Fundamentals of Rotating Equipment

Technical Training Programme Rotating Equipment
FUNDAMENTALS OF
ROTATING EQUIPMENT
For
Mechanical Technician Trainees
TriStar T.S – M - RE – (Rev. .3) May 2004 Page 1 of 61

CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1: BEARINGS
CHAPTER 2: COUPLINGS
CHAPTER 3: PUMPS, PACKING AND MECHANICAL

SEALS
CHAPTER 4: CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS
CHAPTER 5: RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS
CHAPTER 6: SCREW COMPRESSORS
CHAPTER 7: GAS TURBINES
CHAPTER 8: ENGINES
CHAPTER 9: MOTORS
CHAPTER 10: COMMON PROBLEMS AND MAINTENANCE

CHAPTER 1
BEARINGS

CHAPTER 1
BEARINGS & LUBRICATION

CONTENTS Page Number
SECTION – 1.1
Introduction to Bearings
1.1.1 Friction ………………………………………………….… 8
1.1.2 Lubrication ……………………………………………….. 8

1.1.2.1 What are the basic purposes of lubrication ……….. 9
1.1.3 Function of the bearing …………………………….…….. 10
1.1.4 Loads acting on rotating shafts ………………………..… 10
1.1.5 Classification of bearings ……………………………….. 11

1.1.5.1 Bearings according to their function
(according to the load) may be …………………… 11
1.1.5.2 Bearings can be classified also as …………………. 11
1.1.5.2.1 Sliding surface bearings (plain bearings) 11
1.1.5.2.2 Rolling element bearings
(anti – friction bearings) ……………….. 12
SECTION – 1.2
Sliding Surface Bearings

1.2.1 Principle of operation …………………………………….. 13
1.2.2 Lubrication of sliding surface bearings …………………... 14
1.2.3 How lubricant is distributed to bearings …………………. 15
1.2.3.1 Distributing the lubricant – oil grooves ………… 15
1.2.3.2 Oil Clearance (running clearance) ……………… 16
1.2.3.3 Bearing surface compatibility …………………... 16
1.2.4 General requirements for bearing materials ……………... 18
1.2.5 Sliding surface bearing materials ………………………... 18
1.2.5.1 Babbitt ………………………………………….. 18
1.2.5.2 Bronzes …………………………………………. 19

1.2.6 Classification of radial sliding surface bearings with respect

to their configuration …………………………………….. 19
1.2.6.1 Pivoted – pad journal bearing (self tilting pad bearing) 20
1.2.7 Sliding surface bearing as thrust bearing ………………… 22

1.2.7.1 The function of thrust bearing …………………... 22
1.2.7.2 Classification of sliding surface thrust bearings … 22
1.2.7.3 Flat bearings: How does it works? ……………… 22
1.2.7.4 Tapered land bearing ……………………………. 23
1.2.7.5 Tilting pad thrust bearing ……………………….. 24
SECTION – 1.3
Sliding Surface Bearing Failure
1.3.1 Symptoms of bearing failure …………………………..… 25
1.3.2 Reasons of bearing failure ……………………………… 25

1.3.2.1 Metal fatigue …………………………………... 25
1.3.2.2 Dirt ……………………………………………. 25
1.3.2.3 Improper lubrication ………………………….. 26
1.3.2.4 Faulty installation ……………………………… 26
1.3.2.5 Mis-alignments ……………………………….. 26
1.3.2.6 Over loading …………………………………… 27
1.3.2.7 Corrosion ……………………………………… 27
1.3.3 Sliding surface bearing maintenance …………………… 28

1.3.3.1 Introduction to slide surface bearing maintenance 28
1.3.3.2 Bearing clearance (setting) ……………………. 28
1.3.3.3 Bearing high spots repair ……………………… 29
1.3.3.4 Flaking of babbit repair ……………………….. 29
1.3.3.5 Scoring repair …………………………………. 29
1.3.3.6 Wiping repair ………………………………….. 30

SECTION – 1.4
Rolling Element Bearings (Anti – Friction Bearings)
1.4.1 The basic parts of a rolling element bearings …………… 31
1.4.2 How does it works? …………………………………….. 31
1.4.3 Basic types of rolling elements bearing ………………… 32

1.4.3.1 Ball bearing types ……………………………… 32
1.4.3.2 Roller bearings ………………………………… 34
1.4.3.3 Needle bearings ……………………………….. 36
1.4.4 Rolling element bearing failure ………………………… 37

1.4.4.1 Symptoms of failure …………………………… 37
1.4.4.2 Reasons of bearings failure …………………… 37
SECTION – 1.5
Bearing Installation
1.5.1 Mounting methods for angular contact ball bearings …… 40

1.5.1.1 Back-to-back bearings ………………………… 40
1.5.1.2 Face-to-faces bearings ………………………… 40
1.5.1.3 Tandem bearings ……………………………… 41
1.5.1.4 Fit on shaft for angular contact ball bearings … 41
1.5.2 Shaft and housing preparation ………………………… 42

1.5.2.1 Bearings seats on shaft ……………………….. 42
1.5.2.2 Shaft shoulders ……………………………….. 42
1.5.2.3 Break corner to prevent burrs ………………… 43
1.5.2.4 Check shoulders for off-square ………………. 43
1.5.2.5 Check Housing bore dimensions …………….. 44
1.5.2.6 Recheck dimensions it necessary …………….. 44
1.5.3 Mounting rolling element bearings …………………….. 44

1.5.3.1 Mounting methods for bearings with an interference
fit on the shaft ………………………………… 44
1.5.3.2 Dismounting rolling element bearings ……….. 46

SECTION – 1.6
What to Look for During Operation
1.6.1 Listen ………………………………………………….. 48
1.6.2 Feel ……………………………………………………. 49
1.6.3 Look …………………………………………………… 50
1.6.4 Lubricate ………………………………………………. 51

1.6.4.1 With grease …………………………………… 51
1.6.4.2 With oil ……………………………………….. 52
1.6.5 Troubleshooting ……………………………………….. 54
SECTION – 1.7
Lubrication System
1.7.1 The importance of lubrication ………………………….. 57
1.7.2 The two common methods of lubrication ……………… 57

1.7.2.1 Splash and ring oilers ………………………… 57
1.7.2.2 Forced circulation oil lubrication system …….. 58
1.7.3 Lubricant storage and handling ………………………… 59

SECTION – 1.1
INTRODUCTION TO BEARINGS
1.1.1 Friction
Friction is the resistance to motion that exists between two bodies in contact.
In order to move these bodies more easily, friction must be reduced. There are
two kinds of friction that exist between two surface in contact:
1- Rolling friction (figure 1.1).

2- Sliding friction (figure 1.2).
Figure 1.1 Figure 1.2

Rolling friction Sliding friction
Rolling friction is the friction that exists when one body rolls around or within
another.
Sliding friction is the friction that exists when one body slides over another.
The difference between these two is the way related surfaces move in respect to
each other.
Rollers can decrease friction and make an object easier to move. Lubricating a
surface also reduces friction and allows an object to move much more freely.
1.1.2 Lubrication
The purpose of a lubricant is to reduce friction. Lubrication is merely a means

of separating moving surfaces by providing a film for the surfaces to travel on.

