there is the extrapolation of animal studies in the understanding of human
behaviour. The neural and hormonal factors tend to disregard effects of socialisation and
other environmental issues, such as environmental stressors in the development and mainte-
nance of aggressive behaviours.
Social learning explanations of aggression

The social learning theory of Bandura (1977) suggests that aggression is caused not only by
inherited factors but also environmental factors through the process of observational learning
or modelling. That is, learning social behaviours by direct experience and by observing others
rather for the need to gain rewards or reinforcements. The Bobo doll experiment (Bandura,
Ross and Ross, 1961) has been examined in Chapter 7. In the Bobo doll experiment, aggres-
sive acts carried out by a role model will be accepted, internalised by an individual and
reproduced in the future. Bandura believed that aggressive reinforcement in the form of imi-
tation of family members and the role of the mass media were the most prominent sources of
behaviour modelling. The findings of another study on observational learning showed how
exposing children to violence in the family has an effect on subsequent behavioural problems
(Litrownik et al., 2003). Negative role models portrayed in the media can provide a source
of vicarious reinforcement which can lead to aggressive behaviour being re-enacted. The
main problem is that constant media violence in the news and in films may cause children
to develop cognitive and emotional scripts leading to desensitisation, and becoming more
hardened to acts of violence in real life. The limitation of the Bobo doll experiment is that
the study was not a real-life situation which may suggest demand characteristics and a lack
of ecological validity.
Psychological explanation of aggression

The psychoanalytical explanation of aggression is based on Freud’s two fundamental drives
in the structure of personality, namely, the desire for life and pleasure (Eros, Libido), and the
desire for destruction and death (Thanatos, Mortido). According to Freud’s early interpreta-
tion, it is the libido (sexual energy) that is not under control that might be the cause of aggres-
sion. Freud changed his views later and suggested that it is the death energy of “Thanatos” that
is responsible for aggression which is directed against ourselves (self-aggression, self-harm)
and to other people and our surroundings. Freud locates aggression in one part of the psyche
(the unconscious) and rational thought in another (the conscious mind). Freud believes that
aggression is a left-over from our “pre-cultural” past (our ancestors) and there is little value in
aggression as it is completely destructive. However, neo-Freudians believed that emotional
attachments and secure parent–infant bonding in early childhood help to defuse aggressive
urges in later life. It is the release of pent-up emotion through the process of catharsis that
produces a cleansing effect.
Social cognitive explanation of aggression

Social cognitive theorists believe aggression is learnt rather than innate, and their emphasis
is on perception, thoughts and the role of learning and situation in understanding aggressive
behaviour. People develop a cognitive framework called schemas which help us to organise
and interpret information. It is through experience that cognitive schemata are developed and
transform the individual’s mind and affect the potential for aggressive behaviour. The role
of normative beliefs (general and specific) has also been put forward in the development of
aggression. Normative beliefs are an individual’s cognitions about social rules about accept-
able and unacceptable behaviours that control consequent actions (Huesmann and Guerra,
1997). There is evidence to suggest that both situation-specific and general beliefs have been
found to be significantly related to children’s actual aggressive behaviour (Huesmann and
Guerra, 1997; Huesmann et al., 1992).
Cognitive priming was first proposed by Berkowitz (1984), one of the pioneers of cog-
nitive neo-association theory, to explain that violent thoughts and memories can increase
the potential for aggression even when aggression has not been imitated or learned.
Berkowitz (1984) suggests that if people are exposed to media violence (e.g. films, video
games), this activates thoughts or ideas about violence which may prime thoughts of
physical violence. In fact, the association between violent video game exposure and
aggressive behaviour is one of the most studied and best established. Findings from robust
multi-method research studies showed that there is a strong link between violent video
game exposure and aggressive behaviour (Moller and Krahe, 2009; Saleem, Anderson and
Gentile, 2012). Research studies also showed evidence of a decrease of socially desirable
behaviour, such as prosocial behaviour, empathy and moral engagement, associated with
the use of violent video games (Arriaga, Monteiro and Esteves, 2011; Happ, Melzer and
Steffgen, 2013). Cognitive scripts are information we already have in memory to deal
with certain situations. These sets of cognitive scripts have been learned and are acces-
sible at some point in the future as a guide for behaviour. It has been proposed that when
children observe violence in the mass media, they learn aggressive scripts (Huesmann,
1986, 1998).
However, Anderson and Bushman (2002) have developed a unified framework of cogni-
tive neoassociation, cognitive priming theory and social learning into a comprehensive gen-
eral aggression model (GAM). The GAM is based on the notion that aggression is the result
of personality, the interaction of the person and the context (Anderson and Bushman, 2002).
Evidence for the general aggression model comes from longitudinal studies (Anderson et al.,
2008), meta-analyses (Anderson et al., 2010; Greitemeyer and Mugge, 2014) and event-
related potential studies (Liu et al., 2015), that showed that exposure to violent video games
significantly predicts adolescent aggression.
Other theories in the explanation of aggression

There are a number of theories that make an attempt to explain aggressive behaviour in
terms of whether it is innate or learned, or a combination of both. The ethological per-
spective (Lorenz, 1966) examines aggressive instinct in humans and animals. He suggests
that aggression is an innate adaptive response for survival to see off predators and to get
resources. This view supports the biological basis of aggression. The frustration-aggression
hypothesis, based on the psychodynamic approach, put forward by Dollard et al. (1939), pro-
posed that if we experience frustration, this leads to aggression which is a cathartic release.
Dollard et al. (1939) suggest that if an individual, for whatever reasons, is prevented from
achieving a goal, then this will lead to frustration, and in turn, to aggression. If the aggres-
sion cannot always be directed at the source of aggression, then the aggression is displaced
to other people, objects or things. Berkowitz’s (1989) revised frustration-aggression hypoth-
esis, known as the negative-affect theory, emphasises that frustration, being an unpleasant
stimulus, may lead to negative emotion, resulting in aggressive behaviour. In addition to
frustration, there are other factors such as jealousy, pain, loneliness, noise pollution, feeling
uncomfortable and cues such as the presence of weapons that will be more likely to trigger
aggression. Several studies support the link between the negative affect of frustration and
aggressive behaviour.
In the situational approach, institutions like prisons which are dysfunctional make people
aggressive. In 1971, psychologist Philip Zimbardo and his colleagues set out to create an
experiment to investigate the impact of situational variables on human behaviour. This exper-
iment made history in the field of psychology. Known as the Stanford Prison Experiment
(Haney et al., 1973), it was to assess whether the social environment in prisons made people
act the way they do rather than their personality. Zimbardo’s experiment strongly supports
the situational approach. The Stanford Prison Experiment is frequently cited as an example of
unethical research and could not be replicated by researchers today because of ethical codes
in conducting psychological research. In Iraq, the Abu Ghraib prisoners’ abuses were similar
to the Stanford Prison Experiment in demonstrating how the context and situation can influ-
ence human behaviour.
There is also the physical explanation or disease-oriented explanations of aggressive
behaviours. Several disorders or disabilities may lead to aggressive behaviours including
epilepsy, dementia, psychosis, alcohol and drug abuse and brain injuries or abnormalities.
Emotion of anger
Anger is an emotional experience and is a characteristic of human behaviour. It is often per-
ceived as a secondary emotion because we tend to react to various situations. This emotional
feeling, with varying degrees and in many different contexts, can be evoked through frustra-
tion, boredom, experiencing unfair treatment, dissatisfaction, being criticised, physical pain
or physical restraint. It has been suggested that this emotional state is an approach-related
emotion that motivates an organism to approach and attack (Harmon-Jones, Harmon-Jones
and Price, 2013; Harmon-Jones and Harmon-Jones, 2020). In relation to the neuroscience of
anger, the neural networks for anger extend from the medial amygdala, through specific parts
of the hypothalamus and into the midbrain (Harmon-Jones and Harmon-Jones, 2020).
From a cultural perspective, individuals express anger differently depending on whether
the culture espouses individualistic or collectivistic values. The findings from the study of
Matsumoto, Yoo and Chung (2010) showed that “Individualistic cultures were associated
with greater endorsement of angry expressions toward ingroups compared to outgroups”
(p.131). The expression of anger also depends on social status and the purpose of anger. In
studies of Western cultures, the findings showed that individuals with lower social status
have been reported to express more anger (Park et al., 2013). Park et al. (2013) suggests that
anger has two important facets, namely, venting frustration and displaying dominance. The
authors maintain that
cultures place a different emphasis on one or the other such that the functional relation-
ship between the two facets varies across cultures. Specifically, people in independent
cultures may be more likely to express anger when they are frustrated (rather than when
they have power to display) because their personal goals are highly salient. Thus, the
primary determinant of anger expression is experience of frustration.
(p.9)
From an Islamic perspective, there are many verses of the Qur’an where the concept of anger
is mentioned. The concept has a range of meanings depending on the context. The word
ghayn yā ẓā occurs 11 times in the Qur’an, in 4 derived forms (verb, noun, active participle
and verbal noun) and denotes the emotion of rage and anger (Qur’an Dictionary). According
to Islamic theology, getting angry is one of the evil whispers of the devil (Shaytaan) which
leads to so many evils and destroys relationships and creates physical distances in people.
Anger does not only affect the person it is directed to, but also influences the health status of
the angry person. However, as stated earlier, anger is part of the nature of human behaviour,
and it is unfeasible that people would not get angry even if the individual is righteous. But
sincere and virtuous people will always remember Allah and His commands or when they
are reminded. For instance,
Ibn ‘Abbas (may Allah be pleased with him) reported that a man sought permission to
speak to ‘Umar ibn al-Khattab (may Allah be pleased with him), then he said: “O son
of Al-Khattab, you are not giving us much and you are not judging fairly between us.”
‘Umar (may Allah be pleased with him) was so angry that he was about to attack the
man, but Al-Hurr ibn Qays, who was one of those present, said: “O Ameer al-Mu’mineen
[Commander of the Faithful], Allah said to His Prophet ( ) (interpretation of the
meaning): ‘Show forgiveness, enjoin what is good, and turn away from the foolish’
[Al-A’raaf 7:199]. This man is one of the foolish.” By Allah, ‘Umar could go no further
after Al-Hurr had recited this verse to him, and he was a man who was careful to adhere
to the Book of Allah.
(Bukhari (a))
The are many statements from the Messenger of Allah ( ) about anger, the ways to limit its
effects and cures for this “disease.” On the authority of Abu Hurairah (may Allah be pleased
with him): A man said to the Prophet ( ), “Counsel me,” so he ( ) said, “Do not become
angry.” The man repeated [his request for counsel] several times, and [each time] he (peace
and blessings of Allah be upon him) said, “Do not become angry” (Bukhari (c). According
to another report, the man said: “I thought about what the Prophet ( ) said, and I realised
that anger combines all kinds of evil” (Ahmad (a)). The next Hadith conveys that anger
is not considered a strength, but the true strength lies in absorbing such negative emotion.
Abu Hurairah narrated that he heard Allah’s Messenger ( ) as saying: “One is not strong
because of one’s wrestling skilfully. They said: Allah’s Messenger ( ), then who is strong?
He said: He who controls his anger when he is in a fit of rage” (Muslim (a)).
The avoidance of anger or getting angry is also rewarded as Allah, the Almighty, has
promised to the righteous a great reward as stated in the following verse of the Qur’an. Allah
• Who spend [in the cause of Allah] during ease and hardship and who restrain anger and
who pardon the people – and Allah loves the doers of good. (Ali’ Imran 3:134)
It was narrated from Sahl bin Mu’adh bin Anas, from his father, that the Messenger of Allah
( ) said:
Whoever restrains his anger when he is able to implement it, Allah will call him before
all of creation on the Day of Resurrection, and will give him his choice of any al-hoor
al-iyn [fair females with wide lovely eyes] that he wants.
(Ibn Majah)
Prevention and anger management

Prevention and anger management have been the prime movers in the control of anger. The
Messenger of Allah ( ) is our positive role model in Islam, and Muslims are urged to fol-
low his examples. Controlled anger, which is praiseworthy, is permissible for the sake of
God, when His rights are violated. It is narrated that the Prophet ( ) became angry
when he was told about the Imam [one who lead the mandatory prayer] who was putting
people off the prayer by making it too long; when he saw a curtain with pictures of ani-
mate creatures in ‘Aishah’s house; when Usaamah spoke to him about the Makhzoomi
woman who had been convicted of theft, and he said “Do you seek to intervene concern-
ing one of the punishments prescribed by Allah?”; when he was asked questions that he
disliked, and so on. His anger was purely for the sake of Allah.
(Islam Q&A, 2000)
The following is the advice of the Prophet ( ) in the control and management of anger.
Seeking refuge with Allah from the devil (Shaytaan)

Sulayman ibn Sard said,
While I was sitting in the company of the Prophet ( ), two men abused each other
and the face of one of them became red with anger, and his jugular veins swelled (i.e.
he became furious). On that the Prophet ( ) said, “I know a word, the saying of which
will cause him to relax, if he does say it. If he says: ‘I seek Refuge with Allah from
Satan.’ then all is anger will go away.” Somebody said to him, “The Prophet ( ) has
said, ‘Seek refuge with Allah from Satan.’” The angry man said, “Am I mad?” (Bukhari
(b)). The Prophet ( ) said, “If a man gets angry and says, ‘I seek refuge with Allah,’
his anger will go away.”
(Suyuti)
Keeping silent
Ibn 'Abbas reported that the Messenger of Allah ( ) said, “Teach and make things easy
and not difficult. When one of you is angry, he should be silent” (Al-Adab Al-Mufrad (a)).
In another version, Ibn 'Abbas said, “The Messenger of Allah ( ) said, ‘Teach and make
it easy. Teach and make it easy.’ three times. He went on, ‘When you are angry, be silent’
twice” (Al-Adab Al-Mufrad (b)). In another Hadith, the Messenger of Allah ( ) said: “If
any of you becomes angry, let him keep silent” (Ahmad (b)). During the state of anger, in
most cases people tend to lose self-control. In this situation, the person could utter offensive
words, or words of slander, or curses, or say words of kufr/disbelief (from which we seek
refuge with Allah). In marital dispute, the husband could pronounce the word of divorce
(Talaaq) which would destroy his home, and family life. The solution to avoid the verbal
abuses or a stream of expletives or saying things that go against your personal or social inter-
ests is to keep silent.
Changing position
The Messenger of Allah ( ) advises us to change position when getting angry. The wis-
dom in changing position is that it prevents the person from losing control because he could
do something harmful, causing injury, or even kill, and in some cases destroy possessions.
Changing position is a distraction. Abu Dharr narrated that “The Messenger of Allah ( )
said to us: When one of you becomes angry while standing, he should sit down. If the anger
leaves him, well and good; otherwise he should lie down” (Abu Dawud (a)). It is reported that
there is a story connected to Abu Dharr telling the story.
Abu Darr was taking his camels to drink at a trough that he owned, when some other
people came along and said (to one another), “Who can compete with Abu Dharr (in
bringing animals to drink) and make his hair stand on end?” A man said, “I can,” so he
brought his animals and competed with Abu Dharr, with the result that the trough was
broken. [i.e., Abu Dharr was expecting help in watering his camels, but instead the man
misbehaved and caused the trough to be broken]. Abu Dharr was standing, so he sat
down, then he laid down. Someone asked him, “O Abu Dharr, why did you sit down
then lie down?” He said: “The Messenger of Allah ( ) said: …” and quoted the Hadith.
(Ahmad (c))
According to another report, Abu Dharr was watering his animals at the trough, when another
man made him angry, so he sat down (Fayd al-Qadeer).
Al-’Allamah al-Khattaabi (may Allah have mercy on him) said in his commentary on Abu
Dawud:
One who is standing is in a position to strike and destroy, while the one who is sitting
is less likely to do that, and the one who is lying down can do neither. It is possible that
the Prophet ( ) told the angry person to sit down or lie down so that he would not do
something that he would later regret. And Allah knows best.
(Abu Dawud (b))
Following the advice of the Prophet ( ):

There are many pieces of advice (see the Hadiths in previous section) from Prophet
Muhammad ( ) about the benefits of the control and management of anger. These include
the promise of paradise; great reward from Allah for the righteous: Allah will fill his heart
with contentment on the Day of Resurrection; and “Allah will call him before all of mankind
on the Day of Resurrection, and will let him choose of the al-hoor al-iyn whoever he wants.”
One of the supplications and invocations (du’aa) of the Prophet ( ) is:
O Allah, by Your knowledge of the Unseen and Your power over Your creation, keep
me alive for as long as You know life is good for me, and cause me to die when You
know death is good for me. O Allah, I ask You to make me fear You in secret and in
public, and I ask You to make me speak the truth in times of contentment and of anger.
I ask You not to let me be extravagant in poverty or in prosperity. I ask You for continu-
ous blessings, and for contentment that does not end. I ask You to let me accept Your
decree, and for a good life after death. I ask You for the joy of seeing Your face and for
the longing to meet You, without going through diseases and misguiding fitnah (trials).
O Allah adorn us with the adornment of faith and make us among those who are guided.
Praise be to Allah, the Lord of the Worlds.
Another supplication: Abdullah ibn 'Umar said, “One of the supplications of the Messenger
of Allah ( ) was, ‘O Allah, I seek refuge with You from the disappearance of Your bless-
ing and from the loss of good health and Your sudden vengeance and all of Your anger’”
(Al-Adab Al-Mufrad (b)).
Sheikh Muhammed Salih Al-Munajjid (2000) recommended several measures to deal
with anger, including: Following the Prophet’s ( ) example in the case of anger; knowing
that resisting anger is one of the signs of righteousness (Taqwa); listening to reminders or
commands from Allah; knowing the bad effects of anger; the angry person should think about
himself during moments of anger; and remember the harms of anger. Al-Maawirdi mentioned
some of the measures to be taken to soothe anger if it arises: “Remembering Allah, which
should make him fear Him; this fear will motivate him to obey Him, so he will resume his
good manners, at which point his anger will fade.” Allah says (interpretation of the meaning):
• And remember your Lord when you forget. (Al-Kahf 18:24)

• And if an evil suggestion comes to you from Satan, then seek refuge in Allah. (Al-A’raaf
7:200)
In addition, other advice includes:
• The person should get out of the situation he is in, so that his anger will dissipate.
• He should remember that anger leads to regret and the need to apologise.
• He should remember the reward for forgiving others and of being tolerant.
• He should remind himself of the way that people like and respect him.
• He should know that by forgiving people he will only increase the respect with which
they view him. As the Messenger of Allah ( ) said: “Allah will not increase a person
who forgives others except in honour” (Muslim (b)).
A cautionary note of making ablution (wudu) when angry. This information is found in many
websites dealing with anger. The Hadith that is used to support this claim is the following: It
is narrated Atiyyah as-Sa’di:
Abu Wa’il al-Qass said: We entered upon Urwah ibn Muhammad ibn as-Sa’di. A man
spoke to him and made him angry. So he stood and performed ablution; he then returned
and performed ablution, and said: My father told me on the authority of my grandfather
Atiyyah who reported the Messenger of Allah ( ) as saying: Anger comes from the
devil, the devil was created of fire, and fire is extinguished only with water; so when one
of you becomes angry, he should perform ablution.
(Abu Dawud (c))
However, this Hadith has been classified as weak (Da’if) by Sheikh Al-Albani. Ibn Hajar
(n.d.) described the cause of a Hadith being classified as weak as “either due to discontinuity
in the chain of narrators or due to some criticism of a narrator.” It is beyond the scope of this
chapter to examine the use of weak Hadiths when certain conditions are met.
Finally, there are certain situations where we, as Muslims, should become angry and
should show our anger purely for the sake of Allah. Dr. Saleh as-Saleh stated:
With Tawhid being undermined for instance, or when people are looking down upon the
Sunnah of Allah’s Messenger ( ) or when Muslims are being killed or treated unjustly.
We know that under circumstances, such as these, it is correct to be angry because there
are many occasions like these where the Prophet ( ) became angry.
(Saleh as-Saleh)
To summarise, according to Islamic principles (Rassool, 2020), anger management is

based on:
• Smiling.
• Seeking refuge with Allah from the devil.
• Keeping silent.
• Changing your position.
• Remembering the Prophet’s ( ) advice: “Do not become angry.”
• Fearing the wrath and punishment of Allah.
• Remembering that uncontrolled and unfounded anger humiliates.
• Reminding ourselves of the rewards of controlling anger.
• Following the examples of the righteous.
• Being self-aware of your anger.
Psychosocial interventions in the management of aggressive

behaviour and anger
Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) is a type of psychosocial intervention that helps patients
understand the thoughts and feelings that influence their behaviours. Aggressive behaviour
is associated with a tendency to perceive and interpret situations as threatening or hostile
despite evidence to the contrary. In this context, the goal of CBT is to reduce these kinds of
hostile biases and reframe negative and hostile thinking into positive cognition. It is also to
identify and modify non-acceptable prosocial behaviour or disturbing thought patterns that
have a negative influence on both emotions and behaviour (Hofmann et al., 2012).
CBT is the most effective method in the management of aggression and violence (Linehan,
1993). In the last two decades, CBT has emerged as the most suitable psychosocial inter-
vention in the management of anger. The findings of a meta-analysis of CBT, based on 50
studies, in the treatment of anger showed that the average CBT recipient was better off than
76% of untreated subjects in terms of anger reduction (Beck and Fernandez, 1998). The find-
ings of another meta-analysis review showed that the strongest support exists for CBT for
anxiety disorders, somatoform disorders, bulimia, anger control problems and general stress
(Hofmann et al., 2012). There is also evidence to support the use of CBT in improving anger
regulation, and for a range of psychological therapies in reducing aggressive behaviour for
people with intellectual disabilities (ID) (Browne and Smith, 2018). Aggressive replacement
therapy (ART) is a CBT violence-reduction programme that originated as a treatment for
adolescents and has also been found to be effective in working with adults and people with
mental illness (Glick and Gibbs, 2011).
The prevention and management of affective or anger-driven aggression are complex
and challenging. It has been suggested that four psychological interventions may be effec-
tive in reducing anger-driven and impulsive aggression: Cognitive reappraisal (CBT tech-
nique), self-control training, cognitive control training and mindfulness. There is evidence
to suggest that these four psychological interventions are effective in the reduction of anger-
driven aggression (Denson, 2015). However, there are limitations to this study as a result
of methodological weakness and because the sample was university students. Fix and Fix
(2013) reviewed research studies on mindfulness-based treatments for reducing aggressive
behaviour. Their findings indicate that four group studies found limited support, though they
were significantly flawed, and seven single-subject studies displayed consistent reductions in
aggressive behaviours.
Modified forms of traditional CBT with a focus on Islamic values have been developed
and implemented. These therapies include “Cognitive restructuring: An Islamic perspective”
(Hamdan, 2008); adapted behavioural activation (Mir et al., 2015); Islamically modified
cognitive behavioural therapy (Husain and Hodge, 2016); and Islamic integrated cognitive
behavioural therapy (Sabki et al., 2018). These can be adapted and used in the psychological
treatment of aggressive behaviour.

• One of the negative dimensions of human behaviour and experience is aggression.
• Social psychologists define human aggression as any intentional behaviour that causes
harm to another person who wants to avoid the harm.
• Psychologists have conceptualised human aggression as affective or instrumental.
• Affective or hostile aggression is emotionally driven and is considered to be impulsive
and reactive.
• Instrumental aggression is conceived as being premeditated, and cold-blooded.
• Social psychologists categorise aggression in a variety of forms including verbal, para-
verbal, physical, psychological and emotional.
• In psychological aggression, there is the intention to humiliate, criticise, blame, domi-
nate, isolate, intimidate and threaten one’s partner.
• There is also relational or social aggression which refers to behaviours that are intended
to significantly damage another person’s social relationships, friendships or feelings of
inclusion by the peer group.
• The notion of the evolutionary origin of aggression is based on the premise that aggres-
sion is an adaptive feature for humans.
• There are gender differences in the display of aggressive behaviours.
• Aggression is controlled in large part by the limbic system which includes the hypothala-
mus and amygdala.
• Low levels of serotonin are linked to increased aggression.
• The social learning theory suggests that aggression is caused not only by inherited fac-
tors but also environmental factors through the process of observational learning or
modelling.
• Freud locates aggression in one part of the psyche (the unconscious) and rational thought
in another (the conscious mind).
• Social cognitive theorists believe aggression is learnt rather than innate, and their empha-
sis is on perception, thoughts and the role of learning and situation in understanding
aggressive behaviour.
• Cognitive priming: Explains that violent thoughts and memories can increase the poten-
tial for aggression even when aggression has not been imitated or learned.
• Ethology of aggression: Aggression was an innate adaptive response for survival to see
off predators and to get resources.
• The Stanford Prison Experiment is frequently cited as an example of unethical research
and could not be replicated by researchers today because of ethical codes in conducting
psychological research.
• From a cultural perspective, individuals express anger differently depending on whether
the culture espouses individualistic or collectivistic values.
• The avoidance of anger or getting angry is also rewarded as Allah, the Almighty, has
promised to the righteous a great reward.
• Allah said to His Prophet ( ) (interpretation of the meaning): “Show forgiveness,

enjoin what is good, and turn away from the foolish” (Al-A’raf 7:199).
• Controlled anger, which is praiseworthy, is permissible for the sake of God, when His
rights are violated.
• The Prophet ( ) said, “If a man gets angry and says, ‘I seek refuge with Allah,’ his
anger will go away” (Suyuti).
• When one of you is angry, he should be silent.
• The wisdom in changing position is that it prevents the person from losing control
because he could do something harmful, causing injury, or even killing, and in some
cases destroying possessions.
1. Which of the following best describes how Lorenz understood what causes aggression?
A. Aggression is a consequence of our social identity.
B. Aggression is a consequence of deindividuation.
C. Aggression is a consequence of situational cues.
D. Aggression is a consequence of our fighting instinct.
E. Aggression is socially construed.
2. According to the evolutionary theory of aggression, which one is not correct?
A. Aggression is adaptive.
B. Men obtain average status.
C. Competing for limited resources.
D. Genetic survival.
E. Women: Protecting offspring and self.
3. The underlying motivation for acts of aggression is
A. Intent to harm
B. Anger
C. Need to exert control
D. Retaliation
E. Impulsiveness
4. Anger is regarded as a
A. Type of feeling
B. Type of behaviour
C. Type of receptive aggression
D. Type of instrumental aggression
E. Type of relational anger
5. Aggressive behaviours can be separated into different classes.
A. Instrumental aggression
B. Affective aggression
C. Situational aggression
D. A and C
E. A and B
6. Biochemical theory of aggression. Which statement is not correct?

A. High levels of serotonin are linked to increased aggression.
B. Low levels of serotonin are linked to increased aggression.
C. The hormone testosterone is important in the development of aggression.
D. Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) is also a factor in aggressive behaviour.
7. Which statement is not correct relating to aggression
A. It is an impermanent emotional state.
B. It is a very normal and typical feeling.
C. It is a regular attempt to hurt a person.
D. It is an acceptable feeling simply like bliss or sadness.
E. It is a type of feeling.
8. Aggression is controlled in large part by the limbic system which includes
A. Hypothalamus
B. Amygdala
C. Periaqueductal grey
D. A, B and C
E. A and B only
9. Social learning theory claims we learn aggression primarily through
A. Observation of significant people around us
B. Modelling people who are similar (age/sex) or of higher status (parent/teachers)
C. Direct reinforcement
D. A and B only
E. A, B and C
10. The PET-1 gene is linked to the production of the hormone
A. Serotonin
B. Adrenalin
C. Noradrenalin
D. Testosterone
E. Endorphins
11. Which statement is not correct? Most evidence linking low levels of serotonin and
aggression
A. Is only correlational.
B. Indicates causality.
C. Does not indicate causality.
D. Oversimplifies the true mechanisms involved as other factors.
E. Is biological reductionism.
12. Which statement is not correct? The central idea of social learning theory is that
A. People do not need rewards to learn aggression.
B. People may copy the behaviour of others.
C. Learning occurs through experience followed by either punishment or reward.
D. But this is less likely if they see the other people being punished.
E. Aggression is a natural phenomenon.
13. The limitations of Bandura’s Bobo doll experiment include:
A. Experiment was in a laboratory
B. No ecological validity
C. Example of demand characteristics

D. A, B and C only
E. A only
14. Which statement is not correct? Berkowitz’s (1989) updated version known as “Negative -
affect theory” includes
A. Feeling uncomfortable.
B. Greater numbers of people tended to correlate with the level of violence.
C. Noise pollution or loud music.
D. Certain cues may increase the tendency towards aggression.
E. If the problem is unexpected the individual is less likely to control their aggression.
15. Which statement about the Stanford Prison Experiment is not correct?
A. Zimbardo’s experiment was ethical according to American Psychological
Association.
B. Zimbardo found that ordinary students became aggressive and cruel when they
took on the role of being a prison guard.
C. Another situational argument is that the prisons themselves are dysfunctional.
D. Zimbardo’s experiment strongly supports the situational approach.
E. In many prisons in the United States the conditions were extremely poor, violent
and overcrowded.
16. Which statement is not correct?
A. Cognitive priming is based on the idea that memory works through association.
B. It therefore contends that events and media images can stimulate related thoughts
in the minds of audience members.
C. A schema is a model of what we think does not normally happen.
D. Priming means that a particular event, or an image or even a word may be associ-
ated with thoughts.
E. A cognitive script is a way of dealing with a situation.
17. The notion that aggression can be reduced by allowing angry individuals to engage in
harmless activities that allow them to “blow off self-esteem” is the
A. Frustration-aggression hypothesis
B. Displacement hypothesis
C. Sublimation hypothesis
D. Catharsis hypothesis
E. Cognitive hypothesis
18. The frustration-aggression hypothesis
A. Assumes that aggression is basic instinct.
B. Claims that frustration and aggression are both instinctive.
C. Assumes that frustration produces aggression.
D. Was developed by a social learning theorist.
E. None of these.
19. According to Freud the cause of aggression is
A. Thanatos
B. Libido
C. Agape
D. Eros
E. Super-ego
20. From a cultural perspective, individuals express anger differently depending on …

A. Whether the culture espouses individualistic values.
B. Whether the culture espouses collectivistic values.
C. Individualistic cultures were associated with lower endorsement of angry expres-
sions toward ingroups compared to outgroups.
D. Collectivistic cultures, however, were associated with greater endorsement of
angry expressions toward outgroups than ingroups.
21. The emotion of rage and anger appears in the Qur’an:
A. 11 times
B. 12 times
C. 13 times
D. 14 times
E. 15 times
22. What is the source of the following verse? “Who spend [in the cause of Allah] during
ease and hardship and who restrain anger and who pardon the people – and Allah loves
the doers of good.”
A. Al-Baqarah 2:160
B. Al-Mai’dah 5:1
C. Ali’ Imran 3:134
D. At-Tawbah 9:22
E. Al-Anbya 21:16
23. Which advice is not correct? Dealing with anger from an Islamic perspective includes
A. Seeking refuge with Allah from the devil (Shaytaan)
B. Keeping silent
C. Changing position
D. Following the advice of the Prophet ( )
E. Using synthetic medications
24. Other advice on the management of anger does not include:
A. He should get out of the situation he is in, so that his anger will dissipate.
B. He should remember that anger leads to regret and the need to apologise.
C. He should remember the punishment for not being assertive and aggressive.
D. He should remind himself of the way that people like and respect him.
E. He should know that by forgiving people he will only increase the respect with
which they view him.
25. Which psychological intervention is effective in reducing or treating aggressive
behaviour?
A. Psychoanalysis
B. Cognitive behavioural therapy
C. Classical conditioning
D. Eclectic therapy
E. Existential therapy
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Chapter 20
Stress, coping strategies and

interventions
Learning outcomes
• Define stress.
• State the differences between distress and eustress.
• Describe the relationship between the nervous system and the endocrine system.
• Describe the stimulus-related, response-related and transactional models of stress.
• Discuss the Islamic perspective on stress and anxiety.
• Describe the types of coping mechanisms in dealing with stress.
• Describe some of the Islamic perspectives in coping with stress and anxiety.
Introduction
Stress and anxiety play a major role in our mental and physical health, and we know how we
feel and behave when we are stressed or have a bout of anxiety. The word stress is derived
from the Latin verb stringo meaning to draw tight, graze or pluck. In psychological termi-
nology, stress is used “to describe the situation, object, or person causing stress; the feelings
and physical responses elicited in the individual; and the resultant outcomes, whether these
are behavioural, cognitive, or physiological” (Hayward, 2005, p.2001). Stress is an expected
human response to a challenging external threat and is based on two dimensions: The psycho-
logical or emotional dimension and the bodily or physiological dimension. When there is an
external threat or demand, the body’s defences respond automatically in a process known as
the “fight-or-flight” reaction, or the stress response. In stress, the individual may experience
symptoms such as irritability, anger, fatigue, muscle pain, digestive troubles and difficulty
sleeping. Stress and anxiety are often used interchangeably. Both concepts include an emo-
tional response, but there is overlap between stress and anxiety. The American Psychological
Association (2019) defines anxiety as “persistent, excessive worries that don’t go away even
in the absence of a stressor. Anxiety leads to a nearly identical set of symptoms as stress:
insomnia, difficulty concentrating, fatigue, muscle tension and irritability.” Anxiety can be
caused by stress, and the signs and symptoms can be similar.
There is no complete or precise definition of stress as its use is intertwined with anxiety,
hassles, etc. Arthur (2005) remarks that stress “has so many different meanings that it is con-
fusing, elusive, and heard so often its meaning is frequently distorted, and its implications
taken for granted” (p.274). Stress has been conceptualised as a stimulus-based definition
because it is characterised as an external demand and pressure that trigger certain reactions.
Weiten (2010) defined stress as “circumstances that threaten or are perceived to threaten one’s
wellbeing and that thereby tax one’s coping abilities” (p.9). Kroemer and Grandjean (1997)
suggest that it is “the emotional state or mood which results from a discrepancy between the
level of demand and the person’s ability to cope” (p.212).
There is also the response-based definition that characterises stress as a physiological
response when faced with threatening or demanding situations. For instance, Hans Selye
defined stress as the “response of the body to any demand, whether it is caused by, or results
in, pleasant or unpleasant conditions” (Selye, 1976, p.74). Selye’s definition of stress is
response-based in that it conceptualises stress chiefly in terms of the bodily or physiological
reaction to any threat or demand. Another stimulus-based definition is “The adverse reaction
people have to excessive pressure or other types of demand placed on them” (HSE, 2018).
However, neither stimulus-based nor response-based definitions provide a complete defini-
tion of stress. The same bodily reactions can be as a result of an unpleasant threat or demand
but also from receiving unanticipated good news or excitement. The current definitions of
stress suggest links between physiology, psychology and immunology. The use of the fol-
lowing terms has been suggested to distinguish the different ways the term “stress” is used
(Curtis, 2000):
• Stressor—an event that an individual interprets as endangering their physical or
psychological wellbeing.
• Stress-Response—refers to the reactions to the stressor. (p.123)
It is the stressor (situation, person or object) from the external environment that triggers a
reaction resulting in biochemical, physiological, behavioural and psychological changes.
This may lead to anger, anxiety, apathy, depression, cognitive impairment, psychosomatic
and physical disorders. Daily hassles, that is, the stresses of everyday life (e.g. sitting in
a traffic jam, queuing at the supermarket, social distancing), can also be detrimental to
health. Daily hassles are “irritating, frustrating, distressing demands that to some degree
characterise everyday transactions with the environment” (Kanner et al., 1981, p.3). There
is evidence to suggest that daily hassles can increase your blood pressure, alter the stress
hormones and even suppress the immune system function (Twisk et al., 1999). Stress can
cause heart disease, high blood pressure, chest pain, an irregular heartbeat, development of
blood clots and weight gain (Chilnick, 2008); hair loss (McEwen, 2003); infertility prob-
lems (Bouchez, 2018); a reduction of the growth hormone (Van der Kolk et al., 2007); and
damage to arteries and organs caused by cytokines (a result of stress) (McEwen, 2003). On
a positive note, we can reduce our stress levels by laughing and strengthen our immune
system by releasing positive hormones, and dark chocolate has been found to reduce stress
hormones (Wallenstein, 2003).
Hans Selye separated stress into two components: Distress and eustress. Distress occurs
when there is negative or bad stress, when there is an excessive or little demand placed upon
us. Too many demands cause a decrease in performance, whereas no stress at all may cause an
individual to lack the motivation and energy to perform. However, a moderate level of stress
primes the individual with energy to be motivated and achieve high levels of performance.
It is during this moderate level of physiological and immunological arousal that eustress is
believed to occur. Eustress has often been ascribed the label of positive stress. Eustress is
believed to increase mental alertness and awareness and improve wellness. Psychological
distress is a broad term that describes acute psychological stress resulting from an absence of
mental health. The levels of distress are measured based on the severity of the symptoms and
their impact on the person’s quality of life.
Stress, coping strategies and interventions 463
Stress, the nervous and endocrine systems

During an emergency or stress reaction, the sympathetic nervous system is activated, also
called the fight-or-flight response, resulting in increased arousal and mobilisation of energy.
The body prepares for motor activity, either to fight the stressor or to flee from the stressor.
This results in an increase in the heart rate, a narrowing of the blood vessels in the skin, an
increase in respiration, the stimulation of the sweat glands, the dilation of the pupils and a
decrease of gastrointestinal activity. In contrast, the parasympathetic nervous system works
to calm the body’s response to promote relaxation and bring the body to a normal, non-
stressful condition. The two systems work together and serve the same target organs but func-
tion reciprocally to maintain balance. Both systems are operating at the same time. There are
two main neurotransmitters: Acetylcholine and noradrenaline (norepinephrine). The endo-
crine system is involved in the stress response, and the glands are found on top of each kid-
ney, producing different hormones. Adrenal glands are also found on top of each kidney and
make hormones in response to stress. An emergency or stressor activates parts of our brain
to send messages to prepare the body for the fight-or-flight response. The hypothalamus is
the area of the brain responsible for the first stage of this process. The hypothalamus sends a
message in the form of a hormone, corticotrophin-releasing factor (CRF), to another area of
the brain called the pituitary gland. Figure 20.1 presents the relationship between stress and
the nervous and endocrine systems.
The pituitary gland sends a message to the adrenal glands. This message is in the form
of the adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH). When the ACTH reaches the adrenal glands,
they, in turn activate to produce glucocorticoids hormones. The most common is cortisol
which is sometimes called the “stress hormone.” The release of cortisol acts as a message
Stressor
Corticotrophic
Hypothalamus
Release Hormone
Pituitary Gland-ACTH
Sympathetic Nervous
System
Adrenal Cortex
(e.g Cortisol)
Adrenal Medulla
(Secretes Stress Stress Hormones
Hormones)
Nerve Ending Activities Fight or

Various Smooth Muscles and Flight
Glands (Dilate Pupils) Response
Figure 20.1 Stress, nervous and endocrine system.

to prepare the body to deal with the emergency (stressor). The adrenal medulla (part of the
adrenal glands) is responsible for the release of two hormones: Adrenaline (epinephrine)
and noradrenaline (norepinephrine). The main function is to increase blood pressure and
heart rate.
Psychoneuroimmunology
Psychoneuroimmunology is the study of the interaction between stress or emotional states
and the nervous and immune systems of the human body. Psychoneuroimmunology is the
study “of the interactions among behavioral, neural and endocrine, and immune processes”
(Ader, 2001). Research in this field of medicine helps us to understand the onset and pro-
gression of disease and provides an alternative model of health. Straub and Cutolo (2018)
observed that
psychological stress can be disease permissive, as in chronic inflammatory diseases,

cancer, cardiovascular diseases, acute and chronic viral infections, sepsis, asthma, and
others. We recognised that stress reactivity is programmed for a lifetime during a critical
period between foetal life and early childhood, which then influences stress behaviour
and stress responses in adulthood.
(p.76)
A review by Marshall (2011) exploring the link between stress and the immune system found
that stress may play a role in conditions that affect the immune system, such as cancer, HIV
and inflammatory bowel disease.
There is accumulating evidence that suggests that neuroinflammation plays an important
role in the aetiology of psychiatric disorders (Calcia et al., 2016; Rhie, Jung and Shim,
2020). It has been observed that the immune system responds to stressors and communi-
cates with the central nervous system through a number of mechanisms, including cytokine
signalling (Louveau et al., 2015). A cytokine is a small protein that is released by cells in
the immune system, and the ones that are involved in stress are called pro-inflammatory
cytokines. Exposure to a psychosocial stressor, such as separation from a close family mem-
ber, releases a different type of pro-inflammatory cytokine (Deak et al., 2015). When there
is a high level of pro-inflammatory cytokines in childhood, due to trauma or negative psy-
chological experiences, there is also a high risk of mental health problems in adulthood
(Khandaker et al., 2014).
Models of stress
There are several models including stimulus-based, response-based and the transactional
model conceptual framework (Lazarus and Folkman, 1984b; Stokes and Kite, 1994).
The response-based approaches include two major physiological theories of stress: Fight-
flight (Cannon, 1932) and general adaption syndrome (Selye, 1956).
Stimulus-based approaches
Stimulus-based approaches are based on the notion that that stress is a study of external
events or stressors, rather than on the emotional and subjective experiences. Stressors were
identified as the cause of stress, for example, noise, time pressure, workload, etc (O’Driscoll
et al., 2001; Stokes and Kite, 1994). Most of the research studies based on this approach
focused on the impact of external stressors. The stressors were studied despite the fact that
the manipulated variable actually created a feeling of stress in the individual concerned
(Stokes and Kite, 1994). This particular theory was advanced by Holmes and Rahe (1967).
This theory made a number of assumptions that “Change is inherently stressful. Life events
demand the same levels of adjustment across the population. There is a common threshold
of adjustment beyond which illness will result” (Walinga, 2014). Rahe and Holmes initially
viewed the human subject as a passive recipient of stress but later modified the theory to
include the concept of interpretation, based on cognitive and emotional factors (Rahe and
Arthur, 1978).
Holmes and Rahe developed the social readjustment rating scale (SRRS) consisting of
42 life events. These major life changes were scored according to the estimated degree of
adjustment they would each demand of the person experiencing them (for example, marriage,
divorce, relocation, change or loss of job, loss of loved one). They hypothesised that people
with higher scores in the SRRS, based on major life changes, are more likely to experience
physical or mental illness. While there is some supporting evidence and some correlations
emerged between SRRS scores and illness (Rahe, Mahan and Arthur, 1970; Johnson and
Sarason, 1979), there were problems with the stress as stimulus theory. Stress as a stimulus
theory has been widely criticised because stress becomes “merely a convenient label and
collective noun indicating certain environmental and organismic conditions” (Sanders, 1983,
p.62). The approach ignored important variables; for example it fails to recognise the differ-
ent effects stress may actually have on individuals. It has been suggested that this approach
also fails to consider the emotional component of experiences and individual differences
(O’Driscoll et al., 2001; Stokes and Kite, 1994). Other variables that have been neglected are
the cognitive aspects of the effects of stress, the role of prior learning, environment, support
networks, personality and life experience.
Response-based approaches
The response-based approaches focus not on the external stressors or demands but on the
physiological and emotional reactions. The fight-flight response (Cannon, 1932), also known
as the acute stress response, refers to a physiological reaction that occurs in response to
either a real or perceived treat or harmful event. The threat or harm could be either physi-
cal or psychological. The physiological reactions enable the organism to react to the danger
by either fighting or fleeing. In either case, the physiological and psychological response to
stress helps to mobilise the body’s resources to deal with the threat and to react. In response
to acute stress, the body’s sympathetic nervous system is activated due to the sudden release
of hormones, and subsequently it stimulates the adrenal glands, triggering the release of cat-
echolamines, which include adrenaline and noradrenaline. This results in an increase in heart
rate, blood pressure and breathing rate (Gordan, Gwathmey and Xie, 2015). Depending on
the severity of the perceived threat, the body will eventually return to its pre-arousal levels.
Some of the physical signs that may indicate the fight-or-flight response include rapid
heartbeat, heavy breathing, pale or flushed skin, dilated pupils, tremors or shaking. This
theory’s apparent strength is that the fight-or-flight response is found in both humans’ and
animals’ behaviour. In addition, by measuring physiological responses and levels of hor-
mones in the blood, we can obtain an objective measure of stress. However, there are many
Three Stage General Adaptation Syndrome
Stressor
Alarm Stage:
Mobilizing Resources to Meet
or Resist the Stressor
Resistance:
Coping with Resistance to the
Stressor
Exhaustion:
Depletion of Resistance
Resulting in Breakdown
Figure 20.2 Three stage-general adaptation syndrome.
criticisms levelled against this approach. For example, Von Dawans et al. (2012) challenge
the view that, under stress, men respond only with fight or flight, whereas women are more
prone to “tend and befriend.” The findings from this study showed that acute stress can actu-
ally lead to greater prosocial behaviour and cooperative and friendly behaviours, even in
men, thus, providing evidence for the tend-and-befriend hypothesis.
Selye (1950, 1956) proposed a response-based approach to stressors which he termed the
“general adaption syndrome” (GAS). The GAS consists of three stages: Alarm reaction, stage
of resistance and stage of exhaustion. Figure 20.2 shows the three-stage general adaptation
syndrome.
• Alarm stage – is like the fight-or-flight response to an emergency as the body is mobilised.
• Resistance stage – is the attempt to cope with the stressor. The body becomes increas-
ingly vulnerable to health problems, including ulcers, high blood pressure, asthma and
illnesses that result from impaired immune function.
• Exhaustion stage – results from severe long-term or repeated stress, causing the body to
enter the stage of exhaustion. The immune system and the body’s energy reserves are
weakened until resistance is very limited.
It is the activation of the sympathetic nervous system which stimulates the physiological
changes which accompany elevated arousal levels. The sympathetic nervous system stimu-
lates the adrenal medulla, to release the adrenaline-like compounds, epinephrine and nor-
epinephrine, into the bloodstream. The hypothalamus also signals the pituitary gland to
activate the adrenal cortex to release cortisol, which is important for maintaining increased
blood sugar levels. Because of the surge in adrenaline, there is an increased heart rate and
norepinephrine increases the motor response. This response is commonly referred to as the
fight-or-flight response (Bracha et al., 2004; McEwen, 2007). The GAS theory provides some
plausible explanation of how stress may be related to physical disease. However, the model
does not account for individual differences and lacks a cognitive appraisal element (Folkman
et al., 1986; Lazarus and Folkman, 1984; Lazarus and Laurier, 1978). The personal percep-
tion of threat, which varies between individuals, and personality dimensions are also ignored
in this approach. This approach is still based on the stimulus-response paradigm.
Transactional model of stress

