Cartogram

A cartogram (also called a

value-area map or an
anamorphic map, the latter
common among German-
speakers) is a thematic map of a
set of features (countries,
provinces, etc.), in which their
geographic size is altered to be
directly proportional to a
selected ratio-level variable, such Mosaic cartogram showing the distribution of the global population. Each
as travel time, population, or of the 15,266 pixels represents the home country of 500,000 people –
GNP. Geographic space itself is cartogram by Max Roser for Our World in Data
thus warped, sometimes
extremely, in order to visualize
the distribution of the variable. It is one of the most abstract types of map; in fact, some forms may more
properly be called diagrams. They are primarily used to display emphasis and for analysis as
nomographs.[1]

Cartograms leverage the fact that size is the most intuitive visual variable for representing a total amount.[2]
In this, it is a strategy that is similar to proportional symbol maps, which scale point features, and many
flow maps, which scale the weight of linear features. However, these two techniques only scale the map
symbol, not space itself; a map that stretches the length of linear features is considered a linear cartogram
(although additional flow map techniques may be added). Once constructed, cartograms are often used as a
base for other thematic mapping techniques to visualize additional variables, such as choropleth mapping.

History
The cartogram was developed later than other types of
thematic maps, but followed the same tradition of innovation in
France.[3] The earliest known cartogram was published in
1876 by French statistician and geographer Pierre Émile
Levasseur, who created a series of maps that represented the
countries of Europe as squares, sized according to a variable
and arranged in their general geographical position (with
separate maps scaled by area, population, religious adherents,
and national budget).[4] Later reviewers have called his figures
a statistical diagram rather than a map, but Levasseur referred
to it as a carte figurative, the common term then in use for any
thematic map. He produced them as teaching aids, immediately
recognizing the intuitive power of size as a visual variable: "It
is impossible that the child is not struck by the importance of
One of Levasseur's 1876 cartograms of
the trade of Western Europe in relation to that of Eastern
Europe, the earliest known published
Europe, that he does not notice how much England, which has
example of this technique.
a small territory but outweighs other nations by its wealth and
especially by its navy, how much on the contrary Russia which, by its area and its population occupies the
first rank, is still left behind by other nations in the commerce and navigation."

Levasseur's technique does not appear to have been adopted by others, and relatively few similar maps
appear for many years. The next notable development was a pair of maps by Hermann Haack and Hugo
Weichel of the 1898 election results for the German Reichstag in preparation for the 1903 election, the
earliest known contiguous cartogram.[5] Both maps showed a similar outline of the German Empire, with
one subdivided into constituencies to scale, and the other distorting the constituencies by area. The
subsequent expansion of densely populated areas around Berlin, Hamburg, and Saxony was intended to
visualize the controversial tendency of the mainly urban Social Democrats to win the popular vote, while
the mainly rural Zentrum won more seats (thus presaging the modern popularity of cartograms for showing
the same tendencies in recent elections in the United States).[6]

The continuous cartogram emerged soon after in the United States, where a variety appeared in the popular
media after 1911.[7][8] Most were rather crudely drawn compared to Haack and Weichel, with the
exception of the "rectangular statistical cartograms" by the American master cartographer Erwin Raisz, who
claimed to have invented the technique.[9][10]

When Haack and Weichel referred to their map as a kartogramm, this term was commonly being used to
refer to all thematic maps, especially in Europe.[11][12] It was not until Raisz and other academic
cartographers stated their preference for a restricted use of the term in their textbooks (Raisz initially
espousing value-area cartogram) that the current meaning was gradually adopted.[13][14]

The primary challenge of cartograms has always been the drafting of the distorted shapes, making them a
prime target for computer automation. Waldo R. Tobler developed one of the first algorithms in 1963, based
on a strategy of warping space itself rather than the distinct districts.[15] Since then, a wide variety of
algorithms have been developed (see below), although it is still common to craft cartograms manually.[1]

General principles
Since the early days of the academic study of cartograms, they have been compared to map projections in
many ways, in that both methods transform (and thus distort) space itself.[15] The goal of designing a
cartogram or a map projection is therefore to represent one or more aspects of geographic phenomena as
accurately as possible, while minimizing the collateral damage of distortion in other aspects. In the case of
cartograms, by scaling features to have a size proportional to a variable other than their actual size, the
danger is that the features will be distorted to the degree that they are no longer recognizable to map
readers, making them less useful.