Take the simplest case of a flat object m
Dry surfaces in contact Lubricated surfaces

separated by oil film
Figure 1.3
The required force to drive block (A) to slide on the flat surface is too high in
case of dry surfaces (figure 1.3). In the second case (lubricated surfaces) – the
required force will be less.
The applying of lubrication between two sliding surfaces makes the sliding of
one of them over the other becomes too much easier.
1.1.2.1 What are the Basic Purposes of Lubrication?
They are:
1- To reduce friction between sliding surface (as the example which is

mentioned before – figure 1.3)
2- To reduce wear: The wearing down of machine parts is caused by friction.

If you reduce friction through lubrication, you also reduce wear. The
thickness of the lubricant film is important. If the film is not thick enough to
separate the two surfaces, direct contact will happen and the wear will
happen also.
3- Damping shock: The way a lubricant dampens shock is by making use of its
ability to distribute pressure. A practical example of this property is found
in gear lubrication.
4- To cool moving components: The lubrication prevents excessive friction

between moving components. So that less heat will be generated. Lubricants
also carry away some heat from the points where it is generated to coolers,
where it is then dispelled into the air.

5- Corrosion prevention: The lubricants prevent or retard rust and corrosion. It

forms a protective film on metallic machine parts. The film prevent direct
contact of metal with oxygen in air.
6- To seal out dirt, other contaminants: lubricants serve as seals in machines in

two ways:
- Lubricant can seal itself into the place where it is needed.
- Lubricant can also seal out dirt and other contaminants from the
contact areas.
1.1.3 Function of the Bearings
Bearings are machine parts in which other parts turn or slide. They are five
major functions of the bearing in rotating machines;
1. To support a shaft while permitting the shaft to rotate as necessary for

proper operation of the equipment.
2. To keep the shaft in its correct running position with respect to the
machine casing.
3. Reduce friction by providing either sliding contact (sliding surface
bearings) or rolling contact (rolling element bearings). Usually bearings
reduce friction by means of a lubricant in addition to their basic design.
4. Reduce wear, by reducing friction
5. It provides a replaceable wear surface which is more economical to
replace than the shaft which the bearing supports.
1.1.4 Loads Acting on Rotating Shafts
Figure 1.4 Load forces acting on bearings

Any rotating shaft is subject to two forces (or two loads):
1- Radial loads – which acting in the radial direction.
2- Axial Loads – which acting in axial direction trying to move the shaft
in axial direction.
Because bearings will subjected to these two loads, they are designed to be used
for a specific application.
Radial bearings are used where only radial loads are encountered. Thrust
bearings are made to withstand axial loads.
1.1.5 Classification of Bearings
1.1.5.1 Bearings according to their function (according to the
load) may be:
1- A radial bearings – to carry the radial loads only.
2- Thrust bearings – to carry the axial loads only.
3- Combination bearings – carry some radial load & carry some axial
load.
1.1.5.2 Bearings can be classified also as:

1- Sliding surface bearings (Plain bearings).
2- Rolling element bearings (Anti – friction bearings).
Let us now study the sliding surface bearings and rolling element bearings, and
find out which loads can carry.
1.1.5.2.1 Sliding Surface Bearings (Plain Bearings)
Sliding surface bearings (plain bearings) provide a sliding contact between the
mating surfaces.
The surfaces of both the shaft (as moving surface) and the bearing (as stationary
surface) are lubricated to reduce friction.
Sliding surface bearings (plain bearings), according to their function, maybe:
• Radial bearings: to carry radial loads. Thus, they will keep a shaft from
moving up and down or from side to side, but they will not keep it from
moving in an axial direction
• Thrust bearings: to carry the axial loads only. They are built to surround
a collar on the shaft, called a thrust runner or thrust collar. This
construction transfers any axial loads to the bearing and from the bearing
to the machine casing.

1.1.5.2.2 Rolling Element Bearings (Anti-Friction Bearings)

Rolling contact bearings are designed to support and locate rotating shafts. They
transfer loads between rotating and stationary members and permit relatively
free rotation with a minimum of friction.
They consist of four basic components (figure 1.5)

- Inner ring (inner race) – fixed on the shaft and rotates with it.
- Outer ring (outer race) – fixed to the bearing housing and does not
rotates.
- Rolling element.
- Retainer (keep cage).
Figure 1.5 Rolling element bearing components
Anti – friction bearings, according to their function, may be:
Radial bearings: Carries load (forces) in a radial direction. Thus they

will keep a shaft from moving up and down or from side to side. They
will not keep it from moving in axial direction.
Thrust bearings: These bearings will accept full thrust loads. It can not
accept radial loads. They are usually used in conjunction with radial –
load bearings.
Combination radial and thrust load bearings: This bearings will

support radial loads and thrust loads.
After this introduction, let us now study each type in details.

SECTION – 1.2
SLIDING SURFACE BEARINGS
1.2.1 Principle of Operation
Refer to figure 1.6
Figure 1.6 Sliding surface bearing (journal bearings)
1- In a typical plain journal bearing, the shaft of the equipment is the rotating
element. The portion of the shaft inside the bearing is a highly polished
surface and is reffered to as the bearing journal. The bearing is the part that
surrounds and supports the shaft. This cylindrical part is often called a
sleeve or the bearing shell. In some designs the shell is two – piece
component.
2- The bearing shell is lined with a soft metal alloy called babbitt. This babbitt
takes the wear that would otherwise occur in the shaft (bearing journal).
3- The shaft (bearing journal) surface and the babbit material are separated by
a thin film of lubricant.
4- When the equipment is not operating, the shaft sits at the bottom of the
bearing shell (figure 1-7-a)
5- When the equipment is put into operation and the shaft begins to turn, an
oil wedge develops at the point where the shaft meets the bearing surface
(figure 1-7-b).

6- As the shaft accelerates, it actually floats up on this oil wedge until it is

supported in the center of the bearing shell by the thin film of oil
(figure 1-7-c).
a- The equipment is not b- The shaft begins to turn c- Full speed

operating
Figure 1.7 Oil wedge development and types of friction
The shaft and the bearing surfaces do not actually touch one another when the
equipment is fully operating. Instead, the shaft rides on the thin film of oil. The
separation between the shaft and the bearing surface permitting the shaft to
rotate easily with minimum wear.
1.2.2 Lubrication of Sliding Surface Bearings
Lubrication are used to reduce friction and wear in bearings. The less friction, of
course, the less wear will result.
Three states of friction or lubricant may exist between the sliding surfaces of the
shaft and the bearing shell:
1- Dry friction: Dry friction is when no lubricant is present between the

contacting surfaces (figure 1.7.a)
2- Boundary Lubrication: It happens when the lubricant is a thin film
between the sliding surfaces (figure 1.7.b)
3- Full Film Lubrication: Full-film lubrication separates the sliding
surfaces completely (figure 1.7.c)

Full lubrication can only be achieved by a combination of the right lubricant,

good bearing design, and at least a moderate rotary speed (RPM).
1.2.3 How Lubricant is Distributed to Bearings?
The bearing must have three things (characteristics) in order to perform will:
1. It must have a means of distributing the lubricant (oil grooves).