Lazarus and Folkman proposed the third approach in the study of stress. The transactional
model focuses more on the psychological constructs than the stimulus- or response-based
approaches with the emphasis on the psychological processes which mediate an individual’s
reactions to stress events (Lazarus and Folkman, 1984; Lazarus, 1966, 1998). Psychological
stress is defined as “a particular relationship between the person and the environment that is
appraised by the person as taxing or exceeding his or her resources and endangering his or
her well-being” (Lazarus and Folkman, 1984, p.19). This approach conceptualises stress as
a transaction between the person and their environment and being conditional on personal
interpretation or appraisal of an encounter. In fact, it is the interpretation of stressors that was
more important than the events themselves.
There are two key dimensions related to the transactional model of stress, namely, the
interaction with the environmental event and appraisal. It is how an individual appraises a
stressor that determines how they cope with or respond to the stressor. According to Lazarus
and Folkman (1984), the way a person appraises the situation determines both stress reac-
tions and coping efforts. The model is presented in Figure 20.3. For instance, if an individual
perceives that they can cope with the demands of a situation, then stress is unlikely or mini-
mised. In contrast, if the individual perceives that the demands of the task or situation are
greater than the individual can cope with, then stress is likely. The appraisal is initiated at the
introduction of a stressor and the potential stressor is then evaluated. This is performed to
assess the level of danger; the potential harm, loss or discomfort; and the amount of energy
to spend to challenge the situation. Further sub-evaluations of the potential threat are made
about novelty, certainty and predictability (Lazarus and Folkman, 1984), and whether the
stressor is also construed as either a threat or a challenge (Monat and Lazarus, 1991). If no
threat is identified, then there is no stress. However, if a threat is perceived, an individual
goes through a secondary appraisal process and appraises their own ability to handle this
stress or challenge, and the strategy most likely to reduce the potential harm (Monat and
Lazarus, 1991). There is a mobilisation of all available resources to cope with the problem.
Coping mechanisms are also an important element in this approach, and the type of coping
is determined by appraisal of the stressful encounter being considered. It is worth noting that
whether or not a stressor is perceived as a threat or a challenge is influenced by diverse per-
sonal and contextual factors including capacities, skills and abilities, constraints, resources
and norms (Mechanic, 1978).
Individual differences in personality, social and cultural background and prior experiences
of the situation can also be key determinants in influencing the perception of the poten-
tial stressor and the appraisal process. The transactional model integrates both personal and
environmental issues and focuses on cognitive appraisal to evaluate the threat posed by the
stressor. Stress is viewed as a transactional process between an individual, the stressor and
Situation or Event
Primary Appraisal
Perceived Threat No Perceived Threat
Secondary Appraisal No Stress
Perception Perception Ability

Inability to Cope to Cope with the
with the Threat Threat
Negative Stress Positive Stress
Figure 20.3 The transactional model of stress.
the environment. If this model is applied to health, it needs to consider social, cultural and
other environmental determinants of health that can have a major impact on a person’s health
behaviours. The transactional model does not address an individual’s baseline behaviour
prior to being faced with a threat or harm. For individuals with high anxiety levels, their
cognitive and emotional appraisal of the stressor would unquestionably have a much greater
impact than individuals with no pre-existing mental health conditions. It has been reported
that the transactional model of stress and coping “is useful for health education, health pro-
motion and disease prevention” (University of Twente, 2020, p.51). However, the model
does propose that stress can be reduced by helping stressed people change their perceptions
of stressors, providing them with cognitive strategies to deal with stressors.
Islamic perspective on stress and anxiety

Trials and tribulations are part of the Muslim way of life. Mu’awiyah narrated that “I heard
the Prophet ( ) say: ‘There is nothing left of this world except trials and tribulations’”
(Ibn Majah (a)). Stress and anxiety are part of those trials and tribulations and are the most
common ailment of contemporary living. Allah mentions in the Qurʼan (interpretation of the
meaning):
• And We will surely test you with something of fear and hunger and a loss of wealth and
lives and fruits, but give good tidings to the patient. (Al-Baqarah 2:155)
Table 20.1 Stress and anxieties faced by Muslims
Types of anxieties Explanation/examples
Committing sins Distress suffered after a criminal act or shedding blood wrongfully
Anxiety of a woman who is pregnant as a result of fornication or
adultery
Stress/distress Mistreatment
Disobedience of children
Domestic abuse and violence
Crime
Natural disasters/civil wars
Loss of employment
Debt or loan
Dreams
Abu Hurairah narrated that the Prophet ( ) stated:
“While I was sleeping, I was given the treasures of the earth and two
gold bangles were put in my hands, and I did not like that, but I
received the inspiration that I should blow on them, and I did so,
and both of them vanished. I interpreted it as referring to the two
liars between whom I am present; the ruler of Sana and the Ruler of
Yamaha” (Bukhari (a))
Family after death A’isah (may Allah be pleased with her) reported that the Messenger
of Allah ( ) used to pray “One of the things that concerns me
is what will happen to you (his wives) after my death, for none will
be able to take care of you properly except those who are truly
patient” (Tirmidhi (a))
False accusations An example of this is what happened to ‘A’isah (may Allah be pleased
with her) when the hypocrites accused her of sin during the
campaign of Muraysi
Truthful person who is
disbelieved
Islamophobia/
microaggression
Worship
Calling people to Islam See Hadith
(Dawah)
Adapted from Shaykh Muhammed Sâlih al-Munajjid (2003).
According to Ibn Kathir: “Allah informs us that He tests and tries His servants. Hence, He
tests them with the afflictions of fear and hunger, some of the wealth will be destroyed, we are
going to lose friends, relatives and loved ones to death.” Shaykh Muhammed Sâlih al-Muna-
jjid (2003) stated there are several kinds of anxieties affecting Muslims (see Table 20.1). The
anxieties may result from several sources: Ill-treatment, crime, committing sin, unwanted
pregnancy, loss of job, disobedience of children towards their parents, domestic abuse and
violence, dreams, unemployment, natural disasters and war.
Shaykh Muhammed Sâlih al-Munajjid (2003) also presented the case of A’isah (may Allah
be pleased with her), the wife of Messenger of Allah ( ), when the hypocrites accused her
of sin during the campaign of Muraysi. This is an example of the anxiety suffered by an
innocent person when false accusations are made (p.18). A’isah (may Allah be pleased with
her) became ill, and when she heard the news of the rumours from one of the women of her
household, she became even sicker and felt very distressed. She said: I said: Subhan-Allah!
Are people talking about that? I wept all night, until morning, and never slept; my tears
never stopped falling. Then I wept all day, and never slept; my tears never stopped falling.
My parents came to me the next morning. While they were sitting with me, and I was cry-
ing, a woman of the Ansâr asked permission to see me. I gave her permission, and she sat
down, weeping with me. While we were sitting thus, the Messenger of Allah ( ) came in,
greeted us, and sat down. He had not come to visit me since the rumours had started, and for
a month there had been no Revelation concerning my situation. While he was sitting there,
the Messenger of Allah ( ) recited the testimony of faith, then he said: O ‘Â’ishah, I have
heard such-and-such about you. If you are innocent, Allah will prove your innocence, and if
you did commit a sin, then ask for Allah’s forgiveness and repent to Him, for when the slave
admits the sin and repents to Allah, Allah will accept the repentance.
When the Messenger of Allah ( ) had finished what he had to say, my tears stopped
completely, and I said to my father: Respond to what the Messenger of Allah has said. He
said: By Allah, I do not know what I should say to the Messenger of Allah. I said to my
mother: Respond to what the Messenger of Allah ( ) has said. She said: By Allah, I do not
know what I should say to the Messenger of Allah ( ). I said: I am only a young girl and
I do not know much of the Qur’an. By Allah, I have nothing to say to you except the words
of the father of Yusuf:
• …So [for me] patience is most fitting. And it is Allah [alone] Whose help can be sought
against that which you assert. (Yusuf 12:18)
Then I turned away and lay down on my bed. Then Allah revealed:
• Verily! Those who brought forth the slander [against ‘Â’ishah] are a group among you.
Consider it not a bad thing for you…} (An-Nur 24:11)1
The Messenger of Allah ( ) had more than a fair share of this kind of stress. ‘A’isah (may
Allah be pleased with her) told her nephew (the son of her sister) ‘Urwah that she asked the
Prophet ( ):
Did you ever suffer any day worse than the day of Uhud? He said: I suffered what I suf-
fered at the hands of your people, and the worst that I suffered from them was on the day
of ‘Aqabah, when I had made an appeal to Ibn ‘Abd Yâlayl ibn ‘Abd Kalâl and he did
not respond in the way I had hoped for. I left him, hardly knowing where I was going,
and I did not realise where I was until I had reached Qarn al-Tha’âlib. I raised my head
and saw a cloud which was shading me. I looked in it, and saw Jibreel, who called to me
and said: Allah has heard what your people have said to you, and their response to you.
He has sent to you the Angel of the Mountains, to do whatever you tell him to do to them.
Then the Angel of the Mountains called to me, greeted me, and said: O Muhammad
( ), if you wish, I will crush them between two mountains. The Prophet ( ) said:
Rather, I hope that Allah will bring forth from their descendants’ people who will wor-
ship Allah alone and not associate anything with Him.
(Bukhari)
The Prophet ( ) suffered similar distress when his people disbelieved his account of his
Night Journey. Abu Hurairah narrated that the Messenger of Allah ( ) stated:
I found myself in the Hijr (an area in the Haram in Makkah, near the Ka’bah), and
Quraysh were asking me about my Night Journey, questions about Bayt al-Maqdis that I
was not sure of. I felt more distressed and anxious than I had ever felt, then Allah raised it
for me so that I could see what they were asking me about and answer all their questions.
(Muslim)
Coping style and responses

Coping is defined as: “constantly changing cognitive and behavioural efforts to manage spe-
cific external and/or internal demands that are appraised as taxing or exceeding the resources
of the person” (Lazarus and Folkman, 1984, p.141). In a way it is basically how people man-
age problems or deal with stress. Each individual uses different coping strategies to manage
emotional responses. This refers to the resources that are used to handle or to challenge the
stressors. It is also the use of behavioural and psychological efforts to deal or manage stress-
ful events (Watson et al., 2008). Lazarus and Folkman (1984) suggested there are two types
of coping responses: Emotion-focused and problem-focused. In a revised version of Lazarus
and Folkman’s model, there is an added dimension that includes the impact of positive emo-
tion in dealing with negative outcomes.
Emotion-focused coping involves trying to reduce the stress and the negative emotional
responses by avoiding the situation. The individual has no control over a situation, and this is
the only realistic solution. For instance, dealing with stress from embarrassment, fear, anxi-
ety, depression, excitement and frustration. The coping strategies may be positive or negative
coping strategies. Psychoactive substances (drug and alcohol) may be used as a negative cop-
ing mechanism in dealing with the stressor. Other techniques used may include avoidance of
the situation, keeping busy, eating more (to overcompensate for the anxiety), suppression of
negative thoughts, denial, praying for guidance and strength, the use of meditational practices
and even seeking emotional support from significant others. Other more sophisticated strate-
gies are emotional disclosure in psychotherapy and writing a gratitude diary (Cheng, Tsui and
Lam, 2015) or digital diary. Emotion-focused coping provides a short-term solution and may
be counter-productive as the person delays in dealing with the problem. Emotion-focused
coping is a stop gap as it provides some relief in that it allows the person to contemplate and
reflect on potential solutions. In this way, emotion-focused coping can help with both emo-
tions and solutions.
Another strategy is the meaning-focused coping strategy. Meaning-focused coping is
aimed at drawing positive emotion out of stressful circumstances. Meaning-focused coping
is based on both cognitive and spiritual strategies where the individual draws on his or her
beliefs and spiritual/religious practices to maintain equilibrium of coping during a difficult
time (Folkman, 2008). There is growing interest in positive aspects of the stress process, the
role of positive emotions during stress and the nature of the coping processes. Folkman and
Moskowitz (2000) highlight that positive affect can co-occur with distress during a given
period, has important adaptational significance of its own and that the coping processes
involve meaning. The meaning-focused coping involves seeking the benefits that come out
of misfortune, or in some cases blessings. This kind of coping might be at play for Muslims
in the appreciation of the purpose and meaning in life despite its trials and tribulations. We
extract the positive out from the negative experiences and focus on what really matters in our
lives and reflect on what we really value most. From an Islamic perspective, Muslims use all
of these coping strategies.
The concept of Subhanallah can be translated to mean, among other things, both “God is
perfect” and “Glory to God.” It is often used
when praising God or exclaiming in awe at His attributes, bounties, or creation. It

can also be used as a phrase of simple exclamation – for example, “Wow!” By say-
ing “Subhanallah,” Muslims glorify Allah above any imperfection or deficiency; they
declare his transcendence.
(Huda, 2020)
Muslims also say Subhanallah during times of personal trial and tribulations as a “remem-
brance of purpose and a refuge in the beauty of creation.” Allah says in the Qur’an (interpre-
tation of the meaning):
• Do the people think that they will be left to say, “We believe” and they will not be tried?
But We have certainly tried those before them… (Al-'Ankabut 29:2–3)
Allah will inevitably test His believing servants according to their level of faith, as it
recorded in the authentic Hadith: It was narrated from Mus’ab bin Sa’d that his father,
Sa’d bin Abu Waqqas, said: “I said: ‘O Messenger of Allah, which people are most
severely tested?’ He said: ‘The Prophets, then the next best and the next best. A person
is tested according to his religious commitment. If he is steadfast in his religious com-
mitment, he will be tested more severely, and if he is frail in his religious commitment,
his test will be according to his commitment. Trials will continue to afflict a person until
they leave him walking on the earth with no sin on him.’”
Believing that trials and hardships in life are a blessing from Allah (positive affect) can help
us to understand that they are a sign of Allah’s love for the believer. This understanding
helps us in maintaining and even strengthening our faith as great incentives are associated
with great calamities. It was narrated from Anas bin Malik that the Messenger of Allah ( )
said: “The greatest reward comes with the greatest trial. When Allah loves a people, He tests
them. Whoever accepts that wins His pleasure but whoever is discontent with that earns His
wrath” (Ibn Majah (b)). Al-Hasan Al-Basri (may Allah have mercy on him) said: “Do not
resent the calamities that come and the disasters that occur, for perhaps in something that you
dislike will be your salvation, and perhaps in something that you prefer will be your doom.”
Al-Fadl ibn Sahl said:
There is a blessing in calamity that the wise man should not ignore, for it erases sins, gives
one the opportunity to attain the reward for patience, dispels negligence, reminds one of
blessings at the time of health, calls one to repent and encourages one to give charity.
Problem-focused coping targets the causes of stress in an effort to solve the issue and conse-
quently directly reducing the stress. First there is a need to identify the causes of the stress
in a non-emotive approach and then use strategies such as problem-solving to take control
of the stress and seek social support in handling the situation. In some cases, it is removing
oneself from the stressful situation in order to find a long-term solution for the causes of
stress. However, a problem-focused approach will be rather limited in situations where it is
beyond the individual’s control to remove the source of stress, such as institutionalised stress
or occupational stress. The strategy works best when the person can remove the stressor;
thus, it deals with the root cause of the problem, providing a long-term solution. It has been
suggested that
Many problem-focused coping strategies are applicable in specific situations and do not
generalise broadly across all types of stressors. For example, problem-focused strategies
used to cope with chronic pain may not be useful for coping with a pressing deadline at
work. Although the specific solution each situation requires may differ, both situations
may be amenable to problem solving attempts.
(Stephenson, King and DeLongis, 2016, p.360)
There is evidence to suggest that problem-focused strategies are successful in dealing with
stressors such as discrimination (Pascoe and Richman, 2009), HIV infections (Moskowitz
et al., 2009), diabetes (Duangdao and Roesch, 2008) and reducing the burden on caregivers
of haemodialysis patients (Ghane et al., 2016).
The way we handle and cope with a stressor is dependent on the personality of the indi-
vidual and the social support that is received. Research findings suggest that an individual’s
personality characteristics may indicate how a person will cope with a stressor (Guring,
2006). Social support includes emotional support, practical support, informational support
and companionship support.
Stress management
Stress management is a set of strategies and techniques to reduce both physical and psy-
chological reactions to stress and help to develop resilience and coping skills. The physi-
cal reactions include muscle tension, headaches, upset stomach, high blood pressure, aches,
pains and tense muscles, frequent colds and infections, loss of sexual desire and/or ability,
nervousness and shaking, ringing in the ear and cold or sweaty hands and feet. The psycho-
logical reactions to stress may include emotional strains, including confusion, anxiety, panic
attacks and depression.
There are a wide range of stress-management techniques such as simple relaxation, pro-
gressive or deep muscle relaxation, guided imagery, biofeedback, systematic desensitisa-
tion, meditation, yoga, mindfulness, exercise, pharmacotherapy and cognitive behavioural
approaches. Progressive muscle relaxation is a technique for reducing anxiety by alternately
tensing and relaxing the muscles. The individual learns to relax the muscles during the relaxa-
tion process. Relaxation-based interventions have been found to be beneficial in the improve-
ment of emotional adjustment and quality of life in cancer patients, and are effective for mild
hypertension (Meyer and Mark, 1995; Luebbert et al., 2001), and in regulation of the immune
system (Janice Kiecolt-Glazer et al., 2001). Guided imagery can be used to visualise positive
actions, changes or accomplishments. This may also involve real-life situations (in-vivo).
Biofeedback is a treatment technique in which people are trained to improve their health by
using equipment that can track the body’s physiological responses such as heart rate or brain
waves (EEG). The feedback enables the reinforcement of relaxation strategies. Systematic
desensitisation is based on the principles of classical conditioning. Its focus is on changing
behaviour rather than the feeling associated with it. In this approach, stressful thoughts are
paired with relaxation, and the technique is effective in phobic anxiety, social anxiety and
others. Exercise helps people relax and feel good. Pharmacotherapy is a technique in which
drugs are used in cases of severe anxiety to deal with the physiological reactions of stress.
Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) is a form of psychotherapy based on the idea that our
thoughts, rather than external factors, cause our feelings and behaviours. The aim of the ther-
apist is to help the individual to identify the distorted patterns of thinking and the ways these
thought patterns influence mood or behaviour. This means changing a maladaptive pattern of
thought to an adaptive pattern of thought. CBT has been shown to improve depression, anxi-
ety and quality of life in cancer patients (Osborn et al., 2006). It is considered more effective
when used in combination with other techniques such as relaxation techniques.
Islamic perspectives on coping with stress

A person’s religious belief has an important bearing on coping with stress as, by putting one’s
trust in God, a believer minimises stress by limiting the responsibility and power to control
failure. Now we are going to examine how to deal with stress in the light of the Qurʼan and
the Sunnah. Religious coping means dealing with stress through prayer, collective support
and religious faith. The types of religious coping that are helpful include spiritual support,
collaborative religious coping, congregational support and benevolent religious reframing
(positive thinking in religious terms) (Pargament, 1997). A growing body of literature sug-
gests that people often turn to religion when coping with stressful events. A meta-analysis of
49 relevant studies on religious coping and psychological adjustment to stress supported the
hypotheses that “positive and negative forms of religious coping are related to positive and
negative psychological adjustments to stress, respectively” (Ano and Vasconcelles, 2005,
p.461). Muslims applied both religious and non-religious coping strategies to handle post-
9/11 stress. For example, Muslims used two important non-religious coping methods, namely
reaching out and isolation (Abu-Raiya et al., 2011).
Allah mentions in the Qur’an (interpretation of the meaning):
• And when adversity touches man, he calls upon Us; then when We bestow on him a
favour from Us, he says: I have only been given it because of [my] knowledge. Rather, it
is a trial, but most of them do not know. (Az-Zumar 39:49)
• And when affliction touches man, he calls upon Us, whether lying on his side or sitting or
standing; but when We remove from him his affliction, he continues [in disobedience] as
if he had never called upon Us to [remove] an affliction that touched him. Thus, is made
pleasing to the transgressors that which they have been doing. (Yunus 10:12)
• And when We bestow favour upon man, he turns away and distances himself; but when
evil touches him, then he is full of extensive supplication. (Fussilat 41:51)
Ibn Kathir explained the above verse as follows:
extensive supplications also mean many supplications. When man suffers adversity,
he becomes worried and anxious. Then he supplicates more. He prays to Allah to lift
and remove the adversity. He prays while standing, sitting or lying down. When Allah
removes his adversity and lifts his distress, he turns away and becomes arrogant.
In contrast, the person who has been guided to Islam, if the belief is sound and the faith is
strong, will find the solace and cure in what has come from Allah. Stress, anxiety and depres-
sion can effectively be controlled by the counsel found in the Qurʼan. In Surat Ar-Ra‘d, Allah
affirms (interpretation of the meaning):
• Those who have believed and whose hearts are assured by the remembrance of Allah
unquestionably, by the remembrance of Allah hearts are assured. (Ar-Ra’d 13:28)
• O mankind, there has to come to you instruction from your Lord and healing for what is
in the breasts and guidance and mercy for the believers. (Yunus 10:57)
Studies have shown that the recitation of the Qur’an is psychologically and physiologically
beneficial. The Qur’an is not only guidance for mankind but promotes healing and spiritual
cure. There is evidence to suggest that Qur’an recitation has a stress-reducing effect, and the
reducing effects are related to verses of positive reward (Elkadi, 1985, p. 294), reduction in
perceived stress levels, heart rate and blood pressure (Abdullah, 2009), producing positive
effects by improving calm and reducing stress level (Baharudina and Sumarib, 2011) and
being a useful non-pharmacological treatment to reduce anxiety (Ghiasi and Keramat, 2018).
Stress management depends on the characteristics of the stress. Approaches to dealing
with stress are presented in Table 20.2. This has been adapted from the work of Shaykh
ʻAbdul Malik Munajjid (2003) 25 Ways to Deal with Stress and Anxiety.

• Stress is a normal physiological response of your body reacting to any kind of threat or
demand.
• The nervous system functions as a communication network relaying information about
our body’s internal and external conditions to and from the brain.
• During an emergency, the sympathetic nervous system is activated, resulting in increased
arousal and mobilisation. This is called the fight-or-flight response.
• The endocrine system is involved in the stress response.
• Selye proposed a response-based approach to stressors which he termed the “general
adaption syndrome” (GAS) which consists of three stages: Alarm reaction, stage of
resistance and stage of exhaustion.
• The fight-flight response, also known as the acute stress response, refers to a physiologi-
cal reaction that occurs in response to either a real or perceived treat or harmful event.
• The transactional model of stress is based on the notion that the perception of the poten-
tial harm, threat and challenges combines with the level of confidence in dealing with
these stressors.
• There is evidence now to suggest that the immune system sends signals to the brain,
thereby altering behaviour, thought and mood.
• Allah informs us that He tests and tries His servants.
• Emotion-focused coping involves trying to reduce the stress and the negative emotional
responses by avoiding the situation.
Table 20.2 Ways of dealing with stress and anxiety
Ways to deal with stress and anxiety Lessons from Qur’an and Sunnah
Ask Allah. He listens: Supplication And when My servants ask you, [O Muhammad], concerning
is the weapon of the believer Me-indeed I am near. I respond to the invocation of the
supplicant when he calls upon Me. (Al-Baqarah 2:186)
The Prophet ( ) stated: “There is nothing more honourable
with Allah [Most High] than supplication” (Tirmidhi).
He also advised: “The most excellent worship is duʻa”
(Al-Jami).
The Prophet ( ) advised: “Ask Allah for everything, even
the lace of your shoes. If Allah does not provide, it will
never be available” (Tirmidhi).
The Messenger of Allah ( ) declared: “By Allah! I ask for
forgiveness from Allah and turn to Him in repentance more
than seventy times a day” (Bukhari).
The Messenger of Allah ( ) stated: “When you are making
duah do not say; ‘O Allah, forgive me if You wish. O Allah,
forgive me if you wish.’ You should be frm in your asking,
for there is no compelling Him” (Malik).
The Prophet ( ) said: “Supplication (duah') is itself the
worship.” (He then recited :) “And your Lord said: Call on
Me, I will answer you” (Ghafr 40:60) (Abi Dâwud).
Tie your camel: Do your part
One day Prophet Muhammad, ( ) noticed a Bedouin leaving
his camel without tying it. He asked the Bedouin: “Why
don’t you tie down your camel? The Bedouin answered:
I put my trust in Allah. The Prophet ( ) then said: Tie
your camel frst, then put your trust in Allah” (Tirmidhi).
Remember that human Once you have done your duty, leave it to Allah to decide the
responsibility is limited outcome.
Leave the world behind you fve Use the fve daily prayers as a means to become more
times a day hereafter-oriented and less attached to this temporary
world.
Excuse me! You are not running Being patient gives us control in situations where we feel
the world, He is we have little or no control. We cannot control what
happens to us, but we can control our reaction to our
circumstances.
Remembrance of Allah Dhikr: Remembrance of Allah, including prayer, tasbeeh,
tahmeed, tahleel (Tahmeed is to say ‘Al-hamdu lillãhi, Tahleel is
to say Lã ‘ilaaha ‘illaa ‘allaahu, and Tasbeeh is to say Subhana
‘allaahi), making supplication and reading the Qurʼan.
Relying on Allah And when you have decided, then rely upon Allah. Indeed,
Allah loves those who rely [upon Him]. (Ali-‘Imran 3:159)
End your day on a positive note Make ablution, then think of your day. Show gratitude and
thank Allah for all the good things you accomplished, like
supplication and prayer.
Source: Adapted from Shaykh Muhammed Salih Al-Munajjid (2003).

• Meaning-focused coping is aimed at drawing positive emotion out of stressful

circumstances.
• Problem-focused coping focuses on the target of the causes of stress in an effort to solve
the issue and consequently directly reduce the stress.
• Coping strategies refer to specific behavioural and psychological efforts we make as we
try to master, tolerate, reduce and minimise stress.
• Stress management is the ability to maintain control when situations, people and events
make excessive demands.
• A person’s religious belief has an important bearing on their personality and outlook in
life. Putting trust in God allows a believer to minimise the stress suffered by reducing the
responsibility and power to control failure.
• Two important non-religious coping methods are reaching out and isolation.
• Studies have shown that the recitation of the Qur’an appears to be psychologically and
physiologically beneficial.
• Islamic ways of dealing with stress include several techniques.
1. Which of the following statements about stress management is true?

A. Stress management is learning about the connection between mind and body.
B. Stress management helps us control our health in a positive sense.
C. Stress management teaches us to avoid all kinds of stress.
D. A and B only.
E. A and C only.
2. The following are the characteristics of positive stress.
A. It improves performance.
B. It feels exciting.
C. It motivates.
D. Body readiness.
3. Stimulus-based approaches are based on the notion that stress is a study of
A. Emotional
B. External events or stressors
C. Subjective experiences
D. Biological process
E. Internal events or stressors
4. Which of the following statements best describes Lazarus and Folkman’s (1984) trans-
actional model of stress?
A. Stress is perceived not as a response to a situation but as a transaction between the
person and the environment.
B. Stress is perceived not as a stimulus to a situation but as a transaction between the
person and the environment.
C. Stress is perceived as both a stimulus and a response to a situation.
D. Stress is perceived as neither a stimulus nor a response to a situation but as a trans-

action between the person and the environment.
E. Stress is an internal process.
5. Who was the first to describe the “fight-or-flight response”?
A. Walter B. Cannon
B. Sigmund Freud
C. Hans Seyle
D. Lazarus and Folkman
E. Holmes and Rahe
6. Which of the following statements is not correct?
A. Positive stress is short-term.
B. Negative stress can be short- or long-term.
C. Negative stress can lead to mental as well as physical problems.
D. Negative stress is perceived as within our coping abilities.
7. During which stage of Hans Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome is the sympathetic
nervous system activated?
A. Resistance
B. Alarm
C. Exhaustion
D. Denial
E. Rationalisation
8. The response-based approaches focus on
A. External stressors or demands
B. Physiological reactions
C. Emotional reactions
D. B and C only
E. A only
9. The correct order of Hans Seyle’s General Adaptation Syndrome is
A. Alarm, resistance, exhaustion
B. Resistance, alarm, exhaustion
C. Exhaustion, alarm, resistance
D. Resistance, exhaustion, alarm
E. Alarm, exhaustion, resistance
10. Acute stress involves activation of the ________ system, and prolonged stress involves
activation of the ______ system.
A. Sympathetic nervous; endocrine
B. Parasympathetic nervous, endocrine
C. Endocrine; sympathetic nervous
D. Endocrine; parasympathetic nervous
E. Sympathetic nervous; parasympathetic nervous
11. Lazarus and Folkman (1984) proposed what sort of model of stress?
A. Cognitive reciprocal
B. Cognitive behavioural
C. Transactional model
D. Interactionist
E. Response model
12. According to Hans Selye, what is “eustress”?

A. A biological process mediating the stress process
B. An alternative word for distress
C. Stress associated with positive feelings or healthy states
D. Stress which is both positive and negative
E. A social process mediating the stressor
13. Stress is part of the Muslim way of life. Mu’awiyah narrated that “I heard the Prophet
( ) say: ‘There is nothing left of this world except _______and _________.’”
A. Tribulations, trials
B. This life, hereafter
C. Yourself, your family
D. Trials, tribulations
E. Faith, commitment
14. Lazarus and Folkman’s model suggested that the types of coping responses include
A. Emotion-focused
B. Problem-focused
C. Positive emotion
D. A and B only
E. A, B and C
15. Which one is incorrect? Meaning-focused coping
A. Is aimed at drawing positive emotion out of stressful circumstances.
B. Focuses on the target of the causes of stress.
C. Is based on both cognitive and spiritual strategies.
D. Involves seeking the benefits that come out of misfortune.
E. Is in some cases a blessing.
16. Religious coping means dealing with stress through
A. Prayer
B. Collective support
C. Religious faith
D. Congregational support
E. All of the above
17. Which one is not correct? There is evidence to suggest that Qur’an recitation has
A. A stress-reducing effect.
B. A greater stress-reducing effect is related to verses of positive reward.
C. A greater stress-reducing effect is related to verses of negative reward.
D. Reduction in perceived stress levels, heart rate and blood pressure.
E. Used as a useful non-pharmacological treatment to reduce anxiety.
A. Stress can promote good health.
B. Stress encourages dependency on others.
C. Stress might motivate individuals to have their symptoms checked out.
D. Stress is better than anxiety symptoms.
E. Stress can promote personal growth.
Note
1 The reader is advised to read the complete passage in Surah An-Nur 24:11–20.
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Part VI
General and abnormal psychology

Chapter 21
Psychology of addiction
Learning outcomes
• Define addiction.
• State the difference between substance-use disorders and substance-induced disorders.
• Examine the components of the concept of dependence: Tolerance, physical and psycho-
logical dependence.
• Discuss two main psychological theories or models of addiction.
• Discuss the harms caused by drug use.
• Discuss the harms caused by alcohol use.
• Discuss the use of alcohol and drug use and gambling from an Islamic perspective.
Introduction and context

Addiction is a public health problem of our time with an exponential growth in mortal-
ity, morbidity and disability. The addictive culture is now part of the social fabric of most
Western societies, but now the emerging trend is that it is spreading in developing countries.
Our constant exposure to, and the accessibility of, both addictive substances and addictive
activities have created new social and cultural norms that have influenced and made people
more susceptible to addictions (Rassool, 2011). Addiction does not just affect the individual
but the family and community as a whole. In contemporary society, the range of addictive
behaviours covers both pharmacological and behavioural addictions, including eating, drink-
ing, drug use, gambling, work, exercise, internet use and sexuality. Historically, substances
that affect the mind have been used in ritual ceremonies, medicinally and recreationally.
Caffeine, for example, is the world’s favourite and most popular psychoactive substance.
According to Ghodse (1995, 2010) attempts were made in different countries “to close down
the coffee houses which were seen as centres of sedition and dissent and to ban the use of
coffee altogether” (p.xi).
Alcohol remains the favourite social lubricant in most societies and is associated with
adverse physical, mental and behavioural health conditions and social consequences related
to its intoxication, toxicity and dependence. The illicit drug most used at the global level,
excluding alcohol, tobacco and caffeine products, continues to be cannabis, followed by
MDMA (ecstasy), cocaine, amphetamines, LSD, magic mushrooms, prescribed and non-pre-
scribed opioid medication, nitrous oxide, ketamine and poppers. Illicit drug users continue
to be a group at high risk for the prevalence of HIV, hepatitis and tuberculosis. There is an
upward trend in tobacco smoking in Third World countries and in Eastern Europe. There is
488 General and abnormal psychology
a rise in the trend of the use of waterpipe tobacco smoking known as hookah which carries
many of the same health risks as cigarettes. With new technology in delivering nicotine, there
is new danger and harms in the widespread use of so-called safe substitutes in the form of
“e-cigarettes,” “e-hookahs” and “e-shisha.” Synthetic substances known as novel psycho-
active substances (NPS), which are marketed as Spice, bath salts, herbal incense and new
synthetic psychoactive substances are regularly flooding the underground drug market. The
non-medical use of prescription drugs is also a global health concern. Alcohol, drugs and
tobacco are the leading global cause of preventable deaths and can cause physical, social,
psychological, economic and legal harms. Non-pharmacological or behavioural addiction
such as gambling is now recognised as a psychological disorder. There has been a rapid
increase in the proliferation and accessibility of legalised gambling due to the easy access of
online gambling. Other behavioural addictions include eating disorders, sexual addiction and
internet addiction. Although sex and cyber-sex addiction or internet addiction may not be as
life threatening as pharmacological addictions or eating disorders, they also cause profound,
social or psychological harms to the individual, his/her family or society.
Addiction: Meaning and nature

Addiction is complex, and the question of its definition, nature and causes remains a perennial
issue. The psychology behind addiction focuses on diverse perspectives including whether
addiction is a medical disease, a psychosocial problem, the effect of abuse in childhood, fam-
ily history, trauma and socioeconomic demographics or a moral failing. There are several
definitions of addiction, and some selected one are presented here. The National Institute on
Drug Abuse (NIDA 2018), defines addiction as a “chronic, relapsing brain disease charac-
terised by compulsive drug seeking and use, despite harmful consequences.” The American
Psychological Association (2020) defines addiction as “a chronic disorder with biological, psy-
chological, social and environmental factors influencing its development and maintenance.”
The American Psychiatric Association (2017) views addiction “as a complex condition, a
brain disease that is manifested by compulsive substance use despite harmful consequence.”
The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) (American Psychological
Association, 2013) uses the term “substance use disorder” and “alcohol use disorder.”
The substance-related disorders include the use of psychoactive substances including alco-
hol; caffeine; cannabis; hallucinogens; inhalants; opioids; sedatives, hypnotics or anxiolytics;
stimulants; tobacco; and other or unknown substances. Substance-use disorders are patterns
of symptoms resulting when a user of alcohol or another psychoactive substance continues to
take the substance despite experiencing health problems, disability and failure to meet major
responsibilities at work, school or home. This disorder is classified as mild, moderate or
severe depending on the level of severity. Substance-induced disorders include intoxication,
withdrawal and drug-induced psychiatric or mental health problems. In the DSM-5, the term
addiction is synonymous with the classification of severe substance-use disorder. Volkow,
Koob and McLellan (2016) used the term addiction to
indicate the most severe, chronic stage of substance-use disorder, in which there is a
substantial loss of self-control, as indicated by compulsive drug taking despite the desire
to stop taking the drug. In the DSM-5, the term addiction is synonymous with the clas-
sification of severe substance-use disorder.
(p.363)
Psychology of addiction 489
One feature of addiction, according to West (2013) “is that it arises as a result of engaging
in the addictive behaviour. Thus, enacting the behaviour and experiencing the consequences
of the behaviour are essential to the development of addiction” (p.22). As can be seen from
the above definitions, the term is a multifaceted, socially defined construct that has been
explained in different ways at different points in time, but there are some overlapping themes
with some of the definitions. The findings of a review (Sussman and Sussman, 2011) of the
definition of addiction identified five themes to explain what addiction is. The themes are:
• Engagement in the behaviour to achieve appetitive effects

• Preoccupation with the behaviour
• Temporary satiation
• Loss of control
• Suffering negative consequences
A psychoactive substance is a substance that affects the mental processes and causes changes
in mood, thoughts, feelings or behaviour. This is also termed a psychotropic substance.
Tolerance, psychological and physical dependence

Tolerance refers to the way the body usually adapts to the repeated presence of a drug, that
is, when the body adapts to a certain amount of drugs and alcohol and needs a higher amount
to feel the effects. It is through the process of repeated use of the psychoactive substance that
tolerance develops. Subsequently, higher quantities or doses of the psychoactive substance
are required to reproduce the desired or similar cognitive, affective or behavioural effects.
People can develop tolerance to both illicit drugs and prescription medications which may
lead to addiction.
• Opiate: Heroin – used recurrently over time, tolerance may develop. Physical and psy-
chological dependence.
• Alcohol: Tolerance may develop slowly. Physical and psychological dependence.
• Amphetamines can produce considerable tolerance. Psychological dependence with lit-
tle or no physical dependence.
• Cocaine can produce psychological dependence without tolerance or physical
dependence.
• LSD: Tolerance may develop rapidly.
• Morphine may produce tolerance and physical dependence without a significant psycho-
logical component.
The level of tolerance depends on a number of factors including body weight, types of illness,
stress, weakened immune system and age. Tolerance can decrease rapidly as a result of a few
days of abstinence. However, if the psychoactive substance is taken after the cessation of
use, there is a high risk and danger of overdosing. People who use high amounts of drugs and
alcohol after becoming tolerant face the risk of becoming addicted. It is important to note that
psychological dependence and physical dependence do not exist as mutually exclusive catego-
ries. For instance, some symptoms that are regarded to be primarily psychological in nature,
such as cravings, have evidence of a physiological basis. In contrast, the symptoms of physical
dependence are also associated with a number of symptoms of psychological dependence.
Psychological dependence can be described as a compulsion or a craving to continue

to use a psychoactive substance for its psychological effect. Some of the symptoms of
psychological dependence include cravings, anxiety, irritability, restlessness, mood
swings, loss of or increased appetite, insomnia, denial, obsession and depression. There
are also cognitive problems associated with concentration, memory, problem-solving and
decision-making. Psychological dependence is recognised as the most widespread and the
most important. This kind of dependence is not only attributed to the use of psychoactive
drugs but also to behavioural addiction to food, sex, gambling, relationships or physical
activities.
Physical dependence is characterised by the need to take a psychoactive substance to avoid
physical disturbances or withdrawal symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, seizures
or hallucinations, following cessation of use. The withdrawal symptoms depend on the type
or category of drugs. For instance, the withdrawal from alcohol can cause hallucinations or
epileptic fits and may be life-threatening. In contrast, in the dependence-inducing psychoac-
tive substances such as opiates and depressants, the withdrawal experience can range from
mild to severe. For nicotine, the physiological withdrawal symptoms may be relatively slight.
Physical dependence is not the essence of addiction nor does it constitute addiction, but it
often accompanies addiction. It may be possible for some people to have withdrawal without
dependence or to be addicted without having withdrawal. Plant (1987) observes that many of
the supposed signs of physical dependence are sometimes psychosomatic reactions triggered
not by the chemical properties of the psychoactive drug but by the user’s fears, beliefs and
fantasies. Let us now examine the models of addiction.
Neuroscientifc bases of addiction

The brain disease model of addiction continues to attract attention due to the empirical evi-
dence to support it. Volkow, Koob and McLellan (2016) maintain that
Neuroscience research in this area not only offers new opportunities for the prevention
and treatment of substance addictions and related behavioural addictions (e.g., to food,
sex, and gambling) but may also improve our understanding of the fundamental biologic
processes involved in voluntary behavioural control.
(p.363)
In this model, addiction is viewed as a brain disorder because “it involves functional changes
to brain circuits involved in reward, stress, and self-control, and those changes may last a
long time after a person has stopped taking drugs” (Goldstein and Volkow, 2011). There
are key findings from empirical studies (Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services
Administration (US); Office of the Surgeon General (US), 2016) that show:
• Addiction to alcohol or drugs is a chronic brain disease that has potential for recur-
rence and recovery.
• Addiction process involves a three-stage cycle: binge-intoxication, withdrawal-neg-
ative affect, and preoccupation/anticipation.
• The three-stage cycle becomes more severe as a person carries on using psychoac-
tive substance(s). This produces dramatic changes in brain function that reduce a
person’s ability to control his or her substance use.
• In addiction, there are disruptions in three areas of the brain are particularly impor-
tant in the onset, development, and maintenance of substance use disorders: The
basal ganglia, the extended amygdala, and the prefrontal cortex.
• These disruptions: (1) enable substance-associated cues to trigger substance seeking
(i.e., they increase incentive salience); (2) reduce sensitivity of brain systems involved
in the experience of pleasure or reward, and heighten activation of brain stress systems;
and (3) reduce functioning of brain executive control systems, which are involved in
the ability to make decisions and regulate one’s actions, emotions, and impulses.
• These changes in the brain persist long after substance use stops. It is not yet known
how much these changes may be reversed or how long that process may take.
• Adolescence is a critical “at-risk period” for substance use and addiction.
• All addictive drugs, including alcohol and cannabis have especially harmful effects
on the adolescent brain, which is still undergoing significant development.
• (p.2-2)
There is a particular area of the brain (medial temporal lobe and the motor-related areas of the
frontal lobe, prefrontal cortex and striatum) in which most addictive drugs cause elevations
in extracellular levels of the neurotransmitter dopamine (Suzuki, 2008; Wise and Robble,
2020). Dopamine is a type of neurotransmitter and plays a role in how we feel pleasure dur-
ing healthy activities. Psychoactive substances like cocaine or heroin or behavioural addic-
tions will coerce the brain to release massive amounts of dopamine. This process satisfies the
natural reward system in the brain but also prevents the brain from reabsorbing the dopamine.
This makes the pleasurable experience more elongated. In the context of associative learning,
the neural circuit has been reprogrammed to associate the “high” or euphoric feeling from
psychoactive substances or behavioural addictions (gambling, internet, sex, eating) with only
feelings of pleasure and reward, thus, reinforcing the drug-taking behaviour for more reward
and feeling “high.”
Psychosocial process of addiction

The psychological models of addiction have contributed to the development of many theories
about addictive behaviours. The focus of these models has been on both the pharmacological
(alcohol and drug) and behavioural addictions in our understanding of the nature and causes
of addiction, and the application of psycho-behavioural interventions. The study of behav-
ioural addictions focuses on the psychological aspects of how people become addicted to
activities, such as gambling, sex, internet (cyber), exercise and eating. Learning theories,
especially associate learning (both operant and classical conditioning) are relevant in addic-
tion conditioning. It is argued that the initial seeking and taking of drugs begin as goal-
directed behaviour (Everitt, 2014). The famous conditioning experiment of Pavlov’s dog,
ringing a bell and then rewarding the dog with food, is a classic example of associative learn-
ing (classical conditioning). The basis of this theory involves learning to associate a stimulus
(unconditioned) with a specific response (i.e. a reflex) with a new stimulus (conditioned).
Subsequently the new conditioned stimulus (bell ringing) brings about the same response
(salivation). There is evidence to suggest that
the development of drug addiction can be understood in terms of interactions between

Pavlovian and instrumental learning and memory mechanisms in the brain that
underlie the seeking and taking of drugs. It is argued that these behaviours initially
are goal‐directed, but increasingly become elicited as stimulus-response habits by
drug‐associated conditioned stimuli that are established by Pavlovian conditioning.
(Everitt, 2014, p.2163)
The role of classical conditioning that is established in smoking addiction is illustrated by

West (2013). For example,
the sensation of smoke in the throat and the sight and tactile sensations associated
with smoking acquire reinforcing properties by virtue of being associated with the
rewarding actions of nicotine. This establishes the whole behaviour chain involved in
smoking more powerfully than would be the case were it to rely on only the nicotine
reward.
(p.38)
The associative conditioning approach helps to explain the action of taking a drug and the
outcome of the experience. That is, there is an association between the desired emotion (feel-
ing), behaviour (drug taking) and the brain neural circuit, and the whole loop becomes auto-
matic. There are internal and external cues that may act as a trigger for the desired emotion or
behaviour and the seeking out of the behaviour. The associative conditioning process helps to
explain why external stimuli (cues) or internal states (anxiety, depression, loneliness, effect
of lockdown) often trigger a person’s craving for a substance. The neural circuit may also
be triggered just by seeing the paraphernalia used to administer a drug, inducing an intense
drug-seeking behaviour (craving) for the drug. External cues “are able to elicit craving and
withdrawal symptoms in human drug abusers, as well as contributing to relapse episodes”
(Perry et al., 2014, p.4636). In behavioural addiction such as gambling, the external cues may
include the sound, images and multi-coloured lights which are used by gaming machine man-
ufacturers to trigger “craving” and promote high rates of use of those machines. Dopamine is
a reward signal that is dynamically modified by associative learning (Day et al., 2007). The
role of operant conditioning also plays a part in the process of addiction. Some behaviours,
including addictive behaviours, are learned responses through the process of positive or neg-
ative reinforcers (rewards or offset of aversive stimuli) and controlled by “contingencies of
reinforcement” (Crowley, 1972). It has been suggested that these contingencies include the
following:
• Unconditioned immediate positive reinforcement provided by the pharmacological
effect of a substance;
• Conditioned positive reinforcement associated with the social environment of drug
use;
• Negative reinforcement related to drug withdrawal;
• Negative reinforcement related to aversive aspects of the environment;
• In general, one or more of these contingencies are present in drug acquisition and
maintenance, and it is likely that all of them are active after addiction has been
established (Miguel et al., 2015, p.779).
The excessive appetites model of addiction (Orford, 2001a) was developed in response to
the limitations of the disease model of addiction. The notion of this approach is that addic-
tions can best be understood as appetite behaviours that have become excessive through
psychological processes. Orford (2001b) maintains that for a view of addiction as exces-
sive appetite is “that there exists a range of objects and activities which are particularly
risky for humans, who are liable to develop such strong attachment to them that they then
find their ability to moderate their behaviour significantly diminished” (p.16). The five core
appetites are alcohol, gambling, drugs, eating and exercise addiction. Orford (2001a) argues
that behavioural addictions have more characteristics in common and they are all involved in
strong attachment to an activity. According to the model, addiction develops through a pro-
cess. The first stage of the “appetitive” behaviour process is during the stage of experimental
and recreational substance use or activity. However, the initiation of the activity becomes
pleasurable and positive. Subsequently, indulging in excessive appetite can produce diverse
conflicts. The environment, culture and personality of the individual play a crucial role in
influencing the excessive appetite.
This process of managing mood and feelings takes place in a socio-cultural context.
Gilvarry (2000) asserts that the social factors that influence addiction include accessibility
and availability of the substance, neighbourhood crime, tolerance and acceptance of drug
use and poor support from community and society. The availability and affordability of sub-
stances and social norms are key determinants in predicting whether young people will go on
to develop addictions. However, there is a minority of people who conform to social norms
and rules and control their drug or alcohol use without developing a pattern of addictive
excessive behaviours. Orford (2001a) suggests that
the origins of excess are likely to lie as much in social norms and group pressure as in
character and attitudes; that the uptake of new behaviour does not occur in a psychologi-
cal vacuum but as part of a constellation of changing beliefs, preferences and habits of
thought, feeling and action; and that appetite behaviour cannot be divorced from the
demands, both biological and social, of the stage of the life-cycle at which a person finds
him or herself.
(p.141)
Some people use psychoactive substances as mood modifiers, as the drug, during the early
stages of the addiction process, may produce euphoria and feelings of well-being, and bolster
their self-esteem or social image. In contrast, the same mood enhancer can be used as part of
self-medication. Some people use self-medication as an escape from reality, escaping from
negative emotions, relieving stress, easing physical or emotional discomfort, managing side
effects of other drugs or medications, trying to reduce symptoms of a mental health problem
or having positive emotions.
Bio-psychosocial-spiritual model
The bio-psychosocial-spiritual theory model of addiction posits that biological/genetic, psy-
chological, sociocultural and spiritual factors contribute to addictive behaviours. Most models
of addiction are devoid of the spiritual dimension in the person’s life. The provision of holistic
care cannot be justified if the totality of the patient’s relational existence – physical, psycho-
logical, social and spiritual – is not addressed (Sulmasy, 2002). It has been suggested that
This biopsychosocial-spiritual model is not a “dualism” in which a “soul” accidentally

inhabits a body. Rather, in this model, the biological, the psychological, the social, and
the spiritual are only distinct dimensions of the person, and no one aspect can be disag-
gregated from the whole. Each aspect can be affected differently by a person’s history
and illness, and each aspect can interact and affect other aspects of the person.
(Sulmasy, 2002, p.27)
The spiritual model of addiction is akin to the moral theory of addiction, as individuals are
responsible for their behavioural choices, and focuses on a spiritual path to recovery through
the “purification of the soul” (Tazkiyah al-nafs). The model suggests
that the individual gets disconnected with religious beliefs and practices or higher being
which leads to an ultimate lack of meaning and purpose in life. The return in re-estab-
lishing this spiritual connection, adopting a set of uniquely interpreted universal laws
and principles and having a clearer meaning and purpose of being may lead to the road
to recovery and an addiction free life.
(Rassool, 2018, p.38)
In Western Judeo-Christian cultures, it is stated that
spiritual models typically presume a God with supernatural powers. This God is seen
as one who governs, guides, directs, or intervenes on behalf of human beings. Spiritual
models assume addiction occurs because of a separation from God. Moral causes of
addiction presume there is a “correct” morality based on a particular set of values.
Deviation from those values results in addiction. It is important to note that moral codes
reflect the value system of a particular culture. Therefore, the “correct” moral code will
vary from one culture to the next”
(Horvath et al., 2020)
It has been observed that “if religious and spiritual involvement can act as a protective
factor, it should come as no surprise that it could act as a means of ridding oneself of an
addiction” (Morjaria and Orford, 2002, p.226). Empirical evidence indicates that religious/
spiritual behaviours are also linked to reduced risk of relapse and improved posttreatment
outcomes (Polcin and Zemore, 2004; Zemore and Kaskutas, 2004). Furthermore, evidence
suggests that there is a relationship between low spiritual well-being and addiction relapse
(Noormohammadi et al., 2017).
An example of the spiritual approach is Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) and other 12-step
groups. It is through the rehabilitation process of these fellowships that those addicted are
enabled to foster a spiritual life. In addition, many addicts attempt to find solace, a sense
of purpose and meaning of life in something else other than their addiction. It is stated
that “the 12-Step programmes are rooted in American Protestantism, but other distinctly
spiritual models do not rely on Christian or even theistic thought” (Center for Substance
Abuse Treatment, 1999). There are also “faith-based” approaches that are not based on the
Judeo-Christian tradition, where meditation, mindfulness, prayer, faith-based counselling
and psychotherapy and spiritual development are offered. The bio-psychosocial-spiritual
model is also appropriate and congruent with Islamic beliefs and practices. Al Ghaferia,
Bond and Matheson’s (2017) study findings show that the bio-psychosocial-spiritual model
of addiction fits well in the Islamic context. Religion/spirituality has been observed to
be protective against addiction in Islamic countries (UNODC, 2011). The “faith-based”
Table 21.1 A summary of models and theories of addiction
Theory or model Brief explanation
Moral model Addiction is a sign of moral weakness, bad character or

sinfulness.
Individuals are responsible for their behavioural choices and
their own recovery.
Disease model Addiction is a disease due to the impairment of either
behavioural or neurochemical processes, or of some
combination of the two.
The goal of total abstinence with support from self-help group
movements.
Social learning (or cognitive Addiction is formed and maintained through
social learning) the process of positive and negative reinforcement and
through the process of modelling.
Psychoanalytical model Addiction is perceived in terms of instinctual gratifcation, or
intrapsychic confict, focusing on the superego’s role.
Or stems from unconscious death wishes as a form of “slow
suicide.”
Sociocultural theories (systems, Factors including gender, age, occupation, social class, ethno-
family interaction, gateway, cultural background, subcultures, alienated groups, family
anthropological, economic, dysfunction and religious affliation have an infuence on
availability theories) drug effects, drug-related behaviours, drug experiences,
choice of drug and alcohol.
Bio-psychosocial theory Bio-psychosocial model takes into consideration a broad range
of factors which interact resulting in addiction. Biological
factors (genetic inheritance, physiological differences),
psychosocial factors and environmental factors (family,
community, peer or social pressure).
Personality theory “Addictive personalities” are more susceptible to addictive
behaviours.
No clinical evidence to support this theory.
Psychopathological theory Interactions between psychopathology and addictive disorders,
especially in the mood, anxiety and impulse/control
domains, schizophrenia-spectrum disorders and personality.
Behavioural economics/cognitive Addiction: The value and the extent to which a substance is
(or expectancy theory/decision preferred is viewed as a function of cost/beneft analysis.
theory The cost/beneft of substance consumption in relation to
the cost/beneft of other available activities.
Choice theory Notion that all behaviour is chosen. Motivation to change is
intrinsic.
approach to treatment and recovery for Muslims addicted to drug and alcohol includes the
Millati Islami Groups. A summary of other models or theories of addiction is presented in
Table 21.1.
Nature of addiction
The effect a psychoactive substance or “drug or alcohol experience” will have on a given
individual will depend on several other factors beside the pharmacological properties of the
Table 21.2 Cannabis
Method of use Usually, cannabis is mixed with tobacco and smoked.