As with map projections, the tradeoffs inherent in cartograms have led to a wide variety of strategies,
including manual methods and dozens of computer algorithms that produce very different results from the
same source data. The quality of each type of cartogram is typically judged on how accurately it scales each
feature, as well as on how (and how well) it attempts to preserve some form of recognizability in the
features, usually in two aspects: shape and topological relationship (i.e., retained adjacency of neighboring
features).[16][17] It is likely impossible to preserve both of these, so some cartogram methods attempt to
preserve one at the expense of the other, some attempt a compromise solution of balancing the distortion of
both, and other methods do not attempt to preserve either one, sacrificing all recognizability to achieve
another goal.

Area cartograms
The area cartogram is by far the most common form; it scales a set
of region features, usually administrative districts such as counties
or countries, such that the area of each district is directly
proportional to a given variable. Usually this variable represents the
total count or amount of something, such as total Population, Gross
domestic product, or the number of retail outlets of a given brand or
type. Other strictly positive ratio variables can also be used, such as
GDP per capita or Birth rate, but these can sometimes produce
misleading results because of the natural tendency to interpret size
as total amount.[2] Of these, total population is probably the most
common variable, sometimes called an isodemographic map.

The various strategies and algorithms have been classified a number

of ways, generally according to their strategies with respect to
preserving shape and topology. Those that preserve shape are
sometimes called equiform, although isomorphic (same-shape) or Cartogram of Germany, with the
homomorphic (similar-shape) may be better terms. Three broad states and districts resized
categories are widely accepted: contiguous (preserve topology, according to population
distort shape), non-contiguous (preserve shape, distort topology),
and diagrammatic (distort both). Recently, more thorough
taxonomies by Nusrat and Kobourov, Markowska, and others have built on this basic framework in an
attempt to capture the variety in approaches that have been proposed and in the appearances of the
results.[18][19] The various taxonomies tend to agree on the following general types of area cartograms.

Anamorphic Projection

This is a type of contiguous cartogram that uses a single parametric mathematical formula (such as a
polynomial curved surface) to distort space itself to equalize the spatial distribution of the chosen variable,
rather than distorting the individual features. Because of this distinction, some have preferred to call the
result a pseudo-cartogram.[20] Tobler's first computer cartogram algorithm was based on this
strategy,[15][21] for which he developed the general mathematical construct on which his and subsequent
algorithms are based.[15] This approach first models the distribution of the chosen variable as a continuous
density function (usually using a least squares fitting), then uses the inverse of that function to adjust the
space such that the density is equalized. The Gastner-Newman algorithm, one of the most popular tools
used today, is a more advanced version of this approach.[22][23] Because they do not directly scale the
districts, there is no guarantee that the area of each district is exactly equal to its value.

Shape-warping contiguous cartograms

Also called irregular cartograms or deformation

cartograms,[19] This is a family of very different
algorithms that scale and deform the shape of each
district while maintaining adjacent edges. This
approach has its roots in the early 20th Century
cartograms of Haack and Weichel and others, although
these were rarely as mathematically precise as current
computerized versions. The variety of approaches that Contiguous cartogram (Gastner-Newman) of the
have been proposed include cellular automata, world with each country rescaled in proportion to
quadtree partitions, cartographic generalization, medial the hectares of certified organic farming[24]
axes, spring-like forces, and simulations of inflation
and deflation.[18] Some attempt to preserve some semblance of the original shape (and may thus be termed
homomorphic),[25] but these are often more complex and slower algorithms than those that severely distort
shape.

Non-contiguous isomorphic cartograms

This is perhaps the simplest method for constructing a

cartogram, in which each district is simply reduced or enlarged
in size according to the variable without altering its shape at
all.[16] In most cases, a second step adjusts the location of each
shape to reduce gaps and overlaps between the shapes, but
their boundaries are not actually adjacent. While the
preservation of shape is a prime advantage of this approach,
Non-contiguous isomorphic cartogram of the results often have a haphazard appearance because the
the Czech Republic, in which the size of individual districts do not fit together well.
each district is proportional to the Catholic
percentage and the color (choropleth)
representing the proportion voting for the Diagrammatic (Dorling) cartograms
KDU-CSL party in 2010, showing a strong
correlation.