2. Oil clearance must be correct to fit the shaft will.
3. The bearing surface must be compatible with shaft, the lubricant and the
speed of rotation.
1.2.3.1 Distributing the Lubricant – Oil Grooves
Oil grooves are necessary to ensure that the bearing receives adequate
distribution of lubricant. Several designs are shown in figure 8.
Each design is suitable for certain working condition like shaft diameter,
running speed, kind of lubricant and the feeding system.
Figure 1.8 Oil groove designs for sliding surface bearings (plain bearings)

1.2.3.2 Oil Clearance (Running Clearance)
The space between the shaft (journal) and the inside surface of the bearing shell
when the shaft is centered in the bearing is called the oil clearance, or running
clearance. This small space provides room for the thin oil film that separates the
shaft and the bearing shell when the equipment is operating.
Oil clearance can be expressed in two forms:
I.D. of the bearing shell - O.D of the shaft

- Radial clearance =
2
- Diameteral clearance = I.D of the bearing shell – O.D of the shaft.
Where:
I.D of the bearing shell is the inside diameter of the bearing shell.
O.D of the shaft is the outside diameter of the shaft in the bearing area.
1.2.3.3 Bearing Surface Compatibility
Figure 1.9 shows the three states of lubrication. Each condition is determined
by:
- Viscosity of the lubricant.

- Running speed of the shaft (RPM).
- The Smoothness of mating surfaces.

Surface A
Surface B
SURFACES IN CONTACT
(No enough lubricant and/or rough surfaces)
Surface A
Surface B
SURFACES SEPARATED BY LUBRICANT
(Very thin lubricating film)
Surface A
Surface B
SURFACES SEPARATED BY HYDRODYNAMIC

PRESSURE
Figure 1.9 Lubricant between sliding surface
Case # 1 Surfaces in contact (dry friction):

Is caused by using a light viscosity lubricant to support the shaft or by surfaces
too rough to be separated by the recommended lubricant.
Case # 2 Surfaces separated by lubricant (boundry lubricant):

Is the minimum lubrication requirement to prevent direct contact of mating
surfaces. This condition exists with relatively slow speed of rotation.

Case # 3 Surfaces separated by hydrodynamic pressure:

This is the ideal state of lubrication. The surfaces of the mating parts, the speed
of rotation and the viscosity of the lubricant will all affect the ability to achieve
this condition.
1.2.4 General Requirements for Bearing Materials
Experience shows that a good bearing material is:
1- Score resistance
2- High in compressive strength.
3- High in fatigue strength.
4- Deformable.
5- Corrosion resistance.
6- Low in shear strength.
7- Structurally uniform.
8- Inexpensive.
9- Readily available.
This list of requirements is evidence that selection of a bearing material for a

particular application is always a compromise. No single material has all of
these characteristics in a sufficiently acceptable level.
1.2.5 Sliding Surface Bearing Materials
Most sliding surface bearing are made from the following standard types
1- Babbitt (tin – base, lead – base)
2- Bronze
1.2.5.1 Babbitt
Babbitts are the best known of all bearing materials. Also called white metal.
Babbitt is an alloy comprised of three elements: Tin, antimony and copper.
When babbitt is used in small bearings, Babbitt is applied to the bearings as a
thin coating over steel on bronze. To make larger bearings in heavy – duty
equipment; a thicker layer is used to line a rigid backing or shell of steel, bronze
or cost iron.

1.2.5.2 Bronzes
Bronze alloys have many bearing applications because of their wide range of
properties. Most bearing bronzes are variations of three main types as follows:
a- Lead - bronze
b- Tin - bronze
c- Aluminum - bronze
A fourth type, phosphor – bronze, is also popular. As a group, bronze – alloys

are probably the most economical bearing material of all.
1.2.6 Classification of Radial Sliding Surface Bearings (Plain

Journal Bearings) with Respect to Their Configuration
Radial sliding surface bearings (plain journal bearings) come in many forms.
Their one point common is that they are shaped as cylinders or section of
cylinders. The difference in form simply accommodate various types of
equipments.
Basically, you will find three principal types of construction:
1- Solid plain cylindrical bushing (one piece) with lubricating feed grooves
(figure 1-8)
2- Straight cylindrical bearing (two halves). It is \horizontally split,

replaceable liner sleeve bearing.
3- Titing pad radial bearing.

The following figure (figure 1.10) shows two different type from these three.
Figure 1.10 Connecting rod with solid plain bearing (item # 10) and
straight cylindrical bearing (two halves – item # 11)
1.2.6.1 Pivoted – Pad Journal Bearing (Self Tilting Pad Bearing)
Also called pivoted shoe journal bearing. This design has segmented bearing
surface. The segments are supported so that they can move slightly and adjust to
the best position for proper lubrication (figure 1.11)
Figure 1.11 Tilting pad radial bearing

This type of tilting pad radial bearing is designed for high peripheral speeds and
shaft stabilization.
Figure 1.12– shows the detail construction of this type.
Figure 1.12

1.2.7 Sliding Surface Bearing as Thrust Bearing
1.2.7.1 The Function of Thrust Bearing
The basic function of thrust bearing in the rotating machines is to carry the axial
loads and keep the shaft in its correct running position in the axial direction.
A sliding surface thrust bearing (figure 1.13) is used in conjunction with a thrust
collar (thrust runner). Thrust collar is a disc on the shaft. This collar may be a
separate disc attached to the shaft, or an integral part of the shaft.
The thrust bearing is the part that is closest to the thrust collar. Thrust bearings
are generally used in pairs: one bearing is placed on each side of the thrust
collar (figure 1.13). In this way, thrust bearings support axial load in both
directions on the shaft. They prevent the shaft from moving through the bearing.
Figure 1.13 Pair of thrust bearings surrounding thrust collar

1.2.7.2 Classification of Sliding Surface Thrust Bearings
There are three designs of sliding surface bearing as thrust bearing:
1- Flat land bearings
2- Tapered land bearing, and
3- Tilting pad bearing (kingsbury thrust bearing).
1.2.7.3 Flat Bearings: How Does it Work?
Flat land bearing illustrated in figure 1.14. It is one of the simplest types of
thrust bearings. It is a solid piece with no movable parts. Grooves in the bearing
divide it into sections called lands. One edge of each land is curved slightly so
that the lubricant that is pumped into the groove is distributed over the bearing
surface more easily. Lubricant sticks to the thrust collar as the shaft turns and is
drawn over the bearing, creating a film of lubricant between the thrust collar
and the bearing.