Cannabis is smoked in a pipe, brewed in a drink or mixed with food.
Therapeutic uses Cannabis is indicated for the treatment of anorexia associated with weight
loss in patients with AIDS, and to treat mild to moderate nausea and
vomiting associated with cancer chemotherapy.
Effect Infuenced to a large extent by expectations, motivation and mood of the
user.
Intense feeling of relaxation, talkativeness, bouts of hilarity, relaxation and
greater sensitivity to sound and colour.
Concentration and mental and manual dexterity are impaired.
Adverse effects Apathetic, sluggish and neglecting their appearance (chronic users).
Bronchitis and other respiratory problems.
Perceptual distortion, panic feeling, may induce psychosis. Psychiatric
problems may precipitate a temporary exacerbation of symptoms.
Dependence No physical dependence. Psychological need for the drug.
Withdrawal A cannabis withdrawal syndrome has been characterised, but its clinical
symptoms signifcance remains uncertain. Increased anger and aggression, anxiety,
depressed mood, irritability, restlessness, sleep diffculty and strange
dreams, decreased appetite and weight loss.
Overdose risk No overdose risks.
substance. Gossop (2013) claims that “the idea that specific drugs have fixed and predictable
effects which are the same from person to person is extremely widespread, but it remains a
fallacy” (p.24). The reality is that alcohol and drug experiences involve the pharmacology
of the drug, the set (personality/mind-set, attitudes and expectancies) and setting (context,
environment). However, set and setting are more important when taking psychoactive sub-
stances including LSD, ecstasy, ketamine and hallucinogenic mushrooms. The method of
use, therapeutic uses, the effect, the adverse effects, whether it causes dependence or not, the
withdrawal symptoms and overdose risks for cannabis, stimulants, heroin, ecstasy (MDMA),
khat, hypno-sedatives, volatile substances and synthetic psychoactive substances are pre-
sented in Tables 21.2 to 21.9.
The alcohol experience starts with young people being “socialised” into alcohol drink-
ing as part of the social fabric of many societies based on Western values where a drinking
culture is acceptable. The
first experiences of alcohol for young people depend on several factors including: paren-
tal use of alcohol; parents’ attitudes to alcohol; as a child, parental allowance of small
sips of drinks on special occasions; being introduced to alcopop (taste very similar to
soft drinks with relatively low alcohol content); religious values; birthday parties and the
offering of alcohol from their peers to “look cool.”
(Rassool, 2018, p.47)
The immediate effects of alcohol can vary depending on a number of factors including age
and body size, stomach contents, the number of drinks and speed of drinking, physical condi-
tions, type of alcoholic beverages, tolerance, personality traits, gender and mood. Table 21.10
presents the effects of alcohol.
Table 21.3 Characteristics of psychostimulants (amphetamines and cocaine)
Methods of use Swallowed, sniffed or injected. (For example, amphetamine sulphate – smoked;
ecstasy taken by mouth.)
Effect Excitement and euphoria.
Dilate the pupils of the eye.
Increase heart rate and blood pressure.
Insomnia.
Anorexia.
Mood swings.
High doses cause thought disorder and a drug-induced psychosis with
hallucinations and paranoid thinking.
Dependence Tolerance develops quickly with amphetamines.
More pronounced psychological tolerance than physical.
Withdrawal Characterised by hunger, fatigue, periods of ftful sleep, increase in dreaming
and depression. Depression can be prolonged and severe.
Long-term use Insomnia.
Weight loss.
Exhaustion.
Severe depression.
Drug-induced psychosis.
Risk behaviour in Congenital abnormalities.
pregnancy Miscarriage.
Premature labour.
Smaller than average babies.
Babies born to mothers who continue to take stimulants during pregnancy
show a withdrawal syndrome.
Withdrawal among new-born babies is characterised by shrill crying, irritability
and repeated sneezing.
Overdose risk Death from drug overdoses (cocaine).
Respiratory failure.
Alcohol and drugs: The mother of all evils

There are limited data on illicit drug use, tobacco use and gambling among Muslims; all are
prohibited in Islam. Data from the Muslim-majority countries are hard to obtain or are not
made accessible. It has been observed that “it is clear that much research has been accom-
plished, yet much more work remains. Prevalence of alcohol and drug use among Muslims
is extremely difficult to determine as it relies upon self-reporting a stigmatised behaviour.
People may deny substance use to avoid embarrassing their families or communities, espe-
cially when they are a minority” (Arfken and Ahmed, 2016, p.20). The findings of a review
undertaken by Ghandour et al. (2016) showed a low number of alcohol-related peer-reviewed
published studies – a total of 81 publications across 22 countries and 2 decades, and most of
the studies are based on clinical or student samples.
While alcohol consumption is ostensibly forbidden, the Muslim world has seen alcohol
consumption nearly double in the past decade, according to a new study (ANSAMed, 2011).
The Economist magazine (2012) states that across the Islamic world, alcohol consumption
is on the rise. It is also claimed that although taboo in many Muslim countries (more so in
places like Iran, Saudi Arabia, Libya and Pakistan, where it is legally banned) drinking is still
commonplace. In other places, such as Lebanon, Turkey, Indonesia, Malaysia and Egypt, it
Table 21.4 Heroin
Colour Ranges from white, off-white, yellowish to reddish brown.

Mode of administration Swallowed, or smoked, sniffed or injected either subcutaneously or
intravenously.
Effects of use Snorting heroin – onset within 3 to 5 minutes.
Smoking heroin onset almost immediate.
Intravenous injection onset results within 30 to 60 seconds.
Intramuscular or subcutaneous injection takes longer, having an
effect within 3 to 5 minutes.
Therapeutic uses Relief of pain, treatment for diarrhoea and vomiting and as a cough
suppressant.
Methadone is often prescribed to heroin addicts for maintenance or
withdrawal purposes.
Non-therapeutic uses Use of illicit heroin.
Diverted pharmaceutical opiates and opioids may be formulated for
injection, oral use or occasionally as suppositories.
Sought-after effects Euphoria; a relaxed detachment from pain and anxiety.
A sense of calm, pleasure and profound well-being..
Adverse effects Experience of nausea or vomiting on the frst occasions or use after
a period of abstinence.
Tolerance – overdose.
Withdrawal.
Risks of injecting.
Heroin dependence.
is legal to consume alcohol, and bars are often crowded. The Economist (2012) calculated
that the highest consumption can be found among the secular-minded wealthy of Lebanon,
followed by Turkey, Iran (home-brewers and partygoers), Indonesia, Egypt, Saudi Arabia
(foreign diplomats and others), Libya and last on the list is Pakistan.
Despite the increase in alcohol consumption, countries with Muslim majorities (Eastern
Mediterranean region) have the lowest consumption per capita in the world (World Health
Organization, 2004). It is also reported that “Abstention rates higher in North African and
South Asian countries with large Muslim populations. Female abstention rates are very high
in these countries” (Word Health Organization, 2011).
Opium smoking is a traditional practice in the Islamic Republic of Iran, Pakistan and
Afghanistan. The result is that these countries have a high prevalence of opiate use and injec-
tion drug use with an increasing prevalence of HIV infection (UNODC, 2015). According to
the UNODC (2015), cannabis and its resin, amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS) and novel
psychoactive substances are being produced in countries with Muslim majorities, and khat has
become a global drug (UNDOC, 2015). Jordan, Pakistan and Qatar have reported a perceived
increase in the use of ATS over the past several years (UNDOC, 2011). In Saudi Arabia both
khat and hashish are regularly used, but the drug of choice is Captagon. Captagon has even a
“folk nickname, Abu Hilalain (Father of the Two Crescent Moons)” (Sloan, 2014). ATS has
also spread to Bangladesh, Indonesia, Egypt and Nigeria. Khat is a stimulant drug derived
from a shrub (Catha edulis) that is native to East Africa and southern Arabia (Yemen), and
it is a global problem among Somalis and other migrants from the eastern Horn of Africa. In
the UK, for example, “the consumption is almost entirely limited to diaspora communities,
Table 21.5 Ecstasy/methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA)
Method of use Crushed and snorted or taken in a liquid form through injection.
Swallowing is the most common way that ecstasy is used.
Therapeutic uses Use in psychotherapy.
Effect Stimulant with mild psychedelic effect. Possible hallucinogenic effect,
particularly in high doses.
Adverseeffects Anxiety, panic attacks and insomnia, especially in cases of long-term use,
or use of large doses.
Increased susceptibility to minor infections such as colds, fu and sore
throats.
Some female users have reported an increase in genito-urinary infections.
Pre-existing conditions such as high blood pressure, glaucoma and
epilepsy can be exacerbated.
Evidence that ecstasy may have the potential to cause brain damage
associated with mood disorders. Ecstasy increases body temperature
and has a dehydrating effect.
Damage to the liver.
Dependence Psychological
Withdrawal Tolerance develops with time, but not as rapidly as cocaine or
symptoms amphetamine.
No evidence of physical withdrawal, although after-effects of the drug can
include fatigue, depression and anxiety.
“Flashbacks” following repeated use over several days have been
reported.
Overdose risk Fatal drug reactions cause blood clots to develop in the lungs.
Heat stroke or dehydration.
Dilutional hyponatremia – people have drunk too much water in
attempting to counteract the dehydrating effect of the drug.
Table 21.6 Catha edulis-khat (contains cathinone and cathine)
Method of use Chewing leaves or drinking infusion of leaves (like tea).

Therapeutic uses No therapeutic use.
Social and cultural signifcance.
Effect Stimulation and talkativeness. This is followed by a relaxed and
introspective state that can last up to fve hours, often insomnia.
Adverse effects Lethargy, irritability and general hangover.
Nausea, vomiting, mouth ulcers, abdominal pain, headache, palpitations,
increased aggression and hallucinations can occur.
Continued use can lead to cycles of sleeplessness and irritability.
Longer-term lead to psychiatric problems such as paranoia and possibly
psychosis.
Digestive problems such as constipation and stomach ulcers.
Dependence Psychological dependence.
Withdrawal There is no recorded withdrawal syndrome. It would be reasonable to
symptoms expect listlessness and tiredness experienced by other stimulant users.
Overdose risk There is no known record of khat resulting in overdose, although it would
be likely to act with other stimulants causing palpitations and agitation.
Khat is also often used with tobacco and hypno-sedatives such as
benzodiazepines which brings additional associated risks.
Table 21.7 Hypno-sedatives
Method of use Oral or injected
Therapeutic uses Anaesthesia and in the treatment of epilepsy and, rarely nowadays, insomnia.
Minor tranquillisers are often prescribed for the relief of anxiety and stress.
Effect Similar to alcohol intoxication. Euphoria and disinhibition.
Adverse effects Slurred speech, stumbling, confusion, reduction of inhibition, lowering of
anxiety and tension and impairment of concentration, judgement and
performance.
The common reactions from minor tranquillisers include fatigue,
drowsiness and ataxia. In addition, other effects may include constipation,
incontinence, urinary retention, dysarthria, blurred vision, hypotension,
nausea, dry mouth, skin rash and tremor.
Dependence Physical and psychological dependence.
Withdrawal Barbiturates and minor tranquillisers are highly addictive, and withdrawal
symptoms symptoms include anxiety, headaches, cramps in the abdomen, pains in the
limbs and even epileptic fts.
Withdrawal of barbiturates is life-threatening and should always be medically
supervised.
Overdose risk In case of overdose, respiratory failure and death may result if these drugs
are mixed with alcohol or with each other.
Injecting these drugs is particularly hazardous with increased risk of
overdose, gangrene and abscesses.
Table 21.8 Volatile substances
Method of use The mode of use depends upon the volatile compound and also the nature of
the product that contains it.
Inhaled.
Therapeutic uses Some volatile substances are used in human and veterinary medicine as
anaesthetics.
Effect Effects are experienced within a matter of minutes.
Users typically experience sensation akin to taking alcohol.
Giggly and disorientated, possibly being uncoordinated and feeling dizzy.
Nausea is not uncommon.
Adverse effects Depressed respiration rate, depressed heart rate, loss of coordination,
disorientation, loss of consciousness, drowsy, hangover, heart failure,
damage to brain, kidneys and liver, exhaustion, amnesia, loss of
concentration, weight loss, depression, accidental death.
Dependence Tolerance and psychological dependence.
Withdrawal Occasional mild physical withdrawal symptoms, such as headaches, have been
symptoms noted. However, psychological rather than physical dependence is more
common.
Overdose risk Deaths result from accidents, choking on vomit or suffocation. Deaths are
often sudden, and often a mechanism of death involving cardiac arrest
appears to be the cause.
Table 21.9 Synthetic psychoactive substances
Synthetic marijuana Synthetic cannabis or marijuana compounds, also known as cannabinoids.

K2 and Spice Herbal products containing synthetic cannabinoids have included Spice
Gold, Spice Silver, Spice Diamond, Yucatan Fire, and many others.
When smoked, they produce effects similar to those of cannabis.
These products are typically sold via the internet and in “head
shops.” Psychotic effects include extreme anxiety, confusion, paranoia
– extreme and unreasonable distrust of others. Hallucinations –
sensations and images that seem real though they are not.
Synthetic LSD Synthetic LSD, better known as “N-Bomb” or “Smiles,” is a
phenethylamine. This type of synthetic drug mimics the effects of
LSD, causing hallucinations and paranoia. Drug can quickly lead to an
overdose.
Synthetic stimulants Synthetic drug stimulants, also known as cathinones, mimic the effects
of ecstasy or MDMA. Bath salts and molly are examples of synthetic
cathinones.
Synthetic PCP MXE, or methoxamine, is a synthetic compound that mimics the effects of
PCP (phencyclidine) causing delusions, psychoses and a detached effect.
Fentanyl Fentanyl is a synthetic opioid that is 80–100 times stronger than morphine.
Therapeutic use for pain in cancer patients. Because of its powerful
opioid properties, fentanyl is also misused. It is often mixed with
heroin or other drugs, such as cocaine, or pressed into counterfeit
prescription pills.
Table 21.10 Alcohol: Effects
Street names Booze, nip, tipple, bevy, etc.

Found in beer, lager, alcopops, cider, wine, spirits, etc.
Therapeutic use As an antiseptic.
Short-term effects Effects very according to the strength of the drink, the person’s physical
size and mood.
Feeling of relaxation and euphoria.
Experiences less inhibition.
Speech can become slurred; coordination is affected and emotions
heightened.
Poor judgement.
Insomnia.
Hangover.
Long-term effects Overdose can lead to loss of consciousness and alcoholic poisoning,
which can be fatal.
Physical dependence can occur.
Menstrual disorders.
Fertility problems.
Foetal alcohol syndrome.
Physical problems.
Psychological problems.
Social problems.
Ethiopians, Somalis, Yemenis and some Kenyans primarily” (Anderson and Carrier, 2011,
p.2). The Central Asian states are no strangers to drug cultivation and consumption. In
Kazakhstan, the Kazakhs traditionally served koknar (mixture of alkaloids of the opium
group with hydrocarbon, protein, resin, oil and pigments) (Olcott and Udalova, 2000, p.9).
There is problem of drug use in Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan.
Islamic perspective on alcohol, drug use and gambling

The public health approach in the response to alcohol and gambling began in Madina, Saudi
Arabia, 1,440 years ago. Subsequently, Islam established a zero-tolerance policy and forbids
all intoxicants (alcohol, drugs and tobacco), regardless of the quantity or kind. Allah men-
tions in the Qurʼan (interpretation of the meaning):
• They ask you about wine and gambling. Say: In them is great sin and [yet, some] benefit
for people. However, their sin is greater than their benefit. And they ask you what they
should spend. Say: The excess [beyond needs]. Thus, Allah makes clear to you the verses
[of revelation] that you might give thought. (Al-Baqarah 2:219)
In the above verse, the Qurʼan acknowledges that there may be some benefit in alcohol, but
it stresses that the potential harms (physical, social, psychological, economic and spiritual)
outweigh any benefits. In other verses, Allah mentions in the Qurʼan (interpretation of the
meaning):
• O you who have believed, indeed, intoxicants, gambling, [sacrificing on] stone alters
[to other than Allah], and divining arrows are but defilement from the work of Satan, so
avoid it that you may be successful. (Al- Ma’idah 5:90)
• Satan only wants to cause between you animosity and hatred through intoxicants and
gambling and to avert you from the remembrance of Allah and from prayer. So will you
not desist? (Al- Ma’idah 5:91)
In the above verses, Allah has described intoxicants and gambling among other things as
being appalling, despicable and hateful acts of Satan. Thus, Allah, the Almighty, has com-
manded us to refrain from intoxicants and gambling because intoxicants sow the seeds of
enmity and hostility, and also prevent the individual from the remembrance of Allah. It
was narrated from Ibn ‘Umar that the Messenger of Allah ( ) said: “Every intoxicant
is Khamr (wine) and every Khamr is unlawful” (Ibn Majah (a)). In another Hadith, Ibn
'Umar reported Allah’s Messenger ( ) as saying: “Every intoxicant is Khamr and every
intoxicant is forbidden. He who drinks wine in this world and dies while he is addicted
to it, not having repented, will not be given a drink in the Hereafter” (Muslim). For this
reason, most observant Muslims avoid alcohol in any form, even small amounts that are
sometimes used in cooking. In fact, all activities associated with alcohol have been con-
demned. Anas said:
The Messenger of Allah ( ) cursed ten [people] with regard to wine: The one who
squeezes (the grapes etc.), the one who asks for it to be squeezed, the one for whom it is
squeezed, the one who carries it, the one to whom it is carried, the one who sells it, the
one for whom it is brought, the one who pours it, the one for whom it is poured, until he
counted ten like this.
(Ibn Majah (b))
Those who consume alcohol, whether in small or large amounts, are breaking the rule and
are going against the decree set by God (Allah) and what the individual is doing is unlawful
(haram). The Prophet Muhammad ( ) issued a warning in a Hadith for alcohol drinkers. It
is narrated by Abdullah Ibn Abbas that the Messenger of Allah ( ) said:
Every intoxicant is Khamr (wine) and every intoxicant is forbidden. If anyone drinks
wine, Allah will not accept prayer from him for forty days, but if he repents, Allah will
accept his repentance. If he repeats it a fourth time, it is binding on Allah that He will
give him tinat al-khabal to drink. He was asked: What is tinat al-khabal, Messenger of
Allah? He replied: Discharge of wounds, flowing from the inhabitants of Hell. If anyone
serves it to a minor who does not distinguish between the lawful and the unlawful, it is
binding on Allah that He will give him to drink the discharge of wounds, flowing from
the inhabitants of Hell.
(Abu Dawud)
For Muslims who drink alcohol, their prayers are not accepted for 40 days. However, a
Muslim must carry out the obligatory prayers on a daily basis.
There is a misconception (and rationalisation) among Muslim users of tobacco, alco-
hol and other drugs and shisha smoking that that although drugs and alcohol are forbidden,
shisha smoking or smoking hashish (or cannabis) is not serious and are disliked or offensive
(makrūh). This frame of thinking is quite baseless according to Divine law. Muslim scholars
are unanimous on the prohibition of contemporary drugs. The scholars have used princi-
ples of Islamic jurisprudence (Fiqh) to derive judgments regarding many of the illicit drugs
available today that were unknown at the time of the revelation of the Qur’an. According to
Sheikh Yusuf Al-Qaradawi (2020)
Drugs such as marijuana, cocaine, opium, and the like are definitely included in the pro-
hibited category of Khamr. It is well known that the use of such drugs affects the sensory
perceptions, making what is near seem distant and what is distant seem near; that their
use produces illusions and hallucinations, so that the real seems to disappear and what
is imaginary appears to be real; and that taking drugs in general impairs the faculty of
reasoning and decision-making. Such drugs are taken as a means of escape from the
inner reality of one’s feelings and the outer realities of life and religion into the realm of
fantasy and imagination.
Thus, the prohibition has been extended to refer to any recreational drug with similar quali-
ties, including cocaine, methamphetamines, heroin, cannabis and other psychoactive sub-
stances. As Ùmar: “that which confuses and stupefies the mind” (Bukhari). It was narrated
from ‘Ubadah bin Samit that the Messenger of Allah ( ) said: “People among my nation
will drink wine, under some other name that they will give it” (Ibn Majah (c)).
Pharmacological and psychological interventions

The standard treatment for alcohol (and drug) misuse may include pharmacotherapy to alle-
viate withdrawal symptoms, the prevention and management of more serious complications
and preparation for more structured psychosocial and educational interventions (Rassool,
2018). Alcohol, opiates and hypno-sedatives produce substantial physical withdrawal syn-
dromes, and pharmacological treatments are often needed to reduce withdrawal symptoms.
Methadone maintenance is used as a substitute to stabilise opiate addicts, thereby permitting
the client to function without experiencing withdrawal symptoms, cravings or adverse effects.
The goals of the psychosocial interventions are to complement pharmacological interven-
tions (for example, in detoxification or relapse prevention) and to enable clients to regain
stability and a healthier life-style. Psychological interventions include brief interventions,
motivational interviewing, cognitive-behavioural approaches, family therapy, social skills
training, supportive work and complementary therapy (Rassool, 2018). Self-help groups such
as Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) or Narcotic Anonymous (NA) are well-known organisations
that can be utilised to support those with addiction. For a comprehensive account of assess-
ment and intervention strategies, see Rassool (2018).
The principles of Islamic interventions

• Treatment for Muslim alcohol and drug users or gamblers should be based on bio-psy-
chosocial and spiritual interventions. However, the core of the treatment package is spir-
itual guidance and interventions.
• No single treatment is appropriate for everyone. It is essential to match intervention
strategies according to an individual’s complex needs.
• The focus should not only be on his/her addictive behaviours but also his holistic needs.
• Dealing with the problem alcohol or drug user is to empower the user in managing their
spiritual, physical and psychological needs.
• Overcoming addiction is a long-term process because of lapse and relapse.
• Detoxification is only the first stage in the journey of addiction treatment.
• Pharmacological interventions are an important element of treatment for many clients,
especially when combined with other psychosocial interventions.
• Harm reduction should be part of the treatment package. This is the application of the
maxim of Islam law of ad-Darar al Ahadd Yuzaalu bi-darar al Akhaff (The greater evil
is repelled by the lesser evil) (see Kamarulzaman and Saifuddeen, 2010). For example,
the use of methadone (opioid substitute) with psycho-spiritual interventions.
• Harm reduction can therefore be accepted as a necessity in order to preserve [these
things], which are threatened by the twin epidemics of drug use and HIV/AIDS.
• For Muslims, in order to achieve long-term abstinence, the client needs to have intensive
spiritual interventions. The client needs support from the family, community and Imam and
to keep company with other Muslims who are practising their Islamic way of life correctly.
• The client needs to be reminded that, in testing times, Muslims remember that for every
hardship Allah provides an ease.
• In fact, through the Mercy of Allah, when a Muslim faces any kind of difficulty, Allah
removes his or her sins. Allah says (interpretation of the meaning): So, verily, with every
difficulty, there is relief. (Ash-Sharhˆ (The Relief) 94:5)
• Clients need to adhere to the Islamic version of the Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) 12-step
programme: Millati Islami.
A modified 12-step programme related to drugs and conforming to Islamic teachings has
been established at the Millati Islami.
1. We admitted that we were neglectful of our higher selves and that our lives have become
unmanageable.
2. We came to believe that Allah could and would restore us to sanity.
3. We made a decision to submit our will to the will of Allah.
4. We made a searching and fearless moral inventory of ourselves.
5. We admitted to Allah and to ourselves the exact nature of our wrongs.
6. Asking Allah for right guidance, we became willing and open for change, ready to have
Allah remove our defects of character.
7. We humbly ask Allah to remove our shortcomings.
8. We made a list of persons we have harmed and became willing to make amends to
them all.
9. We made direct amends to such people wherever possible, except when to do so would
injure them or others.
10. We continued to take personal inventory and when we were wrong promptly admitted it.
11. We sought through Salat [prayer service in Islam] Iqra [reading and studying the Qur’an]
to improve our understanding of Taqwa [God-consciousness; proper Love and respect
for Allah] and Ihsan [though we cannot see Allah, He does see us].
12. Having increased our level of Iman (faith) and Taqwa, as a result of applying these steps,
we carried this message to humanity and began practicing these principles in all our
affairs. (www.millatiislami.org, n.d.)
It was narrated from Abu Bakr bin 'Abdur-Rahman bin Al-Harith that his father said: “I heard
'Uthman, may Allah be pleased with him, say: ‘Avoid Khamr for it is the mother of all evils’”
(An-Nasa'i). For counselling of drug and alcohol users, see Rassool (2016).

• A psychoactive substance is a substance that affects the mental processes and causes
changes in mood, thoughts, feelings or behaviour.
• The study of behavioural addictions focuses on the psychological aspects of how peo-
ple become addicted to activities, such as gambling, sex, internet (cyber), exercise and
eating.
• All the three interrelated factors, pharmacological properties, individual differences and
context of use, influence the individual experiences of alcohol and drug taking.
• Tolerance refers to the way the body usually adapts to the repeated presence of a drug.
• Psychological dependence can be described as a compulsion or a craving to continue to
use a psychoactive substance for its psychological effect.
• Physical dependence is characterised by the need to take a psychoactive substance to
avoid physical disturbances or withdrawal symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, diar-
rhoea, seizures, hallucinations, following cessation of use.
• The role of associate learning (classical conditioning) and operant conditioning also
plays a part in the process of addiction.
• The bio-psychosocial-spiritual theory model of addiction posits that biological/genetic,
psychological, sociocultural and spiritual factors contribute to addictive behaviours.
• Despite the increase in alcohol consumption, countries with Muslim majorities have the
lowest consumption per capita in the world but have a higher proportion of unrecorded
alcohol consumption.
• Islam established a zero-tolerance policy and forbids all intoxicants (alcohol, drugs and
tobacco), regardless of the quantity or kind.
• The standard treatment for alcohol (and drug) misuse may include pharmacotherapy to
alleviate withdrawal symptoms, the prevention and management of more serious compli-
cations and preparation for more structured psychosocial and educational interventions.
Psychological interventions include brief interventions, motivational interviewing,
cognitive-behavioural approaches, family therapy, social skills training, supportive work
and complementary therapy.
• Treatment for Muslim alcohol and drug users or gamblers should be based on bio-psy-
chosocial and spiritual interventions. However, the core of the treatment package is spir-
itual guidance and interventions.
1. Which one of the following is incorrect regarding the bio-psychosocial-spiritual theory?

A. The spiritual theory of addiction is akin to the moral theory of addiction.
B. The spiritual theory suggests that the individual becomes disconnected from reli-
gious beliefs and practices.
C. The spiritual theory of addiction focuses on a spiritual path to recovery.
D. The spiritual theory of addiction seeks to identify the aetiology of the addictive
process.
E. The spiritual theory of addiction seeks higher being which leads to an ultimate lack
of meaning and purpose in life.
2. The Messenger of Allah ( ) cursed people with regard to wine. This includes:
A. The one who squeezes (the grapes, etc.)
B. The one who asks for it to be squeezed
C. The one for whom it is squeezed
D. A, B and C
E. A and C only
3. Which of the following are factors in alcohol’s effect?
A. Body weight, age and gender
B. Gender, body weight and metabolism
C. Gender, age and genetics
D. Age, metabolism and genetics
E. Weight, age and ethnicity
4. Which statement concerning the therapeutic uses of opiates is not true?
A. Relief of pain
B. Withdrawal purpose
C. Treatment for depression
D. Maintenance purpose
E. Treatment for diarrhoea
5. The therapeutic use of cocaine was as
A. Anaesthetic
B. Stimulant
C. Appetite suppressant
D. Depressant
E. Hallucinogens
6. Which statement is NOT correct?
A. Addiction to alcohol or drugs is a chronic brain disease that has potential for recur-
rence and recovery.
B. The addiction process involves a three-stage cycle: Binge/intoxication, withdrawal-
negative affect and preoccupation-anticipation.
C. These changes in the brain stop after substance use stops. It is not yet known how
much these changes may be reversed or how long that process may take.
D. Adolescence is a critical “at-risk period” for substance use and addiction.
E. All addictive drugs, including alcohol and cannabis, have especially harmful effects
on the adolescent brain, which is still undergoing significant development.
7. There are areas of the brain in which most addictive drugs cause elevations in extracel-
lular levels of the neurotransmitter dopamine. Which one is not a correct location?
A. Medial temporal lobe
B. Motor-related areas
C. Frontal lobe
D. Prefrontal cortex and striatum
E. Occipital lobe
8. Where is the following verse of the Qur’an from? O you who have believed, indeed,
intoxicants, gambling, [sacrificing on] stone alters [to other than Allah], and divin-
ing arrows are but defilement from the work of Satan, so avoid it that you may be
successful.
A. Al- Ma’idah 5:90
B. Al-Baqarah 2:219
C. Al- Ma’idah 5:91
D. Al-Baqarah 2:66
E. Ali’ Imran 3:15
9. In the Muslim world, opium smoking is a traditional practice in
A. Islamic Republic of Iran
B. Pakistan
C. Afghanistan
D. A and C
E. All of the above
10. Which one is not correct? The first experiences of alcohol for young people depend on
several factors including:
A. Parental use of alcohol
B. Parents’ negative attitudes to alcohol
C. Parental allowance of small sips of drinks on special occasions
D. Being introduced to alcopop (tastes very similar to soft drinks with relatively low
alcohol content)
E. Birthday parties and the offering of alcohol from their peers to “look cool”
11. Drug tolerance occurs when

A. The sensitivity to the psychoactive drug is reduced.
B. Decreased sensitivity to a substance develops as a result of its continuous use.
C. A drug produces more of an effect than it did previously.
D. It requires a smaller dose to repeat the initial drug effect.
12. Which of the following is not a hallucinogenic?
A. Cannabis
B. MDMA
C. LSD
D. Depressants
E. Magic mushroom
13. According to the appetite behaviour model, addiction develops through a process. Which
one is not part of the process?
A. The first stage “appetitive” behaviour process is during the stage of experimental
and recreational substance use of activity.
B. Behaviours initially are goal‐directed, but increasingly become elicited as stimu-
lus-response habits.
C. The initiation of the activity becomes pleasurable and positive.
D. Indulging in excessive appetite can produce diverse conflict.
E. Environment, culture and personality of the individual play a crucial role in influ-
encing the excessive appetite.
14. Detoxification is a process of systematic and supervised withdrawal from substance use
that
A. Prevents relapse
B. Weans a user onto a weaker substance
C. Relieves subjective withdrawal symptoms
D. All of the above
15. The goals of the psychosocial interventions are
A. To complement pharmacological intervention
B. To enable clients to regain stability and a healthier life-style
C. To provide family and social network support
D. To develop skills in dealing with stress
E. All of the above
16. Which one of the following is not true of behavioural theories?
A. The theory makes provision for individual differences (genetic factors).
B. The use of psychoactive substances is viewed as an acquired behaviour.
C. Behaviour is learned through the process of associative learning and operant
conditioning.
D. The theory of classical conditioning does not include social factors or the expecta-
tions of drug effect.
17. The contingencies of reinforcement do not include
A. Unconditioned immediate positive reinforcement provided by the pharmacological
effect of a substance
B. Conditioned positive reinforcement associated with the social environment of drug
use
C. Positive reinforcement related to drug withdrawal

D. Negative reinforcement related to aversive aspects of the environment
E. One or more of these contingencies are present in drug acquisition and maintenance
18. Which statement is incorrect? The neuroscientific basis of addiction
A. Maintains that addiction is a disease due to the impairment of neurochemical
processes.
B. It involves functional changes to brain circuits involved in reward, stress and self-
control, and those changes may last a long time after a person has stopped taking
drugs.
C. Addiction process involves a four-stage cycle: Binge, intoxication, withdrawal-
negative affect and preoccupation-anticipation.
D. Addiction to alcohol or drugs is a chronic brain disease that has potential for recur-
rence and recovery.
19. The term psychoactive refers to:
A. The psychology of physical activity
B. A drug that alters mood, cognition and/or behaviour
C. A particularly active chemical
D. A drug-induced hallucination
E. A detoxification process
20. Which of the following is NOT part of the Millati Islami approach?
A. We admitted that we were neglectful of our higher selves and that our lives have
become unmanageable.
B. We came to believe that disciplined or controlled drinking, such as one per day.
C. We came to believe that Allah could and would restore us to sanity.
D. We made a decision to submit our will to the will of Allah.
E. We made a searching and fearless moral inventory of ourselves.
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Chapter 22
Mental health, spirituality and possession
Learning outcomes
• Identify some of the psychosocial issues faced by indigenous and migrant Muslims.
• Explain the attributions of mental health problems to a religio-cultural concept of distress.
• Identify some of the psychosocial issues faced by Muslim communities.
• Describe briefly the different types of anxiety disorders.
• Briefly explain the different types of depressive disorders.
• Discuss self-harm and suicide from an Islamic perspective.
• Compare and contrast symptoms of anorexia nervosa with bulimia nervosa.
• Identify the spiritual interventions in treating evil eye and Jinn manifestation.
• Identify the different types of Waswâs al-Qahri (overwhelming whisperings) in clinical
settings.
Introduction
In the era of “Black Life Matters,” the issues of mental health for Black, Asian and minority
ethnic (BAME) groups are a timely agenda for policy makers, academics and clinicians. A
through critical examination of cultural competence, diversity issues, systemic racism, preju-
dice, Islamophobia, mental health service provision and delivery should be the components of
the debate. With the growth of Muslims globally and the rise of Muslim migrants in different
countries, there has been a corresponding rise in the need for mental health service provision
and delivery as a result of the psychosocial effects of migration, prejudice, discrimination,
Islamophobia, microaggressions and social inequalities. Rassool (2019a) suggests that “The
post-September 11 climate globally, especially in countries in the Northern hemispheres,
has made many Muslim highly concerned with issues including discrimination, prejudice,
threats, hate messages or harassment, microaggressions, violence and Islamophobia” (p.12).
Muslims form two distinctive groups: One group who are indigenous Muslims of the country
and the other group are the new migrants. This chapter will focus on psychosocial issues,
mental illness attribution, anxiety states and depression, eating disorders, possession syn-
drome and obsessional compulsive disorders.
Psychosocial issues
In the United States of America, there are concerns regarding the rise in the levels of depres-
sion, anxiety, social pressures and family conflict among American-born Muslims (Herzig
Mental health, spirituality and possession 513
and McGrath, 2014). In the United Kingdom, there is high prevalence of depression, anxiety
and insomnia in Pakistani women (Fazil and Cochrane, 2003; Sonuga-Barke and Mistry,
2000). The effects of Islamophobia on the mental health of Muslims are quite significant.
There is evidence to suggest that Islamophobia negatively affects the mental health of
Muslims in European countries (Britain, France and Germany) ranging from increased feel-
ings of anxiety to depression (Kunst, Sam and Ulleberg, 2013). There is a higher risk of sui-
cide in second-generation migrants (Di Thiene et al., 2015), depression and psychosis (WHO
Regional Office for Europe, 2017), mood disorders (Mindlis and Bofferra, 2017), poor men-
tal health and suicidal thoughts in young British Muslims (Warsame, 2020). Navigating the
host religious and cultural challenges coupled with being migrants can exacerbate mental
health problems. For instance, the process of migration itself is an important risk factor for
post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and dissociation (Selten et al., 2001), comorbid mental
health problems (Fazel, Jeremy and Danesh, 2005) and schizophrenia (Selten et al., 2010).
There is evidence to suggest that the level of discriminatory experience was associated with
psychological distress (Moradi and Hassan, 2004), depression (Hassouneh and Kulwicki,
2007), post-traumatic stress disorder (Abu-Ras and Abu-Bader, 2009), subclinical paranoia
(Rippy and Newman, 2006), anxiety and depression (Amer and Hovey, 2011) and psycho-
logical distress, level of happiness and health status (Padela and Heisler, 2010).
The problem of acculturation is also an issue. Acculturative stress is the emotional reac-
tion and “psychological impact of adaptation to a new culture” (Smart and Smart, 1995).
Muslim migrants to Western European countries and the United States tend to develop
acculturative stress which may lead to psychological problems or disorders. Acculturation
has been related with depression, social withdrawal, familial isolation, despair, hostility,
anxiety and somatisation (Escobar et al., 1986; Aprahamian et al., 2011; Abu-Bader et al.,
2011; RHTAC, 2011); a sense of isolation (Khawaja, 2007); persecution (Bux, 2007); and
adjustment difficulties and family conflicts (Goforth et al., 2014). Though some of the stud-
ies are not related to Muslim communities, nevertheless the psychological problems and
distress are similar. Other added psychosocial issues and ramifications are related to inter-
generational conflict, the conflict between ethical values and host cultural values, radicalism
and unresolved migrant or refugee status. Some of those migrants have come from countries
ravaged by civil war with first-hand experiences of loss and trauma (Hassan et al., 2016).
In addition,
There may be the added problems of grief separation, acculturation, language difficul-
ties, lack of familial support, changing in the family dynamics, the process of resettle-
ment, and birth “rites de passage” that may place new mothers and their infants at a
higher risk of mental health problems.
(Rassool, 2019a, p.16)
Mental illness attribution

Muslims have a different worldview of mental health and illness, and their explanatory
models of illness causation in relation to mental disorders may not always be psychiatric or
medically oriented. Muslims patients often attribute their mental health problems to a religio-
cultural concept of distress such as evil eye, Jinn possession or black magic. The belief that
Jinn can cause mental disorder in humans through affliction or possession is widely accepted
among Muslims. This aspect of psycho-spiritual and supernatural problems experienced by
Muslim patients is often overlooked during the assessment phase of treatment interventions.
Rassool (2019a) observed that
Evil eye, Jinn possession and black magic are essentially a spiritual problem, but mental
disorders are a multifactorial affair, in which spiritual, social, psychological and physical
factors may all play an aetiological role. The relationships between these concepts are
therefore complex. It would seem reasonable to argue that Jinn and witchcraft posses-
sion may be an aetiological factor in some cases of mental health problems or psychiatric
disorders, but it may also be an aetiological factor in some non-psychiatric conditions.
In other cases, it may be encountered in the absence of psychiatric or medical disorders.
(p.x)
Clinical psychologists and health care professionals who are trained in the Eurocentric con-
ceptual framework of mental health may preclude explanations in religio-cultural terms,
depriving Muslim patients the right not to be misunderstood or misrepresented (Fakhr
El-Islam and Abu-Dagga, 1992). These professionals may encounter difficulties with those
attributing their mental health problems to supernatural phenomena in trying to make a
proper assessment, establishing a diagnosis and making an appropriate treatment interven-
tion strategy. Haque and Kamil (2012) uphold the view that the “lack of knowledge about the
beliefs and values of a religious group that is under continuous scrutiny can be problematic
within a clinical setting, especially in light of the potential importance spirituality may have
for a client” (p.3). Cultural competence and skills in differential diagnosis may have a part to
play in understanding the Muslim client’s worldview about their problems due to possession
syndrome, culture-bound syndrome or medical/psychiatric origin. What is surprising is that
if one listens to the symptoms of those affected by the possession syndrome, one may notice
that many of them are the same as those symptoms of certain mental disorders mentioned
in the latest edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5)
(APA, 2013).
Anxiety disorders
Anxiety is a normal and useful human emotion. Anxiety helps to protect us from danger
or threat. It is physiological and behavioural responses associated with the activation of
the sympathetic nervous system that help protect us from threat and danger. However,
chronic anxiety can be incapacitating and lead to irrational thoughts and fears that interfere
with quality of life. Anxiety disorders include generalised anxiety disorder, panic attacks,
post-traumatic stress disorder and obsessive-compulsive disorder, and these are among the
most common mental health problems. The quality of life (QOL) is affected by anxiety
disorders. The findings of a review of the QOL with anxiety disorders (Olatunji, Cisler
and Tolin, 2007) showed that the most damaging anxiety disorders to overall quality of
life are social phobia and PTSD. In addition, the QOL domains of mental health and social
functioning were associated with the highest levels of impairment among anxiety disorder
patients.
Generalised anxiety disorder: Excessively worrying and persistent feelings of anxiety
and tension about a variety of things on most days for six months. The most common symp-
toms include unrealistic fear or worry, restlessness, experiencing constant fatigue, lack of
concentration, irritability, agitation, sleep disturbance and muscle tension.
Panic disorder: Recurrent panic attacks, which are sudden waves of intense fear that
include symptoms of apprehension, fearfulness or terror, with physical symptoms like heart
palpitations, shortness of breath, choking sensations, trembling, sweating, dizziness and
chest pains. People often perceive the symptoms as having a heart attack.
Phobias
Specific phobias: Irrational fears that focus on a specific object, certain situations or things,
such as heights (acrophobia), crowds (agoraphobia), confinement in close quarters (claustro-
phobia) or spiders (arachnophobia).
Social phobia: Extreme discomfort in social situations, such as meeting strangers, pub-
lic speaking, making eye contact (gaze), using public bathrooms, eating in front of stran-
gers, going to school or work or even having a conversation with a new acquaintance.
The symptoms of those with social anxiety disorder may include rapid heartbeat, muscle
tension, dizziness and light headedness, diarrhoea, breathing problems and “out-of-body”
sensations.
Obsessive-compulsive disorder: This is persistent distressing thoughts (obsessions) and
uncontrollable or compulsive repetitive behaviours (rituals or compulsions) to reduce the
anxiety. The most common example is obsessive concern with contamination with dirt and
germs, and excessive hand washing, bathing or cleansing of clothes in order to eliminate
them. The patient recognises that the obsessional thoughts and images are a product or his or
her own mind.
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD): This is a condition that develops in some people
who have experienced a shocking, scary or traumatic event. People who have PTSD may feel
stressed or frightened in the absence of the danger. The symptoms may include flashbacks,
nightmares and severe anxiety, as well as uncontrollable thoughts about the event. There are
four types of PTSD symptoms, including: Intrusive memories, avoidance, negative changes
in thinking and mood, and changes in physical and emotional reactions.
From an Islamic perspective, Allah says in the Qur’an (interpretation of the meaning):
• Indeed, mankind was created anxious. (Al-Ma’arij 70:19)
This verse has also been translated that mankind was created impatient. In fact, according to
Ibn Kathir, man is frightful, worried and despairing because of the threat. It may also mean
that people experience emotions like anxiety, despair and sadness. The word “daqat” is used
in the Qur’an to signify psychological stress. This term means to be or become narrow,
straitened, confined, anguished, uneasy, depressed or dejected (Wehr, 1974, pp.548–549).
Utz (2011) noted that this term was used in the story of the three Companions Ka’b ibn
Malik, Hilal ibn Umayyah and Murarah ibn ar- Rabee' (may Allah be pleased with them) who
failed to join the Messenger ( ) in the Battle of Tabuk (p.227). Allah says in the Qur’an
• And [He also forgave] the three who were left behind [and regretted their error] to the
point that the earth closed in on them in spite of its vastness and their souls confined
them and they were certain that there is no refuge from Allah except in Him. Then He
turned to them so they could repent. Indeed, Allah is the Accepting of repentance, the
Merciful. (At-Tawbah 9:118)
Utz (2011) reported that
Initially, the Prophet ( ) did not accept their excuses for failing to join the battle, and
thus the Muslims ignored them for fifty days and nights. Ka’b ibn Malik described this
experience: “After I had offered my dawn prayer on the early morning of the fiftieth day
of this boycott on the roof of one of our houses, and had sat in the very state which Allah
described (in the Qur’an): my very soul seemed straitened to me, and even the earth
seemed narrow to me for all its spaciousness.”
(Bukhari and Muslim)
Subsequently, Allah accepted the repentance of the three Companions, Ka’b ibn Malik, Hilal
ibn Umayyah and Murarah ibn ar-Rabee', and they were relieved from the confinement of
their souls or torments. Anxiety disorders can be effectively treated with psychopharmaco-
logical and psychosocial interventions.
Depression
Depression is a common illness worldwide but a serious mood disorder. Depression or clini-
cal depression affect thinking (cognitive), feeling (affective) and behaviour, that is, the way
the activities of daily living are handled. To be diagnosed with depression, the symptoms
must be present for at least two weeks. There is a high risk of suicide with depressive dis-
orders. There are different types of depressive disorders including persistent depressive
disorder, postpartum depression, psychotic depression, seasonal affective disorder, bipolar
disorder, disruptive mood dysregulation disorder (diagnosed in children and adolescents) and
premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD).
• Persistent depressive disorder (dysthymia): This is a form of depression that lasts

longer, for at least two years. A person diagnosed with persistent depressive disorder
may have episodes of major depression along with periods of less severe symptoms.
Patients report they are going in and out of depression all the time. The symptoms
include increased or decreased appetite or weight, lack of sleep or sleeping too much,
fatigue or low energy, low self-esteem, difficulty concentrating, indecisiveness and
hopelessness or pessimism.
• Postpartum depression: This is a major depression that happens in a woman after giv-
ing birth. It has its onset within four weeks of delivery. Women experience full-blown
major depression with a combination of physical, emotional and behavioural changes.
The depression may happen during pregnancy or after delivery (postpartum depression).
The diagnosis of postpartum depression is based on both the severity of the depression
and on the length of time between delivery and onset. The symptoms are a combina-
tion of what happens normally following childbirth and symptoms of major depression.
These include difficulty sleeping, appetite changes, excessive fatigue, decreased libido,
frequent mood changes, feelings of worthlessness, hopelessness, extreme sadness, loss
of pleasure, anxiety, thoughts of death or suicidal thoughts and exhaustion.
• Psychotic depression: This is a severe form of depression with psychotic features. The
symptoms include sadness, hopelessness, guilt, irritability, eating problems, insomnia
and exhaustion. This is coupled with having disturbing false fixed beliefs (delusions) or
hearing, smelling or seeing upsetting things that others cannot hear or see (hallucinations).
Depressive psychosis is especially dangerous because the paranoid delusions may cause
people to become suicidal.
• Seasonal affective disorder: This is a type of depression that is related to changes in sea-
sons. It may happen every year at the same time. This type of depression is more likely
to happen during the winter months, when there is less natural sunlight. This depression
generally lifts during spring and summer. Winter depression is typically accompanied by
less energy, trouble concentrating, fatigue, greater appetite, increased desire to be alone,
greater need for sleep, weight gain and social withdrawal. In the early summer, people
may have many of the normal warning signs of depression, including less appetite, trou-
ble sleeping and weight loss.
• Bipolar disorder: This is a disorder that is characterised by extreme mood swings that
include episodes of extremely low moods and episodes of emotional highs (mania or
hypomania). Less severe manic periods are known as hypomanic episodes. The symp-
toms of a manic episode include being elated, or irritable, a decreased need for sleep, a
loss of appetite, talking very fast about a lot of different things, having racing thoughts,
risky behaviours, poor judgement, eating and drinking excessively or feeling important
and powerful. Those with depressive episodes may have symptoms including sadness,
hopelessness, restlessness, trouble falling asleep, waking up too early or sleeping too
much, increased appetite and weight gain, slow speech, forgetting, lack of concentra-
tion, difficulty in making decisions, loss of interest, a decreased or absent sex drive or an
inability to experience pleasure (“anhedonia”), death and suicidal thoughts.
Treatment interventions for anxiety and depression