In this approach, each district is replaced with a simple

geometric shape of proportional size. Thus, the original
shape is completely eliminated, and contiguity may be
retained in a limited form or not at all. Although they
are usually referred to as Dorling cartograms after
Daniel Dorling's 1996 algorithm first facilitated their
construction,[26] these are actually the original form of
cartogram, dating back to Levasseur (1876)[4] and
Raisz (1934).[9] Several options are available for the
Diagrammatic (Dorling) cartogram of the number of
geometric shapes: times each country is linked in the French-
language Wikipedia.
Circles (Dorling), typically brought together to
be touching and arranged to retain some
semblance of the overall shape of the original
space.[26] These often look like proportional symbol maps, and some consider them to be a
hybrid between the two types of thematic map.
Squares (Levasseur/Demers), treated in much the same way as the circles, although they
do not generally fit together as simply.
Rectangles (Raisz), in which the height and width of each rectangular district is adjusted to
fit within an overall shape. The result looks much like a treemap diagram, although the latter
is generally sorted by size rather than geography. These are often contiguous, although the
contiguity may be illusory because many of the districts that are adjacent in the map may not
be the same as those that are adjacent in reality.

Because the districts are not at all recognizable, this approach is most useful and popular for situations in
which the shapes would not be familiar to map readers anyway (e.g., U.K. parliamentary constituencies) or
where the districts are so familiar to map readers that their general distribution is sufficient information to
recognize them (e.g., countries of the world). Typically, this method is used when it is more important for
readers to ascertain the overall geographic pattern than to identify particular districts; if identification is
needed, the individual geometric shapes are often labeled.

Mosaic cartograms

In this approach (also called block or regular

cartograms), each shape is not just scaled or
warped, but is reconstructed from a discrete
tessellation of space, usually into squares or
hexagons. Each cell of the tessellation
represents a constant value of the variable (e.g.,
5000 residents), so the number of whole cells
to be occupied can be calculated (although
Mosaic cartogram of United States Electoral College rounding error often means that the final area is
results (scaled by 2008 electors) of four past Presidential not exactly proportional to the variable). Then
elections (1996, 2000, 2004, 2008) a shape is assembled from those cells, usually
   States carried by the Republican in all four elections with some attempt to retain the original shape,
   States carried by the Republican in three of the four including salient features such as panhandles
elections that aid recognition (for example, Long Island
   States carried by each party twice in the four elections and Cape Cod are often exaggerated). Thus,
   States carried by the Democrat in three of the four these cartograms are usually homomorphic and
elections at least partially contiguous.
   States carried by the Democrat in all four elections
This method works best with variables that are
already measured as a relatively low-valued
integer, enabling a one-to-one match with the
cells. This has made them very popular for visualizing the United States Electoral College that determines
the election of the president, appearing on television coverage and numerous vote-tracking websites.[27]
Several examples of block cartograms were published during the 2016 U.S. presidential election season by
The Washington Post,[28] the FiveThirtyEight blog,[29] and the Wall Street Journal,[30] among others.

The major disadvantage of this type of cartogram has traditionally been that they had to be constructed
manually, but recently algorithms have been developed to automatically generate both square and
hexagonal mosaic cartograms.[31][32] One of these, Tilegrams, even admits that the results of their
algorithm is not perfect and provides a way for users to edit the product.

Linear cartograms
While an area cartogram manipulates the area of a polygon feature,
a linear cartogram manipulates linear distance on a line feature.
The spatial distortion allows the map reader to easily visualize
intangible concepts such as travel time and connectivity on a
network. Distance cartograms are also useful for comparing such
concepts among different geographic features. A distance cartogram
may also be called a central-point cartogram.
A linear cartogram of the London
A common use of distance cartograms is to show the relative travel
Underground, with distance distorted
times and directions from vertices in a network. For example, on a to represent travel time from High
distance cartogram showing travel time between cities, the less time Barnet station
required to get from one city to another, the shorter the distance on the cartogram will be. When it takes a
longer time to travel between two cities, they will be shown as further apart in the cartogram, even if they
are physically close together.

Distance cartograms are also used to show connectivity. This is common on subway and metro maps,
where stations and stops are shown as being the same distance apart on the map even though the true
distance varies. Though the exact time and distance from one location to another is distorted, these
cartograms are still useful for travel and analysis.

Multivariate cartograms
Both area and linear cartograms adjust the base geometry of
the map, but neither has any requirements for how each feature
is symbolized. This means that symbology can be used to
represent a second variable using a different type of thematic
mapping technique.[16] For linear cartograms, line width can
be scaled as a flow map to represent a variable such as traffic
Hexagonal mosaic cartogram of the volume. For area cartograms, it is very common to fill each
results of the 2019 Canadian district with a color as a choropleth map. For example,
parliamentary election, colored with the WorldMapper (http://worldmapper.org/) has used this
party of each winner using a nominal technique to map topics relating to global social issues, such as
choropleth technique. poverty or malnutrition; a cartogram based on total population
is combined with a choropleth of a socioeconomic variable,
giving readers a clear visualization of the number of people
living in underprivileged conditions.