Figure 1.14 Cut – away view of a flat land thrust bearing
1.2.7.4 Tapered Land Bearing
The tapered land bearing (or fixed wedge thrust bearing) figure 1.15 looks like
the flat land but each of the lands is slightly tapered to improve bearing
lubrication. Film lubrication takes place between the bearing and the thrust
collar.
Figure 1.15 Construction of a tapered – land thrust bearing

The direction of rotation of the thrust collar must be in specific direction to get
efficient lubrication.
1.2.7.5 Tilting Pad Thrust Bearing
A typical tilting pad bearing (Figure 1.16) is made up of several parts.
Figure 1.16 Principle of a tilting pad thrust bearing
In this bearing, the thrust collar contact number of segments (also called shoes).
Each segment is supported by a pivot. As the collar begins to rotate, the
lubricant that is in the bearing sticks to the collar and is dragged between the
collar and the individual shoes.
As the speed of the shaft increases, more and more lubricant is drawn between
the shoes and the collar, forming a wedge that causes the shoes to tilt. The
wedge of lubricant increases the load carrying capacity of the bearing.

SECTION – 1.3
SLIDING SURFACE BEARING FAILURE
1.3.1 Symptoms of Bearing Failure
1- Abnormal temperature.
2- Vibration.
3- Noise
or a combination of these signs may indicate that a bearing has failed
or is about to fail. When replacing damaged bearings, it is vital to
determine their cause of failure. Otherwise, failures will happen again
in a very short time.
1.3.2 Reason of Bearing Failure

The most common causes of sliding surface bearing failure are:
1- Metal Fatigue.
2- Dirt.
3- Improper Lubrication.
4- Faulty installation (improper assembly).
5- Misalignment.
6- Overloading.
7- Corrosion.
1.3.2.1 Metal Fatigue

Metal fatigue is a common cause of bearing failure that occurs during normal
bearing operation. All sliding surface bearings are subject to load and vibration,
which cause the metal in the bearing to flex and bend. The metal is gradually
weakened by the flexing and bending. This makes bearing fails, because its
surface breaks up and becomes rough. This roughened surface causes an
increase in the bearing temperature and vibration, which in turn, causes further
damage to the bearing. The process continues until the bearing is too badly
damaged to the function at all, and it fails.
1.3.2.2 Dirt
Large dirt particles can embed in the soft bearing material. This causes wear and
decreases the life of both the bearing and the shaft.
Prevent this by cleaning the area surrounding the bearing during bearing
installation and by proper maintenance of oil filters, if used.

1.3.2.3 Improper Lubrication
The term improper lubrication refers to four different situations:
a) Too little lubrication (oil starvation)

b) Wrong kind of lubricant
c) Contaminated lubricant.
d) Lubricant breakdown due to high operating temperature
1.3.2.4 Faulty Installation
In order to obtain a correct installation, the following points should be taken

into consideration:
a) Match marks must be checked carefully to insure proper orientation of

the lower bearing shell in the lower bearing housing.
b) Gaskets or spacers are installed.
c) The bearing cover is set in position, using care to avoid any damage
either in the shaft or the bearing. The dowel pins should be installed.
d) The retaining nuts for the bearing cover are installed and tightened to
the correct torque value and the specified sequence.
1.3.2.5 Mis-Alignments
A bearing is mis-aligned when the shaft that it supports does not pass through it
correctly, as illustrated in figure 1.17. If the bearing is misaligned, the shaft rubs
against one side of the bearing at one end and against the opposite side of the
bearing at its other end.
Figure 1.17 Mis-aligned bearing.

1.3.2.6 Overloading
Overheating from overloading causes a metal fatigue which breaks away and
voids the surface of the bearing.
1.3.2.7 Corrosion
Corrosion from acid formation in the oil is seen by a finely pitted surface and
large areas of deterioration.

1.3.3 Sliding Surface Bearing Maintenance
1.3.3.1 Introduction to Slide Surface Bearing Maintenance
To perform any maintenance job related to the sliding surface bearings (either
radial or thrust bearings), you should go through three steps:
1- Clean the bearing and the shaft journal.

2- Inspect the parts thoroughly to fined out the reason of failure.
3- Carry out the required action – repair or replace the damaged part.
Carefully inspect bearings and journals for uneven wear or damage. If required,
polish journals using belt-type emery clothe and remove high spots. Sleeve and
thrust bearings should be thoroughly incepted for correct clearance, high spots,
flaking of babbitt, scoring, and using the following procedures.
1.3.3.2 Bearing Clearance (Setting)
• The radial bearings must have clearance between the shaft journal and the
bearing. The amount of clearance necessary depends on the oil viscosity,
the shaft speed, and the bearing loading. Manufacturers’ consider each of
these parameters in calculating a bearing clearance that will produce
hydrodynamic lubrication as well as a flow of oil sufficient to cool the
bearing.
• Measurement of bearing clearances may be done by: Feeler gauges, lead

wire or plastic gauge material. The bearing may be considered
operational as long as the measured clearance does not exceed the design
clearance by more than .004 to .005 in. This value for clearance increase
is acceptable for most applications.
• The thrust bearing clearance provides room for the formation of an oil
film between the bearing face and the thrust collar (or thrust runner) and
for thermal expansion. Normally, wear of the thrust bearing is not very
critical unless it is enough to cause loss of oil pressure in the lubrication
system or allow for rubbing of internal components.
• Measurement of thrust bearing clearance may be done by pushing the

shaft axially to one side of the unit, setting a dial indicator and then
pulling the shaft axial to the other side of the unit against the dial
indicator.

1.3.3.3 Bearing High Spots Repair

• Evidence and location of high spots in the bearing are indicated by bright
spots or areas. These spots are caused by wear resulting from a ruptured
oil film around the high point. Bright spots are slightly scraped and
polished with fine steel wool or emery cloth until they blend in with the
rest bearing.
• To check the bearing contact, install the lower half of the bearing in the
housing with the journal and thrust face clean and dry.
• Check outside diameter of bearing shell with a .0015 in. feeler gauge to
be sure the lower half is seated in the housing.
• Apply a light coat of soft blue (Prussian blue) to the journal and to each
thrust face. The journal should show blue transfer for a minimum of 80
percent of bearing length. Thrust faces should show a minimum contact
of 60 percent of load area. Repeat the checking process until the contact
area is satisfactory.
1.3.3.4 Flaking of babbitt Repair
• Flaking of babbitt in the loaded area of the bearing is caused by vibration
or shock loading of the bearing material. The vibration and shock
loading causes the babbitt to fatigue and break loose from the steel shell.
Not only do the flakes cause scoring as they pass through the bearing, but
they also contaminate the oil.
In the advanced stages of flaking, the load-carrying area of the bearing is
destroyed, and the bearing must be replaced. However, if flaking is
caught in the early stages, the bearing may be repaired be scraping and
polishing. Whatever the case, the cause of vibration or hammering should
be corrected before the unit is put back into service.
1.3.3.5 Scoring Repair
• Scoring is the scratching of the bearing babbitt or the journal riding in the
bearing, or both. It is caused by dirt or metal particles present in the oil
that passes through the bearing. A little scoring is not serious, and the
bearing may be polished with fine steel wool to remove any rough edges
caused by scoring. Any foreign particles imbedded in the babbitt who
could score the journal should be carefully picked out, and that area
should then be polished smooth. Scoring becomes serious when it
significantly reduces the bearing area. In this case, the bearing should be
replaced, and the gear unit or pump drained and flushed out with a
solvent.