There are effective treatments for anxiety, and moderate and severe depression. The psycho-
social interventions include cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT), behavioural activation and
psychotherapy. The findings of a meta-analysis (Bandelow et al., 2015) on the efficacy of
treatments for anxiety disorders showed that individual CBT was more effective than waiting
list, psychological placebo and pill placebo, and medications were more effective than psy-
chotherapies. The authors suggested that the decision on whether to choose psychotherapy,
medications or a combination of the two should be left to the patient. Cognitive behavioural
therapy can be regarded as the psychotherapy with the highest level of evidence (Bandelow,
Michaelis and Wedekind, 2017).
The physical and pharmacological treatment include electroconvulsive therapy (ECT),
antidepressant medication such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and tricyclic antide-
pressants. The treatment interventions will depend on the severity of the symptoms of depres-
sive disorder. ECT and transcranial magnetic stimulation (brain stimulation that uses magnetic
waves), and a combination of an antidepressant with a mood stabiliser have been used for the
treatment of bipolar disorders. Treatment for seasonal affective disorder may include light
therapy (phototherapy), medications and psychotherapy. Activities are also recommended in
the management of mild anxiety and depression, for instance, regular aerobic exercise, such
as jogging, brisk walking, swimming or bicycling, may promote better sleep and wellness.
Self-harm and suicide

Self-harm is not suicide but may be regarded as pseudocide. Self-harm has been defined as
“a preoccupation with deliberately hurting oneself without conscious suicidal intent, often
resulting in damage to body tissue” (Muelehkamp, 2005, p.324). Self-harm is also known
as self-injurious behaviour, self-mutilation, non-suicidal self-injury, parasuicide, deliberate
self-harm, self-abuse and self-inflicted violence (Klonsky et al., 2011). Self-harm is used as
a negative coping mechanism and can also lead to suicide. There are a number of risk factors
for self-harming behaviours such as previous self-harm, personality disorder, hopelessness,
history of psychiatric treatment, schizophrenia, alcohol misuse/dependence, drug misuse/
dependence and living alone (Larkin, Di Blasi and Arensman, 2014). In addition, male gen-
der, older age, method of self-harm and area of residence are also considered as high-risk
characteristics (Geulayov, Casy and Bale, 2019). Examples of self-harm include cutting (cuts
or severe scratches with a sharp object); scratching, burning (with lit matches, cigarettes or
heated, sharp objects such as knives), carving on the skin; head banging; piercing the skin;
inserting objects under the skin; and overdose of drugs.
Suicide is a public health problem and is the act of taking one’s own life. The term
comes from the Latin suicidium, which literally means “to kill oneself.” Different cul-
tures and religions have diverse meanings of suicide, and suicide may be considered as a
sin, a religious taboo, a criminal offense or an act of honour in times of war. According
to the World Health Organization (2019), suicide is the third leading cause of death in
15–19-year-olds, and for every suicide there are many more people who attempt suicide
every year. Ingestion of pesticide, hanging and firearms are among the most common meth-
ods of suicide globally. There is a strong link between suicide and mental health problems
including depression, alcohol use disorders, addiction to psychoactive substances, finan-
cial problems, loss, relationship break-up or chronic pain and illness. The World Health
Organization (2019) also suggested that experiencing conflict, disaster, violence, abuse or
loss, a sense of isolation and those who experience discrimination are strongly associated
with suicidal behaviour.
Suicides are preventable, and suicide prevention starts with identifying and recognising
the warning signs. Various approaches have been suggested to identify people who are at risk
of suicide, for example universal screening and using electronic health records (see National
Institute of Mental Health, 2019). The World Health Organization (2019) has suggested a
number of measures that can be taken at the population, sub-population and individual levels
to prevent suicide and suicide attempts. These include:
• Reducing access to the means of suicide (e.g. pesticides, firearms, certain medications)
• Reporting by media in a responsible way
• School-based interventions
• Introducing alcohol policies to reduce the harmful use of alcohol
• Early identification, treatment and care of people with mental and substance use disor-
ders, chronic pain and acute emotional distress
• Training of non-specialised health workers in the assessment and management of sui-
cidal behaviour
• Follow-up care for people who attempted suicide and provision of community support
Anxiety, depression and suicide from an Islamic perspective

This section will focus on self-harm, suicide and rational suicide (mercy killing or physician-
assisted suicide). The main monotheistic faiths (Christianity, Judaism and Islam) agree that
“life cannot be taken save by an express mandate.” Rassool (2004) observes that this mandate
or covenant is in the hands of God with regard to human life and suffering: The duty to pre-
serve life, the acceptance and obligations of trials and tribulations and the duty to recognise
that life has an end. The sanctity of life is a key covenant with God as stated in the Qur’an.
• We decreed upon the Children of Israel that whoever kills a soul unless for a soul or for
corruption [done] in the land – it is as if he had slain mankind entirely. And whoever
saves one – it is as if he had saved mankind entirely. (Al-Ma’idah 5:32)
Islam places great emphasis on the sanctity of life and is unconditionally opposed to self-
harm, suicide, euthanasia (mercy killing) or rational suicide. Suicide is prohibited in Islamic
law according to evidence from the Qur’an, Sunnah and the consensus of Muslim scholars.
• And do not kill yourselves [or one another]. (An-Nisa 4:29)

• And do not kill the soul which Allah has forbidden [to be killed] except by [legal] right.
(Al-An’am 6:151)
This is the command from Allah, the Almighty, forbidding suicide and homicide. Suicide
is of two types, active and passive suicide. A person who commits suicide commits a major
sin, though this does not take him outside of Islam (Dar al-Iftaa Al-Missriyyah, 2020). Abu
Hurairah narrated that the Messenger of Allah ( ) said:
Whoever kills himself with (an instrument of iron), his iron will be in his hand, to
continually stab himself in his stomach with it, in the fire of Jahannam [hell], dwell-
ing in that state eternally. And whoever kills himself with poison, then his poison will
be in his hand, to continually take it in the Fire of Jahannam, dwelling in that state
eternally.
(Tirmidhi (a))
The punishment mentioned here will be applied only to those who committed suicide inten-
tionally while they were of sane mind, according to Al-Khater (2001). Al-Khater also sug-
gests that people with severe depression or other mental illness may not be considered legally
responsible, depending on the severity of the disorder. Utz (2011) noted that “Allah will
judge them on the Day of Resurrection and send them to their appropriate destination. For
this reason, one cannot justify the claim that everyone who commits suicide will be con-
demned to hell” (p.280). An Islamic objection to any form of suicide (rational or irrational)
is that the motive which prompts individuals to take their own life is contrary to the divine
prerogative over human life. It was reported that
In Ṣaḥiḥ Muslim there is the story of a man who commits suicide but who is assumed by
the Prophet ( ) to be forgiven by God, and he himself prays for him. Imam al-Nawawī,
in his commentary on the narration, says that this means that God judges each case of
suicide individually, deciding whether it deserves punishment or not.
(Islam Q&A, 2018)
The Prophetic traditions not only prohibit suicide but also explicitly deter from wishing for
death. It is narrated by Anas bin Malik that the Prophet ( ) said,
None of you should wish for death because of a calamity befalling him; but if he has to
wish for death, he should say: “O Allah! Keep me alive as long as life is better for me
and let me die if death is better for me.”
(Bukhari (a))
In another Hadith, it was narrated from Abu Hurairah that the Messenger of Allah said:
“None of you should wish for death. Either he is a doer of good, so perhaps he may do better,
or he is an evildoer but perhaps he will give up his evil ways” (An-Nasa’i).
Trials and tribulations, loss, anxiety, depression and calamities are all from God. Allah
• But if good comes to them, they say, “This is from Allah”; and if evil befalls them, they
say, “This is from you.” Say, “All [things] are from Allah.” (An-Nisa 4:78)
Once we realise that it is from God, we should understand there is not only a reason but also
a purpose for our sufferings. Imam Hasan al-Basri, a great scholar of Islam, said: “Do not
resent the calamities that come and the disasters that occur; perhaps in something that you
dislike will be your salvation, and perhaps in something that you prefer will be your doom”
(IslamHouse, 2013, p.16). Allah says in the Qur’an (interpretation of the meaning):
• But perhaps you hate a thing and it is good for you; and perhaps you love a thing and it
is bad for you. And Allah Knows, while you know not. (Al-Baqarah 2:216)
Fadl ibn Sahl said:
There is a blessing in calamity that the wise man should not ignore, for it [calamity]
erases sins, gives one the opportunity to attain the reward for patience, dispels negli-
gence, reminds one of blessings at the time of health, calls one to repent, and encourages
one to give charity.
(IslamHouse, 2013, p.17)
Muslims who are depressed or have suicidal thoughts should seek psychiatric treatment but
must reflect that they are not the only one in this world who is affected by trials and tribula-
tions. Allah says in the Qur’an (interpretation of the meaning):
• And We will surely test you with something of fear and hunger and a loss of wealth and
lives and fruits but give good tidings to the patient. (Al Baqarah 2:155)
(This test will be with the afflictions of fear and hunger and (lives).) The “(lives)” means
losing friends, relatives and loved ones to death. Sometimes Allah tests His slaves with tri-
als and tribulations in order to expiate their sins. Abu Sa’eed Al-Khudri narrated that the
Messenger of Allah ( ) said: “Nothing afflicts the believer, whether fatigue, grief, disease
– even a worry that concerns him – except that by it, Allah removes something from his bad
deeds” (Tirmidhi (b)). In another version, it is narrated by Abu Saìd Al-Khudri and Abu
Hurairah that the Prophet ( ) said, “No fatigue, nor disease, nor sorrow, nor sadness, nor
hurt, nor distress befalls a Muslim, even if it were the prick he receives from a thorn, but that
Allah expiates some of his sins for that” (Bukhari (b)). Calamities is something that Muslims
will encounter all their lives. Abu Hurairah narrated that the Messenger of Allah ( ) said:
“Calamities will continue to befall believing men and women in themselves, their children
and their wealth, until they meet Allah with no burden of sin” (Tirmidhi (c)).
The believer should turn to God when a calamity strike. The anxious and depressed patient
will have to be patient and seek help from Allah through supplications and remembrance.
Supplications (Dua’hs) are the weapon of the believer. There are many verses in the Qur’an
that help understand anxiety and depression. Allah says in the Qur’an (interpretation of the
meaning):
• Those who have believed and whose hearts are assured by the remembrance of Allah.
Unquestionably, by the remembrance of Allah hearts are assured. (Ar-Ra’d 13:28)
• For indeed, with hardship [will be] ease.
• Indeed, with hardship [will be] ease. (Ash-Sharh 94:5–6)
Allah, the Almighty, promised that after difficulties, there will be ease, and then he reaffirms
this information (by repeating it). The sufferer needs to have patience and perseverance. The
sufferer should also seek psychosocial and spiritual interventions. Islamic psychotherapy has
been used in the treatment of anxiety disorders. Islamic psychotherapy is defined as “a pro-
cess of psychological intervention which seeks to heal mental and emotional stress, as well
as spiritual that is based on the Qur’an, the Sunnah of the Prophet and the practice of the
past Islamic scholars” (Abdullah et al., 2013, p.158). The dimensions of the psychotherapy
included belief in Allah, performance of prayers, “Tafakkur,” practicing the Zikr (remem-
brance of Allah) and also believing in predestination. The findings of a study by Abdullah
et al. (2013) showed the effectiveness of psychotherapy. However, the findings should be
taken with caution as the study was conducted on only one subject and the total number
of interventions was only three (within a 12-week duration). There is also evidence that a
spiritual Jihad (growth from struggles) (Saritoprak, Exline and Stauner, 2018) and cogni-
tive restructuring (Islamic modified CBT) (Hamdan, 2008) can be used for the treatment of
depression and anxiety.
Eating disorders
Eating disorders are a range of complex syndromes with physical, psychological, behavioural
and social features. There is a strong argument that eating disorders are a form of addictive
behaviours. An eating disorder is defined as
an illness that causes serious disturbances to your everyday diet, such as eating extremely
small amounts of food or severely overeating. A person with an eating disorder may have
started out just eating smaller or larger amounts of food, but at some point, the urge to
eat less or more spiralled out of control. Severe distress or concern about body weight or
shape may also characterise an eating disorder.
(National Institute of Mental Health, 2009)
Table 22.1 Symptoms of anorexia nervosa
Severe weight loss Reduced libido and loss

Abdominal pain, constipation Severe constipation
Amenorrhoea Low blood pressure, slowed breathing
Bradycardia and pulse
Thinning of the bones (osteopenia or osteoporosis) Mild anaemia, and muscle weakness
Brittle hair and nails Irritability and anxious energy
Dry and yellowish skin Isolation and loss of friends
Growth of fne hair over body Distorted body image
Drop in internal body temperature, causing a person to Personality changes
feel cold all the time Sleep disturbance, diffculty in sleeping
Excessive exercising Perfectionism
Self-induced vomiting and purging
Depression
Fatigue and decreased energy
Lack of concern about low body weight
Headaches
The major eating disorders are anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa. Other eating disor-
ders include binge-eating disorder, body dysmorphic disorder (BDD), compulsive over-
eating, compulsive exercising, eating disorder not otherwise specified (ED-NOS), night
eating syndrome, Pica Prader–Willi syndrome and sleep eating disorder (SED-NOS).
Eating disorders are psychological illnesses with acute physical complications which fre-
quently co-exist with other psychiatric disorders such as depression or anxiety disorders,
and alcohol and drug misuse. The mortality rates among people with eating disorders are
high due to the effects of chronic physical complications of eating disorders and suicide.
Anorexia nervosa has the highest mortality rate of any psychiatric disorder of adolescence
(NICE, 2004).
Much of the aetiology of eating disorders remains contentious, but there is a general con-
sensus that the causes of eating disorders are multi-factorial encompassing the genetic, neu-
rochemical, psychological, socio-cultural and environmental factors. Eating disorders have
been regarded as a disorder with a genetic component (Kay, 1999; Bulik et al., 2000), chro-
mosome harbouring genes (Grice et al., 2002; Bulik et al., 1978), influence of serotonin
(Steiger, 2004), social and cultural explanations (Nasser et al., 2000), adopting “westernisa-
tion” and confused gender identities (Collier and Treasure, 2004), personality traits (Vervaet
et al., 2004) and childhood perfectionism (Anderluh et al., 2003).
Anorexia usually develops over time and most commonly starts in the mid-teens. It is a
serious psychiatric disorder with far-reaching effects that encompass all the bio-psychosocial
aspects of an individual’s life, family and significant others. Table 22.1 presents the symp-
toms of anorexia nervosa.
There are many similarities between anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa, the most com-
mon being the aetiology. Their contrast is characterised by different food-related behaviours
and attempts to purge which is regarded by DSM-5 (APA, 2013) as “inappropriate compen-
satory behaviours.” There are two types: Purging bulimia (inducing vomiting after binge
eating, and misusing diuretics, laxatives or enemas), and non-purging bulimia (engaging in
extreme exercise to prevent weight gain after a binge). Basically, the common feature is
Table 22.2 Symptoms of bulimia nervosa
Physical Behavioural/psychological
Irregular heartbeat Binge eating

Bloodshot eyes Misuse of laxatives, diuretics, enemas or diet pills
Stomach pains, indigestion Fasting
Fluid retention Excessive exercising
Dehydration Smell of vomiting in bathroom
Fluctuations in weight Wanting privacy constantly
Weakness, tiredness and fatigue Social phobia
Constipation and diarrhoea Anxiety and depression
Swollen glands in the face and neck Mood swings and irritability
Irregular menstrual cycle Low self-esteem
Fertility problems Feeling a loss of control
Stomach ulcers Obsession with weight, shape, food, dieting and exercise
Malnutrition Feelings of withdrawal
Dental erosion Epileptic fts
people who have bulimia binge eat in a short period of time, then purge or use other methods
to prevent weight gain. Table 22.2 presents the symptoms of bulimia nervosa.
Generally, eating disorders, phobic-dieting diseases of the West, have been reported in
non-Western countries such as those in the Middle East. The rising trends of eating disorders
in Muslim-majority countries may be due to several factors such as social pressure for thin-
ness, increasing globalisation, exposure to social media and internalising Western values.
The treatment interventions for each of the different types of eating disorders vary somewhat.
Psychotherapy forms the core of all eating disorders, with other options using cognitive-
behavioural therapy and family therapy. The Maudsley method is a specific form of family
therapy in which parents assume responsibility for feeding their anorexic teen to help them
gain weight and improve the teen’s eating habits. Research has demonstrated its effective-
ness in the treatment of adolescents and children especially, before the disordered eating has
become a chronic behaviour (Institute of Psychiatry, 2012).
Islam and eating disorders

The Islamic world views food as a pleasurable function of health, a method of worship and a
symbol of Allah’s blessings. In Islam, self-image is achieved not by sacrificing one’s health,
but by restoring one’s physical, mental and spiritual health. The destruction of one’s health is
anathema to Islamic belief because self-starvation (not due to eating disorders as psychopatho-
logical) as a form of pseudocide is considered forbidden as previously discussed in the Qur’an,
An-Nisa’ 4:29. In Islam, food is linked with the blessings of Allah, our Sustainer. It is not
linked to self-image, fulfilment or pleasure like it is in the West. However, the Islamic view on
food and diet is quite different and may provide some guidance for those who are acculturated
to the ideals of Western self-image. Allah says in the Qur’an (interpretation of the meaning):
• O you who have believed, do not prohibit the good things which Allah has made lawful to
you and do not transgress. Indeed, Allah does not like transgressors. (Al-Ma’idah 5:87)
Ibn Kathir stated that (and transgress not) means,
do not exaggerate and make it hard for yourselves by prohibiting the permissible things.
Do not transgress the limits by excessively indulging in the permissible matters; only use
of it what satisfies your need; and do not fall into extravagance.
Transgression is about self-transgression and not deviating from what has been prescribed.
The problem with those suffering from eating disorders is that some of the sufferers have
no insight about their disorders or have trouble recognising their dysfunctional eating behav-
iours. The DSM-5 (APA, 2013) also states that individuals with anorexia nervosa frequently
either lack insight into or deny the problem. Patients with restrictive anorexia nervosa had
poorer overall insight than patients with anorexia nervosa (Konstantakopoulos et al., 2011).
There is evidence to suggest that the brains of people with anorexia nervosa with no insight
do not register an “error message” when informed that their dieting is a serious risk for their
health (Zhang et al., 2016). That is, the brains of anorexic patients literally fail to register
their eating behaviours may lead to death.
However, if someone is diagnosed with an eating disorder, then they should have both psy-
chosocial and medical treatment as stated in the previous section. The use of the Millati Islami
adaptation of the 12-step programme from Alcohol Anonymous (AA) has also been found to
be useful as part of an addictive behaviours/eating disorders rehabilitation programme. With
the use of both medical/psychological interventions, coupled with supplications and turning
to Allah, the Almighty, the “demon” of eating disorders can be overwhelmed. The following
is a note of guidance from someone recovering from anorexia nervosa:
Don’t ask them for weight loss tips. It’s very triggering and anyone who’s recovering
from an eating disorder won’t give you any tips. That’s for sure. If you don’t know what to
talk about with them, don’t try to make them feel “comfortable” with talking about some-
thing (dieting for example) they obviously know a lot about. – recovering people want to
get rid of everything related to eating disorders, so don’t start a conversation about it if
they don’t start it first. – don’t call any food “bad” or “good” and don’t talk about “eating
clean” –also avoid talking about exercising or how you should start going to gym. – don’t
comment on anyone else’s body…at least not with negative words. Don’t joke about eds
and for the God sake don’t say things like (I hope I had an eating disorder for a while, at
least I can lose some weight) – don’t tell them “I haven’t eaten anything the whole day”
they’ll only let them feel triggered and bad. Eating disorders are not diets, or just “phases”,
not things to joke about…Eating disorders kill people every single day. Be kind, ask how
they feel, is there anything you could do, for sure it’s very difficult and frustrating to sup-
port someone in recovery but once you see them getting better, it’s all worth it.
(Islam and Eating Disorders, 2020)
Perhaps, the weapon to beat the “demon” is to use the weapon of the believer. An-Nu’man
bin Bashir (may Allah be pleased with them) reported: The Prophet ( ) said, “Du’ah (sup-
plication) is worship” (Abu Dawud).
Possession syndrome and obsessive-compulsive disorder

Muslims, generally on a global scale, tend to attribute mental health problems to supernat-
ural causes or the possession syndrome. The Islamic perspective on mental health is also
dramatically different from the Judeo-Christian nosology of mental health. Muslims “attribute
mental health problems to different phenomena, including the evil eye (Hasad or Nathla),
possession by supernatural entities such as demons (Jinn) and magic (Sihr)” (Rassool, 2016,
p.54). For a more comprehensive account of possession syndrome see Rassool (2019a). There
is another disorder known as scrupulosity which is a form of obsessive-compulsive disorder
that involves religious or moral obsessions. These religious or moral obsessions are related
to blasphemous thoughts and practices or other violations of theological doctrine. Obsessive-
compulsive disorder (OCD) is a heterogeneous group of symptoms that includes intrusive
thoughts, rituals, preoccupations and compulsions. Many Muslims suffer from OCD and
scrupulous OCD known as Waswâs al-Qahri (overwhelming whisperings). Awad (2017)
identified three categories of Waswâs al-Qahri in clinical settings:
• Waswâs al-Qahri Fee Aqeedah (belief)

• Waswâs al-Qahri Fee Ibadah (worship)
• Waswâs al-Qahri Fee Taharah (purification)
Rassool (2019a, b) identified another typology of Waswâs al-Qahri in clinical setting which
is related to the fear of losing control. This has been classified as Waswâs al-Qahri Fee Kwaf
Min Fuqdan al Saytara. A summary of the typology, obsessions and compulsions of Waswâs
al-Qahri is presented in Table 22.3.
Islam teaches Muslims to seek protection and refuge in Allah from the evils of envy, jealousy
and Jinn manifestation, black magic and Waswâs al-Qahri through the recitation of prayers,
verses from the Qur’an and supplications, Dhikr (remembrance of God) and Ruqyah (incanta-
tions) (Rassool, 2019a). There are several therapeutic interventions in the remedy of evil eye.
A’ishah (may Allah be pleased with her) stated that: “The one who had put the evil eye on another
would be ordered to do Wudu’ [ablution], then the one who had been struck by the evil eye would
wash with it (that water)” (Sunan Al-Bayhaqi). In the event that an individual is afflicted by the
evil eye but is unaware who put the evil eye on him/her, the recommended spiritual interven-
tions as prescribed by the Shari’ah (Islamic jurisprudence) is reciting Ruqyah and Dhikr. The use
of truffle has also been recommended as part of the Prophetic medicine and the Sunnah in the
treatment of evil eye. The treatment of Jinn manifestation and witchcraft needs to be compliant
within the paradigm of the Shari’ah. This caution is emphasised because “Whoever is affected
by Sihr [magic] should not treat it with Sihr, because evil cannot be removed by evil, and Kufr
[denial of the Truth] cannot be removed by Kufr. Evil is removed by good” (Islam Q&A, 2000).
Waswâs al-Qahri is a complex psycho-spiritual disorder that requires spiritual interventions and
sometimes a combination of spiritual and Islamic-based cognitive behavioural therapy.
There are many traditional-cultural practices amongst the Muslim communities in the
use of charms, beads, amulets, bracelets and necklaces adorned with blue beads, Ta’weez
(amulet), as a form of protection against Jinn manifestation, magic or witchcraft. These are
forbidden in Islam. It has been observed that
Some Muslims are ignorant regarding the unicity of Allah (Tawhid) and those beliefs
and behaviours that nullify and corrupt the faith from the matters of Shirk and kufr
(disbelief). Other reasons why Muslims use these Ta’weez include cultural traditions,
followers of “blind faith,” and ignorance on the reliance and trust in Allah.”
(Rassool, 2019a, p.229)
Allah knows best.

Table 22.3 Summary of the typology, obsessions and compulsions of Waswâs al-Qahri
526
Typology System Obsessions Compulsions
Waswâs al-Qahri Belief Blasphemous thoughts. Excessive praying (not prescribed or recommended) to counter
Fee Aqeedah Doubting the religion. blasphemous or sacrilegious thoughts that could result in going
Questions about God’s existence. to hell.
Fear of losing touch with God. Compulsive behaviours in general.
Retrospectives memories: Doubts that one had
committed major sins in the past.
Excessive concern with halal (legal) and haram
(forbidden) or right/wrong or morality.
Waswâs al-Qahri Worship/religious Doubt whether I performed ablution correctly Re-performing prayer to achieve perfection.
Fee Ibadah rituals or not. Doing extra prostrations (Sajda e Sahw) in every prayer.
Doubt whether I performed the prayer correctly Excessive, repetitive utterances of God’s forgiveness.
or not. Re-reading passages from the Qur’an to attain perfection.
Intrusive images during prayer or reciting Qur’an.
Fear of having sinned or broken a religious ritual.
Prayers have been recited incorrectly.
Waswâs al-Qahri Purifcation Fear of contamination with body fuids (examples: Washing hands excessively or in a certain method not prescribed.
Fee Taharah Urine, faeces). Excessive showering, bathing, tooth brushing, grooming or toilet
Fear of contamination with dirt or germs. routines.
Doubt whether I performed ablution correctly Performing ablution several times.
or not. Taking a lot of time in doing ablution.
Fear of impurities when doing ablution and while Spending too much time in all purifcation/washing activities, e.g.
performing prayer. Irrational fear and constant washing hands after meal.
feeling that my clothes are unclean. Protecting religious symbols, ornaments, books or pictures from
Doubts of passing wind, and nullifcation of “contamination.”
ablution. Doing other things to prevent or remove contact with
contaminants.
Waswâs al-Qahri Fear of losing Fear of acting on an impulse to self-harm. Excessive checking that you did not/will not harm others.
Fee Kwaf Min control Fear of acting on an impulse to harm others. Excessive checking that you did not/will not self-harm.
Fuqdan al Fear of violent or horrifc images in one’s mind. Excessive checking that nothing terrible happened or some
Saytara Fear of obscenities in one’s mind. arbitrary worship has not been performed. Excessive checking
Fear of doubts and uncertainty. that you did not make a mistake, error or commit a sin.
Excessive checking of number of sins committed.
Source: Adapted from Rassool, G. Hussein. (2019a; 2019b).


• Muslims patients often attribute their mental health problems to a religio-cultural con-
cept of distress such as evil eye, Jinn possession or black magic.
• The most damaging anxiety disorders to overall quality of life are social phobia and post-
traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).
• Depression or clinical depression affects thinking (cognitive), feeling (affective) and
behaviour, that is, the way the activities of daily living are handled.
• There is a high risk of suicide with depressive disorders.
• Islam places great emphasis on the sanctity of life and is unconditionally opposed to self-
harm, suicide, euthanasia (mercy killing) or rational suicide.
• An eating disorder is an illness that causes serious disturbances to your everyday diet,
such as eating extremely small amounts of food or severely overeating.
• The factors that influence eating behaviours include food characteristics and cultural,
biological, social, familial and individual factors.
• Anorexia is a serious psychiatric disorder with far-reaching effects that encompass
all the bio-psychosocial aspects of an individual’s life, and family, and significant
others.
• There are two types of bulimia: Purging bulimia (inducing vomiting after binge eat-
ing, and misusing diuretics, laxatives or enemas), and non-purging bulimia (engaging in
extreme exercise to prevent weight gain after a binge).
• Islam views food as a symbol of Allah’s blessings, a function of health and a method of
worship.
• In Islam, the destruction of one’s health is viewed differently because suicide is consid-
ered haram.
• Muslims “attribute mental health problems to different phenomena, including the evil
eye (Hasad or Nathla), possession by supernatural entities such as demons (Jinn) and
magic (Sihr).”
• The typology of Waswâs al-Qahri includes Waswâs al-Qahri Fee Aqeedah (belief);
Waswâs al-Qahri Fee Ibadah (worship); Waswâs al-Qahri Fee Taharah (purification);
and Waswâs al-Qahri Fee Kwaf Min Fuqdan al Saytara (fear of losing control).
• Islam teaches Muslims to seek protection and refuge in Allah from the evils of envy,
jealousy and Jinn manifestation, black magic and Waswâs al-Qahri through the recita-
tion of prayers, verses from the Qur’an and supplications.
1. Which statement is not correct?

A. There are concerns regarding the rise in the levels of depression, anxiety, social
pressures and family conflict.
B. There is lower risk of suicide in second-generation migrants.
C. There is high prevalence of depression, anxiety and insomnia in Pakistani women.
D. The effects of Islamophobia on the mental health of Muslims are quite significant.
E. Islamophobia negatively affects the mental health of Muslims in European coun-
tries ranging from increased feelings of anxiety to depression.
2. The Islamic view of self-harm and suicide.

A. Almost all Muslims favour it.
B. It is forbidden.
C. Almost all Muslims are divided.
D. It is not recommended.
E. It is an individual choice.
3. Which of the following statements is not true about acculturative stress?
A. It is the emotional reaction and “psychological impact of adaptation to a new
culture.”
B. Acculturative stress may lead to psychological problems or disorders.
C. Acculturation has been related with depression, social withdrawal, familial isola-
tion, despair, hostility, anxiety and somatisation.
D. Acculturative stress is not related to a sense of isolation, persecution, adjustment
difficulties and family conflicts.
E. Some of the acculturative stress studies are not related to the Muslim communities.
4. The Maudsley method is:
A. A technique of therapy for treating addictive behaviours.
B. Legal detention of those with eating disorders in special clinics.
C. A technique of family therapy for treating eating disorders.
D. A technique of systematic desensitisation for bulimia nervosa.
E. Cognitive behavioural therapy for binge eating disorders.
5. Depressed individuals exhibit which of the following symptoms?
A. Behavioural symptoms
B. Physical symptoms
C. Cognitive symptoms
D. Affective symptoms
E. All of the above
6. An anxiety disorder is:
A. An emotional state identified by obsessional attacks.
B. A physiological and behavioural response associated with the activation of the
sympathetic nervous system that helps protect us from threat and danger.
C. An emotional condition classified by excessive checking.
D. An emotional condition classified by disordered thinking.
E. An excessive or aroused state characterised by feelings of losing control.
7. The symptoms of bulimia nervosa include:
A. Inducing vomiting after binge eating
B. Misusing diuretics, laxatives or enemas
C. Engaging in extreme exercise to prevent weight gain after a binge
D. A, B and C
E. A and C only
8. Anxiety disorders include:
A. Generalised anxiety disorder
B. Panic attacks
C. Post-traumatic stress disorder
D. Obsessive-compulsive disorder
E. All of the above
9. The symptoms of seasonal affective disorder do not include
A. Feeling lethargic (lacking in energy) and sleepy during the night

B. A persistent low mood
C. A loss of pleasure or interest in normal everyday activities
D. Irritability
E. Feelings of despair, guilt and worthlessness
10. One of the primary goals of any treatment for anorexia nervosa is to:
A. Replace binge eating with other behaviours.
B. Increase weight to normal levels.
C. Stop physical activities and exercise.
D. Reduce weight to normal levels.
E. Use psychoactive medications.
11. The problem with those suffering from eating disorders is that some of the sufferers
A. Have no insight about their disorders.
B. Have trouble recognising their dysfunctional eating behaviours.
C. The brains of people with anorexia nervosa with no insight do not register an “error
message.”
D. A, B and C.
E. A and B only.
12. For Muslims with eating disorders,
A. The 12-step programme of Narcotic Anonymous (NA) is recommended.
B. The 12-steps programme of Alcohol Anonymous (AA) is recommended.
C. The Millati Islami adaptation of the 12-step programme is recommended.
D. The 12-step programme of mindfulness is recommended.
13. A socio-cultural explanation for eating disorders includes
A. A dysfunction of cholinergic transmission.
B. The influence of the media which promotes thinness as a desirable characteristic.
C. The influence of childhood attachment in the development of the disorder.
D. The role of negative frame of thought beliefs in the development of the disorder.
E. The influence of peer group pressure.
14. Which one is not correct? Muslims attribute mental health problems to different phe-
nomena including:
A. Marital disharmony
B. Evil eye (Hasad or Nathla)
C. Possession by supernatural entities such as demons (Jinn)
D. Magic (Sihr)
E. All of the above
15. Scrupulosity is not
A. A form of obsessive-compulsive disorder
B. A religious or moral obsession
C. Blasphemous thoughts and practices
D. A form of schizophrenia
E. Violation of theological doctrine
16. Which one is not an aspect of Waswâs al-Qahri?
A. Waswâs al-Qahri Fee Ibadah (worship)
B. Waswâs al-Qahri Fee Aqeedah (belief)
C. Waswâs al-Qahri Fee Aqiqah (sacrifice)
D. Waswâs al-Qahri Fee Taharah (purification)

E. Waswâs al-Qahri Fee Kwaf Min Fuqdan al Saytara (loss of control)
17. What health complication is often seen in bulimia nervosa?
A. Hearing loss
B. Dental erosion
C. Inability to taste
D. Loss of smell
E. Hydration
18. The use of charms, beads, amulets, bracelets and necklaces adorned with blue beads
A. Is recommended in Islam.
B. Are all not acceptable except amulets.
C. Is forbidden in Islam.
D. Are all acceptable except necklaces adorned with blue beads.
E. Is a sign of good protection.
19. The most effective intervention for those suffering from obsessive-compulsive disorder:
A. Antipsychotic medication
B. Mindfulness therapy
C. Massage therapy
D. Existential therapy
E. Cognitive behavioural therapy
20. Allah says in the Qur’an (interpretation of the meaning): And We will surely test you with
something of fear and hunger and a loss of wealth and lives and fruits but give good tid-
ings to the patient. This verse is from
A. Al-Ma’idah 5:87
B. Al Baqarah 2:155
C. Ash-Sharh 94:5
D. Ar-Ra’d 13:28
E. Ash-Sharh 94:6
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Chapter 23
Models and approaches to disability
Learning outcomes
• Define the term disability.
• Describe the types of disability.
• Discuss the different models of disability.
• Identify the concepts of health, disability and the Qur’an.
• Discuss aspects of diversity and special needs in the Sunnah.
• Outline the responsibilities of the disabled in Islamic Society.
• Discuss the psychological adjustment to disability.
• Discuss the Islamic approach to disability.
• Discuss psychogogy and psychological interventions.
Introduction
The perception about disability and the care and management of people with disabilities
have evolved over time and differed across cultures, ethnic groups and countries. The tran-
sition of the concept, over time, has been shaped by political, socio-cultural and religious
factors according to a country’s particular statute and national legal decrees and/or religious
texts. The notion of disability, as a human condition, has been subjected to diverse connota-
tions depending on cultural differences, context of use, semantic connotations, the model
of disability and who defines it. This concept, as an umbrella term, may include a number
of different functional limitations which indicate physical, psychological and intellectual
impairments, limitations in movements or activities and participation restrictions. Some of
these conditions or disorders may be permanent or transitory in nature.
The International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF) defines dis-
ability as “the negative aspects of the interaction between individuals with a health condition
(such as cerebral palsy, Down syndrome, depression) and personal and environmental fac-
tors (such as negative attitudes, inaccessible transportation and public buildings, and limited
social supports)” (WHO, 2011, p.7). According to the United Nations Declaration on the
Rights of Disabled Persons (OHCHR, 1975), the term “disabled person” means “any person
unable to ensure by himself or herself, wholly or partly, the necessities of a normal individual
and/or social life, as a result of a deficiency, either congenital or not, in his or her physical
or mental capabilities.” Other rights include respect for the disabled and their human dig-
nity; civil and political rights; the right to medical, psychological and functional treatment;
the right to economic and social security; the right to have their special needs taken into
consideration; the right to live with their families or significant others; protection against
all exploitation and discriminations; access to legal aid; and the right to measures designed
to enable them to become self-reliant. The Universal Islamic Declaration of Human Rights
(UIDHR, 1981), based on the Qur’an and the Sunnah, guarantees the very same human rights
as the United Nation Declaration on Human Rights (cited in Rispler-Chaim, 2007; Aminu-
Kano et al., 2014).
This chapter provides a general understanding of the Islamic view on disability by exam-
ining the different models and approaches to disability. In addition, the chapter examines the
Islamic responses to the care and management of disability and the right of protection for
those individuals with disabilities.
Types of disability
The types of disabilities include physical disabilities, intellectual or learning disabilities, psy-
chiatric disabilities, visual impairments, hearing impairments and neurological disabilities.
Morris (n.d.) has summarised the characteristics of the types of disabilities:
• Physical disabilities. Limitation on a person’s physical functioning which includes

mobility and dexterity. It is impairment which limits other facets of daily living, such as
respiratory disorders, blindness, epilepsy and sleep disorders.
• Intellectual disabilities or learning disabilities. This condition is characterised by sig-
nificant impaired intellectual and adaptive functioning, or an IQ score below 70; there
are deficits in two or more adaptive behaviours that affect everyday living; cognition,
mental functioning and individual functional skills in their environments; syndromic
intellectual disability: intellectual deficits associated with other medical and behavioural
signs; and non-syndromic intellectual disability: Intellectual deficits appear without
other abnormalities.
• Psychiatric disabilities. These disabilities affect functioning at all levels. The character-
istics include the irregular nature of mental illness, stress associated with non-disclosure,
side effects of medications and interrupted education or training and co-morbidity. The
conditions include the major psychotic and neurotic disorders.
• Visual disabilities. “Legally blind” describes an individual who has 10% or less of nor-
mal vision. Only 10% of people with a visual disability are actually totally blind.
• Hearing disabilities. “Deaf” describes an individual who has severe to profound hear-
ing loss. “Deafened” describes an individual who has acquired hearing loss in adulthood.
• Neurological disabilities. These disorders are dysfunctions of the brain, spine and the
nerves that connect them. It is reported that there are more than 600 diseases of the nerv-
ous system, including epilepsy, Alzheimer’s disease and other dementias, cerebrovascu-
lar diseases including stroke, migraine and other headache disorders, multiple sclerosis,
Parkinson’s disease, neuro-infections, brain tumours and traumatic disorders.
Models of disability
There are different models of disability that have shaped and influenced academics, clini-
cians, policy makers and service providers. It is important to be aware of the purposes of the
different models of disability because, according to Smart (2004), the models
Models and approaches to disability 537
• provide definitions of disability.

• provide explanations of causal attribution and responsibility attributions.
• are based on (perceived) needs;
• guide the formulation and implementation of policy;
• are not value neutral;
• determine which academic disciplines study and learn about people with disability;
• shape the self-identity of people with disability; and
• can cause prejudice and discrimination. (pp.25–29)
There are four main models of disability: The moral and/or religious model, the medical
model, the social model and the bio-psychosocial model, which provide contrasting ways of
thinking about disability. The four models will be briefly examined.
The moral/religious model

This approach to disability is the original and oldest model of disability and is found in a
number of religious traditions, including Islam, and the Judeo-Christian tradition (Pardeck
and Murphy, 2012, p.xvii). In the Islamic tradition, the existence of disabilities as a natural
part of human nature is identified in both the Qur’an and the Sunnah. This will be discussed
in later sections of this chapter. However, the main focus of this approach, from an Islamic
perspective, is that disability is part of the trials and tribulations of Allah and not under-
stood as a form of punishment or an atonement for sins that may have been committed by
the person with disability, their parents or members of the family (Rispler-Chaim, 2007).
Disability in Islam is viewed as a natural part of the health continuum and a challenge set
by God. According to Bhatty et al. (2009), “disease is also viewed as having a redeeming
quality in that it may serve as a spiritual cleansing” (p.162). In addition, the disability cre-
ated by Allah
may be a test for the child’s parents, by which Allah will expiate for their bad deeds, or
raise their status in Paradise if they bear this trial with patience. Then if the child grows
up, the test will also include him, and if he bears it with patience and faith, then Allah
has prepared for the patient a reward that cannot be enumerated.
(Sheikh Muhammed Salih Al-Munajjid, 2009)
The Qur’an, Sunnah and Islamic laws prime Muslims to treat people with disabilities with
kindness and compassion and to protect them.
In contrast with Islamic traditions, the Judeo-Christian traditions have different percep-
tions of disability. In Jewish theology, in accordance with the Torah, disability is a pun-
ishment for transgressions (Blanks and Smith, 2009), but God also commands the Jews
to treat the deaf and blind well. For Christianity, there has been a diversity of attitudes
towards disability throughout history. Metzler (2006) suggests that during the Middle Ages,
in Europe, there were priests and scholars who perceived disability as a punishment from
God for committing sins and others believed that those with disabilities were more pious
than non-disabled people. Even in the 21st century in some Christian communities, sin that
may have been committed by the person with disability, or by members of the family, is still
regarded as the cause of disability, or it is seen as a form of punishment or an atonement
for sins (Otieno, 2009; Henderson and Bryan, 2011). According to Henderson and Bryan
(2011), there is the belief that
some disabilities are the result of lack of adherence to social morality and religious proc-
lamations that warn against engaging in certain behaviour. Some beliefs are based upon
the assumption that some disabilities are the result of punishment from an all-powerful
entity. Furthermore, the belief is that the punishment is for an act or acts of transgression
against prevailing moral and/or religious edicts.
(p.7)
As a result of the negative perception of disability, many disabled children and adults have
been treated and cared for inhumanely, alienated and excluded from church services and from
social participation in their local communities (Human Rights Watch, 2012; Rimmerman,
2011; Briggs, 2018). However, the majority of Christians are more accepting in their percep-
tion of disabilities, and have a duty to care for them.
The medical (biomedical) model

With the advancement of medical science and technology, the moral/religious model was
gradually replaced by the medical (or biomedical) model of disability. The medical model
assumes that those with disabilities have medical conditions that need medical interventions
to overcome their limitations and improve their quality of life. According to Olkin (1999),
disability is seen as
a medical problem that resides in the individual. It is a defect in or failure of a bodily

system and as such is inherently abnormal and pathological. The goals of intervention
are cure, amelioration of the physical condition to the greatest extent possible, and reha-
bilitation (i.e., the adjustment of the person with the disability to the condition and to the
environment). Persons with disabilities are expected to avail themselves of the variety of
services offered to them and to spend time in the role of patient or learner being helped
by trained professionals.
(p.26)
In the medical model, individuals with disabilities are perceived as “the problem,” and “terms
like ‘invalid’, ‘cripple’, ‘spastic’, ‘handicapped’ and ‘retarded’ are all derived from the medi-
cal model” (Creamer, 2009, p.22).
There are several criticisms of the medical model of disability. This model of disability
is sometimes also referred to as the “personal tragedy” model because of its negativistic
approach to disability (Thomas and Woods, 2003) and “a personal tragedy for both the indi-
vidual and her family, something to be prevented and, if possible, cured” (Carlson, 2010, p.5).
Johnstone (2012) maintains that the “medical model of interpretation of disability projects a
dualism which tends to categorise the able-bodied as somehow ‘better’ or superior to people
with disabilities” (p.16). The “sick role” expectation, stereotypical images, “victim blaming”
and negative labelling reinforce the notion that those with disabilities are less capable than
those who are the “normal” and able-bodied. These categorisations lead them to develop
low self-esteem, low expectations, loss of independence and loss of control in their own
lives. This negativistic attitude and conception have led to medical interventions including
involuntary sterilisation and euthanasia performed on those with disabilities (Carlson, 2010).
Other limitations of the medical approach to disability include the exclusion of a holistic
approach in meeting the complex needs of those with disabilities and in the “intervention”
process. In addition, within this approach, there is an unbalance in the rapport and relationship
between the “patient” and the doctor, and the sole authority lies with the medical profession.
The individual with disability has limited contribution in defining their intervention or “treat-
ment” process. The solution for disability according to the medical model is finding a cure.
The social model

The social model of disability developed as a reaction to the limitations of the medical model
of disability. The concept of the “social model of disability” was developed by Oliver (1981).
It is regarded by both scholars and activists, with or without disabilities, as an antithesis to the
medical model. According to Lang (2001),
the social model shifts away from consideration of the deficits of the functional, physi-
ological and cognitive abilities of the impaired individual, to the ability of society to
systematically oppress and discriminate against disabled people, and the negative social
attitudes encountered by disabled people throughout their everyday lives.
(p.3)
The approach of the social model is to create distance from the conception of “victim blam-
ing” and a deficit in the individual or impairment and to focus mainly on the individual
(attitude), societal and political barriers that prevent disabled people from fully participating
in civil society. The negative perception of disability and the way that society is organised
or construed are disabling barriers that restrict the freedom of choice and opportunities for
those who are disabled.
The significance of the social perspective of disability is articulated in the definition
of disability by the Union of the Physically Impaired against Segregation (UPIAS, 1976).
Accordingly,
[D]isability is a situation, caused by social conditions, which requires for its elimination,
(a) that no one aspect such as incomes, mobility or institutions is treated in isolation, (b)
that disabled people should, with the advice and help of others, assume control over their
own lives, and (c) that professionals, experts and others who seek to help must be com-
mitted to promoting such control by disabled people.
(p.3)
Within this paradigm, there is a distinction made between the concepts of disability and
impairment. According to Oliver (1981), “disablement has nothing to do with the body,” and
“impairment is in fact nothing less than a description of the physical body” (pp.4–5).
There are numerous barriers which prevent people with disabilities from being involved in
mainstream activities. These barriers occur across all levels of participation and engagement
in civil society. These barriers (British Council 2019) are:
• Physical (for example, an inaccessible residential facility including a hotel, or an inac-

cessible exams venue);
• Structural (for example, a segregated education system preventing people with certain
impairments from pursuing education in a wide range of areas);
Figure 23.1 Barriers – social model of disability.
• Cultural (for example, a belief that disability is a punishment and therefore brings shame,
or is to be exorcised, or is an embarrassment leading to blame, cruelty and/or isolation);
• Economic (for example, not acknowledging the financial implications for people requir-
ing paid support to participate).
The barriers are presented in Figure 23.1.