Another option for diagrammatic cartograms is to subdivide the shapes as charts (commonly a pie chart), in
the same fashion often done with proportional symbol maps. This can be very effective for showing
complex variables such as population composition, but can be overwhelming if there are a large number of
symbols or if the individual symbols are very small.

Production
One of the first cartographers to generate cartograms with the aid of computer visualization was Waldo
Tobler of UC Santa Barbara in the 1960s. Prior to Tobler's work, cartograms were created by hand (as they
occasionally still are). The National Center for Geographic Information and Analysis located on the UCSB
campus maintains an online Cartogram Central (http://www.ncgia.ucsb.edu/projects/Cartogram_Central/ind
ex.html) with resources regarding cartograms.

A number of software packages generate cartograms. Most of the available cartogram generation tools
work in conjunction with other GIS software tools as add-ons or independently produce cartographic
outputs from GIS data formatted to work with commonly used GIS products. Examples of cartogram
software include ScapeToad,[33][34] Cart,[35] and the Cartogram Processing Tool (an ArcScript for ESRI's
ArcGIS), which all use the Gastner-Newman algorithm.[36][37] An alternative algorithm, Carto3F,[38] is
also implemented as an independent program for non-commercial use on Windows platforms.[39] This
program also provides an optimization to the original Dougenik rubber-sheet algorithm.[40] [41] The CRAN
package recmap (https://cran.r-project.org/package=recmap) provides an implementation of a rectangular
cartogram algorithm.[42]

Algorithms

Cartogram (likely Gastner-Newman)

showing Open Europe estimate of total
European Union net budget expenditure in
euros for the whole period 2007–2013, per
capita, based on Eurostat 2007 pop.
estimates (Luxembourg not shown).
Net contributors
   −5000 to −1000 euro per capita
   −1000 to −500 euro per capita
   −500 to 0 euro per capita
Net recipients
   0 to 500 euro per capita
   500 to 1000 euro per capita
   1000 to 5000 euro per capita
   5000 to 10000 euro per capita
   10000 euro plus per capita

Shape Topology
Year Author Algorithm Type
preservation preservation
Yes, but not
1973 Tobler Rubber map method area contiguous with distortion
guaranteed

area
1976 Olson Projector method yes No
noncontiguous
1978 Kadmon, Shlomi Polyfocal projection distance radial Unknown Unknown

DEMP (Radial
1984 Selvin et al. area contiguous with distortion Unknown
Expansion) method

Rubber Sheet Distortion Yes, but not

1985 Dougenik et al. area contiguous with distortion
method [41] guaranteed

1986 Tobler Pseudo-Cartogram area contiguous with distortion Yes

 method

Magnifying glass
1987 Snyder azimuthal map distance radial Unknown Unknown
projections
Colette Cauvin et
1989 Piezopleth maps area contiguous with distortion Unknown
al.

Interactive polygon
1990 Torguson area contiguous with distortion Unknown
zipping method

Cellular Automata
1990 Dorling area contiguous with distortion Yes
Machine method
Gusein-Zade,
1993 Line Integral method area contiguous with distortion Yes
Tikunov

area
1996 Dorling Circular cartogram no (circles) No
noncontiguous

1997 Sarkar, Brown Graphical fisheye views distance radial Unknown Unknown
Edelsbrunner, Combinatorial-based
1997 area contiguous with distortion Unknown
Waupotitsch approach

Constraint-based
1998 Kocmoud, House area contiguous with distortion Yes
approach

Yes,
Keim, North,
2001
Panse CartoDraw[43] area contiguous with distortion algorithmically
guaranteed
Yes,
Gastner, Diffusion-based
2004 area contiguous with distortion algorithmically
Newman method[44] guaranteed

Lastna tehnika za
2004 Sluga area contiguous with distortion Unknown
izdelavo anamorfoz

van Kreveld, Rectangular

2004 area contiguous no (rectangles) No
Speckmann Cartogram[45]
RecMap (https://cran.r-pr
Heilmann, Keim area
2004 oject.org/package=recma no (rectangles) No
et al. noncontiguous
p)[42]

Medial-axis-based Yes,
Keim, North,
2005 area contiguous with distortion algorithmically
Panse cartograms[46] guaranteed
Heriques, Bação,
2009 Carto-SOM area contiguous with distortion Yes
Lobo