1.3.3.6 Wiping Repair
• Wiping is the melting and wiping away of a spot or area of the babbitt
due to the bearing temperature rising above the pour point of the babbitt.
• Abnormally high bearing temperatures can be causes by one or more of

the following.
1- Insufficient bearing clearance.

2- Insuffecient oil (quantity and / or pressure).
3- Excessively high oil temperature in the bearing due to improper
cooling.
4- A high spot (s) in the bearing.
5- Extreme (high) bearing loading cause by poor contact area.
• If wiping is localised in a small spot, the bearing may be repaired by

scraping and polishing the spot until it blends in with the remainder of
the bearing; otherwise, the bearing must be replaced.
Before replacing a wiped bearing, determine the cause of the wipe and
take corrective measures. If new bearings are necessary, the following
precautions should be taken:
1. Remove all nicks and burrs from the housing and bearing shell.
2. Be sure that journal and thrust faces are free of nicks and high spots.
These spots can be removed using a fine hone and polishing with fine
emery cloth.
3. Obtain the proper bearing contact as described previously.
4. After the bearings are fitted and the lower half is installed in the
housing (on both sides), check the radial clearance using plastic
gauge. Check thrust clearance by moving shaft axially in both
directions while an indicator pointer is positioned against the shaft. In
many cases it may be necessary to use a small hydraulic jack to move
the large rotors axially to check the axial (thrust) clearance.

SECTION – 1.4
ROLLING ELEMENT BEARINGS

(ANTI–FRICTION BEARINGS)
1.4.1 The Basic Parts of a Rolling Element Bearings
Figure 1.18 shows the basic parts. They are:
1- Two hardened steel rings called races. The inner ring (inner race) is
normally fixed on a shaft, and the outer ring (outer race) fits in a bearing
housing. Shaped raceways are machined in the rings to confine and
guide the rolling elements.
2- Hardened steel balls, rollers or needles which roll between the races.
3- Separators (keep cage) made of steel, bronze or plastic which space the
rolling elements around the races.
Figure 1.18 Basic parts of rolling element bearings

1.4.2 How Does it Works?
The load is transmitted from the inner race to the outer race through the rolling
elements to the bearing housing. The accurate distribution of the rolling
elements between the inner race and the outer race prevents any radial
movement of the shaft out of the correct running position.

1.4.3 Basic Types of Rolling Element Bearing
There are three basic types of rolling element bearings:
1.4.3.1 Ball bearings

1.4.3.2 Roller (Cylindrical) bearings
1.4.3.3 Needle roller bearings
Each one of these three types is divided into different designs.
1.4.3.1 Ball Bearing Types
There are four basic designs of ball bearings (with respect to the load)
1- Deep groove ball bearing: (figure 1.19.a)

- Carry radial load and some axial load
2- Angular contact ball bearing (figure 1.19.b,c )

- These bearings will support radial load and thrust loads.
3- Double row self aligning ball bearing (figure 1.19-d)

- Carry radial load and very little axial loads. These bearings allow
(accept) some misalignment.
-
a b c d
Figure 1.19 Types of ball bearings

Ball bearing as thrust bearing
These bearings will accept full thrust load and very light radial loads. They are
usually used in conjunction with radial load bearings (figure 1.20).
Figure 1.20 Thrust load ball bearings

1.4.3.2 Roller Bearings

The principal difference between ball bearings and roller bearings (cylindrical
bearings) is the shape of the rolling element itself.
In ball bearings the rolling element is a ball. In roller bearings the rolling
element is cylinder.
Roller bearings can support greater loads because of their larger contact area.
There are five basic types of roller bearings. They are:
1. Radial-load, straight roller bearing. (figure 1.21.a)

2. Radial and thrust-load, tapered roller bearings (figure 1.21.b)
3. Self-aligning, radial and thrust-load, spherical roller bearing (figure 1.21.c)
4. Self aligning, radial and thrust-load, concave roller bearing (figure 1.21.d)
5. Thrust load roller bearings (figure 1.22)
a b c d
Figure 1.21 Basic types of roller bearings

Figure 1.22 Thrust – load roller bearings

1.4.3.3 Needle Bearings

Needle bearings are a separate form of roller bearing. They differ from other
roller bearings in two ways:
1- The roller’s length is at least twice as long as its diameter – four to six
times as long is common, and the roller is much smaller in diameter than
other rollers. This long, thin shape gives them their name of “needles”.
2- The second difference is that many needle bearings have no cage or
separators.
Refer to figure 1.23 for the terms used to describe basic needle bearing
construction. The needle bearing shown is the drawn-cup type.
Figure 1.23 Nomenclature of common needle roller bearing
Figure 1.24 Types of needle roller bearing bearings

1.4.4 Rolling Element Bearing Failure

1.4.4.1 Symptoms of Failure
There are five symptoms gives indication that the rolling element bearings has
been failed. They are:
1- High temperature: Hot bearings indicates bearing failure.
2- High vibration level.
3- Noisy bearings.
4- Lubricant leaks outside the bearing housing contaminated with metallic
particles which indicates rubbing between different components inside
the bearings housing.
5- Clear movement of the shaft from its original position movement. This
happens in an advanced stage of failure. The rolling elements lost its
uniform distribution between inner and outer races.
1.4.4.2 Reasons of Bearing Failure
The most common causes of rolling element bearing failure are:
1- Improper maintenance technique (faulty mounting practices).

2- Incorrect shaft and housing fit.
3- Misalignment.
4- Defective bearing seats on shafts and/or in housing.
5- Inadequate lubrication.
6- Ineffective sealing.
7- Vibration.
8- Passage of electric current through the bearing.
Let us study each one of these reasons of bearing failure to find out the proper
way to prevent it.
1- Improper maintenance technique (faulty mounting practice): Improper
maintenance technique covers the following:
a- Foreign mater in the bearing installation (not properly cleaned). Clean
all bearing components before installation and keeping the work area
clean are essential.

b- Overheating the bearing during the heating to expand the bearing.

Correct heating method must be used and the suitable heating
temperature should be kept.
When heating a bearing for mounting, an oil path should be used if
available.
c- Impact damage handling or mounting resulting in brinelling.
d- The required force to install the inner race of the bearing on the shaft
must be applied directly and evenly on the inner race.
If this force is applied on the outer race it will destroy the bearing.
If you use hydraulic press during bearing installation, the force must
be applied slowly and evenly.
2- Incorrect Shaft and Housing Fit:
A bearing may need to be fitted either with an interference fit or a slip fit on the
shaft and the housing depending on the conditions present. The degree of
tightness or looseness in the bearing is governed by the magnitude of the load,
the speed (r.p.m) and the arrangement of the bearing.
3- Misalignment
Misalignment is a source of premature bearing failure. This condition generally

occurs when:
• The inner race of bearing is seated against a shaft shoulder that is not
square with the shaft centerline.
• The outer race is seated against a housing shoulder that is out of
square with the housing bore.
4- Defective bearing seats on shaft and/or in housing
For bearings to have long trouble – free life, the inner race of the bearing and
the outer race should be seated properly, that means
• The shaft (in the area of inner race) should be round and smooth.
• The bearing housing bore should be round, free of taper.
• Both shaft and bearing bore must be concentric (i.e. must have the
same center line)
• The dimensions of the shaft and bearing housing must be correct.