The social model focuses on identifying and trying to remove the social, cultural, eco-
nomic and physical barriers rather than trying to “fix” the disability. Once policies, practices,
attitudes and/or the environment are changed or modified, people with disabilities will be
able to take their rightful place in civil society. It has been suggested that
the sociology of disability (underpinned by the social model of disability), has been one
of the most significant intellectual and political developments of the last 10 years. It has
transformed the meaning of disability, at a personal, intellectual and political level, for
many people.
(Chappell, 1997, p.59)
There are several criticisms of the social model of disability. The criticisms may be divided,
according to Owens (2015), “into three different points of observation; embodiment, oppres-
sion, and an inadequate theoretical basis” (p.8). Other criticisms include: The model fails
to take account of the actual experience of the disabled; different types of impairments will
have different implications for educational, health and social services; the rejection of medi-
cal interventions; denial of the physical and emotional pain and suffering experienced by
disabled people; and the social model is individualistic rather than collectivistic. However,
whether it is possible or practical to remove all the obstacles for people with disabilities
remains a big challenge in having “a barrier-free utopia” (Abberley, 1996).
The bio-psychosocial model

The bio-psychosocial model of disability views disability as arising from a combination of
factors at the physical, psychosocial and environmental levels. This is the holistic approach to
disability and addresses issues that interact to affect the ability of the individual with the rec-
ognition that disabilities are often due to illness or injury. This model advocates that both the
medical and social models are appropriate, but neither is sufficient on its own to explain the
complex nature of one’s health. Service provisions are directed at three levels: The individual,
social and institutional levels. At the individual level, there is the assessment of individuals’
complex needs (physical, social, psychological), planning of individualised interventions,
participation of the disabled in treatment goals and planning and evaluation of the effective-
ness of interventions. At the social level, there is the need to deal with policies and practices
that affect the socio-economic needs of the disabled. That may include social security ben-
efits, disability pensions, workers’ compensation and insurance, social policy development,
anti-discrimination legislation, needs assessments and identification of environmental facili-
tators and barriers and changes to social policy. At the institutional level, there is development
in educational and training provisions, resource planning and development, quality improve-
ment, management and outcome evaluation and managed care models of health care delivery.
Other models of disability include the identity model (Brewer et al., 2012), the human
rights model (Degener, 2017), the cultural model (Junior and Schipper, 2013), the economic
model (Armstrong, Noble and Rosenbaum, 2006), the limits model (Creamer, 2009) and the
charity model.
Concept of health, disability and the Qur’an

To understand the Islamic perception of the origins of disability, it is worthwhile to focus on
the concept of health from an Islamic perspective. According to Rassool (2020)
the Islamic perspective on the key to health (physical, mental and spiritual) is to maintain
the connection with our Creator, Allah the Exalted and the Almighty, to fully submit to
Him and His decree, and to subsequently purify the soul, cleanse the heart, and enjoying
what is good and forbidding what is evil.
(p.12)
The Muslim scholars’ perception of health is reflected in the following verse of the Qur’an:
Allah mentions (interpretation of the meaning):
• We have certainly created man in the best of stature. (Teen 95:4)
The generic terms “marid” and “marad” are used in the Qur’an. These two concepts are used
in a wider sense to include individuals with physical, intellectual, psychological and sensory
conditions that fall under the umbrella of disability. The term marid implies a sick, or ill
person, and marad refers to disease. According to Rispler-Chaim (2007), “In the Qur’an the
term maridis used many times to mark the opposite of healthy, whole, in both the physical
and the mental aspects” (p.4).
Although it is claimed that early Arabic languages had separate words for specific dis-
ability categories (Rispler-Chaim, 2007), there are different sets of opinions and evidence
on whether the concept of disability is found in the Qur’an. In a comprehensive analysis
of the Islamic position and attitude towards disability from the Qur’an and Sunnah, Bazna
and Hatab (2005) concluded that the concept of disability, in the conventional sense, is not
found in the Qur’an. The authors suggested that “the Qur’an concentrates on the notion of
disadvantage that is created by society and imposed on those individuals who might not
possess the social, economic, or physical attributes that people happen to value at a certain
time and place” (p.5). Furthermore, Bazna and Hatab claim that the Qur’an “places the
responsibility of rectifying this inequity on the shoulder of society by its constant exhorta-
tion to Muslims to recognize the plight of the disadvantaged and to improve their condition
and status” (p.5).
The Arabic terminology used in Islamic jurisprudence does not constitute an umbrella
term for disability. According to Rispler-Chaim (2007), those with disabilities are mentioned
occasionally with reference to religious duties, Jihad and marriage. This means Islamic
jurisprudence focuses on people with disabilities and depicts their place and status in par-
ticipating in Islamic practices, and social and communal life. The sources of the Qur’an and
Sunnah refer to specific disabilities or limitations of the individual. For example, the blind
(A’ma), deaf (Asamm), mute (Abkam or Akhras), lame (A’raj) or insane (Majnun) (Bazna
and Hatab, 2005; Rispler-Chaim, 2007; Bhatty et al., 2009). It has been suggested that the
Qur’an and Sunnah contain “several generalised adjectives to describe disadvantaged indi-
viduals, including orphan (Yateem), weak (Da’if), oppressed (Mustad’af), traveling (Aala
safar or ibn us-sabil), indigent (Miskin), sick (Marid), and needy (Faqir)” (Bhatty et al.,
2009, p.60).
Bhatty et al. (2009), in their review of the Islamic perspective on disability, concluded that
the lack of a term comparable with disability in the classical Islamic sources affirms
the moral neutrality and normalcy of disability as a fact of life. The classical
sources recognise disability in the context of both individual condition and social
disadvantage.
(p.160)
This implies that there is no labelling or stereotype of stigma attached to those with disabili-
ties, and those with disabilities have equal rights and dignity. However, for Muslims, there is
a community responsibility (fard kifayah) and obligation to uphold the rights of those with
disabilities and meet their complex needs.
Diversity and special needs in the Qur’an

Islam opposes prejudice against and exclusion of any group of people based on race, colour,
culture, language or ethnic group. There are diversities among human beings which are con-
sidered natural and are God’s creation. Allah, the Almighty, says in the Qur’an (interpretation
of the meaning):
• And of His signs is the creation of the heavens and the earth and the diversity of your
languages and your colors. Indeed in that are signs for those of knowledge. (Ar Rum
30:22)
(Al-Hujurat 49:13)
In this revelation (Al-Hujurat 49:13), according to Ibn Kathir, Allah, the Exalted, declares
to mankind that they are the descendants of “Adam and Hawa,” [Adam and Eve] made up
of tribes and sub-tribes and they share this honour equally and that they are all equal in their
humanity. These natural diversities in Islam have a rationale and a principle, namely that
“you may know each other.” These diversities, whether ethnic, cultural or physical, should
not create barriers but enhance good interpersonal relationships among human beings. In the
words of the Qur’an, Allah says (interpretation of the meaning):
• And among people and moving creatures and grazing livestock are various colours simi-
larly. (Fatir 35:28)
That is, there are also among humans various differences in tribes and colours. Ibn Kathir
notes that “These are all different too, for among mankind there are Berbers, Ethiopians and
some non-Arabs who are very black, and Slavs and Romans who are very white, and the
Arabs who are in between, and the Indians.”
In the Qur’an, Allah mentions that the blind, lame and those with various illnesses, for
legal reasons, are excused, in the following verse, from participating in Jihad. Allah says in
• There is not upon the blind any guilt or upon the lame any guilt or upon the ill any guilt
[for remaining behind]. And whoever obeys Allah and His Messenger – He will admit
him to gardens beneath which rivers flow; but whoever turns away – He will punish him
with a painful punishment. (Al-Fath 48:17)
There are several rights of those with disability or special needs that are mentioned in the
Qur’an. These include the rights of protection, social justice, social rights and health care
rights. For example, their civil rights in terms of inheritance, marriage and social justice are
indicated in the following verses of the Qur’an (interpretation of the meaning):
• And do not give the weak-minded your property, which Allah has made a means of sus-
tenance for you, but provide for them with it and clothe them and speak to them words of
appropriate kindness. (An -Nisa 4:5)
• And test the orphans [in their abilities] until they reach marriageable age. Then if you
perceive in them sound judgement, release their property to them. And do not consume
it excessively and quickly, [anticipating] that they will grow up. And whoever, [when
acting as guardian], is self-sufficient should refrain [from taking a fee]; and whoever
is poor – let him take according to what is acceptable. Then when you release their
property to them, bring witnesses upon them. And sufficient is Allah as Accountant.
(An -Nisa 4:6)
• – and concerning the oppressed among children and that you maintain for orphans
[their rights] in justice. (An -Nisa 4:127)
There are many verses of the Qur’an and Hadiths that relate to different perspectives on dis-
ability within several contexts. In the following verse, the companions of the Prophet ( )
used to feel too embarrassed to eat with the blind and lame because they could not see
the food or where the best morsels were, so others might take the best pieces before they
could. They felt too embarrassed to eat with the lame because they could not sit comfort-
ably, and their companions might take advantage of them, and they felt embarrassed to
eat with the sick because they might not eat as much as others. So they were afraid to eat
with them lest they were unfair to them in some way.
(Ibn Kathir)
Thus, Allah, the Almighty, revealed this verse, granting them a dispensation in this matter.
• There is not upon the blind [any] constraint nor upon the lame constraint nor upon the
ill constraint nor upon yourselves when you eat from your [own] houses or the houses of
your fathers … There is no blame upon you whether you eat together or separately. But
when you enter houses, give greetings of peace upon each other – a greeting from Allah,
blessed and good. (An Nur 24:61)
The verse also emphasises that the disabled should not be excluded from social interactions.
There is also the prohibition, when dealing with both disabled and non-disabled individu-
als, on mocking and ridiculing others. The message that might be learned from the follow-
ing Qur’anic verse is the prohibition on humiliating and belittling people and that everyone
should have the basic human rights such as respect and dignity. Allah says in the Qur’an
• O you who have believed, let not a people ridicule [another] people; perhaps they may
be better than them; nor let women ridicule [other] women; perhaps they may be better
than them. And do not insult one another and do not call each other by [offensive] nick-
names. Wretched is the name of disobedience after [one’s] faith. And whoever does not
repent – then it is those who are the wrongdoers. (Hujurat 49:11)
Al-Aoufi et al. (2012) summarise the rights of disabled people that include
the idea of guardianship for disadvantaged individual such as the weak-minded or

orphans. This guardianship is subject to a sense of duty, fairness and kindness. In
addition, guardianship ceases once the individual can be held accountable for their own
decision-making ability.
(p.208)
Diversity and special needs in the Sunnah

There are several Hadiths from Prophet Muhammad ( ) that support the notion of equality,
social responsibility, co-operation, solidarity, mercy, compassion, exemption from Jihad,
religious obligations and respect for those who are disabled. A few examples are found in the
following Hadiths. It has been narrated on the authority of Abu Dharr who said: “My friend
(for example, the Holy Prophet) advised me to listen (to the man in position of authority) and
obey (him) even if he were a slave maimed (and disabled)” (Muslim (a)). It is narrated by
Al-Bara bin 'Azib: “When the following was revealed: ‘Not equal are those of the believers
who sit (4:95)’ 'Amr bin Umm Maktum came to the Prophet ( ).” He said:
He was blind, so he said: “O Messenger of Allah! What do you order me with? Indeed
my vision is disabled.” So Allah [Most High] revealed this Ayah: “Except those who
are disabled.” So the Prophet ( ) said: “Bring me a shoulder bone and inkwell” – or
“Bring me a tablet and an inkwell.” (Tirmidhi)
Al-Bara narrated that when the Divine Inspiration:
Those of the believers who sit (at home), was revealed the Prophet ( ) sent for Zaid
(bin Thabit) who came with a shoulder-blade and wrote on it. Ibn Um-Maktum com-
plained about his blindness and on that the following revelation came: “Not equal are
those believers who sit (at home) except those who are disabled (by injury, or are blind
or lame etc.) and those who strive hard and fight in the way of Allah with their wealth
and lives).”
(An Nisa 4:95) (Bukhari (a))
It was narrated from Abu Umamah bin Sahl bin Hunaif that:
A woman who had committed Zina [unlawful sexual intercourse] was brought to the
Prophet ( ). He said: “With whom?” She said: “With the paralysed man who lives in
the garden of Sa’d.” He was brought and placed before (the Prophet ( ) and he con-
fessed. The Messenger of Allah ( ) called for a bunch of palm leaves and hit him. He
took pity on him because of his disability and was lenient with him.
(An-Nasa’i (a))
Abu Dharr (may Allah be pleased with him) reported:
I asked: “O Messenger of Allah! Which action is the best?” He ( ) said, “Faith in

Allah and Jihad in the way of Allah.” I asked: “Which neck (slave) is best (for emanci-
pation)?” He said, “That which is dearest of them in price and most valuable of them to
its masters”. I asked: “If I cannot afford (it)?” He said, “Then help a labourer or work
for one who is disabled”. I asked: “If I cannot do (it)?” He said, “You should restrain
yourself from doing wrong to people, because it (serves as) charity which you bestow
upon yourself.”
(Bukhari and Muslim (a))
It was narrated from Mahmiid bin Ar-Rabi' that 'Itbk bin Milk used to lead his people in prayer,
and he was blind. He said to the Messenger of Allah ( ): “Sometimes it is dark or rainy or
there is a flood, and I am a blind man; O Messenger of Allah ( ), (come and) pray in a place
in my house that I may take as a prayer-place.” He said: “Where would you like me to pray
for you?” He showed him a place in his house, and the Messenger of Allah ( ) prayed there.
(An-Nasa’i (b)) Ibn Umm Maktum narrated that the Messenger of Allah ( ), there are many
venomous creatures and wild beasts in Madina (so allow me to pray in my house because I am
blind). The Prophet ( ) said: Do you hear the call, “Come to prayer,” “Come to salvation”?
(He said: Yes.) Then you must come. Abu Dawud said: Al-Qasim Al-Jarmi has narrated this
tradition from Sufyan in a similar manner. But his version does not contain the words “Then you
must come” (Abu Dawud (a)). It is narrated by Abu Hurairah: Allah’s Messenger ( ) said,
If anyone of you leads the people in the prayer, he should shorten it for amongst them
are the weak, the sick and the old; and if anyone among your prays alone then he may
prolong (the prayer) as much as he wishes.
(Bukhari (b))
It happened in a well-known incident that Prophet Muhammad ( ) frowned at the face of a

blind man, Àbdullah ibn Umm Maktum (may Allah be pleased with him).
Yahya related to me from Malik from Hisham ibn Urwa that his father said that Abasa
(Surah 80) was sent down about Abdullah ibn Umm Maktum. He came to the Prophet,
( ), and began to say, “O Muhammad, show me a place near you (where I can sit),”
whilst one of the leading men of the idol worshippers was in audience with the Prophet,
( ). The Prophet, ( ), began to turn away from him and give his attention to the
other man, and he said to him, “Father of so-and-so, do you see any harm in what I am
saying?” and he said, “No, by the blood (of our sacrifices) I see no harm in what you
are saying.” And [Surah Abasa] – “He frowned and turned away when the blind man
came” – was sent down. (Malik)
Allah says in the Qur’an (Interpretation of the meaning):
• The Prophet frowned and turned away. Because there came to him the blind man, [inter-
rupting]. But what would make you perceive, [O Muhammad], that perhaps he might be
purified. Or be reminded and the remembrance would benefit him? As for he who thinks
himself without need, To him you give attention. (Abasa 80:1–6)
Allah commands His Messenger not to single anyone out with the warning. Rather, he
should equal warn the noble and the weak, the poor and the rich, the master and the slave,
the men and the women, the young and the old. Then Allah will guide whomever He
chooses to a path that is straight.
The emphasis here is to honour everyone with equity and meet their needs. It is also reported
by Ata' bin Abu Rabah that Ibn 'Abbas (may Allah be pleased with them) asked him whether
he would like that he should show him a woman who was from the people Jannah [paradise].
When he replied that he certainly would, he said,
This black woman, who came to the Prophet ( ) and said, “I suffer from epilepsy and
during fits my body is exposed, so make supplication to Allah for me.” He ( ) replied:
“If you wish you endure it patiently and you be rewarded with Jannah, or if you wish,
I shall make supplication to Allah to cure you?” She said, “I shall endure it.” Then she
added: “But my body is exposed, so pray to Allah that it may not happen.” He (Prophet
( )) then supplicated for her.
(Bukhari and Muslim (b))
Responsibilities of the disabled in Islamic society

The Qur’an and Sunnah relate to those with all kind of disabilities, and we are obligated as
practicing Muslims to show mercy and care for the disabled and the needy. In Hadith narrated
by Abdullah ibn Amr ibn al-'As:
The Prophet ( ) said: The Compassionate One has mercy on those who are merciful. If
you show mercy to those who are on the earth, He Who is in the heaven will show mercy
to you. Musaddad did not say: The client of 'Adb Allah b. 'Amr. He said: The Prophet
( ) said. (Abu Dawud (b))
The following narrative illustrates the roles played by disabled individuals in Islamic society.
More importantly, it affirms, despite their special needs, their responsibilities and the way
they were accepted within society. It also points out the important role of advocacy and the
support which the wider community is expected to provide to the individual.
During the height of Islamic civilisation it is reported that
a significant number of blind, deaf or physically disabled people played notable roles as
philologists, transmitters of the law, teachers, poets, and social commentators, outstand-
ing among whom were Abu’l Ala al-Ma’arri, Abu Uthman Amr bin Bahr (Al-Jahiz),
Bashshar ibn Burd, Ibn-Sirin, Qatada ibn Di’ama al-Sadusi, Muwaffaq al-Din Muzaffar,
and Thalab.
(Guvercin, 2008)
Al-Azhar University is a university in Cairo, Egypt, and is the oldest degree-granting univer-
sity, founded in 970 or 972 by the Fatimids dynasty. One of the halls/faculties at Al-Azhar
University was for the education of blind students. This faculty was called Ruwaqu Umyan
(meaning Hall/Faculty of the Blind). It is stated that this faculty was exclusively designated
for physically disabled individuals, for example, the blind in particular, and that the teacher
of the faculty was also a blind person (Al-Waliy, 1998). During the Ottoman period in the
16th and 17th centuries, it is reported that
deaf servants taught their sign language to courtiers and sultans when it became a rec-
ognised means of communication; this was during a period when Western Europeans
were still debating whether deaf people were capable of learning anything or thinking
as rational beings.
(Guvercin, 2008)
Some of the exceptional disabled individuals who held a high degree of responsibility include
the following. The Prophet ( ) appointed AbdAllah ibn Umm-Maktum (see Abasa 80:1–6)
as one of the muezzins in the city of Madina, and even put him in charge of the city during
his absence on several occasions. He also was the flag bearer of the Islamic army in the battle
where he perished (The Islamic Workplace, 2012). A’ishah reported that Ibn Umm Maktum
was the Mu’adhdhin [Caller of Prayer] of the Messenger of Allah ( ) and he was blind
(Abu Dawud (c)). Atta Ibn Abi Rabah, who was black, lame and partially paralysed, was
known as the greatest Mufti in Makkah. Other companions of the Prophet ( ) and other
Muslims were well-integrated in the Islamic society despite their disabilities. According to
The Islamic Workplace (2012),
Abu ubaidah Ibnul Jarrah had a disabled leg, yet he insisted to join the battles with
Prophet Muhammad ( ). Abdullah Ibn Masoud was a weak man, yet he was perfect
in explaining the meanings of the Noble Qur’an. Abul Alaa Alma’arry was a renowned
Muslim scholar. Umm ‘Umarah – Nusaybah bint Ka’b was a famous Muslima who
defended the Prophet ( ) at the battle of Uhud after the near rout of the Muslim army,
who was wounded 12 times during that battle, and who lost her arm during the battle
against the army of Musaylamah. Similarly, Julaybib, another companion of the Prophet
( ) was described as being deformed or revolting in appearance. While many people in
Madina had made him an outcast, the Prophet ( ), instead approached a family to give
their beautiful daughter as a bride for Julaybib. Although the parents themselves showed
their bias by deferring to each other, the daughter herself willingly accepted to get mar-
ried to him, and they lived very happily together by the Grace of Allah.
Psychological adjustment to disability

Persons with disabilities, at some point in time, will react to their disabilities or impairments.
The personal and social factors and health belief system will affect how an individual will
initially perceive their conditions. It has been suggested that
that both time and type of disability onset influence how the person reacts. In addition,
other influences relating to the nature of the disability are the types of functions that are
impaired, the severity and visibility of the disability, its stability over time, and the pres-
ence (or absence) of pain.
(Vash and Crewe, 2004, p.10)
It is important to remember that there is also the chance of experiencing confidence and hope
as they witness new abilities to cope with what is often a challenging situation. The major-
ity of people who experience a new form of disability adjust in ways they never believed
possible. With positive social support from family members, friends and society at large, the
vast majority of people who experience a new form of disability do adjust.
How to cope and live with a disability can be a significant transition in the individual’s
life. Personal factors are important in the way they have a significant influence on the
perception and response to disability. Many individuals struggle to cope with, and adjust
to, disability, and they face the complex challenges of the acceptance their disabilities.
Others have limited problems in coping with the disabilities. It is reported that some
people with disabilities are able to cope within a relatively short amount of time, while
others require more time to adjust (Stuntzner and Hartley, 2014). The psychological
reaction to an acquired disability is likened to grief of loss. There are four basic stages
in the reaction to disability. These are shock, denial, anger/depression, anger and accept-
ance/adjustment (Livneh and Antonak, 2007). Individuals go through these stages at
their own pace.
• Shock: Emotional and physical numbness (duration variable).

• Denial: Duration is variable and may last from three weeks to two months. It is a defence
mechanism but may inhibit intervention strategies.
• Anger/depression: Reactions to loss and change in social, economic, psychologi-
cal and physical status (changes in function, role, body image, income; loss of future
expectations).
• Adjustment/acceptance: Successful adaptation to new roles based upon realistic experi-
ences, potentials and limitations. Abandonment of false hopes and expectations. Positive
benefits in joining a self-help group.
It has been suggested that “the linear, developmental approach to adjustment, the appear-
ance of later stages is predicated on the resolution of earlier stages” (Kendall and Buys,
1998, p.16). Although the model is a linear, predictable sequence of emotional and cogni-
tive adjustment, in reality, many disabled people do not go through this process in a lin-
ear way. They may exit at any stage or return to an earlier stage or may not experience
grief in the same described sequence. There is no clear sense for how much time is needed
for the stages of anger/depression and adjustment/acceptance. The model is limited to four
stages of psychological adjustment. However, according to Taormina-Weiss (2012), many
people might experience as many as 12 stages that include: “Shock; Anxiety; Bargaining;
Denial; Mourning; Depression; Withdrawal; Internalised anger; Externalised aggression;
Acknowledgment; Acceptance; and Adjustment.” This makes an understanding of the psy-
chological adjustments of the disabled much more complex.
With the limitations of the stage model, it has been suggested that daily triggering events
repeatedly renew the grief cycle (Kendall and Buys, 1998). This is a recurrent model of psy-
chological adjustment as “the process is likely to reemerge at regular intervals in a repetitive
pattern of despair and acceptance … Adjustment is viewed as a gradual process of learn-
ing to tolerate an almost intolerable set of circumstances” (Kendall and Buys, 1998, p.17).
This grief cycle and the experience of adjustment have also been represented as a pendu-
lum motion. Yoshida (1993) suggested that individuals alternate, like a pendulum motion,
between their base-line “pre-disability” identity and their new “permanent disability” iden-
tity. It is when the pendulum decreases that the individual resolves the internal conflicts and
makes real adjustment.
The Islamic approach to disability

There have been many examples of the care of the disabled from leaders of the Islamic com-
munity and from the companions of the Prophet Muhammad ( ). One such role model is
Umar Ibn Al-Khattab, the third Rashidun Caliphate, who provided a blind boy with hous-
ing near the mosque after the father of the disabled boy complained to Umar about his son
being unable to reach the mosque. A further example was during the reign of the Umayyad
Caliphate of Al-Walid ibn Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan, commonly known as al-Walid I. He
is reported to have provided welfare programmes including financial relief for the poor
and servants to assist the handicapped, and established the first care home for intellectually
disabled individuals with individual key workers (Blankinship, 1994; Aljazoli, 2004). It is
reported that
Umar ibn Àbdul-Àziz asked rulers of the provinces to send him the names of all those
blind, crippled, or with a chronic illness that prevented them from establishing prayers
(Salah). So they sent him their names. He, in turn, ordered that every blind man should
have an employee to guide and look after him, and that every two chronically ill per-
sons – those with special needs – be attended by a servant to serve and care for them.
(Ibn Al-Jawzi)
This was the Prophet’s ( ) society, a society that was marked by mutual support, coopera-
tion and unity in consoling, honouring and respecting those with special needs. For all of this,
the course of the merciful Prophet ( ) was the role model in dealing with those who have
special needs.
The Ummah (Muslim Communities) have a social and moral obligation to ensure that
Muslims with disabilities are protected and cared for, and are fairly and equitably included in
all aspects of civil society. The leaders of the Ummah need to encourage the inclusion of all
people, regardless of ability, to gain access to services and opportunities in mainstream soci-
ety. The main problem for people with disability, in Muslim communities, is the stigmatising
attitude. It has been suggested that stigma arises when elements of labelling, stereotyping and
prejudice combine to lead to status loss and discrimination for the stigmatised individual or
group (Scior, 2016). Beside the problems with the disability, individuals within the Muslim
community are subjected to abuse, hostility, humiliation, conflict and bullying but also expe-
rience social isolation and a lack of support from their extended families.
Muslims with disability also experience barriers within the Muslim communities (Khedr,
2007). It is reported that within the Muslim community, Muslims with disabilities
feel a sense of exclusion because of the negative attitudes they encounter. The Muslim
community leadership is largely unaware about the population of Muslims with disabili-
ties within their Jammats (congregations) and is mostly uninformed about accommoda-
tion for people with disabilities.
(Khedr, 2007, p.21)
The statement went further by adding that
Muslims who are deaf or hard of hearing have no access to learning how to read the Qur’an
or take part in any Islamic studies classes. There are no spiritual or social programmes
within the Muslim community that accommodate Muslims who are deaf or hard of hear-
ing beyond one, Salat-ul-Eid (Eid prayer) congregation, where ASL [American Sign
Language] interpreters are present.
(p.22)
In fact, there is no opportunity for Muslims with intellectual disabilities to be taught anything
about Islam outside of their families (CAMD, 2006). The following recommendations are put
forward to assist Muslim community leadership to develop a comprehensive action strategy
to facilitate access for Muslims with disabilities (Khedr, 2007):
• Development of services for aging parents and caregivers of individuals with intel-
lectual disabilities, psychiatric disabilities and other disabilities.
• Immediate facilitation of programs to help Muslim adults and children who are deaf
or hard of hearing learn about and practice Islam.
• Development of partnerships with mainstream services.
• Coordination and dissemination of alternate print formats.
• Facilitation of peer support and advocacy.
• Accessibility audits.
• Opportunities for persons with disabilities to participate in Islamic conferences,
seminars and other educational sessions Employment and work experience opportu-
nities within the Muslim community need to be offered to persons with disabilities.
• Sensitivity training and public education.
There is a need to address these issues within the Muslim communities. Beside the removal
of social, physical and psychological barriers, those who are disabled should be encouraged
to have hope and patience. In the Qur’an, Allah, the Almighty, has promised us that (interpre-
tation of the meaning), “with every hardship there is relief” (Qur’an 94:5) and that “no person
shall have a burden laid on him greater than he can bear” (Qur’an 2:286). In Surah Yusuf
(12:87), the Qur’an states (interpretation of the meaning), “truly no one despairs of Allah’s
soothing mercy, except those who have no faith.”
Psychogogy and psychological interventions

There are two main intervention strategies for people with disabilities. One is psychological
interventions and the other alternative intervention is the “psychogogy” approach. The term
“psychogogy” is a word coined by Oswald Schwartz in 1925 to describe process for helping
people to become fulfil their potentials.
Maslow (n.d.) postulated “the need for a mental science that would help individuals,
through facilitation and nurturing, to grow and become.” He also saw the need to design an
environment which was itself nurturing in such a way as to make the path to self actualisa-
tion easier. This denotes psychosocial intervention strategies based on an educational, not a
medical, model. The psychogogic approaches “strive to strengthen the individual against the
onslaughts of stress, in order to avoid or prevent mental/emotional/behavioral disorder. On
the other hand, psychotherapeutic approaches strive to redress or correct disorders that have
come about already” (Vash and Crewe, 2004, p.221).
However, there are no clear boundaries between the two approaches. The psychogogic
approach is educationally focused, oriented towards prevention rather than cure and holistic
in approach; there is the active participation of the client, and the client is psychologically
sound. In contrast, the psychological approach is more “medical”-oriented with a focus on

“cure,” influenced by the Western paradigm of medicine, more therapist-focused and treating
psychologically unwell clients. It is stated that
clients who receive psychogogic services are psychologically well individuals with
severe enough situational problems to need help. Those who receive psychotherapeutic
services are experiencing psychological symptoms severe enough to motivate them (or
someone else) to seek cure of the symptoms and (it is hoped) their underlying causes.
Accordingly, the specialties of practitioners serving the two groups vary somewhat.
(Vash and Crewe, 2004, p.222)
However, intervention strategies need to cover health, education, livelihood, social, empow-
erment, advocacy and governance (Saranet al., 2019).
People with disabilities that create difficult situational adjustment demands and who have
complex needs would benefit from both approaches. Psychological interventions can nudge a
person with disability to progress through the stages of disability and enable them to resolve
any difficulties they may experience along the way. However, there is limited research evi-
dence of the effectiveness of psychotherapy for those with disabilities, including intellec-
tual disabilities. A modified form of cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) has been found
to be effective for anger management and reducing levels of depression in adults with mild/
moderate intellectual disabilities (Di Marco and Iacono, 2007). There is evidence from sys-
tematic reviews that the efficacy for psychological interventions improve both quality of life
and physical health outcomes in patients with specific long-term conditions (Anderson and
Ozakinci, 2018). These psychological interventions include mindfulness for multiple scle-
rosis (Simpson et al., 2014), internet-based CBT or coaching for chronic somatic conditions
(Van Beugen et al., 2006) and relaxation for recurrent headaches (Trautmann et al., 2006).
Conclusion
In general, Muslims with disabilities face the challenge of normalising their life-styles and
behaviours with hope, patience, perseverance and resilience. Many of them accomplish this
because of their acceptance in the Muslim community and enduring the trials and tribulations
of life. Beside their own disabilities, these individuals have to deal with the role of family,
cross-cultural issues, problems of adjustment, the consequences of stigma and discrimination
and the roles of informal and formal carers. Above all, we need to remove the social, physical
and educational barriers that lead to exclusion both within and outside the Muslim commu-
nities. It is essential that the Muslim leadership recognise that Muslims with disabilities are
present in their communities.

• The notion of disability has been subjected to diverse meanings depending on cultural
differences, context of use, semantic connotations, the model of disability and who
defines it.
• The types of disabilities include physical disabilities, intellectual or learning disabili-
ties, psychiatric disabilities, visual impairments, hearing impairments and neurological
disabilities.
• There are four main models of disability: The moral and/or religious model, the medical
model, the social model and the bio-psychosocial model.
• The concept of disability, in the conventional sense, is not found in the Qur’an.
• Islam opposes prejudice against and exclusion of any group of people based on race,
colour, culture, language or ethnic group.
• There are diversities among human beings which are considered natural and are God’s
creation.
• There are several rights of those with disability or special needs that are mentioned in
the Qur’an. These include the rights of protection, social justice, social rights and health
care rights.
• There are several Hadiths from Prophet Muhammad ( ) that support the notions of
equality, social responsibility, co-operation, solidarity, mercy, compassion, exemption
from Jihad, religious obligations and respect for those who are disabled.
• The Qur’an and Sunnah relate to those with all kind of disabilities, and we are obligated
as practicing Muslims to show mercy and care for the disabled and the needy.
• Persons with disabilities, at some point in time, will react to their disabilities or impair-
ments. The personal and social factors and health belief system will affect how an indi-
vidual will initially perceive their conditions.
• The Ummah (Muslim communities) have a social and moral obligation to ensure that
Muslims with disabilities are protected and cared for, and are fairly and equitably
included in all aspects of civil society.
• Muslims with disability also experience barriers within the Muslim communities.
• Muslims with disabilities face the challenge of normalising their life-styles and behav-
iours with hope, patience, perseverance and resilience.
1. The definition of disability:

A. Is the same for medical and legal purposes, but different for everything else.
B. Can vary depending on the purpose.
C. Does not exist yet.
D. Was created 50 years ago and has not changed.
E. Is always the same.
2. According to definitions of disability, what is one of the defining factors of disability?
A. Able to do normal daily tasks, but nothing any more strenuous.
B. Substantial impact on the ability to do normal daily tasks.
C. That it should impact on every single part of life to be a disability.
D. A minor impact on the ability to carry out daily tasks.
E. Never has an impact on the ability to carry out normal daily tasks.
3. What term is used in the Qur’an that might loosely translate as disability?
A. “Zarad” or “zarid”
B. “Barad” or “barid”
C. “Marad” or “marid”
D. “Tarad” or “tarid”
E. “Darad” or “darid”
4. According to the World Health Organization, disability is what kind of term?

A. Only to be used by medical professionals
B. A specific term
C. A word that should not be used
D. An umbrella term
E. Only applies to those with physical disabilities
5. How do the Qur’an and Sunnah urge us to deal with disabilities?
A. Making sure they always remain at home
B. Interacting with them as equals
C. Excluding them from society
D. Treating them as inferior
E. Treating them as superior
6. As Muslims, how should we manage the diversity that Allah created?
A. Find benefit in it.
B. By not interacting with those less favoured.
C. Make separate groups.
D. Trying to be like the Arabs so we can all be the same.
E. By reflecting on why Allah would punish us like this.
7. When afflicted with a trial such as disability how should we react?
A. Hope but no patience
B. None of these
C. Hope and patience
D. No hope or patience
E. No hope, but patience
8. In Islam, disability is best understood how?
A. A blessing if it was acquired and a curse if someone was born with it
B. Neutrally, as neither a blessing nor punishment
C. Only a punishment
D. Only a blessing
E. A blessing if someone was born with it and a curse if it was acquired
9. How does Muslim culture impact upon the experience of disability?
A. Helps us to recognise that people with disabilities need to be treated differently.
B. Does not permit disabled people to take part in the Islamic festivals.
C. Encourages exclusion from Islamic practice.
D. Encourages inclusion and equality.
E. Encourages inclusion in the family, but exclusion from all Islamic practices as a
mercy.
10. Models can have useful implications in which field of work?
A. Catering
B. Hospitality
C. Engineering
D. Education
E. Astronomy
11. How can models assist researchers?
A. By telling them how prevalent disability is.
B. By identifying which disabilities should result in institutionalisation.
C. Establish rough relationships between observable variables.
D. They are not helpful for researchers.

E. By telling them which medications work best.
12. What is a disadvantage of using a model?
A. They can add to the labelling and stigma problem.
B. They can make people with disabilities feel too powerful.
C. They take too long to make.
D. No one ever uses them.
E. It is not possible to change them.
13. What is the solution for disability according to the medical model?
A. To find a cure
B. For the family to take care of the disabled person
C. Acceptance in society
D. Integration into society
E. To give them money
14. The social model was developed in response to failings in which model?
A. Capabilities model
B. Strengths-based model
C. Medical model
D. Critical model
E. Bio-psychosocial model
15. When applying the social model, what would be the proposed solution for a wheelchair
user to access a building with entrance steps?
A. Provide them with an assistant to carry them up the steps.
B. Create a new building without steps that provides the same facilities.
C. Build a ramp.
D. A buzzer to buzz an assistant to come out and carry them up.
E. Improve their condition so they can walk up themselves.
16. The bio-psychosocial model is classed as what type of approach?
A. Physiologically focused
B. One-dimensional
C. Holistic
D. Psychologically focused
E. Socially focused
17. According to the bio-psychosocial model, what three factors contribute to health and
disability?
A. Biological, psychological and medication
B. Biological, psychological and medication
C. Biological, psychological and social
D. Medication, psychological and social
E. Biological, medication and social
18. How can cognitive behavioural therapy help a person with a disability with adjustment?
A. Provide social support.
B. Provide the most appropriate medication.
C. Help them prepare for hospitalisation.
D. Change belief systems that impede adjustment.
E. Provide physical support.
19. The moral/religious model of disability is
A. Disability arising from a combination of factors at the physical, psychosocial and

environmental levels.
B. Disability is to have medical conditions that need medical interventions to over-
come limitations and improve quality of life.
C. Disability is a defect caused by moral lapse or sins.
D. Disability is the deficits of the functional, physiological and cognitive abilities of
the impaired individual.
E. Disability is due to illness or injury.
20. The limitations of the model suggested by Livneh and Antonak (2007) do not include:
A. Many disabled people do not go through this process in a linear way.
B. There is no clear sense for how much time is needed for the stages of anger/depres-
sion and adjustment/acceptance.
C. The model is limited to four stages of psychological adjustment.
D. Most people might experience only four stages of psychological adjustment.
21. What did Ùmar ibnÀbdul-Àziz do for people who were blind and therefore unable to
make their prayers?
A. Gave them a house together close to the mosque so they could be assisted to get
there together.
B. Ordered that they were given an employee to assist them.
C. Sent them money to compensate for their difficulties.
D. Gave them a house together far away so people were not exposed to their illness.
E. Made sure they were punished for not taking part in an obligatory duty.
22. The first ten verses of which Surah were revealed in response to an incident between the
Prophet ( ) and AbdAllah Ibn Umm Maktum?
A. Imran
B. Baqarah
C. Iqra
D. Ibrahim
E. Abasa
23. The term “psychogogy” is a word coined by Abraham Maslow (1965) to denote
A. Psychosocial intervention strategies based on an educational, not a medical, model.
B. Psychotherapeutic approaches strive to redress or correct disorders.
C. Psychosocial and medical interventions.
D. The psychogogic approach is medically focused.
E. Oriented towards cure rather than prevention.
24. The stages in the reaction to disability according to Livneh and Antonak (2007) include:
A. Shock, denial, depression, adjustment/acceptance
B. Shock, denial, anger/depression, adjustment/acceptance
C. Shock, denial, anger/depression, acceptance
D. Shock, denial, adjustment/acceptance, anger/depression
E. Anger/depression, adjustment/acceptance, shock, denial
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Chapter 24
The anatomy of Islamic psychotherapy
Learning outcomes
• Discuss the rationale for the evolution of Islamic psychotherapy and counselling.
• Define psychotherapy and counselling from a Judeo-Christian tradition.
• Define Islamic psychotherapy and counselling.
• Discuss some of the models of Islamic counselling and psychotherapy, and their strengths
and limitations.
• Identify some of the barriers that make Muslims reluctant to access psychotherapy and
counselling services.
Introduction
The role of spirituality in psychotherapy and counselling has received growing attention
in the last few decades, with a focus on understanding the ways that spirituality relates
to the psychotherapeutic process and the use of spiritual interventions. There are many
links between organised religion and the historical development of psychotherapy and
counselling. Historically, spirituality, “informal” or religious counselling and guidance
in the Judeo-Christian and Islamic traditions focused on the same purpose of caring for
the “souls.” Thus, “soulless” psychology gained ground from the beginning of the 19th
century due to the adoption of the positivist Western scientific paradigm. Halmos (1965)
argues that religious faith was gradually replaced by a set of beliefs and values that he
calls the “faith of the counsellors.” Recently, there has been empirical research on reli-
gion and spirituality in psychotherapy and counselling to inform clinicians about effec-
tive ways to incorporate the spiritual dimension and the sacred into their clinical practice.
However, most of the empirical research has been undertaken with non-Muslim samples.
In the context of this chapter, the term psychotherapy is used interchangeably with the term
counselling.
Several factors provide a rationale for this increased evolution of Islamic psychotherapy
and counselling in, mostly, Western countries. First, the recent development in the discipline
of Islamic psychology has led to a rapprochement between spirituality and psychotherapy and
counselling. This has been apparent with the emergence of literature on counselling Muslims
from different traditions in the past two decades. Second, the increasingly visible presence
of indigenous and migrant Muslims in mostly Western countries. In addition, there is a high
prevalence of religious belief amongst Muslims despite their heterogeneity and diversity of
The anatomy of Islamic psychotherapy 561
cultures. The belief in Allah and Prophet Muhammad ( ) ranges from 85% of Muslims in
Southern-Eastern Europe to 100% in the Middle East-North Africa (Pew Research Center,
2012). Thus, many Muslims, generally on a global basis, are likely to have robust Islamic
beliefs and practices that are an integral part of their lives. Pargament (2007) observed that
We are more than psychological, social, and physical beings; we are also spiritual beings.
When people walk into the therapist’s office, they don’t leave their spirituality behind
in the waiting room. They bring their spiritual beliefs, practices, experiences, values,
relationships, and struggles along with them. Implicitly or explicitly, this complex of
spiritual factors often enters the process of psychotherapy.
(p.4)
The need for Islamic psychotherapy and counselling has become paramount in order to pro-
mote the psychological, physical and spiritual health of Muslims. With the growth of Islamic
populations in Europe and elsewhere, there has been a corresponding rise in the demand for
psychological and counselling services (Rassool, 2016).
Third, many clients have a desire to discuss spirituality or religion in psychotherapy or
counselling. There is evidence to suggest a growing acceptance in the psychotherapeutic
world that the spiritual dimension is very important to many clients, and most potential clients
believe religious issues are generally appropriate in the counselling session (Rose, Westefield
and Ansley, 2001; Sadiq, 2019). Fourth, spiritual group therapy has been found to be effec-
tive to improve quality of life, spiritual well-being (religious health and existential health),
happiness and hardiness amongst Muslims (Zamaniyan et al., 2016; Damirchi et al., 2018).
The anatomy of Islamic counselling focuses on an examination of the concept of Islamic
counselling and psychotherapy and the differences between secular, Western-oriented coun-
selling and Islamic counselling. A brief review of the different psychotherapeutic approaches
in congruence with Islamic beliefs and practices is given.
What is psychotherapy and counselling?

The concept of counselling or psychotherapy is one that has been frequently explored in
psychology. There is no universally accepted convention of what counselling is or should
be because of the myriad of uses and activities, and the diversity of counselling approaches
for which the terms “counselling” and therapy are used. The word “counsel” originates from
the Latin consilium, via Old French counseil (noun), meaning consultation, purpose, advice
and judgement. It has been suggested that the term “counselling” is of American origin,
coined by Carl Rogers (Woolfe, Dryden and Strawbridge, 2003). Counselling is a form of
talking therapy that focuses on developmental, psychosocial and spiritual problems through
cognitive, affective, behavioural and spiritual interventions. This entails that a client can talk
about intimate concerns, problems or issues and feelings in a structured, confidential and
trusting environment. The World Health Organization (WHO, 2006) states that the practice
of counselling entails the application of “mental health, psychological or human develop-
ment principles through cognitive, affective, behavioural or systematic intervention strate-
gies” (p.1). This implies that counselling is the clinical application of various psychosocial
and behavioural intervention strategies.
Counselling has been defined as
an interactive client beneficial relationship set up to approach a clients’ issues. These

issues can be social, cultural and or emotional and the Counsellor will approach them in
a holistic way. A client can be a person, or a family group or even an institution.
(European Association for Counselling, 2020)
In this context, counselling is to do with a beneficial interaction dealing with social, cultural
and emotional issues. The focus here is quite broad, rather than restricting the application
of counselling to emotional or psychological issues. Another perspective of counselling is
provided by the Psychotherapy and Counselling Federation of Australia. The term “counsel-
ling” means that “Professional counselling is a safe and confidential collaboration between
qualified counsellors and clients to promote mental health and wellbeing, enhance self-under-
standing, and resolve identified concerns. Clients are active participants in the counselling
process at every stage.” The focus here is the promotion of mental health, and it is a part-
nership rather than a paternalistic approach. The British Association for Counselling and
Psychotherapy (BACP, 2020) defines both counselling and psychotherapy in the same vein.
Counselling and psychotherapy are defined as “A specialised way of listening, responding
and building relationships based on therapeutic theory and expertise that is used to help cli-
ents or enhance their wellbeing.”
Rassool (2016) summarises the nature and process of counselling. He suggests that
Counselling is an opportunity for clients to explore their emotional difficulties and feel-
ings of inner conflict, resolving specific problems, coping with crisis, developing self-
awareness and improving relationships with others. It is an approach of enabling choices
with a goal of facilitating positive change. However, counselling does not involve giving
advice or directing the client to take a particular course of action; being judgemental;
exploiting the client in any way; attempting to sort out the problems of the client; get-
ting emotionally involved with the client; and looking at the client’s problems from the
counsellor’s own perspective, based on his or her own value system.
(p.16)
Let us examine the concept of Islamic psychotherapy and counselling.
What is Islamic psychotherapy and counselling?