Yes,
Opti-DCN[40] and
2013 Shipeng Sun area contiguous with distortion algorithmically
Carto3F[38] guaranteed

with local
Mathematical
B. S. Daya distortion,
2014 Morphology-Based area contiguous No
Sagar but no global
Cartograms
distortion
Yes,
Gastner, Seguy, Fast Flow-Based
2018 area contiguous with distortion algorithmically
More Method[22] guaranteed

See also
 Choropleth map – Type of data visualization for geographic regions
Contour map – Curve along which a 3-D surface is at equal elevation
Thematic map – Type of map that visualizes data
Waldo Tobler

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27. Bliss, Laura; Patino, Marie (3 November 2020). "How to Spot Misleading Election Maps" (htt
ps://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-11-03/a-complete-guide-to-misleading-election
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28. "Poll: Redrawing the Electoral Map" (https://projects.fivethirtyeight.com/2016-election-foreca
st/?ex_cid=rrpromo#plus&electoral-map). Washington Post. Retrieved 4 February 2018.
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rrpromo#plus&electoral-map). FiveThirtyEight blog. 29 June 2016. Retrieved 4 February
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30. "Draw the 2016 Electoral College Map" (http://graphics.wsj.com/elections/2016/2016-elector
al-college-map-predictions/). Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 4 February 2018.
31. Cano, R.G.; Buchin, K.; Castermans, T.; Pieterse, A.; Sonke, W.; Speckman, B. (2015).
"Mosaic Drawings and Cartograms" (https://research.tue.nl/nl/publications/mosaic-drawings-
and-cartograms(18c48d40-f040-43de-9a96-36ec0cf08829).html). Computer Graphics
Forum. 34 (3): 361–370. doi:10.1111/cgf.12648 (https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fcgf.12648).
S2CID 41253089 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:41253089). Proceedings of
2015 Eurographics Conference on Visualization (EuroVis)
32. Florin, Adam; Hamel, Jessica. "Tilegrams" (https://pitchinteractiveinc.github.io/tilegrams/).
Pitch Interactive. Retrieved 15 November 2020.
33. ScapeToad (http://scapetoad.choros.ch/)
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55/http://artofsoftware.org/2012/02/08/cartogram-crash-course/). Archived from the original (h
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Further reading
Campbell, John. Map Use and Analysis. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2001.
Dorling, Daniel. "Area cartograms: Their use and creation." "Concepts and Techniques in
Modern Geography series no. 59." Norwich: University of East Anglia, 1996 (http://www.dan
nydorling.org/?page_id=1448).
Gastner, Michael T. and Mark E. J. Newman, "Diffusion-based method for producing density-
equalizing maps." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 2004; 101: 7499–7504
(http://www.pnas.org/content/101/20/7499.full).
Gillard, Quentin (1979). "Places in the News: The Use of Cartograms in Introductory
Geography Courses". Journal of Geography. 78 (3): 114–115.
doi:10.1080/00221347908979963 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00221347908979963).
Hennig, Benjamin D. "Cartograms." International Encyclopedia of Geography: People, the
Earth, Environment and Technology. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons (2021) (https://doi.or
g/10.1002/9781118786352.wbieg2031).
Hennig, Benjamin D. "Rediscovering the World: Map Transformations of Human and
Physical Space." Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer, 2013 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-3
4848-8).
House, Donald H. and Christopher Kocmoud, "Continuous Cartogram Construction."
Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Visualization 1998 (http://www.viz.tamu.edu/faculty/
house/cartograms/Vis98.PDF)
Paull, John & Hennig, Benjamin (2016) Atlas of Organics: Four Maps of the World of Organic
Agriculture (https://www.academia.edu/25648267/Atlas_of_Organics_Four_maps_of_the_w
orld_of_organic_agriculture) Journal of Organics. 3(1): 25–32.
Tobler, Waldo. "Thirty-Five Years of Computer Cartograms." Annals of the Association of
American Geographers. 94 (2004): 58–73 (http://www.geog.ucsb.edu/~kclarke/G232/Tobler
Cartograms.pdf).
 Vescovo, Victor. "The Atlas of World Statistics." Dallas: Caladan Press, 2005.

External links
Cartogram Central (http://www.ncgia.ucsb.edu/projects/Cartogram_Central/index.html)
Worldmapper collection of world cartograms (https://worldmapper.org/)
Classified Ads on the French Leboncoin social web site and their regional distribution (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20150221150040/http://www.comeetie.fr/map_lbc.php)
Cartograms about Brazil (https://florencioq.github.io/cartogram-brazil/)
Tilegrams (https://pitchinteractiveinc.github.io/tilegrams/) - Interactive tool for constructing
hexagonal mosaic cartograms

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