5- Inadequate Lubrication
The presence of proper lubricant is essential. The rollers must carry lubricant to
lubricate the tracks. Without proper lubricant (kind and quantity), the bearing
motion can be very detrimental.
6- Ineffective Sealing
The function of bearing seals (which are installed on the bearing housing) is to
prevent dirty to enter the bearing housing and to prevent the lubricant to escape
to outside.
Effective sealing means prevent lubricant to leake out side the bearing housing
and prevention of contaminants to enter the bearing housing.
7- Vibration
There are two sources of vibration:

a) Vibration from the machine itself (due to several reasons like
unbalanced rotor, coupling misalignment, …etc).
b) Vibration transferred from another source through piping system or
steel structure.
These two sources will cause rapid failure and sever damage to the
bearing.
8- Passage of Electric Current Through the Bearing
In certain applications where electrical machinery is in use, there is the

possibility that electric current will pass through a bearing.
Current that seeks ground through the bearing can be generated from magnetic
field in the machinery or can be caused by welding on some parts of the
machine with the ground attached so that the circuit is required to be completed
through the bearing.
When the current is broken at the contact surfaces between rolling elements and
the raceways, marking results; this marking produces localized high
temperature, and consequently, the surfaces are damaged. This damage will
appear as small pits on the raceways and the rollers.

SECTION – 1.5
BEARING INSTALLATION
1.5.1 Basic Mounting Methods for Angular Contact Ball Bearings
Angular contact ball bearings can be mounted in three different ways to suit
different loading conditions. The three ways are:
1.5.1.1 Back-to-Back Bearings
Are placed so that the high shoulders of the outer rings are together. In this
position, the contact angle lines diverge inwardly (figure 1.25).
Figure 1.25 Back-to-back bearings are placed so that the high shoulder
of the outer rings is together
1.5.1.2 Face-to-Face Bearings
Are placed so that the low shoulders of the outer rings are together. Contact
angle lines of the bearing will then converge inwardly, toward the bearing axis
(figure 1.26).
Figure 1.26 Face-to-face bearings are placed so that the low shoulder of
the outer ring is together

1.5.1.3 Tandem Bearings
Are placed so that the stamped back of one bearing is in contact with the
unstamped face of the other bearing. In this case the contact angle lines of the
bearings are parallel (figure 1.27)
Figure 1.27 Tandem bearings are placed so that the stamped back of one
bearing is in contact with the unstamped face of the other bearing
1.5.1.4 Fit on Shaft for Angular Contact Ball Bearings
Angular contact ball bearings generally have a looser fit on the shaft than other
standard types of bearings. “Push” fits; (finger pressure fits) are generally
employed. This helps prevent a change of internal characteristics and facilities
removal and remounting of the bearings.

1.5.2 Shaft and Housing Preparation
1.5.2.1 Bearing Seats on Shaft
The inner ring must be tight enough not to turn or creep significantly under
load.
Figure 1.28
1.5.2.2 Shaft Shoulders
The shoulder in figure 1.29.A is tapered (inclined). This results in poor seating
of the bearing against the corner of the inner ring.
The shaft shoulder in figure 1.29.B is so low that the shoulder actually contacts
the bearing corner rather than the locating face of the bearing.
With the condition shown in figure 1.29.C, contact between the shoulder and the
bearing face is not sufficient. Under heavy thrust loads, the shoulder might
break down.
Figure 1.29.D is exaggerated to illustrate distortion of the inner ring when

forced against off-square shoulder. An off-square bearing shortens bearing life.

Figure 1.29 Incorrect installation
1.5.2.3 Break Corner to Prevent Burrs
When the shaft shoulder or bearing seat is repaired by regrinding, it is desirable

to break the corner on the shaft. This will help prevent burrs and nicks, which
may interfere with the proper seating of the inner ring face against the shaft
shoulder. If left sharp, shoulder corner is easily nicked, producing raised
portions, which, in turn, may create an off-square condition in bearing location.
The usual procedure to break a corner is to use a file or an abrasive stone.
Figure 1.30 Incorrect installation
1.5.2.4 Check Shoulders for Off-Square
The shaft shoulder runout should be checked with an indicator contacting the
bearing locating surface on the shaft shoulder while the shaft is still supported
on centers (or V-blocks) with the center of the shaft against a stop. Tolerances
have been established for this. If the runout is outside these tolerances, the inner
ring of the bearing will be misaligned causing vibration when the shaft is in
operation.

1.5.2.5 Check Housing Bore Dimensions
The housing bore dimensions and shoulder should be checked to make sure that
they are within the recommended tolerance for size, out-of-round, taper, and
off-square. The gauge commonly used for this purpose is an dial gauge test
indicator type
1.5.2.6 Recheck Dimensions it Necessary
It is important to be absolutely sure that all dimensions are correct before any
assembly is begun.
1.5.3 Mounting Rolling Element Bearings
1.5.3.1 Mounting Methods for Bearings with an Interference Fit

on the Shaft
It is possible to use either a cold or warm mounting method. In general it is

better to use warm mounting as this method is the easiest and eliminates the
danger of damage to the shaft.
If this is not possible bearings may be mounted using the cold method. If a
hydraulic press is available, it is possible to mount larger bearings.
Some types of bearings in particular those with double seals and "greased for
life" must only be mounted using the cold method.
• Cold Mounting
The mounting force must be applied evenly on the inner ring. It is advisable to
use a mounting tool, which can be made from a piece of pipe.
The shaft area under the bearing inner ring (inner race) should be coated with
anti – size lubricant to be easy for future disassemble.

Figure 1.31 Cold mounting of bearings
The contact face must be perfectly flat and the head of the mounting tool should
either rounded or has a raised portion in the centre. The mounting tool should be
placed against the inner ring the bearing is then slide along the shaft using a
press or by means of light taps with a hammer.
During this operation constant checks should be made to ensure that the bearing
is at right angles to the shaft centre line.
• Warm Mounting
By heating the bearing it is possible to expand the bore so that it is larger than
the shaft. This means that the bearing can be slide on the shaft without any
problem. Bearings can be heated to a maximum of 120, ºC for a short period.
Above this temperature the hardness of the bearing material will be adversely
affected. The bearing should be heated in an oil bath.
Figure 1.32 Bearing hanging free in a warm oil bath

The heated bearing can be fitted onto the bearing surface without difficulty and
care should be taken to ensure that the side face of the inner ring is in complete
contact with the shoulder of the shaft or a spacer.
1.5.3.2 Dismounting Rolling Element Bearings
1. Dismounting Bearings from the Shaft
When a bearing is being removed from a shaft the force should be applied as
evenly as possible onto the inner ring. If possible a ball bearing puller should be
used.
Figure 1.33 Puller which bears against the inner ring
2. Dismounting a Bearing from its Housing
If the bearing remains in the housing after the shaft has been removed, it is
possible to use a bearing puller (figure 1.34)
Figure 1.34 Remove bearing from the housing