Islamic psychotherapy and counselling is an elusive concept; everyone knows what it is,
but none can define it. Historically, the Islamic scholars used various terms to describe
the concept of Islamic psychotherapy. Sham (2015) notes that the following terms have
been used by the Islamic classical scholars: “Tib al-nufus, c Ilaj al-nafs, al-Tib al-ruhaniy,
Tahdhib al-nufus, Tathir al-nufus, Tazkiyyat al-nafs, Tasfiyat al-nufus, Mudawat al-nufus
etc.” The author also mentioned that the term “Tib al-nufus or Atibba’ al-nufus and Ilaj
al-nafs was used by Miskawayh in his book Tahdhib al-Akhlaq. Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawzi
used the term c Ilaj al-nafs and Abu Bakar Al-Razi used the term al-Tib al-ruhaniy” (p.2).
Sham (2015) also mentions that the said terms mean the same, that is, “cleansing of the
human soul or psyche of all vice and bad elements which damage the soul and distance
them from God. Therefore, Islamic psychotherapy can be deduced as a process of treating
and healing diseases which involve the physical, mental, spiritual and character” (p.2).
Even though classified as a new phenomenon, Islamic psychotherapy and counselling is
“actually as old as the beginning of spirituality in Islam” (Rassool, 2019, p.253). That is
the rationale for the coined phrase of the “Dodo Bird Revival of Islamic Counselling”
(Rassool, 2019).
This is a brief review of the concepts of Islamic counselling and psychotherapy. The
literature abounds with explanations of Islamic counselling based on models rather than a
definition of Islamic counselling or psychotherapy. In contemporary time, there is already a
divergence of opinions of what constitutes Islamic psychotherapy and counselling. According
to Rassool (2018), “The formal and informal literature encompassed a number of tentative
explanations and definition of Islamic counselling. In reality, many authors discussed Islamic
psychology rather than Islamic counselling.” A thematic analysis of websites advertising
Islamic counselling and psychotherapy and educational services reinforces the lack of opera-
tional definitions of the concepts. In some cases, Islamic psychotherapy and counselling are
explained in terms of models and approaches. There is also the use of Muslim psychol-
ogy (a term used in the Indian sub-continent) terminology to denote Islamic psychology or
counselling.
Islamic counselling is also viewed “as a formal discourse, comparable with mainstream,
predominantly western counselling paradigms” (Abdullah, 2009). However, the same author
stated that in professional terms, Islamic counselling “would be a confluence of counselling
and psychotherapy with the central tenets of Islam.” She argues that
This [definition] is acceptable in as far as it provides a broad purpose for Islamic coun-
selling by linking it with an overarching intent of helping clients attain positive change
in their lives. However, as counselling theories take on various philosophical positions
such an analysis can become quite problematic.
Abdullah is suggesting that Islamic counselling is the union of counselling and psychother-
apy with the central doctrines of Islam. That is, there is a relationship or connection between
Islamic psychotherapy and counselling and the principles and practices of Islam. A compre-
hensive definition of Islamic counselling from Al Nasiha Services
is a consciousness [sic] awareness of God in the counselling process. It differs from

mainstream counselling as it is based on the implicit understanding of a mutual belief
system – Islam – shared by both the client and counsellor. This shared understanding
creates a trusting relationship between the client and counsellor – inspiring, uplifting and
transforming the client to live a more resourceful life.
Zakaria and Akhir (2016a) have categorised the definitions of Islamic counselling and psy-
chotherapy into three dimensions: Traditional, modification and integrative. From the tradi-
tional approach to counselling, the traditional approach is referred to as the psychological
advice and wisdom practiced by Prophet Muhammad ( ) or Islamic advice system, based
on Islamic theology. In the modification dimension, Islamic counselling is similar to ortho-
dox counselling, with Islamic elements of beliefs and practices embedded in the philosophy
and intervention strategies. The integrative dimension defines counselling as an integration of
the main aspects of conventional counselling with the fundamental aspects in Islam Aqeedah
(faith), Ibādah (worship) and Shari’ah (Islamic jurisprudence).
Other authors argue that Islamic counselling is similar to Western counselling in the sense
that help and support are provided by a professional person to deal with the clients’ psycho-
logical problems. This may be obtained from a religious leader or Imam rather than psycho-
therapist or counsellor (Ali et al., 2004; Johansen, 2005). Some definitions include aspects of
eclectic or integrated counselling and the spiritual dimension in the fundamentals of Islamic
counselling. For example, Islamic counselling “utilises the major tenets of integrative coun-
selling but adds to them an added dimension. This is the relationship between the client and
his/her creator” (Sakoon co.uk). The concepts of Islamic counselling and “Qur’an-centred
counselling” are also rooted in two Qur’anic principles of “reflection” and “restoration”
(Muslim Family Matters). Other authors relate to aspects or techniques of Islamic counsel-
ling. Islamic counselling, according to Baqutayan (2011), is
to solve our problems, by using the Qur’an and Sunnah. Its techniques are based on
confidentiality, trust, respect, loving what is good for self and others, good listening
habits, understanding, and the ultimate goal of connecting individuals with Allah and
offering spiritual solutions to them. In addition, Islamic counselling emphasises spiritual
solutions, based on love and fear of Allah and the duty to fulfil our responsibility as the
servants of Allah on this earth.
However, there is evidence to suggest that aspects of an Islamic approach in counselling and
psychotherapy include Aqeedah (faith), Ibadah (worship/ultimate devotion and love for God)
and Akhlaq (moral conduct). Findings from studies also show that the counselling in these
aspects is in line with Islamic teachings as contained in the Qur’an and Sunnah (Hamjah and
Akhir, 2013). Some Islamic therapists or clinical services prefer to use the term psychother-
apy, but it can be used interchangeably with counselling. Traditional Islamically integrated
psychotherapy (TIIP) is a therapeutic framework of psychological treatment developed by
Khalil Center. According to the Khalil Center,
Psychotherapy or Counselling is a process of intervention that is rooted in the idea of the

“talking cure.” At the heart of TIIP is an integration of professional psychology within
an Islamic framework of psychotherapy. Khalil Center’s TIIP model of psychotherapy
is inspired by the Qur’an, Sunnah and the traditions of the scholars particularly of the
spiritual sciences.
For York Al-Karam (2018), Islamically integrated psychotherapy (IIP) “is a modern approach
or orientation to psychotherapy that integrates Islamic teachings, principles, philosophies,
and/or interventions with Western therapeutic approaches. IIP is also sometimes referred to
as Islamic counselling or Islamic psychotherapy” (p.2).
From a brief review of the literature, there many commonalities that can be deduced from
the above definitions and explanations of Islamic counselling and psychotherapy. The main
elements include:
• Based on the Qur’an and the Sunnah.

• Incorporating spirituality into the therapeutic process.
• Based on two Qur’anic principles of “reflection” and “restoration.”
• Integration of Islamic teachings, principles, philosophies and/or interventions with
Western therapeutic approaches.
• Derived from Islamic sciences of self.

• Utilising the major tenets of integrative counselling with an added dimension of the
relationship between the client and his/her creator.
• Inclusion of good aspects of mainstream counselling and incorporating the Qur’an,
Sunnah and the Hadiths of the Prophet Muhammad ( ).
In summary, Islamic psychotherapy and counselling is a contemporary response as a thera-

peutic approach that has much in common with other therapeutic modalities but is based on
an understanding of the Qur’an, Sunnah and the Islamic sciences. Rassool (2016) provides
a simple definition of Islamic counselling. It is “a form of counselling which incorporates
spirituality into the therapeutic process. The goal of this type of integrative counselling
is to address a variety of underlying psychological needs from a faith-based perspective”
(p.18). That is, the counsellor must be a professionally trained counsellor and possess
some basic Islamic knowledge including Aqeedah, Fiqh, Usul al-Fiqh, Tafsir, Hadith and
Seerah. Khan, Keshavarzi and Rothman (2020) suggest that the psychotherapist (TIIP)
should have familiarity with Islamic scholarly heritage but also a strong knowledge base in
the Islamic sciences. For example, they propose that the practitioners should be proficient
in Arabic and have a good foundation in Qur’anic Hadith, Islamic law and Islamic theol-
ogy studies.
However, since the starting point of Islamic psychotherapy and counselling focuses on
the Nafs or Soul rather than the psyche (mind), Rassool (2018, 2020) has redefined Islamic
psychotherapy and counselling as an application of interpersonal skills in the development
of the self [(Aql (Mind), Ruh (Spirit), Nafs (Soul), Jasad (body) and Qalb (Heart)] based on
Islamic spirituality. This tentative definition is an expansion of previous definitions and make
an attempt to encapsulate the self as the all-encompassing framework of Islamic psychother-
apy and counselling. The definition is holistic in approach as it embodies all the dimensions
of human nature and recognises the interplay between the psychological and metaphysical
realms as the Nafs, Qalb, Ruh and Aql constitute the holistic nature of the self. For an under-
standing of an Islamic model of the soul, see Rothman and Coyle (2018).
Models of Islamic counselling and psychotherapy

Models in Islamic psychotherapy and counselling are formal descriptions of the clinical
process. They are valuable tools to understand the nature, orientation and process of their
conceptual or theoretical framework. The proliferation of models and approaches has led to
several models of Islamic counselling based on different ideologies and approaches for clini-
cal interventions.
Model comparisons are valuable because they provide guidance for their evaluation and
justification for choosing one model over its rivals. There is a general consensus that no one
model passes the “goodness of fit” because each model has its strengths and weaknesses and
brings something different to our understanding of the basis of clinical interventions. From
a historical perspective, the traditional model of therapy was provided in various forms, the
most common of which were giving advice and sharing wisdom. Traditionally, Islam under-
scores the value of sincerity and sincere advice in Muslim relations. Tribal chiefs, elders or
religious leaders offer important support networks and resources to assist with individual and
family problems. It was narrated by Abu Hurairah that the Messenger of Allah ( ) said:
“Religion is sincerity, religion is sincerity (Al-Nasihah), religion is sincerity.” They said; “To
whom, O Messenger of Allah?” He said: “To Allah, to His Book, to His Messenger, to the
imams of the Muslims and to their common folk” (An- Nasa’i).
In the contemporary period, a number of Islamic psychotherapy and counselling models
have been developed starting with the notion that spirituality or the dimension of faith is a
necessity in the therapeutic process in dealing with psychosocial and spiritual diseases. This
notion grows out of the Muslim worldview. There is a now a hodgepodge of models, and
this diversity may be needed for a proper evaluation of robust models and the weaker ones.
There is a general consensus that indigenous models of psychotherapy and counselling would
evolve to meet the needs of specific communities as Muslims communities are not homoge-
neous group. The models and approaches to psychotherapy and counselling can be catego-
rised into main frameworks: The traditional model, the Islamic law-based model (Shari’ah),
the Qur’an-centred model and the traditional integrated psychotherapy model (Keshavarzi
and Haque, 2013; Keshavarzi et al., 2020). The Malaysian models (Zakaria and Mat Akhir,
2016b) include Islamic cognitive behavioural therapy (ICBT), the Al-Ghazâlî counselling
model, the cognitive ad-Deen model, the soul-cultivating counselling model (Kaunseling
Bina Jiwa-KBJ), the Prophetic counselling model and the Asma Al-Husna counseling model.
There is also the esoteric Sufi model and other models within the fringe of pseudo-Islam (Pir
Vilayat Inayat Khan).
Zakaria and Akhir (2016a) have categorised the definitions of Islamic counselling and
psychotherapy into three dimensions: Traditional, modification and integrative. From the
traditional approach to counselling, this is referred to as the psychological advice and wisdom
practiced by Prophet Muhammad ( ) or Islamic advising system, based on Islamic theol-
ogy. In the “modification” dimension, Islamic counselling is similar to orthodox counselling,
with Islamic elements of beliefs and practices embedded in the philosophy and interven-
tion strategies. The integrative dimension defines counselling as an integration of the main
aspects in conventional counselling with the fundamental aspects in Islam: Faith (Aqeedah),
worship (Ibādah) and Islamic jurisprudence (Shari’ah). Abdullah (2007) has identified three
approaches to counselling: Traditional healing (cultural model), Muslim personal law (MPL)
and Sufism. Traditional healing in Muslim communities is widely practised by local healers,
Shaykhs or Imams for understanding psychological or spiritual problems that are caused by
the evil eye or spirit (Jinn) possession. This type of healing practice includes Ruqyah Ash
Shari’ah and Ruqyah Ash Shirkiyah. The Ruqyah (incantation) that is acceptable and permis-
sible is the Ruqyah Ash Shari’ah (according to Islamic jurisprudence). However, many of the
rituals (Ruqyah Ash Shirkiyah) of the traditional or indigenous healers will include sorcery
and black magic, which are not acceptable within the Islamic framework as they are not in
accordance with the beliefs of Ahlus-Sunnah Wal-Jama’ah (Rassool, 2019), and are even
banned in certain Muslim countries (Al-Issa, 2000). The Muslim personal law model identi-
fied by Abdullah (2007) is based on the notion that “Since Imams typically deal with marital
and family problems, Muslim personal law (MPL) provides the legal framework for regulat-
ing family life in Islam, [and] is the basis of their intervention” (p.45). The focus of this type
of therapy is related to matters including divorce, maintenance, child custody and inheritance
based on the Islamic law (Shari’ah).
Another approach in the model of Islamic counselling is based on Sufism (Badri, 1979;
Jafari, 1993). It has been suggested that Sufism can have therapeutic outcomes, and aspects
of its practice, especially dhikr, are part of counselling in MPL and Islamic traditional healing
(Abdullah, 2007). However, the Sufi principles of counselling are sometimes amalgamated
with cosmology, numerology and astrology (Bakhtiar, 1994) and the use of devotional prac-
tices, music, poetry and mystical experience, including Rumi’s divine love (Ozelsel, 2007;
van Bruinessen and Howell, 2007). The Sufi Shaykh’s multiple roles include those of a psy-
chologist/counsellor/social worker/psychiatrist (Spiegelman et al., 1991). There are varia-
tions in this model, and some make the use of Islamic scholars and Sufi literatures such as
the works of Al-Ghazâlî, Ibn Miskawaith and Adb Qadir Al-Jilani, and this type of counsel-
ling is referred to as the “Modern Tasawwuf” (Zakaria and Mat Akhir, 2016b). The concept
of “transnational Sufism from below” as a form of religious counselling model has been
proposed by Rytter (2014). This concept is demonstrated when migrant families are experi-
encing a period of radical social change and turn towards Sufi Shaykhs in their country of ori-
gin for religious counselling in dealing with the contingencies of everyday life. The Islamic
counselling model developed by Stephen Maynard & Associates derives from the Qur’an, the
Sunnah of the Prophet ( ) and the Islamic science of the self. It is stated that
In our model of Islamic Counselling these concepts come from the Islamic Science of the
Self (Nafsiyat), developed in Tassawwuf, an aspect of which is repairing the heart. In this
framework, human beings are more than simply their bodies or their minds. When prob-
lems arise, often we can’t resolve the problem with our minds or our bodies, so we are
compelled to open up our hearts in search of understanding. Islamic Counselling is about
doing this with someone who is trained to listen to the difficulty of the situation, but also
to the deeper potential in the person experiencing it, through powerful but subtle skills.
(Stephen Maynard & Associates)
In a review of the focus on the recognition of Islamic counselling in Malaysia, Zakaria and
Mat Akhir (2016b) identified a number of models. One of the Malaysian models is Nadiya
Elias’ Islamic cognitive behavioural therapy (ICBT). It is reported that this model was
inspired by the Islamic traditional way of Tarbiyyah (educating). The root of psychological ill
health is deviancy from Islamic principles and practices. This model involves both individual
and group sessions and is performed by using both CBT conventional counselling styles
with the observation of the Islamic worldview and principles. The soul-cultivating counsel-
ling model (Kaunseling Bina Jiwa – KBJ) or the soul development guidance model is pro-
moted by Kamaruzzaman Jalaluddin and integrates conventional counselling processes (for
example: Diagnostic, therapeutic intervention and evaluation) with an Islamic approach. This
model was inspired by Surah Al-Fatihah, the first four verses of Surah Al-Baqarah and Surah
Al-Alaq in the Qur’an. The four main qualities of Prophets, i.e. Siddiq, Amanah, Tabligh
and Fathonah (truthfulness, trustworthiness, preaching, wisdom), are regarded as qualities of
ideal human beings and the ideal character of a counsellor. In the cognitive Ad-Deen model
(Othman, 2005), the foundation is based on the concept of self and the philosophy of change
according to the Qur’an and the Sunnah. The cognitive Ad-Din approach focusses on the
cognitive process, the Fitrah, the Nafs (desires) and Qalb (heart). The counselling techniques
are blended with prayer and repentance to Allah. In Al-Ghazâlî’s models of counselling
(Sarmani, 2005; Hamjah, 2008; Saper, 2012), the process of Tazkiyah An-Nafs (purification
of the soul) forms the basis of the counselling approach. The Asma al-Husna counselling
model is based on the use of the zikr (chanting) of the 99 Holy names of Allah, the Almighty.
Othman (2019) proposed a newly developed model of counselling, namely, the integrated
approach of Islamic counselling model (IAICM) which is a combination of psycho-spiritual
aspects of Islamic personality, namely, Ibadah, Amanah and Ilm (Othman, 2011, 2016) and
the counselling principles of unconditional positive regard, congruence and empathy. “These
combinations would produce spiritual competencies namely, sincerity, acquaintance and wis-
dom” (Othman, 2019, p.582).
In the United States, Keshavarzi and Haque (2013) and Keshavarzi et al. (2020) have pro-
posed a model of counselling/psychotherapy for enhancing mental health within an Islamic
context. The traditional Islamically integrated psychotherapy (TIIP) framework
is rooted in an inherently Islamic foundation. Its epistemological foundations are sourced

in the Sunni Islamic intellectual and spiritual tradition and offer a reconciliatory holis-
tic approach to the construction of a spiritually integrated psychology that draws from
empirical, rational, and revelatory sources.
(Keshavarzi et al., p.19)
The framework of this model is based on the use of Al-Ghazâlî’s conceptualisation of the
human soul, into four aspects of a person that signify his or her spiritual identity. These are
the Nafs, Aql, Ruh and Qalb. However, Muslims are also governed by three disciplines:
Islamic creed (Aqedah), jurisprudence (Fiqh) and the science devoted to the nourishment of
the soul (Tazkiyah or Tassawuf) in which they are required to actively engage, both intellec-
tually and experientially, in order to live life as a complete Muslim. Keshavarzi and Haque
(2013) maintain that in order to remove sicknesses of the heart, “one must work toward
modifying the inclinations of the Nafs toward good, restructuring and acquiring positive/
moral thoughts in the Aql, and feeding the spirit through remembrance of God” (p.239). The
elements of the model include the therapeutic alliance, using curiosity to gather information
for assessment; use of a directive approach; and advice-giving. In addition, psychoeduca-
tion, integrated cognitive behavioural therapies and spiritual healing practices are part of the
treatment intervention strategies. Within the framework of this model, the psychotherapist or
counsellor would focus on intervening on one of these levels (Nafs, Ruh or Aql) or on all three
levels of the self toward a healthy heart and the process toward self-actualisation.
In the United Kingdom, Rassool’s (2016) Islamic counselling practice model is an
11-stage model that has been conceptualised for a variety of problem behaviours and inter-
vention strategies. The model consists of selected concepts based on the classical work of
Ibn Al-Qayyim al-Jawziyyah, and consists of the following stages: Awakening (Qawmah)
and intention (Niyyah), consultation (Istisharah), contemplation (Tafakkur), guidance-seek-
ing (Istikhara), wilful decision (‘Azm), goal and route of vision (Basirah), absolute trust
in God (Al-Tawakkul-Allah), action (‘Amal), help-seeking (Isti’aanah), self-monitoring
(Muraqabah) and self-evaluation (Muhasabah). The essence of Rassool’s Islamic counsel-
ling practice model is a circular (or spiral) model, and it is assumed that when one stage is
completed, clients would move on to the next stage. There is the likelihood, because of lapse
and relapse, that clients may go through “several cycles of awakening (Qawnah) contempla-
tion (Tafakkur) and goal and route vision (Basirah) before either reaching the action (‘Amal)
or exiting the system without the attainment of the desired and permissible goals” (Rassool,
2016, p.209). This means that the client passes through the counselling process and enters and
exits at any stage and often recycles several times. The model is eclectic in techniques, using
both directive and non-directive approaches and psychotherapeutic techniques that are con-
gruent with Islamic beliefs and practices. A transtheoretical model (Prochaska et al., 1992;
Prochaska and Velicer, 1997) and motivational interviewing (Miller and Rollnick, 2002)
and cognitive behavioural therapies are also used as part of the intervention strategies. All
these approaches and techniques are integrated with spiritual interventions. Other models of
psychotherapy and counselling based on the tenets of Islamic beliefs emphasise personal and
social change (Zayed, 2017), and strength and resilience stemming from the Fitra (belief in
the unicity of God) (Abdullah, 2015). Table 24.1 presents a summary of some of the models
of Islamic psychotherapy and counselling. Some of the models are cited by the authors rather
than being the developers of the models.
Evaluation of some of the existing Islamic psychotherapy/

counselling models
Many of the theoretical models of Islamic psychotherapy and counselling examined above
are mainly descriptive and limited in the description of the underlying orientation, philoso-
phy, assumptions, basic principles and elements, concepts, strategies and techniques. The
conceptual or theoretical model of Islamic psychotherapy and counselling is limited to a few
approaches, and most of these models provided limited information or failed to meet the
criteria based on the following questions:
• What are the origins of the model?

• Is the model developed from another model or theory?
• What are the principles on which it is based?
• What assumptions are made about the nature and development of human beings?
• What is the orientation of the explanation for psychopathology?
• How does the model account for the perpetuation of psychological problems?
• What is the mode of assessment within this framework?
• How does the model explain the process of therapeutic change?
• What is the range of therapeutic intervention strategies expounded in the core model?
• Is the model generalisable?
• How does the model deal with any apparent discrepancies between theoretical and prac-
tical aspects?
• What are the comparisons with other counselling/psychotherapy approaches?
• What are the strengths and limitations of the model?
A number of models have attempted to describe and explain the conceptual framework
of Islamic psychotherapy and counselling. As with all psychological models, and indeed
approaches to therapy, they have attracted critical examination, highlighting both the per-
ceived strengths and limitations. One of the most common criticisms of the psychotherapy
and counselling models are the lack of scientific study of the effectiveness of the models in
clinical practice. Doubts have also been cast on the ability of a therapist to work within the
boundaries of the models. How adaptable some of the models are in their application to het-
erogeneous Muslim communities is questionable. Most of the models are purely descriptive
with no available conceptual or theoretical framework. A few models are esoteric in nature
and scope and are heavily embedded with Sufi ideologies and practices. Many scholars would
regard the spiritual healing practices of Sufism, including the supplementary and supereroga-
tory rituals, as innovations (bid‘a). The mainstream scholars of the creed of Ahlus Sunnah
Wal Jamaah have regarded as particularly objectionable “the Sufis’ repetitive dhikr litanies,
which can facilitate ecstatic experiences, especially in extended group performances where
570
Table 24.1 A summary of some of the models of Islamic psychotherapy and counselling
Authors ordevelopers Model Orientation-or approach Psychotherapeutic principles
Zakaria and Akhir (2016a) Traditional Islamic theology Advice and wisdom
Prophet Muhammad’s ( ) wisdom and
practice
Modifcation Islamic elements of beliefs and practices Similar to mainstream
embedded in the philosophy and counselling
intervention strategies
Integrative Fundamental aspects in Islam: Faith (Aqīdah), Integration with mainstream counselling
worship (Ibādah) and Islamic jurisprudence
(Shari’ah)
Abdullah (2007) Traditional healing Cultural model: Ritual healing practices Advice and guidance. Ruqyah Ash Shari’ah and Ruqyah
Ash Shirkiyah
Muslim personal law Islamic jurisprudence (Shari’ah) Advice and guidance
Pir Vilayat Inayat Khan Sufsm Al-Ghazali, Ibn Miskawaith and Adb Qadir Tasawwuf. Counselling. Use of devotional practices,
Bakhtiar (1994) Abdullah (2007) Al-Jilani. music, poetry and mystical experience
Ozelsel (2007); van Bruinessen and Suf principles of counselling amalgamated
Howell (2007)Rytter (2014) with cosmology, numerology and astrology
Othman (2011, 2016, 2019) Integrated approach of Islamic personality, namely, Ibadah, Nadiya Unconditional positive regard, congruence and
Islamic counselling Elias’ Amanah and Ilm empathy- spiritual competencies namely,
model sincerity, acquaintance and wisdom
Nadiya Elias’ (cited in Zakaria and Islamic cognitive Islamic traditional way of Tarbiyyah CBT and mainstream counselling
Mat Akhir (2016b) behavioural therapy (educating).
(ICBT) Islamic worldview and principles
Keshavarzi and Haque (2013); Traditional integrated Principles: Islamic creed (Aqedah), Counselling/ psychotherapy Integrated cognitive
Keshavarzi et al. (2020) psychotherapy jurisprudence, (Fiqh), Tazkiyah or Tassawuf behavioural therapies and spiritual healing
Model Al-Ghazali’s conceptualisation of the human practices
soul: The Nafs, Aql, Ruh and Qalb
Stephen Maynard & Associates The Islamic counselling Tasawwuf-Qalb
model Qur’an, the Sunnah of the Prophet ( ) and Counselling
the Islamic science of the self
Rassool (2016) Islamic counselling Qur’an, the Sunnah Psychotherapeutic counselling. Use of stages of
practice model Ibn Al-Qayyim Al-Jawziyyah change Model/ motivational interviewing to nudge
clients to move from one stage to another.
Eclectic techniques
people may punctuate their utterances with emphatic bodily movements or accompany them
with dance” (van Bruinessen and Howell, 2007, p.7).
Rassool’s model (Rassool, 2016) is also in need of critical examinations of its constituents.
The proposed model differs from mainstream counselling in that it is based on a psychosocial
and spiritual orientation of psychotherapy and counselling from an Islamic perspective. The
main differences
between mainstream models and the Islamic psychotherapy/counselling practice model

include the dominant role of spiritual over psychosocial needs, God as the source of help,
the process of seeking help and decision making, and problem solving. In this model,
both non-directive and directive counselling techniques and approaches that are accepted
from an Islamic perspective are operational.
(Rassool, 2016, p.219)
Finally, the proposed model is not claimed to be comprehensive, but provides an outline for
further development and refinement. In addition, specific appropriate techniques and exam-
ples may be included at each stage within the model. The proposed practice model should be
perceived as a preliminary mapping exploration and as agenda setting. Muslim scholars, psy-
chologists and clinicians should share in this development. The major benefit of this model is
that it is adaptable to enable psychotherapists or counsellors to meet the diversity of Muslim
cultures.
The traditional Islamically integrated psychotherapy (TIIP) (Keshavarzi and Haque, 2013;
Keshavarzi et al., 2020) is probably one of the more robust models with an epistemological
framework based on a foundation of Sunni theology and an ontological framework extracted
from classical Sunni scholars. It claims that it “relies heavily on the dominant positions of
the Ahl al-Sunnah wa-l-Jamā‘ah” (Keshavarzi et al., 2020, p.16). However, the model fulfils
most of the criteria in relation to its philosophy, assumptions, concepts, strategies and tech-
niques. The TIIP model promises to be a useful conceptual framework that reconciles the
essential Islamic psychology within the Sunni classical scholarly tradition and secular psy-
chology. The authors of this model appear overcome with classical conceptual zeal in their
enthusiasm for the development of this model, invoking mystical and Sufi overtones. One
particular strength of Keshavarzi et al.’s model is that it is not tied to any particular thera-
peutic technique, but does promote the collaborative therapeutic counselling relationship. In
Keshavarzi and Haque’s (2013) model of Islamic psychotherapy, the authors identified some
of its limitations. They stated:
this model is not postulated to be comprehensive enough as a manual for the treatment
of the disorder with Muslim populations, nor does it offer a sufficient discussion of the
various presentations of clinical pathologies that would necessitate accommodations or
adjustments in the application of the model.
(p.246)
The literature of the 2020 version model (Keshavarzi et al., 2020), due to its complexity,
may not be easily applicable in clinical practice with diverse Muslim communities with vari-
ations in psychological and mental health problems. The claims that the foundation of the
model is in accordance with the positions of the Ahl al-Sunnah wa-l-Jamā‘ah are highly
debatable. The question that needs to be contemplated is which version of the Creed of Ahl
al-Sunnah wa-l-Jamā‘ah should be used because of its extensive overtones and nuances of
Sufi theology. This is a “one-size-fits-all” model with its intellectual discourse making it only
accessible to a few academics and theologians, and definitely not to be consumed by the vast
majority of undergraduate Islamic psychology students or even applicable by experienced
clinicians. It is a fairly new model and with new models there is new danger in the form of
“the Americanisation” of Islamic psychology. Despite the limitations in its applicability, it
still remains the most prolific model of Islamic psychotherapy and counselling.
Some of the models have highlighted the complexity of the nature of man, the develop-
ment of self and the process of change underlying therapeutic interventions. However, no
one model appears to be sufficiently comprehensive in describing the mechanistic details of
this change process. Perhaps, there is the notion that there is more than one correct model
or perspective by which to view the phenomenon of Islamic psychotherapy and counselling.
Barriers in accessing psychotherapy/counselling services

It has been widely acknowledged that there are barriers encountered by Muslims and Black
and minority ethnic (BAME) groups to access services in mental health care, particularly
psychotherapy or counselling services. Problems associated with systemic or institutional-
ised racism and the lack of BAME professionals have been identified as significant barri-
ers to the access of mental health services by individuals from BAME groups (Fernando,
2005). The underutilisation of mental health services may be due to two main categories:
Inaccessibility (e.g. language barriers/inadequate service provision) and reluctance to access
(e.g. community likes to keep matters in the family) (Weatherhead and Daiches, 2009). Some
of the barriers that prevent Muslims from seeking professional assistance include having a
strong faith, and a belief that only God can help; feeling ashamed, embarrassed or stigmatised
if they were to access services; and a “fear of stereotyping” by services (Weatherhead and
Daiches, 2009). Other barriers include the lack of cultural sensitivity and religion in thera-
peutic content and process. In addition, there has been a call for incorporating non-Western
clients’ narratives and cultural metaphors into Western psychotherapy (Moodley, 1999). It is
apparent that Muslims who identify strongly with Islamic values “are being offered counsel-
ling, primarily with a Eurocentric worldview, which is rooted in the Judeo-Christian tradition
and reflects the dominant values of the larger society” (Rassool, 2016, p.x). In the context of
the ethnocentric nature and process of counselling and psychotherapy, racism and cultural
insensitivity in counselling and psychotherapy provided to Muslim clients in the West have
been identified (Al-Roubaiy, Owen-Pugh and Wheeler, 2017). A recent study by Moller,
Burgess and Jogiyat (2016) explored barriers to counselling within second‐generation South
Asian communities in the UK. The authors have provided evidence of how stereotypes of
ethnicity and religious identity can constitute barriers to seeking counselling for psychologi-
cal distress. These stereotypes held by members of the population around counselling, coun-
sellors and clients acted as potential barriers to help‐seeking.
However, the application of ethnocentric counselling brings its own problems and issues.
There is also a perception of counsellors lacking or failure to understand cultural elements
(Moller et al., 2016); that the counsellor’s model is based on individualistic perspectives
while their clients hold collectivist views (Reavey et al., 2006); and the biases built into the
profession and “cultural conditioning” of counselling professionals (Sue and Capodilupo,
2008, p.122). Some authors question whether Western counselling and psychotherapy are
effective for clients from non-Western cultures (Bojuwoye and Sodi, 2010). In this context,
Richardson and Bradbury (2012) have documented the limited success of counselling and
psychotherapy in Western countries for clients from other cultures of origin. In response to
prevailing Eurocentric narratives in psychology and the failure to meet the psychosocial and
mental health needs of the Muslim populations, there has been renewed interest in integrat-
ing Islamic traditions into counselling and psychotherapy (Hamdan, 2008; Rassool, 2016;
Haque et al., 2016; Al-Karam, 2018; Keshavarzi et al., 2020). The assessment process by
psychotherapists or counsellors (Muslims and non-Muslims) is fraught with difficulties if
counsellors and psychotherapists fail to refrain from “making assumptions regarding cli-
ents’ representations of distress and their relationships with Islam, being mindful of nuances,
complexities, and contradictions in this regard, and being open to new ways of approaching
these issues and engaging with clients” (Yusuf, 2019, p.214). Post and Wade (2009) suggest
that “the practical question for clinicians is no longer whether to address the sacred in psy-
chotherapy with religious and spiritual clients, but rather, the questions are when and how to
address the sacred” (p.131).
Cultural competence is the key for enabling psychotherapists and counsellors to work
effectively with Muslim clients in a culturally sensitive approach. Rassool (2016) argues
that
What is fundamental in culturally competent counselling is being responsive to the

health beliefs and practices of Muslim clients, and to their religio-cultural needs. If edu-
cation and training in Islamic counselling are to become a reality, Muslim scholars and
clinicians need to focus on an effective strategy in order to meet the needs of Muslim
patients in a multicultural society.
(p.266)
Conclusion
Despite the current emphasis on cross-cultural and spiritual psychotherapy and counsel-
ling, counselling and psychotherapy are based on Western concepts of mental health and
emotional distress. Islamic psychotherapy and counselling is holistic as there is no dualism
between the body and the soul and no separation between individual and collective responses
and reaction; all is intrinsically linked. Rowan (2005) provided an image of psychotherapy
as a three-faced goddess: One face looking back to childhood experiences and the repression
of the past; one face looking into the present, the here and now; and the other face looking
forward to spirituality and the divine. In this context, Islamic psychotherapy and counselling
is an amalgam of all the three “faces” into one, but with a strong emphasis on enhancing the
spiritual dimension and working towards the purification of the soul to prepare for the hereaf-
ter. Islamic psychotherapy and counselling need to find an authentic “ethical location” based
on Islamic values and practices.

• The role of spirituality in psychotherapy and counselling focuses on an understanding of
the ways that spirituality relates to the psychotherapeutic process and the use of spiritual
interventions.
• The recent development in the discipline of Islamic psychology has led to a rapproche-
ment between spirituality and psychotherapy and counselling.
• Islamic psychotherapy and counselling is an elusive concept; everyone knows what it is,
but none can define it.
• Islamic psychotherapy and counselling is a contemporary response as a therapeutic
approach that has much in common with other therapeutic modalities but is based on an
understanding of the Qur’an, Sunnah and the Islamic sciences.
• The proliferation of models and approaches has led to several models of Islamic counsel-
ling based on different ideologies and approaches for clinical interventions.
• In the contemporary period, a number of Islamic psychotherapy and counselling mod-
els have been developed starting with the notion that spirituality or the dimension of
faith is a necessity in the therapeutic process in dealing with psychosocial and spiritual
diseases.
• Traditional Islamically integrated psychotherapy is probably one of the more robust
models with an epistemological framework based on a foundation of Sunni theology and
an ontological framework extracted from classical Sunni scholars.
• Some of the barriers that prevent Muslims from seeking professional assistance include
having a strong faith, and a belief that only God can help; feeling ashamed, embarrassed
or stigmatised if they were to access services; and a “fear of stereotyping” by services.
• Other barriers include the lack of cultural sensitivity and religion in therapeutic content
and process.
• Cultural competence is the key to enabling psychotherapists and counsellors to work
effectively with Muslim clients in a culturally sensitive approach.
• Islamic psychotherapy and counselling is an amalgam of all the three “faces” but with a
strong emphasis on enhancing the spiritual dimension and working towards the purifica-
tion of the soul to prepare for the hereafter.
1. Psychotherapy or counselling is a profession that aims to:

A. Promote personal growth and development.
B. Provide a successful diagnosis in psychopathology.
C. Ensure that clients are on the correct medication.
D. Solely address behaviour towards self-actualisation.
E. Is related to purification of the soul.
2. Several factors provide a rationale for this increased evolution of Islamic psychotherapy
and counselling in, mostly, Western countries. Which one is not correct?
A. The recent development in the discipline of Islamic psychology has led to a rap-
prochement between spirituality and psychotherapy and counselling.
B. The emergence of the fourth force in psychology, namely positive psychology.
C. The emergence of literature on counselling Muslims from different traditions in the
past two decades.
D. The increasingly visible presence of indigenous and migrant Muslims in mostly
Western countries.
E. There is a high prevalence of religious belief amongst Muslims despite their het-
erogeneity and diversity of cultures.
3. Who made the following statement? “We are more than psychological, social, and physi-
cal beings; we are also spiritual beings.”
A. Rogers
B. Freud
C. Skinner
D. Pargament
E. Kline
4. Which is correct? Psychotherapy or counselling is
A. The magic answer to life’s problems.
B. An instant solution is not found in a counselling programme or session.
C. A supportive service that allows a client to gain understanding of self by self-
exploration of their emotional issues.
D. An advice-giving service.
E. A supportive emotional crutch that enables you to carry on with life without a care
in the world.
5. “A specialised way of listening, responding and building relationships based on thera-
peutic theory and expertise that is used to help clients or enhance their wellbeing.” This
is the definition of
A. Existential therapy
B. Psychotherapy and counselling
C. Counselling
D. Cognitive behavioural therapy
E. Motivational interviewing
6. The following terms have been used by the Islamic classical scholars: Tib al-nufus, c Ilaj
al-nafs, al-Tib al-ruhaniy, Tahdhib al-nufus, Tathir al-nufus, Tazkiyyat al-nafs, Tasfiyat
al-nufus, Mudawat al-nufus to denote:
A. Existential therapy
B. Motivational interviewing
C. Counselling
D. Cognitive behavioural therapy
E. Psychotherapy
7. Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawzi used the term_________ to denote psychotherapy.
A. Ilaj al-nafs
B. al-Tib al-ruhaniy
C. Tahdhib al-nufus
D. Tazkiyyat al-nafs
E. Mudawat al-nufus
8. Zakaria and Akhir have categorised the definitions of Islamic counselling and psycho-
therapy into three dimensions. Which one is correct?
A. Traditional, modification and filter
B. Traditional, modification and integrative
C. Traditional, existential and modification
D. Traditional, cognitive and behavioural
E. Traditional, orthodox and modification
9. “This is a modern approach or orientation to psychotherapy that integrates Islamic teach-
ings, principles, philosophies, and/or interventions with Western therapeutic approaches.
IIP is also sometimes referred to as Islamic counselling or Islamic psychotherapy.” Who

coined this definition?
A. Malik Badri
B. Hamjah and Akhir
C. York Al-Karam
D. Somaya Abdullah
E. G. Hussein Rassool
10. It was narrated by Abu Hurairah that the Messenger of Allah ( ) said: “Religion is sin-
cerity, religion is sincerity religion is sincerity.” They said; “To whom, O Messenger of
Allah?” He said: “To Allah, to His Book, to His Messenger, to the imams of the Muslims
and to their common folk.” Sincerity means
A. An- Nasa’i
B. Al-Nasihah
C. Al-Fadilah
D. Al-Fitra
E. An-Nafs
11. Barriers encountered by Muslims and Black and minority ethnic (BAME) groups to
access services in mental health care, particularly psychotherapy or counselling services,
do not include:
A. Feeling ashamed, embarrassed or stigmatised
B. Fear of stereotyping
C. Lack of cultural sensitivity
D. Cultural conditioning of psychotherapists and counsellors
E. Provision of health information
A. There is a perception that counsellors fully understand cultural elements.
B. Counsellors’ models are based on collectivist perspectives while their clients held
individualistic views.
C. There is limited success of counselling and psychotherapy in Western countries for
clients from other cultures of origin. The are no biases built into the profession and
“cultural conditioning” of counselling professionals.
D. Western counselling and psychotherapy are effective for clients from non-Western
cultures.
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Part VII
Postscript
Chapter 25
Decolonising psychology and

its (dis)contents
Educational development and clinical supervision
Introduction
Since the late 20th century, the Islamisation of knowledge movement has primed Muslim
scholars and psychologists to reflect on embracing indigenous or cross-cultural psychology
and to decolonise psychological knowledge. In effect, Western psychology has for so long
dominated the production of theoretical psychological knowledge and therapeutic interven-
tion, and its imposition is reflected in the curricula contents of psychology programmes, text
books and clinical applications of tests and other psychosocial interventions. Dudgeon and
Walker (2015) suggest that “Psychology colonises both directly through the imposition of
universalising, individualistic constructions of human behaviour and indirectly through the
negation” (p.276). The most significant conundrum in psychology departments in Muslim-
majority countries is the Eurocentric orientation of psychology curricula and pedagogy in
both undergraduate and postgraduate educational programmes.
In the context of developing a psychology that is congruent with Islamic beliefs and prac-
tices, the decolonisation of psychological knowledge would be more appropriate. Islamic
values and practices are universal and applicable to all mankind; thus, indigenisation is
inappropriate and superfluous. In the context of this chapter, decolonisation of psychology
knowledge is the process of embedding Islamic epistemologies, knowledge systems, theo-
ries, research and clinical practices in empirical psychology disciplines. In other words, it
is about balancing the secular psychology narratives with Islamic psychology, ethics and
sciences while both evidenced-based psychological knowledge and the Islamic intellectual
tradition are maintained. For psychology, the process of decolonisation has begun and efforts
are being made to reconstruct psychology based upon an Islamic epistemological paradigm.
However, there is a dearth of an educational conceptual framework for integrating Islamic
psychology in the literature despite the burgeoning of courses in Islamic psychology and
counselling in the United Kingdom, USA, Turkey, Pakistan, Malaysia and Indonesia. The
aim of this chapter is to examine the educational approach in the decolonisation of psychol-
ogy curricula and propose a conceptual framework. A vertically and horizontally integrated,
embedded curriculum model for the development of Islamic psychology is examined.
Decolonising psychology and its (dis) contents

For Islamic psychology to emerge as a force “majeure” in majority-Muslim countries, there
is a need to challenge educationalists and clinicians with the task of decolonising curriculum
contents in psychology programmes. This is the prime step towards broader decolonisation
584 Postscript
of clinical assessment and therapeutic interventions. However, in the current climate, the
majority of Muslims psychologists are opposed to the Islamisation of psychology, especially
in Muslim-majority countries. Skinner (2019) points out that Muslim psychologists “have
also experienced a dissonance between what they have been taught from ‘Western’ tradition
and their own sense of what is right and real—but without being able to articulate precisely
where the dissonance lies” (p.1088). There is also a dissonance between what they believe
and what they do. The introduction of Islamic ethics and sciences in the psychology cur-
riculum is anathema to those Muslim academic psychologists who are still deeply enmeshed
in the “lizard’s hole.” It is assumed that Muslim psychologists perceive, like the Orientalists
and Eurocentric, that Islamic psychology is a form of religio-psychology or “theological
scholarship” which is totally at odds with contemporary definitions of psychology. Their
rejection is based on the premise that psychology as a science is based on a number of key
characteristics: Empiricism, determinism, falsifiability, a natural science perspective, etc.
Thus, the enactment of these activities defines a scientific study of mind and behaviour, and
they are not part of any religious system. The anti-Islamic psychology movement rebuffs
the notion that Islamic psychology provides a balanced and comprehensive view of human
nature, behaviour and experience. They claim that religio-psychology places contemporary
psychology in a subservient position to theology and returns the study of mind and behaviour
to the Middle Ages. Islamic psychology does not contribute to the science of psychology and
promoting epistemology. In consequence, the anti-Islamic psychology movement perceives
the use of spiritual interventions for a range of psychosocial problems as an ethical issue.
This practice is viewed as anti-science and is in fact a form of fundamentalism! (Subhanallah
– All praise be to Allah.)
In some instances, there is a need to reclaim psychology and adopt the approach of “decol-
onisation by indigenisation” (Adams et al., 2015, p.223). For example, imported Eurocentric
psychological assessment tools and tests are widely used both in academia and clinical prac-
tice. Most of these tests have not been evaluated for their psychometric properties (reliability
and validity) but are being used with the local ethno-cultural group in most Muslim-majority
countries. Decolonising tests and instruments should be given priority as a matter of urgency.
More tests and tools for assessment should be developed indigenously to provide a culture-
free assessment that resonates with local realities and better serves the Muslim communities.
A simple model of decolonising psychology is presented in Figure 25.1.
Curriculum approaches in Islamic psychology

When it comes to educational development in Islamic psychology, there is a dearth of litera-
ture on this subject relating to curriculum approaches and the development and evaluation of
educational programmes. The review undertaken by Haque et al. (2016) of the state of Islam
and psychology publications, over a period of ten years (2006–2015), fails to identify one
single paper on educational development in Islamic psychology. For an emerging discipline
with comprehensive theoretical foundations on models of the soul and therapeutic interven-
tions, there seems to be a dissonance between educational development and clinical practice
(Rassool, 2019a).
A preliminary investigation on the curriculum development approach and contents analy-
sis of Islamic psychology and counselling programmes for psychologists in the UK, USA
and Turkey was undertaken. By “hacking” (hacking is a type of research methodology and
is a time-honoured Islamic legal tradition) a number of educational programmes published
Decolonising psychology 585
Figure 25.1 Decolonising psychology.
on websites on “Islamic Psychology and psychotherapy,” inferences were made on their

approaches and contents. Most the courses were in the area of continuing professional devel-
opment and ranged from awareness and introductory courses, to courses for graduates in
Islamic sciences, qualified and non-qualified counsellors and top-up courses. The duration
ranges from a two-day workshop, to one week to one year (120–150 hours part-time). Some
of the courses are accredited by external academic institutions; others are in-house accredita-
tion with the participants receiving a certificate of attendance or equivalent. For example,
the Counselling and Psychotherapy Central Awarding Body (CPCAB) is one of the UK’s
leading awarding bodies specialised in counselling, and they have regulated qualifications
and progression routes. The CPCAB has developed its own “Model of Helping Work and
Counselling Practice.” Their target audience of the Islamic psychology and psychotherapy’
courses includes psychologists, counsellors or psychotherapists and non-psychology gradu-
ates who are interested in becoming Islamic counsellors. Rassool (2020) highlights at least
three approaches in curriculum development which have been labelled as: The “sprinkle”
approach, the “Bolt-on” approach and the “integrated or embedded” approach (Figure 25.2).
The first one, the “sprinkle” approach, is based on the principle of randomising the Islamic
contents within the curriculum. This is due to the constraints imposed by external valida-
tion and accrediting non-Islamic bodies or professional organisations in Western countries.
Academic institutions and professional associations such as CPCAB impose their own cur-
riculum contents on the organisations delivering the course. Within this framework, Islamic
knowledge is scattered or sprinkled throughout the courses. In reality, an examination of the
aims or learning outcomes of some of these courses does not explicitly show the integration
of Islamic sciences or psychology in the curriculum contents of the programmes. This means
Islamic psychology or sciences are interposed on a random basis throughout the educational
586 Postscript
Figure 25.2 Models of approaches in curriculum development in Islamic psychology.
programme. This is clearly depicted in the course aims and contents of the course. The sec-
ond approach is the “bolt-on” approach where knowledge about Islamic psychology and
sciences is developed independently of the core discipline and, generally, added at the end
of the course programme or each module. Another variation of this approach is to teach
Islamic psychology and sciences in parallel with secular modern psychology. In this context,
there is a lack of integration and Islamic psychology and sciences are not embedded in the
educational programmes. A third approach identified in the Islamisation of psychology is the
embedded or integrated approach to curriculum development. This approach seeks to break
down the barriers of the traditional curriculum in psychology based on the segmentation and
isolation of Islamic sciences and psychology from an Islamic perspective. This approach is
one where subjects are taught through a range of themes, disciplines and various mechanisms
of delivery, as opposed to studying subjects in isolation like the “sprinkle” and “bolt-on”
approaches. However, most approaches to the courses examined fall in between sprinkle and
bolt-on approaches, and only a limited number of courses fall into the classification of an
embedded-integrated approach.
Al-Ghazâlî’s philosophy of education

It would be worthwhile to review al-Ghazâlî’s philosophy of education which is still appli-
cable and relevant in contemporary society. The basic premise of his educational philosophy
is the concept of God and His relationship with mankind. Al-Ghazâlî views education as a
skill or technique, instead of a science. It is the relationship between student and teacher
“which proceeds gradually, developmentally and continuously throughout the student’s life,
the purpose of which is to cultivate harmoniously” (Alavi, 2007, p.312). The aim of educa-
tion, according to Al-Ghazâlî, is the formation of man to adhere to the teaching of Islam in
order to obtain salvation and happiness in the hereafter. To achieve this, man needs to have
proper knowledge of acts of worship (Al-Ghazâlî, 1962). In summary, Al-Ghazâlî’s aims of

education (Al-Ghazâlî, 1962, 1963; Watt, 1963; Abu-Sway, 1996) include:
• Teachings of religion from happiness and salvation.