• Bearings with a Tapered Bore
Large forces have to be- applied in order to dismount bearings, which have a
tapered bore. The forces, which are released when these bearings are
dismounted, can also be very high. It is recommended that some method is used
to brake (or slow down) these bearings.
• Bearings Mounted on a Tapered Shaft
The locating ring (end plate or shaft nut) should be loosened but kept in place as
a stop. The bearing can then be dismounted by carefully tapping the
dismounting tool or punch with a hammer.
It is also possible to use the oil injection method to remove a bearing. As large
forces are released when this type of system is used (in particular with tapered
bearing seats or adapter bushes) it is important to arrange a suitable stop.
• Single Row Deep Groove Bearings
It is generally impossible to dismount this type without destroying it. It is

possible to cut through the outer ring, but an alternative is to remove the cage so
that the balls can be collected together. It will then be possible to remove the
inner ring by using only a slight force.
• Single Row Angular Contact Bearings
The only way to dismount this type of bearing is either to force the outer ring
over the balls or cut through it. There are a few types, which are easily
separable.
• Dismounting Using Heat
In order to dismount the inner ring of large cylindrical bearings, which have
been mounted onto the shaft using an interference fit, use is made of a special
tool, which heats the ring. The tool is heated to about 200°C and then clamped
to the inner ring, which comes loose within a few seconds. It is possible to use
electric tools, which heat the ring by either induction or radiant heat. Direct
heating with a naked flame (open flame like oxy – actylen tourch)may never be
used.

SECTION – 1.6
WHAT TO LOOK FOR DURING OPERATION
Bearings are being brought into focus, since they constitute a vital factor in all
machines with rotating parts. Condition monitoring represents a rapidly
growing activity in the field of preventive maintenance. Early indications of
bearing damage allow bearings to be replaced during regularly scheduled
equipment maintenance and thus avoid unscheduled equipment downtime due
to bearing failure.
Bearings in critical machinery or in bad (harsh) environments should be

checked frequently. Many systems and/or instruments are available on the
market today for monitoring bearings. Most of these are based on the
measurement of vibrations.
However, for practical reasons, not all machines or machine functions are
monitored using advanced instrumentation. In these instances, the machine
operator or the maintenance engineer must remain alert for bearing "trouble
signs," such as noise, increases in temperature and vibration. "Listen", "feel"
and "look" are three important factors.
1.6.1 Listen
A common way of identifying an irregularity in running is by listening.

Abnormal noise can be detected and even traced to an individual machine
component by an experienced operator. Bearings in good operating condition
produce a soft purring noise. Grinding, squeaking and other irregular sounds
usually point to bearings in poor operating condition.
Bearing damage can be detected by listening but the damage will often have
reached such an extent that an immediate bearing change has to be carried out.
Therefore, a better method is to use some of the electronic condition monitoring
devices, for instance.

Figure 1.35 Monitoring bearing conditions
These new devices proved a much safer and more accurate prediction than the
early method of placing one end of a wooden stick or a screwdriver against the
bearing housing, and putting one's ear to the other end.
1.6.2 Feel
High temperatures often indicate that the bearing is acting abnormally. High
temperatures can be detrimental to the bearing lubricant. Overheating can
sometimes be attributed to the bearing lubricant. Running for extended periods
at temperatures in excess of 125 ºC (260 ºF) can reduce bearing life. Causes of
high bearing temperatures include:
1- Insufficient or excessive lubrication.

2- Impurities in the lubricant.
3- Over loading.
4- Bearing damage.
5- Insufficient clearance.
6- High friction in the seals.
It is therefore necessary to check the temperature continually, both at the

bearing itself and at other vital components. Any change in temperature can be
an indication of malfunction if the running conditions have not been altered
(changed).

Bearing temperature can be routinely and accurately checked with a surface

thermometer. Critical bearings, which cause equipment downtime when they
fail, should ideally be equipped with a heat probe.
Figure 1.36 High temperature bearing
It is important to note that a natural temperature rise lasting one or two days will
occur immediately after lubrication and relubrication.
1.6.3 Look
Properly lubricated bearings that are adequately protected from dirt and
moisture should not exhibit wear. However, it is advisable to visually check a
bearing when it is uncovered, and to periodically check the seals. Check the
condition of seals near the bearing to ensure that they do not permit hot or
corrosive liquids and gases to penetrate along the shaft. Replace worn felt and
rubber seals as soon as possible.

Figure 1.37 Lubricant leakage
In addition to preventing the entry of dirt, seals are also important for keeping
lubricant in the bearing housing. Lubricant leaks at seal locations should be
inspected immediately for worn seals, seals defects and loose plugs. Leaks can
also result from a slackening of the joint between the mating surfaces of the
bearing housing, or from the grease breaking down by churning and releasing
free oil, thus overlubricating.
Check automatic lubricating systems so they perform properly by filling them

with oil or grease and ensuring that the right amount of lubricant is released.
Also take a good look at the lubricant. Discoloration or darkening are usually
signs that the lubricant contains impurities.
1.6.4 Lubricate
1.6.4.1 With Grease
Relubricate bearing arrangements according to guidelines supplied by the

equipment manufacturer, or by following the lubricating instructions.
Relubrication is best performed during planned periods of equipment downtime.

You can relubricate with small quantities per schedule. Periodically, you should
clean out used grease or purge out through drain plugs. Wipe lubrication
nipples clean before injecting fresh grease. If the bearing housing is not
equipped with nipples, you will need to remove the housing cap or end cover in
order to remove the used grease. Next, apply fresh grease of the same type.

Figure 1.38 Lubrication with grease
1.6.4.2 With oil
When inspecting the oil level of a bearing, check to ensure that the right type of
oil is in use and that the oil level gauge air vent is unobstructed (figure 1.39)
Figure 1.39 Adding oil

Take a small sample of the oil and compare it with fresh oil. If the sample looks
cloudy, then it is mixed with water and should be replaced. Dark or thick oil is
a sign of dirt or indicates that the oil has started to carbonize. Change the oil
completely and, if possible, clean the bearing by flushing it with fresh oil.
When changing the oil, be sure that you are using the same type of oil, and that
you refill to the required level.
A more reliable method of determining the oil condition is to analyze a sample.

If the oil is contaminated it may be worthwhile to change the seals or consider
filtration.
Oil in oil bath lubrication systems requires a change only once each year,
providing that the operating temperature does not exceed 50 to 60 ºC (1 20 to
140 ºF), and the oil does not become contaminated. Change the oil four times
each year for operating temperatures of 1 00 ºC (210 ºF); monthly for operating
temperatures of 120 ºC (250 ºF); and weekly for operating temperatures of
130 ºC (265 ºF).

1.6.5 Troubleshooting



SECTION – 1.7
LUBRICATION SYSTEMS
In this section the following points will be covered:

1- The importance of lubrication.
2- Two common methods for oil lubrication in most of plant equipment.
3- Forced circulation method, the component and their functions.
4- Lubricant storage and handling.
5- Lubricant storage and handling check list
1.7.1 The Importance of Lubrication
The purpose of a lubrication is to reduce friction between the moving parts
beside other functions are covered in page 3 of this chapter.
1.7.2 Common Methods of Lubrication
There are two methods of lubrication are commonly used in different equipment
in the plant. They are:
1.7.2.1 Splash and Ring Oilers (or Bath Oilers)
Figure 1.40 shows several types of splash and bath oilers
Oil ring
A B
Figure 1.40 Splash and bath oilers

In these systems, a portion of the machine housing is used as an oil sump (tank).
This sump holds the oil at a specified level, allowing some of the moving parts
to be partially immersed. As these parts move or rotate, they transfer the
lubricant to the area requiring lubrication.
The examples in figure 1.38 are:

• Splash lubrication in gear box used to drive equipment (a). One or more
gears extend into the oil in the bottom of the gear case. As the gears
revolve, they pick up oil and deposit it on other gears and on the shafts.
• Ring oiler (b) which is usually used with bearings. In this system, a
loose ring (about 1 ½ times the diameter of the shaft) on the shaft. As
the shaft rotates, the ring rotates, it picks up oil from the sump and
deposit it on the upper surface of the shaft and through oil (splash) to
the bearings.
• In small reciprocating machines (compressor for example), there is

scoop fixed to the big end bearing of the connecting rod (c). As the
crankshaft rotates, these scoops spread oil to all internal components
requiring lubrication.
1.7.2.2 Forced Circulation Oil Lubrication System (or Pressurized

Oil System)
Figure 1.41 shows this system in its simple shape. The lower part of the
machine is used as an oil sump (tank). The oil is drawn from the sump by an oil
pump, pressurized, and then distributed to the various lubricating points.
Figure 1.41 Forced circulation oil lubrication system

If the forced circulating system has to handle a large amount of oil and the
equipments subject to heat or contaminants, then additional components will
have to be added to the simple system.
The components of forced circulation system are:
• Main oil pump – which is driven by the machine itself.
• Auxiliary oil pump – which is driven by an electric motor (A.C or D.C).

The function of auxiliary oil pump is to make continuous circulation of
the oil from the oil tank through the system during start up period and
shutdown period until the machine becomes completely cooled.
• Oil filters, strainers in the lubricating oil system to remove suspended

solids from the system.
• Oil coolers to make cooling for the lubricating oil.
• Pressure relief valves, non-return valves, oil spliters to control the system
pressure and the flow direction of the lubricating oil within the system.
• Pressure gauges and sight glasses to show the oil pressure and the flow of
oil in the system.
Sometimes the system includes a purifier or some other means of mechanically
reclaiming the oil. Usually, this is accomplished by centrifuging (separation of
suspended particles by centrifugal force).
1.7.3 Lubricant Storage and Handling
Importance of Proper Storage
Regardless of how much lubricating you actually do, you probably know where
the lubricants are stored in your plant. Figure 1.42 shows examples of good and
poor lubricant storage.

Figure 1.42 Examples of good and poor lubricant storage
Because lubricant are combustible materials, they are sometimes stored in paint
storage areas where there is suitable fire protection.
Storage racks or shelves should be positioned so that all of the lubricants are
easily accessible. Figure 1.43 show example of a good inside lubricant store
room.
Figure 1.43 Good inside lubricant storeroom

High standards of cleanliness are extremely importance in lubricant storage
areas.
On the following page there is lubricant storage and handling checklist


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Technical Training Programme Rotating Equipment

Mechanical Technician Trainees

TriStar T.S – M - RE – (Rev. .3) May 2004 Page 1 of 61

CHAPTER 3: PUMPS, PACKING AND MECHANICAL

CHAPTER 4: CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS

CHAPTER 5: RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS

CHAPTER 6: SCREW COMPRESSORS

CHAPTER 7: GAS TURBINES

CHAPTER 10: COMMON PROBLEMS AND MAINTENANCE

TriStar T.S – M - RE – (Rev. .3) May 2004 Page 2 of 61

TriStar T.S – M - RE – (Rev. .3) May 2004 Page 3 of 61

BEARINGS & LUBRICATION

1.1.2 Lubrication ……………………………………………….. 8

1.1.3 Function of the bearing …………………………….…….. 10

1.1.4 Loads acting on rotating shafts ………………………..… 10

1.1.5 Classification of bearings ……………………………….. 11

Sliding Surface Bearings

TriStar T.S – M - RE – (Rev. .3) May 2004 Page 4 of 61

1.2.6 Classification of radial sliding surface bearings with respect

1.2.7 Sliding surface bearing as thrust bearing ………………… 22

Sliding Surface Bearing Failure

1.3.1 Symptoms of bearing failure …………………………..… 25

1.3.2 Reasons of bearing failure ……………………………… 25

1.3.3 Sliding surface bearing maintenance …………………… 28

TriStar T.S – M - RE – (Rev. .3) May 2004 Page 5 of 61

Rolling Element Bearings (Anti – Friction Bearings)

1.4.1 The basic parts of a rolling element bearings …………… 31

1.4.2 How does it works? …………………………………….. 31

1.4.3 Basic types of rolling elements bearing ………………… 32

1.4.4 Rolling element bearing failure ………………………… 37

1.5.1 Mounting methods for angular contact ball bearings …… 40

1.5.2 Shaft and housing preparation ………………………… 42

1.5.3 Mounting rolling element bearings …………………….. 44

TriStar T.S – M - RE – (Rev. .3) May 2004 Page 6 of 61

What to Look for During Operation

1.6.1 Listen ………………………………………………….. 48

1.6.2 Feel ……………………………………………………. 49

1.6.3 Look …………………………………………………… 50

1.6.4 Lubricate ………………………………………………. 51

1.6.5 Troubleshooting ……………………………………….. 54

1.7.1 The importance of lubrication ………………………….. 57

1.7.2 The two common methods of lubrication ……………… 57

1.7.3 Lubricant storage and handling ………………………… 59

TriStar T.S – M - RE – (Rev. .3) May 2004 Page 7 of 61

1- Rolling friction (figure 1.1).

Figure 1.1 Figure 1.2

The purpose of a lubricant is to reduce friction. Lubrication is merely a means

TriStar T.S – M - RE – (Rev. .3) May 2004 Page 8 of 61

Take the simplest case of a flat object m

Dry surfaces in contact Lubricated surfaces

1.1.2.1 What are the Basic Purposes of Lubrication?

1- To reduce friction between sliding surface (as the example which is

2- To reduce wear: The wearing down of machine parts is caused by friction.

4- To cool moving components: The lubrication prevents excessive friction

TriStar T.S – M - RE – (Rev. .3) May 2004 Page 9 of 61

5- Corrosion prevention: The lubricants prevent or retard rust and corrosion. It

6- To seal out dirt, other contaminants: lubricants serve as seals in machines in

1.1.3 Function of the Bearings

1. To support a shaft while permitting the shaft to rotate as necessary for

1.1.4 Loads Acting on Rotating Shafts