• Formation of character.
• Cleansing the heart, as a result of which the “light of knowledge” will brighten his heart.
• Moral development.
• Earning a living
• Societal development and obligation (Fard-e Kifaya)
What is interesting is that, during the period of Al-Ghazâlî, the educational curriculum was
not strictly defined (Abu-Sway, 1996). However, students were allowed to study the subjects
in which they were interested. Nowadays, we call it self-directed learning education or life-
long learning. Al-Ghazâlî has two dimensions of his curriculum: Obligatory (Fard-e-Ain –
individual obligation) and the compulsory curriculum.
This includes the doctrine of the Qur’an, logic and hygiene. The purpose of mandatory
curriculum is to teach students how to live their lives as individuals as well as members
of the Islamic society. Optional (Fard-e-Kifaya) which is considered as compulsory, that
is, as a society someone must be doing it, which is not obligatory (Fard) on every person.
(Sheikh and Ali, 2019, p.121)
His methodology of teaching includes the role of the society and the environment which
have an impact on the curriculum; parents as role models before entering schooling (social
psychology, role model, imitation); after entering school, the role of the teacher in under-
standing child psychology; relaxation and recreational activities for children; discouraging
memorisation (conditioning) but encouraging inspiration and reflection. The educational
framework should be based on real-life situations rather than abstract examples (Al-Ghazâlî,
1962). Al-Ghazâlî (1962) also discusses the role of parents in development, and in a child’s
initial education in language, cultural traditions, religious and moral beliefs. The role of
teachers is viewed as more critical in education than that of the parents. The role of students
is also examined, and they should follow the codes of ethics, a kind of etiquette in seeking
knowledge.
Thus, the goal of education in Islamic psychology should be:
• To impart Islamic ethics and sciences so to enable Muslims to develop ethical intelligence.
• To be clear in its aims in developing the individual professionally and personally in the
service of the Ummah.
• To impart authentic Islamic knowledge “that leads human beings towards the conscious-
ness of the Creator in order to obey His commands” (Al-Ghazâlî).
• To provide an increased awareness and recognition of the holistic needs (bio-psychoso-
cial and spiritual) of Muslim (and non-Muslim) patients or clients.
• To enhance knowledge and evidenced-based intervention strategies required to provide
high-quality counselling and psychotherapeutic care.
• To develop conceptual framework and curriculum approaches for undergraduate, post-
graduate and continuing professional development programmes.
588 Postscript
• To develop research skills and cultivate a research-based approach in the provision of

evidence to effect change in education and therapeutic interventions.
Conceptual educational framework for decolonising psychology

knowledge
The development of this conceptual educational framework for the integration of Islamic
psychology within educational programmes is an amalgam of Al-Faruqi’s (1988) five prin-
ciples of Islam and Berghout’s (2011) model of learning. Al-Faruqi’s framework is based on
five principles of Islam: Oneness of God; Unity of Creation; Unity of Truth; Unity of Life;
and Unity of Human. This is presented in Figure 25.3. There are requisites for scholars in
applying these principles in integrating Islamic sciences and ethics to psychology knowl-
edge. Al-Faruqi (1988) suggests that these scholars need be experts in modern science, have
Islamic knowledge of those fields, be able to demonstrate the relevance of Islam to modern
disciplines and compare and relate Islamic values and ethics with modern social sciences.
The above characteristics were later formulated into a 12-point framework (see Al-Faruqi,
1988; Sulayman, 1989).
In contrast, Berghout (2011) focused on a model of learning approach to enhance the pro-
cess of Islamisation within tertiary education and its evaluation (see Figure 25.4). His system
is a process model that includes an Input, Process, Output and Feedback. In the Input phase,
“the Islamic worldview and values, Islamic environments, Islamic curriculum and Islamic
guidelines, policies and principles of learning are integrated” (p.24). The Process includes
the integration of the Islamic worldview leading to appropriate learning and teaching activi-
ties. The Output “should reflect the Islamic perspective in the form of Islamised individuals,
research outputs, services, and Islamised products” (p.24).
Feedback is part the evaluation of teaching and learning activities and interdependent
aspects of the educative process. This involves the monitoring, implementation and evalua-
tion of the Islamisation programme to determine the effectiveness of teaching methodologies,
learning activities, instructional materials and other elements affecting the teaching-learning
Figure 25.3 Rassool’s framework for the Islamisation of knowledge.

Figure 25.4 Berghout’s model of Islamisation.
process with the end in view of improvement. It has been suggested that Berghout’s
Islamisation of science framework focuses on three domains of educational taxonomy:
Cognitive, affective and psychomotor skills (Madani, 2016). The main focus of the educa-
tional taxonomy is on the affective domain because Berghout (2011) maintained that
from an Islamic perspective the question of affective domain and values is crucial not
only in the learning process and knowledge creation and dissemination, but also in the
development of the well-being and personality of the teacher and learner as well.
(p.31)
This means the teaching of ethical and moral values is accorded significant importance.
The purpose of the framework is to establish the networks between the two approaches
(Al-Faruqi’s five principles of Islam and the Berghout’s model of learning) and how these
connections help in the development of effective educational programmes.
The proposed conceptual education framework identifies core components and the inter-
relationships between these components. This is presented in Figure 25.5. The philosophy of
education projected by Al-Faruqi was constructed on the worldview of Tawhid rooted in the
Islamic vision of reality and truth. The Tawhid Paradigm takes its name from the core Islamic
concept of Tawhid (Unicity of God, the doctrine of God’s incomparability). Al-Faruqi (1988)
suggested that that the Tawhid Paradigm “manifests the readiness and willingness to ful-
fill the Divine trust (al-amanah) and obligatory duties (al-fara’id) that are accompanied
by the Divine guidance and human unique capability (Hud 11:6; Az-Zumar 39:41)” (p.5).
What Al-Faruqi was proposing is having a holistic approach to the development of educa-
tional programmes that seeks to integrate the fundamental element of revealed and scientific
knowledge.
590 Postscript
Al-Tawhid
(Unicity of God)
Al-Faruqi’s Bergout’s
Framework Framework; Input,
Principles of Islam Process, Output
Educational
Approaches of
Education
Continuing Curriculum
Professional Mapping and
Development Development
Islamisation
of
Psychology
Evaluation / Teaching and

Quality Learning
Assurance Resources in
Islam
Implementation
of Islamic
Psychology
Curriculum
Figure 25.5 The Tawhid Paradigm for the Islamisation of psychology.
Berghout’s system approach provides a holistic view of the stages in the Islamisation of
knowledge. His approach synthesises the different stages of organisational, policy and educa-
tional development and converges them into an adaptive and dynamic entity. However, some
of the model’s limitations include being too theoretical in approach, and in practice there
are external constraints that may inhibit the interdependence of the different stages. It may
also not be applicable to diverse, heterogeneous educational institutions in Muslim countries.
Despite its limitations, it is a useful tool in the development, integration, implementation and
evaluation of Islamic sciences and ethics in psychology.
A vertically and horizontally integrated, embedded curriculum

model of Islamic psychology
In this framework, Al-Faruqi’s (1988) approach to the Islamisation of knowledge has been
utilised as the guiding philosophical principles, whereas Berghout’s (2011) system approach
Figure 25.6 Rassool’s vertical and horizontal integration curriculum approach.
to education forms the basis of the organisational and curriculum development. In addition,
a model of curriculum development that is being proposed attempts to show how to integrate
Islamic psychology and Islamic sciences in the undergraduate and postgraduate psychol-
ogy curriculum. The model is a vertically and horizontally integrated, embedded curriculum
to enable the integration of Islamic psychology and Islamic ethical values in psychology
knowledge.
Shoemaker (1989) defines an integrated curriculum as
Education that is organised in such a way that it cuts across subject-matter lines, bring-
ing together various aspects of the curriculum into meaningful association to focus upon
broad areas of study. It views learning and teaching in a holistic way and reflects the real
world, which is interactive.
(p.10)
According to Shafi (1985),
The task of integration is by no means an eclectic missing of classical Islamic and mod-
ern Western knowledge, but rather a systematic reorientation and restructuring of the
entire filed of human knowledge in accordance with a new set of criteria and categories,
derived from, and based on [the] Islamic worldview.
(p.6)
Rassool’s vertical and horizontal integration model is presented in Figure 25.6. The two
dimensions of the model are the horizontal and vertical integration. These two dimensions
are key aspects in curriculum design and development. According to Daniel (2014), “Vertical
organisation (sequence, continuity-deepening of knowledge) deals with the longitudinal
arrangement of the design components. Horizontal organisation (scope, integration-widening
of knowledge) deals with the side-by-side arrangement of the components in the curriculum.”
In this model, the horizontal axis includes integration and scope.
592 Postscript
Horizontal axis
Integration: The horizontal integration refers to the relations among various contents, topics
and themes involving all domains of knowledge, that is, both evidenced-based knowledge,
the classical and contemporary work of Islamic scholars and knowledge based on the Qur’an
and Hadiths. Horizontal integration may also mean the integration of basic concepts from
one discipline into another. For example, in studying health psychology there are certain
basic themes including diabetes; cardiovascular disease; hypertension, obesity, prophetic
medicine, health and fasting in Ramadan; bio-psychosocial and spiritual benefits of fasting;
physiological and psychological changes during the fast; nutrition; dealing with anger and
stress from an Islamic perspective, etc. In this context, there are several disciplines involved,
including anatomy, physiology, endocrinology, health, disease, psychology and Islamic sci-
ences. For example, in biological bases of behaviour course, themes that may be included are,
the Islamic contribution to biological psychology, Islamic epistemology, evolution psychol-
ogy from an Islamic perspective, role of the soul in nature vs. nurture, determinants of human
behaviours, bio-ethics from an Islamic perspective, hearing as a gift (Al-Mu’minun 23:78),
the creation of hearing in the foetus before sight (Al-Insan 76:2), hearing is constant linking
with the outside world (Al-Kahf 18:11), hearing as a blessing and a responsibility and the
study of how Qur’anic recitation affects the brain.
Scope: This dimension focuses on the breadth and depth of the curriculum content. The
horizontal curriculum integrates knowledge across different classes or sub-disciplines of
psychology. These disciplines or sub-disciplines include lifespan development, child psy-
chology, social psychology, biological bases of behaviour, cognitive psychology, abnormal
psychology, history and philosophy of Islamic psychology, psychology of religion, health
psychology, community psychology, Islamic philosophy, Islamic sciences, Islamic ethics,
etc. In addition, the psychological works of prominent classical and contemporary scholars
would be integrated in the curriculum. Knowledge of the scope of the curriculum assists in
the selection of methodology of teaching and learning experiences.
Vertical axis
The vertical integration has been referred to as the “Organization of contents according to
the sequence and continuity of learning within a given knowledge domain or subject over
time (vertical articulation to improve coherence)” (International Bureau of Education, 2020).
What is important in this axis is the role of sequence and continuity in the design, organi-
sation and development of the curriculum elements. In the vertical integration, the educa-
tional contents tend to be organised with regard to the sequence and continuity of learning
and teaching processes. The identification of the sequence of the learning experiences is a
building block for the transmission from basic to more advanced knowledge (cognitive),
and skills (psychomotor). For example, in an undergraduate course in Islamic psychology,
“Introduction to psychology” and “Introduction to Islamic psychology” courses are a prereq-
uisite for subsequent more advanced courses in Islamic psychology. Both respective courses
will introduce the fundamental principles of psychology and Islamic psychology and the
major subjects of psychological inquiry. In relation to the skills domain of the educational
programme, vertical integration relates to the process of actively involving the undergradu-
ate students in the development of skills. For example, in an Islamic counselling course, the
development of the counsellor has most often been seen as a matter of individual and per-
sonal development, that is, moving through a progression from novice to advanced beginner,
Table 25.1 Modules of BSc. Islamic Psychology
Semester 1 Semester 2 Semester 3
Islamic Psychology Islamic Psychology Islamic Counselling, I

Perspectives on Psychology Perspectives on Psychology Psychology of Personality
Lifespan Developmental Lifespan Developmental Psychology of Adolescence
Psychology Psychology Psychology of Human
Child Psychology Child Psychology Communication
Etiquette of Seeking Etiquette of Seeking Aqeedah
Knowledge Knowledge
Semester 4 Semester 5 Semester 6
Biological Bases of Behaviour Psychology of Addictive Islamic Counselling II
Psychology of Education Behaviours Family Dynamics and
Research Methodology and Work & Organisational Therapy
Statistics Psychology Psychological Client-Centred Therapy
Stress & Coping Testing & Assessment Understanding Sexual Health
Fiqh-Math’habs Models & Approaches to Disability Hadith Terminology
Prophetic Biography I
Semester 7 Semester 8
Clinical Placement Cognitive Behavioural
Clinical Placement Approaches to Mood Disorders
Cognitive Psychology Professional Development
Guidance and Counselling Prophetic Biography II
Uloom al-Qur’an BSc.Psy Thesis
BSc.Psy Thesis
competent, proficient and expert or an advanced practitioner (vertical skills development).

This vertical skills development refers to training trainee counsellors to handle increased
responsibilities. In a vertical curriculum, what is learned during the “novice” phase prepares
the trainee counsellor students for the next phase. In this approach, basic skills and knowl-
edge are both developed and reinforced as other more micro-skill elements are introduced in
the educational programme. According to this perspective, the process of curriculum organi-
sation represents an effort to enhance the scope, integration, sequence and continuity of the
Islamic psychology and counselling curriculum.
Table 25.1 presents the modules’ contents of BSc. Islamic Psychology, Department of
Psychology, the International Open University (Islamic Open University). Some examples
are given of some core content on the integration of Islamic psychology in an undergraduate
programme.
The vertically and horizontally integrated curriculum model is presented in Table 25.2.
Theories and approaches of contemporary, secular psychology and evidenced-based clinical
practice are also taught within the programme. This is what is meant by the teaching psychol-
ogy from an Islamic perspective.
Principles of good practice in Islamic psychology education

The development of courses and the integration of Islamic psychology components in the
undergraduate and postgraduate psychology curriculum should not be ad hoc but based upon
594 Postscript
Table 25.2 Some core contents on the integration of Islamic psychology
Modules Subjects Contents
Psychology of Alcohol History of alcohol in Islam • Alcohol and Islamic

Addictive perspective • Verses of the Qur’an • Hadiths •
Behaviours Alcohol metabolism • Foetal alcohol syndrome
(FAS) • Screening and assessment Pharmacological
and non-pharmacological interventions • Alcohol
and harm reduction • Spiritual interventions in
the management and treatment of alcohol use
disorder
Addiction and Islam – Introduction • Surah Al-Nisa 4:43 • Surah Al-Baqarah
The Disease and Its 2:219 • Surah Al- Ma’idah 5:90 • Surah Al-
Cure Ma’idah 5:91 • Models of addiction: A summary
• Spirituality and addiction • Models of addiction
in Islam • Addiction as crime model • Addiction
as spiritual disease • When does the spiritual
heart become corrupt? • Spiritual disease model
• Millati Islami: A model in practice Badri’s model
of addiction • The Islamic recovery revolution
• War on drugs • Psycho-spiritual interventions
• The Spiritual Enhancement Drug Addiction
Rehabilitation Programme (SEDAR) • A 12-step
guide to fght pornography addiction • Prayers and
supplications • Seeking refuge in prayer
Health A Framework for Islamic medicine • Prophetic medicine • A framework
Psychology Attaining, Preserving for health psychology (Islamic) based on the
and Maintaining Tawhid Paradigm • Concept of Tawhid • Model of
Health Islamic health psychology
Ramadhan – Bio- Bio-psychosocial and spiritual benefts of fasting •
Psychosocial and Virtues of fasting • Physiological and psychological
Spiritual Benefts changes during the fast • Food that benefts and
food that harms during Ramadan • Potential health
complications during Ramadan
Stress and Islamic Perspective on Introduction • Trials and tribulations: Allah tests •
Coping Stress and Anxiety Hadith: Expiation of sins • Trials and tribulations •
Tafsir Ibn Kathir – meaning • Worthwhile worries
• Types of commendable concern • Believers:
Psychological and spiritual health • Disbelievers
and stress • Kinds of anxieties – Islamic
perspectives [Sheikh Muhammed Salih Al-Munajjid]
• Some kinds of anxiety result from fears • Kinds
of anxieties that may result from committing sin •
Anxiety over dreams • Stress suffered because of
the calamities that happen in this world • Anxiety
because of debt or a loan • Anxiety experienced
by the one who calls to Islam • Anxiety over
acts of worship • Surat Al-Baqarah (The Cow)
2:143/144 • Anxiety of an innocent person due to
false accusations • Reminder – Hadith
(Continued)
Table 25.2 (Continued)
Modules Subjects Contents
Client-Centred Core Conditions – An The Islamic approach to therapy • Goals in Islamic

Therapy Islamic Perspective therapy • The Prophet ( ) as a counsellor •The
Prophet’s ( ) counselling characteristics •The
Prophet’s ( ) attitude towards counselling •
Prophetic character • Counselling in the Qur’an
• CCT and stages of self in Islam • Congruence
• Unconditional positive regard • Empathy •
The concept of self • Self actualisation • CCT is
Islamic counselling • Combining CCT and Islamic
counselling
Towards Enhanced Importance of Islamic values in CCT • Importance
Delivery of Client- of CCT in counselling Muslims • Role of therapy •
Centred Therapy in Integrated approach • Overcoming inconsistencies
an Islamic Context • Applying CCT: The client • Applying CCT: The
consulting room • Applying CCT: The therapist
• Understanding the client •Importance of family/
community • Importance of Islamic values • Use of
non-directive approach
Models and The Islamic Approach Islamic perspective • Diversity in the Qur’an •
Approaches to Disability Discrimination • Cultural conceptualisations •
to Disability Cultural misconceptions • Embarrassment and
justifcation • The Ummah’s response• Rights and
duties (Qur’an 4:5-6-127) • Right of protection
(Qur’an 49:11, 24:61) • Social rights • Rights of
treatment and rehabilitation • Right of education •
Marital rights (Qur’an 30:21) • Hadiths
Applications of the Islam’s perspective on disability • Application of
Islamic Approach Islamic perspectives • Family and community
perspectives on health and disability • The concept
of and treatment of disability in Islam • Attitudes
and beliefs • Labelling, stigma, and superstition •
Barriers for Muslims in the West • Perspectives
on acquired versus lifelong disabilities • Overview
of Muslim culture and its impact on persons
served • The concept of independence and
collectivism within the culture • Family structure
and the role of the family in health care and
rehabilitation • The role of community • Important
holidays • Fulflling Islamic obligations
Source: BSc Islamic Psychology, International Open University.
systematic planning. The contents of psychology programmes should be based on the local
needs of the population and be service-driven. The principles of good practice in education
and training and the design and delivery of training require the setting of clear aims, learn-
ing outcomes, content, teaching methodologies and evaluation (Rassool, 2009; 2019b). The
teaching and learning strategies used should be innovative and directed and guided by the
learning outcomes. An important component in the design of the curriculum is the selection
596 Postscript
of tools and procedures to be used in the assessment of learning and the evaluation of the
course. The challenge for educators and trainers in Islamic psychology and counselling is to
change from a traditional method of course development by adopting a framework based on
the learning/occupational needs and curriculum model.
The following general principles should be adopted for Islamic psychology education:
• Decolonisation of psychology knowledge in the undergraduate and postgraduate

curricula.
• Taking a holistic view. Islamic psychology needs to be considered in its historical, socio-
economic, cultural, religious and political context.
• Responsiveness to teach Islamic psychology in the context of Islamic culture rather that
indigenous Muslim cultures.
• The curriculum is a crucial factor in the teaching-learning process. “Curriculum design,
is an applied science; like medicine and engineering, it draws on theory from the pure
sciences, but itself develops not theory but operating principles to guide decision making
in practical situations” (Pratt, 1980, p.9).
• In order to maintain quality education and good practice, the Curriculum Development
Committee should be led by a psychologist/educationalist who is cognisant with cur-
riculum development, teaching and learning strategies.
• Educational programmes should be developed in a hybrid approach, a combination of
on-campus and online teaching and learning.
• Phases of curriculum development: Curriculum development plan; setting up a
Curriculum Development Committee; design (aims, learning outcomes, objectives,
defining the scope and sequence of the contents, organisation, identifying the strate-
gies and activities or learning and teaching, use of digital technology, evaluation); pilot
testing (deficiencies, logistic, operational problems); implementation (roles, selection of
materials, schedule); and evaluation of course (effectiveness, efficiency, impact).
• Constructive curriculum alignment is the process of constructive coherence between
aims, learning outcomes, teaching and learning activities (methodologies) and assess-
ment (Biggs and Tang, 2007). This is crucial for the quality assurance of teaching and
learning.
• Models of education: The scientist-practitioner model. Stricker (2002) defines the scien-
tist-practitioner in the following terms: “(a) in the process of doing clinical work, they dis-
play a questioning attitude and search for confirmatory evidence; (b) they apply research
findings directly to practice; (c) they undertake an evaluation of their individual prac-
tices; (d) they produce research, either collaboratively or more traditionally” (p.1278).
• Curriculum evaluation is an essential phase of curriculum development. Ornstein and
Hunkins (1998) define curriculum evaluation as “a process or cluster of processes that
people perform in order to gather data that will enable them to decide whether to accept,
change, or eliminate something – the curriculum in general or an educational textbook
in particular” (p.320).
• The teaching of Islamic psychology is not restricted to psychologists and counsellors
but is open to other professions, education, medicine, nursing and business and finance.
• Encouraging therapeutic optimism. Teaching should counter the stereotype and labels
attached to Islamic psychology from the anti-Islamic psychology movement.
How can a developed curriculum be assessed and evaluated for effectiveness? There are a
number of indicators that can be used to assess the effectiveness of a developed curriculum in
Table 25.3 Effectiveness model for curriculum development indicators
Indicators Descriptive question Yes or no
Aims/intended learning Does the course have aims?

outcomes Does the course have learning outcomes?
Are the learning outcomes based on Bloom’s Taxonomy of
Educational Objectives?
Do the learning outcomes match the aims?
Vertical curriculum Does the curriculum refect the format that makes the
Horizontal contents and teaching methodologies accessible?
curriculum Do the learning outcomes have a constructive alignment with
the contents and methodology of teaching and assessment
process?
Do the curriculum contents refect the level of the course,
undergraduate, postgraduate, continuing professional
development?
Does the curriculum provide learning outcomes and aligned
contents that are common to all classes of the same grade
level?
Does the curriculum provide learning outcomes and aligned
contents that are common to all classes of the same grade
level?
Methodology of teaching Are the lesson plan/syllabi/course design derived from the
and learning activities curriculum and strategies?
Are the materials used aligned with the learning outcomes,
contents and learning activities?
Broad Is there evidence of involvement of the different curriculum
involvement stakeholders in the planning, designing and implementation
review of the curriculum?
Long-range planning Does a review cycle follow within the period of planning and
implementation and review of the curriculum?
Assessment of learning Do you have a summative assessment or formation
assessment?
Do you have both types of assessment?
Theory into practice Is there clarity of vision, mission, graduation outcomes,
programme philosophy and learning outcomes in the
curriculum?
Evaluation instruments/ Select, modify and construct evaluation instruments or tools.
tools Check their objectivity, reliability and validity.
Planned change Is there tangible evidence to show that academics, clinicians
and researchers accept the developed programme?
Positive human relations Did the initial thoughts about
the curriculum come from teachers, principals, curriculum
leaders and other stakeholders?
Source: Adapted from Bradley (1985) and Tyler (1950).
Islamic psychology. Table 25.3 showed an adapted version of Bradley’s (1985) and Tyler’s
(1950) indicators for assessing the effectiveness of a curriculum.
To assess how your institution meets each of the indicators, there is a need to respond with
a Yes or No in the column provided. If any of the indicators is answered with a “No,” actions
should be taken to make it Yes. The indicators need to be adapted according to the type,
duration, target audience and the level of the course. Under the indicator of assessment of
598 Postscript
learning, there is summative and formative assessment. The goal of a formative assessment
is to monitor student learning, identify their strengths and weaknesses and provide ongoing
feedback. It is not graded and can be tutor led, peer or self-assessment. In contrast, summa-
tive assessment is more formal, and the goal is to evaluate the student learning at the end of
the course or during the course, for example, an examination that is graded by comparing it
against some standard or benchmark.
Clinical supervision: Supervising the Islamic counsellors

One important aspect that is often missing is the welfare and the development of professional
competence of Islamic counsellors and psychotherapists. Islamic counsellors and psycho-
therapists, like any other psychotherapists, are envisaged to as autonomous practitioners with
professional competence in the delivery of safe therapeutic interventions and accountable to
the clients and the profession. The need for clinical supervisions for Islamic psychotherapists
and counsellors is beyond dispute and can no longer be ignored.
The definitions of supervision are many and are sometimes based on the nature of the
professional discipline. These definitions are often conflicting and contradictory, and this
is augmented by the negative connotations attached to the concept. In its simplest form
clinical supervision refers to a process of practicing, experiencing and reflecting upon
clinical practice. Clinical supervision can be seen as a formal process whereby a worker
and an experienced practitioner meet to examine and reflect on the management of clients
and the refinement of therapeutic skills. In the context of counselling and psychotherapy,
a counsellor or psychotherapist uses the services of a consultant or another experienced
counsellor or psychotherapist to identify issues and problems with their clients and their
professional and personal development. There are different forms of clinical supervision:
Self-supervision, one to one, co-supervision, group supervision and peer supervision. The
one-to-one supervision and group supervision are common with mental health professions.
Smith (2009) suggested that there are a number of approaches and models including psy-
chotherapy-based, psychodynamic approach, feminist model, cognitive-behavioural and
person-centred approaches. The models of supervision include the integrated development
model, Ronnestad and Skovholt’s model, Bernard’s discrimination model and the systems
approach.
The rationale for clinical supervision is to protect clients and to enhance the quality of
services to clients, and it is generally acknowledged that introducing clinical supervision in
clinical practice would provide benefits for both practitioners and the client. Counsellors and
psychotherapists, with the help of clinical supervision, would be able to develop professional
competencies in specific areas of their work, and with adequate supervision and support,
stress and burnout are thus reduced. In addition, supervision has the potential to reduce litiga-
tion and complaint levels in the National Health Service (UK) and to operate as an effective
risk management tool (Tingle, 1995). The need for clinical supervision is advocated by, for
instance, in the UK, the British Association for Counselling and Psychotherapy. For Islamic
psychotherapists and counsellors, clinical supervision is part of their ethical obligations. It is
narrated by Ibn 'Abbas that Allah’s Messenger (‫ )ﷺ‬said: “There should neither be harming
(of others without cause), nor reciprocating harm (between two parties)” (Ahmad and Ibn
Majah).
However the findings of a review undertaken by Wheeler and Richards (2007) for the
British Association for Counselling and Psychotherapy showed
limited evidence that supervision can enhance the self-efficacy of the supervisee; lim-
ited evidence that supervision has a beneficial effect on the supervisees, the client and
the outcome of therapy; limited evidence that supervision that focuses on the working
alliance can influence client perception of this and enhance treatment outcome in the
brief psychotherapeutic treatment of depression; limited evidence that clients treated
by supervised therapists are more satisfied than those treated by unsupervised therapists
(one RCT); limited evidence that both skill and process supervision have the same posi-
tive impact on client outcome; limited evidence that counselling and psychotherapeutic
skills develop through supervision; preliminary evidence that supervisee self-awareness
increases as a result of counselling and psychotherapy training, and that some of that
development may be attributed to supervision; tentative evidence to support the asser-
tion that learning in supervision is transferred to practice; tentative evidence that there is
thematic transfer of an appropriate kind from supervision to therapy; tentative evidence
to suggest that trustworthiness of the supervisor is an important factor in effective super-
vision; tentative evidence to suggest that supervisees perceived individual supervision
as safer than group supervision in promoting their personal growth; tentative evidence to
suggest that the timing of supervision can influence what is dealt with.
(p.3)
Despite some methodological problems with this study, it is nevertheless an agenda that the
profession should be engaged in in both clinical application and research.
If clinical supervision is to remain an integral part of the lifelong learning process, there
is a need to develop standardised training and clinical standards in practice. This is totally
lacking in Islamic psychology and psychotherapy. Although some form of supervision is
grounded in mental health, it remains underdeveloped in Islamic psychotherapy. Existing
models of supervision, either integrated or developmental models of clinical supervision,
could be adapted to fill the gap in supervision framework and delivery. The agenda and action
of clinical supervision in Islamic psychology remain with clinicians, educators and managers
to provide an organisational culture whereby clinical supervision could flourish. It is hoped
that clinical supervision as a developmental activity, in the Islamic psychology field, would
generate more research. The focus should be not only on the effectiveness of educational
programmes but also on whether the improvement of professional competence, as a result of
supervision, has a direct benefit for the client in the delivery of quality care.
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600 Postscript
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Chapter 26
Challenges and solutions in

Islamic psychology
Challenges and solutions in Islamic psychology

On a global level, many educational institutions face enormous challenges in the integration
of Islamic sciences in undergraduate, postgraduate and professional development courses. In
most countries, due to institutional and professional regulations in psychology, counselling
and psychotherapy courses, educational institutions are constrained in integrating Islamic
psychology in their curriculum. Perhaps, that is the rationale behind adopting the “Sprinkle”
or “Bolt-on” approaches in their curricula. Wherever it is practical, Islamic psychology teach-
ers must inform their students that there are alternatives in the psychology of understand-
ing human behaviours and experiences. An alternative to the modification of undergraduate
and postgraduate psychology courses, for psychology departments in academic institutions,
would be to offer more elective courses in Islamic psychology and psychotherapy.
The decolonisation of psychology knowledge in educational institutions in Muslim-
majority countries is restricted to a few “centres of excellence.” One of the academic insti-
tutions is the Riphah Institute of Clinical and Professional Psychology (RICPP), Riphah
International University, Pakistan, who, since July 2019, initiated the development of a
Centre for Islamic Psychology, resourced with the first Chair in Islamic Psychology and
associated personnel. The vision of the Centre for Islamic Psychology
is an initiative towards advancing development of a global “Centre of Excellence” in

Islamic Psychology in Pakistan with an aspiration to strengthen the theory and practice
of Islamic Psychology and Islamic Sciences at global level through its scholarly con-
tributions, evidenced-based practices, innovative curriculum, and rigorous educational
preparation of health and social care practitioners.
The principal aim of the Centre for Islamic Psychology is to create and promote ethical
intelligence1 in academic and clinical settings in the field of psychology through flexible and
part-time higher education and professional development courses which meet the chang-
ing educational, cultural and professional needs of academics and clinicians. In addition,
to provide access to research, and the expertise acquired, through teaching, publication and
partnerships with other local, national and global organisations. The Centre for Islamic
Psychology runs a 12-credit course on ‘Ilm al-Nafs (Knowledge of the Self) Certificate in
Islamic Psychology over 1 semester (24 weeks). The course aims to prepare individuals who
are at different stages and levels in their knowledge and understanding of Islamic psychol-
ogy and Islamic sciences. The purpose of the Certificate in Islamic Psychology is to serve as
Challenges and solutions in Islamic psychology 603
an introductory class for individuals wishing to undertake the Advanced Diploma in Islamic
Psychology (ADIP). More courses in Islamic psychology, Islamic psychotherapy and coun-
selling online and on campus are being launched in the near future. The Centre for Islamic
Psychology has also developed a database on the available literature on Islamic psychology,
psychotherapy and counselling which is accessible from the university’s website. This is
an ongoing process. In addition, the Centre of Islamic Psychology and RICPP undertook
a review of all the undergraduate and postgraduate psychology curricula and embedded
Islamic psychology, and Islamic ethics in the curricula based on the core values of Riphah
International University. The core values are Muhasabah (accountability), Ijtimaiyyah (team-
work), Mushawarah (consultation and harmony), Rahmah (compassion), Itqan (pursuit of
excellence) and Al-Akhirah (Al-Akhirah-oriented decisions).
It must be pointed out that the International Islamic University of Malaysia (IIUM) has
been providing undergraduate and postgraduate courses in psychology from an Islamic per-
spective and with the emphasis on the infusion of Islamic values in conventional approaches
to psychology. The International Open University (aka Islamic Online University) has also
provided a BSc in Islamic psychology since 2014.
Against this background, we are faced with other challenges to overcome. Muslim psy-
chology teachers are generally trained to teach sub-disciplines of secular psychology, and
Islamic sciences and psychology do not come “naturally.” Besides, most Muslim teachers,
no matter how religious they are in their personal lives, have not been adequately prepared to
integrate or teach Islamic sciences and psychology. In fact, some may even explicitly reject
such inclusion because of their secular attitudes to the mixing of psychology based on the
Western scientific paradigm with Islamic ethical values.
There is also the issue of the attitude, knowledge and skills commitment (Islamic com-
mitment) of Muslim psychologists. This “Islamic commitment” incorporates the evalua-
tion of whether Muslim psychologists have adequate knowledge, training and experience
to decolonise psychology knowledge. This has led to the problems of role legitimacy, role
adequacy and role conflict. Role legitimacy is the belief that they have a legitimate right to
change and modify psychology knowledge and integrate Islamic psychology and ethics. In
most cases, this particular role is not part of their job descriptions or responsibilities. Role
adequacy refers to how knowledgeable Muslim psychologists are about Islamic psychology
and Islamic sciences. Figure 26.1 illustrates the relationship of role adequacy, role legitimacy
and role conflict to Islamic psychology.
There is also the possibility of the Muslim psychologists having a deficit in “ethical intel-
ligence” which is based on Taqwa (God consciousness) and Itiqan (pursuit of excellence). It
has been suggested that
the Muslim psychologist as a therapist or counsellor is a reflection of Taqwa and Itiqan,

which also means focusing on briefer approaches of therapeutic interventions based on
Islamic principles. This creates good will in the light of Islamic values which is more
profitable to the Islamic therapist, and to reject commercialising the sanctity of this heal-
ing profession.
(Ahmad, 2020)
Finally, there is role conflict for some Muslim psychologists in the context of being pulled
between being a Muslim and being a “secular” psychologist, or those Muslim psychologists
still in the “lizard’s hole.” For others there is no role conflict at all between personal and
604 Postscript
Figure 26.1 Role Adequacy, Role Legitimacy and Role Confict.
professional obligations and fulfilling the two statuses in one role. It is plausible that both role
adequacy and role legitimacy may constitute important predictors of Muslim psychologists’
willingness to engage in the development and teaching of Islamic psychology. However,
contextual factors, organisational support and lack of clear policies to embrace Islamic sci-
ences and Islamic psychology in the social sciences and humanities can also play a role in
this resistance. In addition, if there is no sense of urgency and low expectations within an
organisation’s culture, this may inhibit the emergence of Islamic psychology as a discipline.
The concept of the decolonisation of psychology knowledge has been referred to as the
shifting of the Western paradigm of psychology to the integration and teaching of psychology
from an Islamic perspective, evidence-based practice, Islamic sciences and ethical norms. The
task of psychology departments in Muslim institutions, despite the diversity in psychology
curricula, should be to focus on a systematic planned approach to this gradual change towards
the decolonisation of psychology knowledge. The decolonisation of psychology knowledge
is an evolutionary process, and the changes to be made to undergraduate and postgradu-
ate psychology curricula would require several phases in their implementation. Beyond the
adoption of the principles of vertically and horizontally integrated embedded curricula, there
is a need for significant planning in subject mapping and in the development of core themes
in Islamic psychology. The emphasis should be on a natural inclusion of Islamic psychology
and sciences to be taught alongside contemporary psychology. The challenges remain in
overcoming the resistance and the negative attitude of Muslim psychologists, the urgent need
for the preparation of Muslim psychologists and overcoming institutional and professional
constraints placed on academic establishments. A case can be made that Muslim psycholo-
gists in Islamic academic institutions should also have some grounding in Islamic sciences.
However, making sense of Islamic sciences and psychology requires some basic understand-
ing of the Qur’an, Hadith, Aqeedah, Seerah, Tafsir and Usul al-Fiqh. The lack of continuing
professional development in these fields of knowledge negatively impacts on instruction,
curriculum development and interdisciplinary teacher collaboration in Islamic psychology.
Challenges and solutions in Islamic psychology 605
The dilemma facing Muslim psychologists (Badri, 1979) is still with us and will remain so
for some time to come. We need to ask ourselves and reflect:
• Are we still in the lizard’s hole?

• Are psychology education programmes in Muslim universities more Westernised or
secular?
• Do educational philosophies in Muslim countries reflect the principles of education in
Islam?
• Are we to remain in an “unconscious incompetence” mode in the Islamisation of
knowledge?
If Islamic ethics, sciences and Islamic psychology are to be integrated in the psychology
curriculum at all levels, a religious shift is required in many of the paradigms that have tra-
ditionally guided the work of Muslim psychologists. There is a need to be proactive in the
evolution and development of Islamic psychology. Education should be a priority. In public
health, there is the concept of “upstream” and “downstream” factors. The analogy of the
river is used to describe how the downstream approach to the problem is stationing a man
there permanently to rescue people who are drowning in the river. An upstream approach is
to teach people to swim before they get into the river in the first place and preventing them
from drowning. Our priority should be to focus on undergraduate and postgraduate curricula
in psychology so as to be able to produce clinical psychologists that could “swim” within the
domain of Islamic psychology. Teaching them Islamic psychology, psychotherapy and coun-
selling may be, in most cases, too late. Unless there is a sense of collective action to enact
change, the status quo will prevail. Ultimately the challenges remain with policymakers, edu-
cationalists, academics, Islamic scholars and clinicians. The solutions remain with all of us.
Finally, Allah says in the Qur’an (interpretation of the meaning):
• Indeed, Allah will not change the condition of a people until they change what is in
themselves. (Ar-Ra’d 13:11)
Allah knows best.
Note
1 This concept was coined by Professor Dr Anis Ahmad, Vice-Chancellor, Riphah International
University. “Ethical intelligence” is based on the Islamic concepts of what is acceptable (Halal)
and what is unacceptable (Haram) and solely based on the Qur’an and Sunnah. The lecture on
“Psychology: An Islamic Approach” was delivered at the Workshop on “Islamic Psychology
Curriculum Development,” 10th February to 13th February 2020, Riphah International University,
QIE Campus, Lahore, Pakistan.
References
Ahmad, A. (2020). Psychology: An Islamic approach. Presentation at the Workshop on ‘Islamic
Psychology Curriculum Development’, 10 February to 13 February 2020, Riphah International
University, QIE Campus, Lahore, Pakistan.
Badri, M. (1979). The Dilemma of Muslim Psychologists. London: MWH.
Index
Abbasid 27, 29–31, 46 al-balkhī 35, 37, 38, 47–49

abdomen 105, 352, 422, 500 al-baqarah 10, 22, 57, 73, 76, 96, 127, 160, 161,
abdominal 112, 499, 522 175, 180, 190, 205, 255, 279, 290, 301, 306,
Abduction 361 307, 311, 339, 348, 351, 352, 359, 396, 400,
ablation 299 401, 407, 427, 430, 431, 436, 456, 468, 476,
ablution 308, 309, 429, 430, 450, 476, 525, 526 502, 507, 520, 567, 594
abnormalities 116, 118, 222, 305, 445, 497, Alchemy 41
536, 579 alcoholics 494, 504, 505, 510, 511
abortion 106 alcohol-related 497
abscesses 500 alcopop 496, 507
abstention 498 al-fārābī 34, 35, 42, 46
abstinence 245, 489, 495, 498, 504 Al-Fatihah 567
abusers 492 al-ghazâlî 33, 40–42, 48–50, 60, 62, 77, 147,
accountability 152, 301, 369, 384, 420, 428, 603 154–56, 163, 203, 250, 301, 345, 346, 566,
acculturation 124, 179, 191, 225, 513, 528, 530, 567, 586, 587, 599
531, 533 Al-Hujurat 69, 160, 161, 183, 184, 190, 245, 543
acetylcholine 86, 99, 100, 463 alienation 6
acrophobia 515 al-jawziyyah 49, 252, 253, 256, 257, 265, 268,
activation-synthesis 310, 318, 321 270, 275, 276, 286, 289, 374, 390, 403, 408,
actualisation 595 412, 429, 437, 438, 568, 570, 577
addicted 489–91, 494, 495, 502, 505 al-Kindi 17, 20, 29, 37, 302, 320
addictions 86, 487, 488, 490–93, 505, 509–11 Allah-consciousness 96
adenosine 85, 101, 303 al-Lawwama 62, 64, 65, 74, 77
Adh-Dhariyat 54, 80, 176, 306, 307, 319 alleles 114, 115, 117, 118, 120
adolescence 123, 137, 182, 193, 318, 491, 507, Al-Maududi 58, 76, 78
522, 557, 593 al-Qahri-overwhelming 533
adoption 4, 129, 139, 215, 406, 560, 604 Al-Qamar 300, 332, 339
adrenaline 100, 464–66 Al-Qaradawi 251, 266, 503, 509
adrenocorticotropic 91, 463 al-Qayyim 13, 20, 43–45, 47, 48, 51, 65, 68–74,
advice-giving 568, 575 76, 77, 79, 114, 121, 227, 234, 238, 256, 265,
advocacy 417, 419, 420, 423, 547, 551, 552 301, 412, 429, 434, 438, 568, 570, 577
aetiological 514 Al-Qiyamah 64, 111, 161, 246, 259, 332
affective-based 441, 443 al-Rūḥ 43
affective-instrumental 441 Al-Sajdah 157
afflictions 65, 469, 520 al-Shatibi 250, 262, 265, 266, 268, 397, 408,
Aggressions 167 421, 430, 435–38
agoraphobia 515 al-Uthaymeen 129, 140, 348, 362, 401, 409
Ahlus-Sunnah 61, 74, 77, 566 Alzheimer’s 86, 92, 99, 101, 134, 141, 327,
Al-Ahzab 158, 276, 290, 374 341, 536
Al-An’am 22, 61, 150, 161, 306, 396, 519 amalgam 13, 171, 350, 573, 574, 588
alaqa 106, 107, 120 ambivalence 126, 139, 382
608 Index
amenorrhoea 522 bioethical 105, 117, 121

ammāra 257 biofeedback 473
amnesia 92, 327, 332, 336, 337, 339, 500 bio-genetic 138
amotivational 241, 263 bio-psychosocial 53, 74, 252, 332, 367, 368,
amphetamines 487, 489, 497 393, 394, 495, 522, 527, 537, 541, 553, 555,
amulets 525, 530 592, 594
An-Anfal 306 biopsychosocial-spiritual 493, 509, 511
androgens 443 biorhythms 316
animistic 4 blasphemous 525, 526, 529
Ankabūt 401 blood-borne 371, 414
An-Nahl 111, 148, 150, 160, 161, 244, 245, 352, blood-donation 292
395, 430 bodily-kinaesthetic 356
anorexia 40, 496, 497, 512, 522, 524, 527, 529, boundaries 182, 551, 569
531–34 brain-centred 344, 357
antidepressant 86, 517 breastfeeding 123, 127–29, 138, 139, 142, 144,
anti-discrimination 541 145, 429, 431, 432
antihypertensive 371 bronchitis 496
antipsychotic 530 bulimia 451, 512, 522, 523, 527, 528, 530,
apnoea 303, 317 532, 533
aqeedah 19, 156, 397, 398, 401, 405–9, 525–27, bystander-effect 291
529, 563–66, 593, 604
Aristotle 5, 33, 34, 54, 76, 172, 344, 360 caffeine 4, 305, 487, 488
asceticism 346 Caliphate 27, 274, 550
Ash-Shams 62, 227, 236 cannabinoids 501
Ash’arite 33, 40 cannabis 117, 119, 301, 487, 488, 491, 496, 498,
asthma 121, 464, 466 501, 503, 507, 508
astrology 316, 567, 570 Captagon 498
atherosclerosis 323 cardiocentric 344, 357, 361
At-Tawba 374, 399, 406 cardiometabolic 322
attitude 134, 148, 160, 161, 171, 177, 178, 181, cardiovascular 90, 134, 141, 302, 304, 308, 323,
187, 190, 192, 208, 370, 378–80, 385–87, 391, 362, 371, 396, 415, 418, 464, 481, 592
395, 418, 480, 538, 539, 542, 550, 595, 596, carnal 69–72, 205
603, 604 catecholamines 465
authoritarian 178 catharsis 178, 444, 455
autism 89, 557 cathinones 501
autonomous 242, 598 cerebellar 89
autosomal 115 cerebellum 89, 90, 97, 98, 101, 102, 318
aversion 34, 277 cerebrum 87
Az-Zukhruf 61, 351 cervical 92, 414, 417, 431
az-Zumar 8, 61, 112, 161, 231, 306, 311, 400, charms 525, 530
474, 589 Charybdis 19, 276, 423, 436
chemotherapy 496
bacteriologic 411 childcare 429, 432
Bandura 55, 153, 159, 163–65, 167, 172, 197, cholinergic 529
217, 443, 457 chromosomes 103, 104, 112, 113, 118, 120
Baqarah 128, 129, 139, 301, 354, 520, 530, 556 cigarettes 116, 122, 178, 420, 488, 518
barbiturates 500 circadian 90, 303
Bedouin 476 circumcision 429, 431, 436–38
behaviourism 5, 55, 150, 152, 155 claustrophobia 515
benevolence 209, 278, 286, 291 client–practitioner 37
benzodiazepines 499 coccygeal 92
bereavement 133, 134, 369 cochlea 94
Biblical 558, 559 coffee 487
Bimaristans 35 cognitive-affective 349
binge-eating 522 cognitive-behavioural 54, 313, 318, 504, 506,
binge-intoxication 490 523, 598
Index 609
Cognitive-mediational 234 denial 142, 179, 180, 250, 381, 471, 478, 490,
cognitive-neo association 457 525, 541, 549, 556
cognitive-spiritual 177 deoxyribonucleic 112, 113
collectivism 595 dependence 201, 399, 487, 489, 490, 496–501,
complimentary 207, 250, 262 505, 509, 518
compulsions 515, 525, 526 depressants 490, 508
congruence 59, 201, 459, 561, 568, 570, 595 depressive 125, 372, 388, 512, 516, 517, 527
conscientious 211, 213, 215 deprivation 124, 125, 138, 144, 193, 297, 318
consciousnesses 299 Descartes 191, 298
constructivism 145 desecularisation 4
contemplation 10, 24, 44, 49, 64, 78, 149, 150, desensitisation 38, 40, 444, 474, 528
167, 381, 382, 385–88, 418, 568 deterministic 54, 75, 152, 202
cortical-subcortical 134 deviance 210, 217
corticotrophin-releasing 463 devil 14, 312, 320, 395, 446, 448, 450, 451, 456
cortisol 91, 463, 466 devotional 567, 570
cosmology 249, 567, 570 dextromethorphan 301
counselling 3, 12, 16, 17, 24, 25, 144, 145, 167, diabetes 91, 116, 134, 141, 302, 304, 334, 377,
277, 278, 369, 416, 480, 494, 505, 511, 532, 396, 415, 418, 473, 480, 592
533, 560–79, 583–85, 587, 592, 593, 595, 596, diarrhoea 129, 490, 498, 505, 507, 515, 523
598, 599, 601–3, 605 diaspora 498, 579
craving 70, 196, 490, 492, 505 diencephalon 83, 90, 91, 97
cross-cultural 292, 552, 573, 583 diffusion 98, 273, 283, 287, 288, 291
cue-dependent 331, 332 disabled 369, 429, 432, 535, 538, 539, 541,
culture-bound 514 544–51, 553–56, 558, 559
culture-free 584 disbelief 72, 73, 210, 230, 247, 448, 525
cyberpsychology 458 disease-oriented 445
cytokines 462, 464 disengagement 387
cytomegalovirus 116 disorders 16, 24, 37, 38, 48–50, 85, 89, 92, 101,
102, 116, 121, 125, 134, 167, 200, 222, 238,
Darwinian 234 239, 244, 268, 302–5, 316, 317, 320, 321, 323,
Darwin’s 235 327, 340, 368, 385, 411, 432, 437, 445, 451,
da’wah 425, 426, 435, 437 459, 462, 464, 482, 487, 488, 491, 495, 499,
deafness 73, 101 501, 509, 512–14, 516–18, 521–24, 527–36,
deaths 300, 488, 500 551, 556, 593
decision-making 88, 92, 123, 172, 173, 179, 189, disorientation 92, 500
207, 259, 288, 343, 344, 348, 373, 379, 380, displacement 196, 336, 455
419, 420, 490, 503, 545 dissonance 171, 172, 178–80, 187, 188, 191,
declarative 298, 325, 329, 341 192, 234, 287, 584
decolonisation 583, 596, 602, 604 diuretics 522, 523, 527, 528
decree 61, 114, 135, 300, 322, 323, 374, 384, divergence 16, 66, 563
390, 397, 398, 401, 405, 449, 503, 541 divinity 59, 398
deductive 28, 343, 357, 361 dopamine 86, 201, 222, 233, 237, 443, 460, 491,
deeds 44, 63–65, 107, 112, 136, 149, 158–61, 492, 507, 510, 511
175, 184, 186, 205–7, 211, 212, 227, 232, dreaming 304, 310, 311, 317, 318, 324, 497
245–47, 252, 255, 262, 277, 279, 280, 289, drink-driving 420
307, 317, 395, 398–400, 402–5, 407, 412, drive-reduction 243, 244, 260, 261
521, 537 drug 9, 36, 116, 382, 414–17, 420, 429, 438, 439,
defences 313, 461 445, 471, 487–93, 495–99, 501–6, 508–11,
defilement 346, 431, 502, 507 518, 522, 594, 600
dehydration 499, 523 drug-induced 488, 497, 509
deindividuation 453 drug-seeking 492, 511
delinquency 125 drug-taking 491
delusions 102, 501, 516, 517 drunkenness 86
dementias 134, 536 dualistic 28, 53, 74, 75
demon 524 dyadic 293
dendrites 84, 85 dynasty 29, 46, 547
610 Index
dysarthria 500 Eurocentric 242, 514, 572, 573, 583, 584

dysfunctional 445, 455, 524, 529 evidenced-based 416, 583, 587, 592, 593, 602
dyslexia 327, 341, 342 evolution 11, 12, 21, 28, 45, 79, 121, 154, 168,
dyslipidaemia 304 188, 271, 292, 293, 311, 438, 442, 458, 560,
dysmetria 89 574, 592, 605
dysmorphic 522, 534 evolutionary biology 286
Dysphasia 339 existential 55, 248, 249, 252, 349, 456, 530,
dysphoric 516 561, 575
existentialism 55
ear-consciousness 96 exotic 319
eating-disorders 533 extraversion 198–201, 206, 208, 212–15, 218
e-cigarettes 116, 488 extroversion 198
eclampsia 116 Eysenck 11, 22, 198, 208, 218, 239
eclecticism 7
ecstasy 487, 496, 497, 499, 501 facial 90, 117, 173, 191, 193, 195, 214, 222, 225,
ego-defence 177, 178, 187, 190 229, 234–36, 238–40
e-hookahs 488 faith 6, 12, 19, 20, 23, 25, 41, 42, 48, 50, 59, 65,
electroconvulsive 517 70, 72–74, 79, 96, 97, 127, 130, 131, 157, 182,
electroencephalogram 93, 97 184, 203, 205, 207, 208, 211, 230, 255, 258,
electromagnetic 93 261, 262, 266, 278, 286, 300, 301, 315, 346,
embryo 95, 104, 106, 108, 109, 111, 116–18, 351, 359, 374, 375, 377, 395, 397, 398, 401,
120, 121 402, 405, 406, 412, 426, 427, 430, 436, 449,
embryology 101, 103, 107, 119, 121, 122 470, 472, 474, 475, 479, 505, 525, 537, 544,
emotional-social 237 545, 551, 560, 563, 564, 566, 570, 572,
emotion-focused 471, 475, 479 574, 577
emotion-related 226 faith-based 266, 494, 565
emotions 9, 15, 21, 39, 43, 67, 87, 88, 91, 92, 97, falling-sickness 31
123, 155, 171, 177, 190, 198, 199, 202, 212, Familicide 460
221–26, 233, 235–38, 253, 258, 262, 297, 303, fantasies 69, 101, 219, 310, 490
310, 381, 441, 443, 451, 471, 481, 491, 493, Fārābī 47, 172, 187, 189
501, 515 Fard-e-Ain 587
emotion-specific 238 Fard-e-Kifaya 587
empathic 182, 227, 229, 272, 273, 289, 290, 293 fasting 32, 96, 130, 157, 206, 232, 256, 396, 398,
Empathy-altruism 287 405, 406, 415, 523, 592, 594
Empathy-reward 287 Fatimids 27, 46, 547
empowerment 368, 416, 417, 419, 432, 433, 437, fear 38, 41, 48, 56, 61, 92, 102, 128, 132, 134,
439, 552 135, 141, 143, 150, 151, 156, 157, 167, 185,
encephalocentric 344, 357 198, 201, 210, 221, 223–25, 228–30, 232–37,
enculturation 200 243, 244, 247, 249, 256, 262, 312, 316, 353,
endogenous 38, 179 380, 391, 397–400, 405, 407, 422, 431, 442,
endometrium 111 449, 450, 468, 469, 471, 514, 515, 520,
epidemic 431 525–27, 530, 564, 572, 574, 576
Epidemiology 191, 438, 531, 532 fertilisation 104–6, 113, 117
epistemology 46, 584, 592, 599 fertility 350, 359, 501, 523
epithalamus 91, 97 fight-flight 464, 465, 475
ergonomics 481 fight-flight-freeze 201
erotophilia 143 fight-or-flight 93, 99, 198, 223, 224, 461, 463,
e-shisha 488 465–67, 475, 478
esoteric 301, 566, 569 Fiqh-Math’habs 593
ethnicity 181, 185, 187, 377, 378, 427, 442, 506, Fitrah 15, 23, 25, 58, 59, 68, 70, 74, 76–78, 147,
531, 572 403, 408, 429, 567
ethnocentric 572 flashbacks 499, 515
ethno-cultural 183, 584 forgetting 325, 331–33, 335, 337, 517
ethno-family 495 forgiveness 44, 64, 136, 137, 228, 306, 307, 400,
etiquette 256, 297, 305, 308, 317, 319, 557, 401, 412, 446, 453, 470, 476, 526
587, 593 fostering 186
Index 611
Freudian 4, 20, 55, 318 haemodialysis 473

fronto–mesolimbic 292 Hakim-Psychologist 16
frustration 210, 445, 446, 455, 458, 471 halal 204, 257, 258, 266, 279, 398, 401, 526, 605
frustration-aggression 445, 455 hallucinations 39, 102, 490, 497, 499, 501, 503,
fundamentalism 584 505, 516
fusion 106, 113, 115 hallucinogenic 496, 499, 508
Fussilat 10, 61, 474 hallucinogens 488, 507
haploid 104
gambling 9, 422, 424, 431, 487, 488, 490–93, haram 131, 204, 257, 258, 266, 279, 301, 398,
497, 502, 505, 507 471, 503, 509, 526, 527, 605
gamification 334 hardiness 561, 577
gamma-aminobutyric 86, 443, 454 hardships 285, 472
ganglia 491 harem 135
gangrene 500 harm-minimisation 414
gastroenterology 127, 143, 192 harm-reduction 414
genealogical 427 healers 566
genes 103, 112–15, 117, 118, 120, 121, 271, 288, healthcare 128, 168, 271, 368, 372, 413, 420
293, 522 health-impairing 371
genetics 83, 102, 103, 121, 134, 140, 199, 200, health-related 368, 371, 373, 379, 384, 390, 403,
212, 273, 403, 506, 532 405, 412, 418, 419, 428
genital 196, 197 health-seeking 377
genito-urinary 499 heart-centred 344, 357
genome 113, 122 hedonism 288, 290
genotype 103, 112, 113, 117, 118 Hellenistic 29, 30
geriatric 323 helplessness 125, 241, 263, 269
gerontological 530 help-seeking 402, 568
gerontology 142, 143, 323, 361, 363 hemodialysis 481
gestalt 313 hepatitis 414, 487
Ghazālī 321, 401, 407, 408 herbal 301, 488, 501
glands 84, 85, 93, 94, 99, 463–65, 523 here-and-now 289
glaucoma 499 heterogeneity 396, 560, 574
glial 97–99 heterogeneous 132, 332, 335, 393, 525,
glucocorticoids 463 569, 590
glucose 139 Hikmah 348, 350–53, 357, 358
glutamate 86, 100 hippocampus 100, 101, 222, 339
God-consciousness 18, 369, 505 Hippocrates 195
gonadotropin-releasing 91 Hippocratic 35
gratification 131, 162, 196, 245, 246, 255, 262, histamine 85
264, 270, 271, 495 holistic 9, 13, 14, 16, 20, 60, 252, 367–69, 393,
gratitude 58, 161, 204, 244, 471, 476, 480 396, 493, 504, 539, 541, 551, 555, 562, 565,
grieve 56, 313 568, 573, 587, 589–91, 596
homeostasis 91, 93, 189, 243, 263, 264, 392,
habituation 151, 164 423, 424
hadith 11, 15, 17, 24, 32, 59–62, 71, 73, 78–80, homosexuality 431
107, 114, 115, 121, 122, 131, 136, 141–45, hookah 488
147, 157–59, 167, 168, 183, 184, 186, 187, hope 64, 69, 157, 158, 162, 231–34, 236, 237,
190, 191, 193, 205, 206, 216, 217, 219, 220, 247, 252, 256, 397, 398, 400, 405, 407, 470,
227, 230, 231, 237–40, 246, 254, 255, 258, 524, 548, 551–54
266–69, 274, 275, 278, 290–93, 305, 308, 311, hopelessness 231, 516–18
316, 320, 321, 324, 333, 334, 340, 342, 348, hormone 4, 91–93, 200, 222, 303, 443, 454,
352, 353, 360, 361, 363, 369, 370, 374, 375, 462, 463
389–93, 395–99, 401, 404, 408, 409, 412, 422, horoscope 214
423, 428–31, 436, 437, 447–50, 457, 459, 460, humanistic-experiential 389
469, 472, 480–82, 502, 503, 509, 510, 520, humours 195, 219
530, 531, 533, 547, 557–59, 565, 577, 593, Hurairah 11, 131, 205, 208, 230, 231, 255, 279,
594, 600, 604 280, 285, 289, 312, 316, 333, 369, 402, 422,
612 Index
435, 436, 447, 469, 471, 519–21, 546, individualistic 179, 188, 383, 394, 446, 452, 456,
565, 576 541, 572, 576, 583
hydrotherapy 410 infant-mother 142
hyperphagia 92 infants 102, 127–29, 142–44, 173, 191, 341,
hypersexuality 92 437, 513
Hypersomnolence 303 infarction 90, 101, 408
hypertension 134, 141, 304, 334, 415, 416, infections 116, 138, 139, 368, 371, 410, 414,
473, 592 431, 432, 464, 473, 499
hyperthermia 116 infertility 92, 103, 462, 480
hypno-sedatives 496, 499, 500, 504 infidelity 442
Hypnosis 321, 481 inflection 341
hypnotherapy 301 information-processing 145
hypocretins 324 inhalants 488
hypomania 517 Inkblot 202
hypomanic 517 insecure-avoidant 139
hyponatremia 499 insecure-disorganised 139
hypopnea 303 insights 87, 196, 321, 396, 556, 557
hypothalamic 91 insipidus 91
hysteria 26, 579 insomnia 39, 303, 305, 317, 319, 321–23, 461,
490, 497, 499–501, 513, 516, 527
ibadah 43, 59, 77, 254, 525–27, 529, 564, instinct 54, 147, 164, 168, 243, 260, 261, 264,
568, 570 403, 445, 453, 455
identification 18, 182, 200, 226, 282, 368, 384, institutionalisation 554
396, 406, 414, 518, 541, 592 intelligent 65, 66, 198, 229, 258, 345, 355,
ideologies 11, 18, 271, 565, 569, 574 357, 403
idolatry 316 intentions 131, 159, 161, 162, 168, 200, 201,
idols 256 254, 299, 379, 380, 388, 389
Ikhlāş 69 interconnectedness 252
illegitimate 44, 45 interculturalisation 428
ill-health 369, 377, 396 intergenerational 83, 179, 513
illicit 117, 130, 487, 489, 497, 498, 503 interleukin 481
illnesses 5, 32, 36–38, 40, 47, 129, 368, 466, interpersonal 35, 147, 171, 201, 207, 210, 217,
522, 543 219, 226, 227, 233, 236, 239, 249, 349, 356,
Ill-treatment 469 358, 372, 390, 396, 420, 480, 543, 565
illusion 55, 322, 400 intoxicants 396, 431, 502, 506, 507
Imam 43, 60, 62, 63, 65–67, 77, 109, 131, 143, intramuscular 498
148, 232, 237, 238, 250, 253, 256, 257, 262, intrapersonal 171, 226, 356, 358
265, 268–70, 274–77, 279, 286, 289, 291, 315, Intravenous 498
322, 345–47, 351, 360, 368, 390, 397–401, intrinsic 37, 241, 242, 252, 253, 255, 257,
403, 404, 407, 408, 421, 429, 434–38, 447, 260–65, 267–69, 273, 277, 281, 285, 344, 495
460, 504, 519, 520, 564, 579 intrinsic-extrinsic 257
Iman 96, 97, 127, 157, 255, 256, 262, 395, 398, introspection 41, 44, 47, 223, 349, 359
405, 406, 430, 505 islamophobia 50, 179, 181, 183, 440, 469, 512,
immigrants 175, 179, 181, 274, 530–33 513, 527, 532
immorality 63, 64, 211 Istikhara 568
immunisation 416, 417 Istinbāṭ 34
impulses 85, 97, 178, 197, 491 Istiqāmah 70
Inauthentic 320 Istisharah 568
incantation 566 Isti’aanah 568
Incoherence 33, 41, 48 Itiqan 603
indicators 302, 356, 596, 597
indigenisation 19, 20, 23, 583, 584 jealousy 70, 193, 210, 442, 445, 456–58, 460,
indigenous 3, 18, 20, 24, 79, 183, 393, 512, 560, 525, 527
566, 574, 583, 596 Jews 11, 60, 73, 537
Individualism 188 Jibreel 470
Index 613
Jinn 25, 52, 54, 175–77, 193, 275, 300, 301, 323, liver 499, 500
374, 399, 512–14, 525, 527, 529, 533, 566, 578 lizard 11
journaling 316 lockdown 423, 492
Judeo-Christian 28, 250, 258, 285, 494, 525, 537, logia 5
560, 572 logic 29, 32, 34, 39, 42, 172, 343, 349, 356, 587
judgemental 182, 562 logotherapy 55
judgement-oriented 207 loneliness 210, 445, 492
Jungian 313, 579 low-dose 414, 417
jurisprudence 32, 43, 66, 244, 252, 257, 396–98, low-socio-economic 431
404–6, 427, 503, 525, 542, 563, 566, 568, 570 lubricant 487
jurists 40, 132 luteinising 91
justice 133, 140, 161, 182, 183, 187, 204, 205, lymphatic 482
207, 209, 211–13, 251, 256, 261, 293, 334,
350, 414, 428, 460, 543, 544, 553 madness 39, 51
Madrasa 40, 41, 425, 426
kalam 29, 42, 43, 46 Maid’ah 156, 158
Ka’bah 471 maladjustment 201
ketamine 487, 496 malnutrition 431, 523
Khaldun 45, 77 Mammograms 417
khat 496, 498, 499, 509 Maqāṣid 250, 251, 259, 261, 266, 346
Khutbah 183 marginalisation 531
kidney 36, 116, 119, 283, 463 marital 227, 448, 529, 566, 595
killing 442, 453, 518, 519, 527 marriage 8, 20, 123, 124, 130–33, 142–44, 428,
kinaesthetic 358 429, 436, 437, 442, 465, 542, 543
Kindī 30, 31, 51 materialism 7, 8
kingship 35, 352, 359 maternal–baby 127
kin-relationship 186 maturation 95, 101, 102
MDMA 487, 496, 499, 501, 508
Labbaik 246 meaning-focused 471, 477, 479
labelling 42, 538, 542, 550, 555, 595 medication 86, 116, 245, 267, 372, 373, 414,
lactation 91 434, 487, 517, 530, 555, 574
lactose 139 meditation 26, 40, 44, 47, 48, 160, 161, 301, 473,
latency 196, 197, 214, 215 494, 600
lawful 96, 131, 396, 422, 503, 509, 523 medulla 90, 92, 97–99, 101, 303, 463, 464, 466
Lawwama 203 melancholia 39
leadership 70, 172, 220, 420, 550–52, 600 melatonin 91, 303
Learners 221, 239 mellitus 304
leech-like 108, 110, 111, 120 memory 5, 6, 21, 37, 86, 88, 91, 92, 99, 102,
left-brain 87, 101, 299 116, 119, 123, 153–55, 161, 165, 173, 174,
legal 33, 44, 58, 105, 117, 149, 182, 206, 280, 189, 191, 201, 222, 258, 298, 303–5, 310, 311,
299, 344, 398, 488, 498, 519, 526, 528, 535, 323–33, 335–42, 355, 356, 445, 455,
536, 543, 553, 566, 584 490, 491
legalised 488 meningitis 415
libido 195, 444, 455, 516, 522 meningococcal 415
life-long 249 menopause 305
lifespan 114, 123, 124, 126, 130, 137, 138, 186, menstruation 122, 129
196, 318, 363, 592, 593 mental-health 534
lifestyles 371, 425, 428, 429, 437, 439 mesencephalon 90
life-styles 4, 368, 371, 382, 395, 398, 428, 435, Mesquita 237
552, 553 metabolism 506, 594
limbic 83, 91, 92, 97–100, 201, 222, 223, 310, Meta motivation 250
443, 452, 454 meta-regression 438
lineage 184, 185, 250, 357, 358, 402 methamphetamines 503
linguistics 32, 343 microaggressions 179, 441, 460, 512, 579
listening 66, 95, 238, 278, 281, 288, 305, 334, micro-skill 593
340, 341, 346, 449, 481, 562, 564, 575 micturition 93
614 Index
migrants 179, 180, 183, 190, 498, 512, 513, necessities 346, 358, 535
527, 532 negativist 75
migration 179, 254, 404, 512, 513 negligence 70, 422, 472, 520
Millati 495, 505, 509, 524, 529, 594 neighbourhood 134, 173, 343, 493
mindfulness 451, 473, 494, 529, 530, 552, 559 neo-Freudians 55, 196, 444
minority 105, 428, 493, 497, 512, 572, 576, 577 Neoplatonism 29, 46
mistreatment 469 neurobiological 192, 322, 458
mitochondria 103 neurocardiology 67
molecular 78, 199, 341, 361 neuro-chemical 200, 201, 302
monasticism 209 neuro-cognitive 273
monotropy 124 neurodegeneration 269
monoxide 85, 101 neuroimage 237, 292
morbidity 416–18, 434, 487, 531 neurological 85, 134, 222, 233, 298, 305, 323,
mortality 116, 129, 185, 192, 308, 323, 346, 371, 327, 536, 552
390, 416–18, 434, 487, 522 neurophysiology 101, 301, 321
mosques 182, 426, 427 neuropsychiatry 39
mosquito 174 neuropsychologia 362
mother-infant 128, 143, 144 neuroscience 51, 93, 97, 100, 101, 147, 191, 192,
motivational 44, 162, 172, 243, 248, 260, 261, 200, 217, 238, 267, 268, 290–92, 297, 310,
270, 277, 285, 419, 438, 504, 506, 568, 570, 322, 324, 341, 360, 446, 458–60, 490, 510,
575, 578 531, 533
multicultural 426, 573, 577, 578 neuroses 38, 48
Multiculturalism 436, 557 neurosurgical 49
multidimensional 14, 190, 202, 219, 292, 361, new-born 115, 122, 145, 497
418, 420, 426 nicotine 86, 116, 305, 488, 490, 492
multifactorial 460, 514 nitrous 487
Multilevel-selection 292 nondeclarative 329
Murāqabah 42, 301 non-declarative 326
muscaria 301 non-directive 568, 571, 595
Mushāraṭah 42 non-disabled 537, 544
Mushawarah 603 non-disclosure 536
mushrooms 487, 496 non-discrimination 186
Mustahaab 312 non-emergency 277, 286
Mu’tazilism 29, 46, 52 non-suicidal 518
Mu’tazilites 29 non-syndromic 536
myelinated 88 non-verbal 178, 221, 225
myocardial 408 norepinephrine 201, 235, 463, 464, 467
mystical 249, 567, 570, 571 nosology 525
mythological 4, 320 Novelty-seeking 201
novice 592, 593
nafs 12, 14, 17, 18, 30, 37, 40, 41, 54, 59–65, 68, nuclei 88, 91, 92
74, 77–79, 159, 203, 204, 211, 212, 216, 257, nuftah 109, 110
259, 261, 262, 320, 345, 357, 358, 421, 565, numerology 316, 567, 570
567, 568, 570 nurse 128, 129, 139, 326
Nafs-i-ammara 62 nurture 5, 55, 56, 58, 103, 117, 122, 185, 186,
Nafs-i-lawwama 62 227, 258, 273, 355, 592
Nafs-i-mardiyya 62 nurturing 127, 251, 551
Nafs-i-mulhama 62 nutrition 36, 127, 133, 134, 143, 369, 371, 373,
Nafs-i-mutmainna 62 396, 410, 419, 422, 429–32, 438, 592
Nafs-i-radiyya 62
Nafs-i-safiyya 62 paediatric 127, 143
narcolepsy 303, 305, 317, 319, 324 palliative 143
nationalism 181 pandemic 271, 379, 410, 414, 423
nationality 181, 427 paradigms 14, 26, 53, 255, 343, 362, 563,
naturalistic 192, 356 600, 605
nausea 116, 490, 496, 498–500, 505 paradoxical 135
Index 615
para-hippocampal 338 pineal 91, 302, 303

paralanguage 225 pituitary 91, 99, 463, 466
paranoia 318, 499, 501, 513, 533 placebo 517
paranoid 497, 517 placenta 112
paraphernalia 492 plague 410, 411, 431
parasuicide 518 plasticity 291, 348, 480
parasympathetic 83, 85, 87, 93, 94, 100, 235, pluralistic 75, 283, 287, 288
317, 463, 478 pneumonia 129
parent-adolescent 291 policymakers 605
parent-Child 142 pollution 305, 328, 417, 418, 429, 445, 455
parent–child 123, 125 polymorphism 218
Parkinson’s 86, 134, 536 polysomnographic 323
pasteurised 127 poppers 487
paternalistic 416, 562 pornography 594
pathogenesis 482 positron 93, 97
pathological 538 possession 25, 28, 52, 193, 301, 323, 429,
pathologies 571 512–14, 524, 525, 527, 529, 533, 566, 578
Pavlovian 52, 155, 164, 165, 491, 492 post-synaptic 98
perception 10, 31, 33, 34, 39, 46, 53, 65, 101, post-traumatic 513–15, 528
134, 147, 173, 174, 189–92, 209, 222, 243, posttreatment 494
249, 251, 323, 355, 377–79, 394, 396, 444, prayer 43, 44, 96, 141, 157, 158, 182, 206, 210,
452, 467, 468, 475, 535, 538, 539, 541, 542, 228, 232, 256, 257, 266, 284, 301, 306–9,
549, 572, 576, 599 311–13, 323, 334, 351, 353, 354, 357, 359,
perfectionism 522 389, 400, 412, 427, 430, 431, 447, 474, 476,
permissible 10, 129, 131, 132, 140, 257, 258, 479, 494, 502, 503, 505, 516, 526, 546, 548,
266, 280, 316, 320, 422, 423, 435, 447, 453, 551, 557, 567, 594
524, 566, 568 preaching 210, 567
persecution 274, 513, 528 PRECEDE-PROCEED 402
personality 8, 15, 17, 20, 23, 25, 35, 55, 60, 78, preconscious 298
79, 123, 142, 144, 149, 169, 172, 173, 177, precontemplation 381, 385, 387
187, 191, 192, 194–204, 206–9, 211–20, 226, pre-cultural 444
234, 237–40, 242, 255, 258, 261, 268, 281, pregnancy 103, 105, 107, 115–19, 122, 131, 139,
285, 290–92, 298, 349, 350, 372, 377, 378, 143, 381, 469, 497, 516
387–89, 392, 396, 403, 406, 444, 445, 459, prejudices 177, 180–82
465, 467, 473, 477, 481, 493, 495, 496, 508, premeditated 441, 452
518, 522, 530, 568, 570, 578, 589, 593 pre-paradigm 7, 21
personhood 103, 105 pre-pregnancy 129, 138
perversions 9 pre-symptomatic 414
pessimistic 54, 75, 198 prevalence 134, 368, 487, 497, 498, 513, 527,
pesticides 518 531, 560, 574
pharmacological 487, 488, 491, 492, 495, 504, prevention 116, 121, 122, 245, 368, 369, 371,
505, 508, 517, 594 380, 381, 384, 385, 388, 389, 396, 410, 412,
pharmacotherapy 473, 474, 480, 504, 506 414–17, 420–23, 429, 431, 432, 434, 436–40,
phencyclidine 501 447, 451, 468, 490, 504, 506, 518, 533,
phenethylamine 501 551, 556
phenomenological 326, 579 primordia 94, 99
phenotype 112, 113, 115, 117, 118, 530 privation 125, 139, 274
phenylalanine 116 pro-abortion 105
philosophers 5, 27–29, 33, 40–42, 45, 48, 54, 66, proactive 331, 336, 423, 441, 458, 605
147, 229, 271, 297–99, 440 problem-focused 471–73, 477, 479, 481
phobia 24, 38, 50, 514, 515, 523, 527 problem-solving 123, 318, 336, 343, 355, 356,
photoreceptor 327 473, 490
phrenologists 214 Prochaska 380–82, 391, 392, 418, 439, 568, 578
physiologist 153 pro-choice 105
pigments 502 procrastination 382
pillars 395, 397, 398, 405, 406 prohibition 69, 193, 205, 346, 424, 503, 544
616 Index
projection 196 Qayyim 40, 49, 51, 53, 237, 252, 253, 257, 265,
propagation 425, 435 268, 270, 275, 276, 286, 289, 322, 374, 390,
Prophet 9, 10, 30, 44, 54, 57, 59, 62, 63, 70, 109, 403, 408, 437, 562, 575
114, 115, 130, 131, 135–37, 141, 143, 157–62, Qiyamah 65
174, 184, 186, 203–6, 208–10, 213, 227–30, quarantine 411
233, 254–56, 258, 259, 274–76, 307–17, 319, quintessence 110
332–35, 339, 348, 351–54, 358–60, 369, 370, Qur’an 3, 8–11, 13–15, 17, 18, 20, 22, 29, 38,
376, 395, 396, 398, 401, 402, 404, 411, 412, 41–43, 54, 56–58, 60–64, 66–70, 73, 74, 76,
423, 426, 427, 429, 430, 432, 433, 446–50, 78, 94–97, 100, 101, 103, 106–12, 117, 120,
453, 456, 468–71, 476, 479, 503, 516, 519–21, 122, 126–28, 130–33, 135, 136, 138–40, 143,
524, 544–48, 550, 553, 556, 561, 563, 565–67, 147–50, 156, 158–60, 162, 166, 167, 174–76,
570, 595 180, 183, 184, 187, 193, 203–7, 209, 210, 212,
prophethood 174, 312, 352, 354, 359 221, 227–29, 231, 232, 234, 236, 244–47, 252,
propulsion 103 255, 257–59, 262, 274–76, 278–80, 286,
prosocial 8, 54, 171, 199, 270, 272, 273, 277, 299–301, 305–7, 310–12, 314, 315, 317, 320,
278, 281, 283–88, 290–93, 348, 440, 444, 451, 321, 323, 325, 332–35, 339, 340, 342–48,
457–60, 466, 483 350–54, 357, 362, 369, 370, 374, 376, 384,
pseudo-experimental 223 388, 391, 393, 395–401, 404, 406, 412, 421,
pseudo-Islam 566 422, 426–31, 435, 446, 447, 456, 470, 472,
pseudo-sciences 316 474–77, 479, 480, 503, 505, 507, 510, 515,
psicología 238 516, 519–21, 523, 525–27, 530, 535–37,
psychedelic 499 541–44, 546–48, 550, 551, 553, 554, 557,
psychiatry 11, 24, 26, 28, 35, 38, 48, 50, 102, 564, 565, 567, 570, 574, 587, 592, 594, 595,
144, 218, 219, 237, 238, 321, 361, 389, 459, 604, 605
481, 482, 509, 510, 523, 530–33, 577 Qur’an-centred 564, 566
psychoactive 117, 301, 424, 471, 487–91, 493, Qur’an-Hadith 395
495, 496, 498, 501, 503, 505, 508, 509, Qur’an–Hadith 393, 396
518, 529
psychoanalysis 4, 20, 79, 143, 456 racism 181, 184, 188, 512, 572
psycho-ethics 17 radiation 116, 118
psychogogic 551, 552, 556 radicalisation 531
psychogogy 535, 551, 556 radicalism 513
psychometric 198, 202, 226, 584 radioactive 94
psychoneuroimmunology 464, 480 Ramadan 102, 157, 158, 396, 415, 592, 594
psychopathology 37, 39, 142, 152, 202, 495, rapport 539
569, 574 rapprochement 560, 573, 574
psychopharmacology 101, 457, 480, 531 rationalisation 178–80, 301, 336, 338, 478, 503
psychophysiology 38, 40, 47, 238 rationalism 10
psycho-secular 3 rationalist 29, 34
psychosomatics 480 reactivation 310
psycho-spiritual 218, 504, 513, 525, 567, 578, 594 realisation 249, 435
psychotherapeutic 12, 551, 552, 556, 560, 561, re-awakening 4
568, 570, 573, 587, 599 receptors 100
psychotic 501, 516, 533, 536 reciprocal 38, 52, 270–72, 287, 291, 293, 440, 478
psychotropic 489 reckoning 222, 400
pulse-checking 40 recreational 116, 493, 503, 508, 587
purification 8, 9, 12, 26, 42, 58, 62, 65, 80, 204, recycles 383, 568
211, 212, 227, 235, 301, 377, 494, 525–27, reductionism 454
530, 567, 573, 574 reductionist 198
reductionistic 299, 442
Qadar 14, 256, 300, 374, 384, 397, 398, 401 reflections 25, 26, 29
Qadr 158, 300 reflective 66, 149, 349, 350, 359
Qahri 45 reframing 474
Qalb 11, 17, 18, 41, 59, 60, 67, 68, 74, 159, 203, regression 196, 336, 338, 389
212, 216, 348, 565, 567, 568, 570 reinforcement 37, 42, 150, 152–54, 156, 157,
Qawmah 568 162, 164–66, 190, 196, 197, 200, 201, 212,
Index 617
245, 247, 262, 268, 272, 391, 404, 443, 454, scientist-practitioner 596, 600
474, 492, 495, 508, 509 screening 202, 370, 372, 380, 381, 388, 414, 416,
relapse 42, 72, 73, 381–83, 385, 492, 494, 504, 417, 518, 594
508, 511, 568 scrupulosity 525, 529
relaxation 40, 99, 244, 308, 319, 463, 473, 474, scrupulous 525
482, 496, 501, 552, 587 secularisation 3, 4, 6, 19, 20, 53, 74
religio-cultural 512–14, 527, 573 sedatives 488
religio-psychology 584 segregation 539, 559
religiosity 40, 194, 206, 208, 210, 211, 213, seizures 86, 490, 505
216–18, 220, 252, 270, 283–86, 290, 291, self-abuse 518
293, 531 self-actualisation 65, 200, 248–50, 259, 263,
Reminiscence 336 568, 574
reorientation 413, 425, 434, 591 self-actualise 249
repression 196, 213, 332, 337, 338, 573 self-admonition 42
reproductive 91, 104, 110, 122, 144, 147, 200, self-aggression 444
271, 286, 293, 442 self-amazement 70
resonance 93, 97, 101 self-analysis 41, 235
response-based 462, 464–67, 475, 478 self-assessment 598
retention 154, 159–61, 163, 165, 166, 328, 336, self-awareness 32, 40, 48, 226, 227, 233, 235,
341, 500, 523 562, 599
retrospective 438 self-care 8, 20, 368, 396, 430, 431
revelations 311, 376, 401, 412 self-concept 171, 178, 201
revolutions 7, 25, 26 self-confidence 281, 382, 442
revolving-door 383 self-contract 42
rhetorical 33, 34 self-control 196, 197, 207, 226, 227, 233, 245,
righteousness 64, 96, 160, 180, 184, 185, 193, 350, 380, 448, 451, 488, 490, 509
205, 206, 210, 217, 230, 245, 255, 351, 359, self-critical 64
395, 400, 449 self-deluded 354
rightly-guided 353 self-determination 242, 261, 263, 267, 269
Riphah 15, 25, 216, 266, 602, 603, 605 self-development 227, 235
Rogerian 202 self-directed 200, 242, 371, 587
Rogers 76, 87, 102, 147, 148, 168, 194, 200–202, self-esteem 178, 182, 185, 187, 249, 259, 281,
219, 383, 391, 561, 575 383, 455, 456, 493, 516, 523, 538
Rorschach 202, 219 self-exploration 575
rubella 116, 414 self-fulfilling 182
Rububiyah 59, 77 self-fulfilment 249
Rûh’s 60 self-harm 134, 422, 424, 444, 512, 517–19,
ruling-on-milk 144 526–28, 531, 532
rumours 441, 470 self-identity 258, 537
Ruqyah 525, 566, 570 self-image 178, 523
Rushd’s 32, 33 self-injurious 518, 532
self-injury 518, 532
sacrifice 275, 281, 311, 376, 529 self-insight 178
sacrilegious 526 self-management 226, 384, 391, 396
Sadaqah 232, 255, 278–80, 286, 289, 290 self-medication 493
sagacity 350 self-monitoring 42, 419, 568
salience 171, 174, 284, 491 self-mutilation 518
salivation 93, 150, 151, 153, 155, 163, 326, 491 self-observation 173
salt-free 415 self-penalisation 42
salvation 30, 41, 57, 472, 520, 546, 586, 587 self-prescribing 371
sanctity 107, 519, 527, 603 self-preservation 244, 261
sanitation 410 self-purification 42
satanic 45, 57 self-reflection 235, 348
satiation 489 self-regulation 185, 215, 383, 385, 391
schema 174, 187, 188, 193, 383, 455, 459 self-reinforcement 32, 46
schizophrenia 39, 86, 89, 92, 100, 101, 185, 513, self-report 202, 212, 216
518, 529, 533 self-reproach 259
618 Index
self-restraint 161 soulless 6, 55, 560

self-serving 188 spasms 92
self-statements 459 spastic 92, 538
self-sufficiency 428 spectrum 116, 117, 247, 262
self-supervision 598 sperm 103, 104, 106, 108, 110, 111, 113–15,
self-transgression 422, 524 117–19
semen 108, 110, 111, 113–15, 120 spirituality 13, 15, 19, 24, 29, 40, 134, 142, 161,
sensory-cognitive 65 202, 208, 211, 217, 220, 250–52, 257, 267–69,
serial-position 331 322, 340, 348, 368, 373, 388, 392, 393, 480,
serotonin 4, 86, 200, 201, 218, 222, 233, 237–39, 494, 510–12, 514, 560, 561, 563–66, 573, 574,
443, 452, 454, 459, 460, 517, 522, 533 577–79, 594
service-driven 595 stereotypes 171, 177, 180–82, 187, 572
setting 4, 194, 215, 281, 419, 428, 496, 514, 525, sterilisation 538
571, 595, 596 stigmatised 497, 550, 572, 574, 576
sexual 9, 55, 91–93, 130, 131, 133, 143, 147, stimulants 117, 488, 496–99, 501
181, 195–97, 199, 200, 214, 215, 222, 244, stimulus-response 150, 155, 467, 492
245, 255, 279, 289, 310, 319, 369, 377, 379, stone 274, 314, 315, 431, 502, 507
414, 418, 420, 429, 431, 432, 441, 442, 444, stress-management 473
473, 488, 545, 578, 579, 593 stressors 443, 464–68, 471, 473, 475, 477, 478
shame 180, 223, 243, 293, 540 stupor 136, 137
Shari’ah 14, 19, 128, 132, 138, 156, 180, 210, subclinical 323, 513
257, 262, 278, 280, 286, 346, 376, 397, 398, subconscious 181
400, 402, 427, 428, 525, 563, 566, 570 subcortical 92
Shaykh 13, 50, 79, 114, 128, 129, 136, 140, 141, subcutaneous 498
144, 156, 168, 309, 312, 323, 334, 342, 347, sub-evaluations 467
348, 362, 401, 409, 469, 475, 476, 482 sublimation 196, 338, 455
Shaytan 306, 309, 312, 313, 320, 395 substance-induced 487, 488
shirk 63, 256, 311, 316, 525 substances 36, 92, 94, 117, 301, 471, 487, 488,
shisha 377, 386, 503 490, 491, 493, 496, 498, 500, 501, 503, 508, 518
sick-role 371, 384, 390 sufism 17, 26, 42, 566, 567, 569, 570, 579, 600
Siwak 430 suicidal 513, 516–18, 520
sleep-wake 298, 303 superego 195, 196, 212
smallpox 36, 48, 410, 411, 416, 433 superstition 315, 595
smoking 116–18, 122, 178, 179, 185, 245, 267, Surah 62, 94, 149, 190, 228, 237, 301, 320, 369,
369, 371, 373, 377, 379–81, 383, 386, 388, 376, 384, 479, 546, 551, 556, 567, 594
391, 392, 415, 417–20, 422–24, 438, 487, 488, syllogism 343
492, 498, 503, 507 sympathetic 83, 85, 87, 93, 94, 99, 100, 222, 223,
sniffed 497, 498 235, 309, 323, 463, 465, 466, 475, 478, 514, 528
snorted 499 synapse 85
Snorting 498 synapses 85, 97, 98
sociability 194, 199, 200, 208 syndromes 504, 521
social-cognitive 216, 263 synergistic 267
socialisation 177, 181, 198, 273, 345, 426, 443 systemic 512, 572
social-psychological 442, 458
socio-cultural-scientific 27 taboo 135, 138, 497, 518
socio-demographic 377, 386, 403 tabula 5, 54, 55
socio-ecological 413 tachycardia 222
socio-economic 116, 117, 291, 358, 377, 380, Tadabbur 44
418, 541 Tadhakkur 44
socio-environmental 272, 418 Tafakkur 44, 521, 568
solution-focused 211 Tafsir 43, 63, 78, 80, 143, 145, 167, 168, 180,
somatology 195, 213 183, 193, 217, 218, 220, 237, 240, 256, 392,
somatostatin 91 422, 558, 559, 565, 594, 604
Somnambulism 319 Taqwa 17, 18, 96, 97, 183, 206, 211, 255–57,
soul-breathing 106, 107, 120 262, 265, 266, 269, 322, 369, 398–400, 405,
soul-cultivating 566, 567 449, 505, 603
Index 619
Tarbiyyah 567, 570 ulcers 466, 499, 523

Tasawwuf-Qalb 570 ultra-self 349
Tasbeeh 476 ultra-short-term 327
Tawhid 4, 18, 23, 398, 401, 406, 450, 525, 589, umbilical 104
590, 594 ummah 4, 11, 18, 211, 228, 256, 276, 426–28,
taxonomy 218, 277, 292, 589, 597 431, 435, 511, 550, 553, 558, 587
Tazkiyah 79, 494, 567, 568, 570, 579 under-nutrition 431
techniques 7, 12, 22, 28, 35, 38–40, 83, 93, underutilisation 572
97, 152, 182, 225, 313, 316, 328, 334, 340, unemployment 181, 418, 469
417, 419, 420, 438, 471, 473, 474, 477, 564, unethical 208, 210, 281, 445, 452
567–71 universality 199, 223
technology 193, 387, 412, 457, 488, 538, 579, urethra 431
596, 600 Urological 437
teleological 176 uterine 112
teleology 176 uterus 103–5, 110, 111, 116, 139
teratogen 116 Uthaymeen 136, 144, 312, 323
Teratogenic 116, 117 utopia 541, 556
teratogens 103, 116, 118, 121
thalamus 90–92, 97–99, 222, 235, 302, 303 vaccination 370, 417
thanatos 54, 196, 243, 444, 455 vaccines 417
theologians 11, 20, 27, 28, 33, 40, 42, 45, 54, vagina 103, 105
106, 572 valence 177, 266
therapist-focused 552 value-added 349
thyroid 92 value-free 3, 20
thyroid-stimulating 91 value-laden 204, 207
tolerance 161, 186, 487, 489, 493, 496–500, value-neutral 204
505, 508 varicella 116
tomb-shrines 42 vasodilatation 99
tomography 93, 97 vehicle 53, 62, 92, 305
toxicity 487 vein 9, 104, 562
toxins 302 veneration 42
toxoplasmosis 118 venomous 224, 546
traditional-cultural 525 ventricle 90, 91, 97
Trafficking 511 verbal-linguistic 356
tranquilisers 86 vernix 104
transactional 461, 464, 467, 468, 475, 477, 478 vertebral 92
transcendent 252, 403 vicegerent 58, 260
transcendental 7, 257, 349 violation 423, 529
transcultural 577 violence 92, 142, 154, 192, 429, 432, 442–45,
transference 191 451, 455, 458–60, 469, 512, 518
transgression 64, 290, 422, 524, 538 viruses 118, 414
transpersonal 579 vision 11, 14, 24, 25, 29, 30, 47, 66, 86, 88, 90,
transtheoretical 371, 385–87, 391, 392, 418, 94, 106, 148, 149, 211, 244, 257, 266, 345,
439, 568 349, 359, 389, 500, 536, 545, 568, 589, 597,
Traumatology 190 600, 602
tremors 39, 86, 465 visionary 209
tribulations 24, 38, 71, 72, 180, 187, 231, 377, visual-auditory 358
384, 468, 471, 472, 479, 481, 519, 520, 537, visualisation 328, 355
552, 594 Visual-spatial 356
tricyclic 517 vitamins 110, 124
tri-local 375, 388 vomiting 90, 116, 490, 496, 498, 499, 505, 522,
trimester 104, 105, 116 523, 527, 528
triphosphate 85, 101
tuberculosis 416, 487 wakeful 301
twins 113 wakefulness 91, 298, 303, 304, 306, 352
tympanic 94 Waswâs 512, 525–27, 529, 530, 533
typology 203, 211, 342, 525–27 waterpipe 488
620 Index
weak-minded 543, 544 xenophobia 181

weakness 126, 128, 133, 135, 138, 140, 216, 347,
354, 377, 451, 495, 522, 523 yoga 301, 473
well-coordinated 149 youth 52, 143, 182, 291, 458, 510, 534, 557
well-defined 149 Yucatan 501
well-known 34, 46, 123, 130, 150, 184, 306,
504, 546 zakat 144, 157, 269, 280, 290
wellness 123, 133, 269, 367, 368, 395, 462, 517, 533 Zamzam 352
Western-oriented 4, 261, 561 zero-tolerance 502, 506
witchcraft 514, 525, 532 Zina 545
womb 105, 107, 108, 111, 112, 121, 133 Zoology 168
working-memory 340 Zuhd 143, 238, 306, 320, 392, 459
work-Related 481 zygote 104, 106, 110, 111, 113, 115, 117, 118
worthlessness 516, 529
wudu 308, 309, 430, 450, 525

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Islamic Psychology

Dr G. Hussein Rassool is Professor of Islamic Psychology, Consultant and Director for

“This pioneering work encompasses a variety of psychological topics from an Islamic

“Prof G. Hussein’s book on Islamic Psychology is a blend of contemporary psychology

Human Behaviour and Experience from

Abu Hurayrah reported the Prophet Muhammad ( ) as saying:“If anyone

List of illustrations and tables x

1 Islamic psychology: Context, definitions and perspectives 3

2 A brief history of Islamic psychology: Origins and heritage 27

3 Perspectives on human nature 53

4 Biological bases of behaviour 83

5 Development and reproductive behaviours 103

6 Lifespan development: From conception to death 123

7 Learning, conditioning and modelling 146

8 Social psychology: Social cognition, attitude and prejudice 171

9 Personality development 194

10 Affective behaviour: Emotion 221

11 Drive behaviour: Motivation 241

12 Prosocial behaviour: Altruism and helping behaviours 270

13 State of consciousness, sleep and dreaming 297

14 Memory: Nature, types, stages and memorisation 325

15 Reason, wisdom and intelligence 343

16 Health psychology: Models and perspectives 367

17 Health psychology model: An Islamic perspective 393

18 Health promotion: An effective tool for global health 410

19 Biological, psychological, social and spiritual aspects of aggression 440

20 Stress, coping strategies and interventions 461

21 Psychology of addiction 487

22 Mental health, spirituality and possession 512

23 Models and approaches to disability 535

24 The anatomy of Islamic psychotherapy 560

25 Decolonising psychology and its (dis)contents: Educational development

26 Challenges and solutions in Islamic psychology 602

25.2 Models of approaches in curriculum development in Islamic psychology 586

21.7 Hypno-sedatives 500

• The foundation of Islam as a religion is based on the Oneness of God.

is an attempt to fashion out an Islamic paradigm of knowledge based on the Islamic

Contemporary psychology: Defnitions

Figure 1.1 Stages in the study of psychology.

Secularisation of psychology: Whose problem is it anyway?

Table 1.1 Limitations of secular psychology

Authors Limitations of secular psychology

The Qur’an and psychology

Allah states in the Qur’an (interpretation of the meaning):

• We have not neglected in the Register a thing. (Al-An'am 6:38)

It is important to note that

Evolution of Islamic psychology: Context

1) Unification of western psychological models with Islamic beliefs and practices; 2)

Concept of Islamic psychology

• Miskawayh in ‘Tahdhib al-akhlaq’: Tib al-nufus; Atibba’ al-nufus; or c Ilaj al-nafs in

• Abu Bakar al-Razi in al-Tibb al-ruhani: al-Tibb al-ruhani.

The definition from International Association of Islamic Psychology is an explanation of

An interdisciplinary science where psychology subdisciplines and/or related disciplines

The above definition is based on “The Multilevel Interdisciplinary Paradigm” and

Betteridge (2012) views Islamic psychology as relating

Abdul Aziz (2018) views Islamic psychology as

the psychology of Self (al-Nafs) and specifically, it is the psychology of spirituality

Figure 1.2 Conceptual defnition of Islamic psychology.

with a number of definitions of Islamic psychology. Through the process of elimination, a