12/14/2021

Chapter 4: Surface Runoff and

Flow Measurement
Lecturer
Er. Saugat Tiwari
SOE, PU

• Runoff: It is the portion of the precipitated water that reaches the river or
stream through the surface or sub surface flow.
• The water that flows towards the stream / river by over land flow is fast and
also called direct runoff whereas horizontal movement of water i.e., runoff
through the underground soil is very slow to reach rivers / streams and called
delay flow / base flow.
• Surface Runoff
• The precipitated portion of water that takes its way towards the rivers or
stream through the surface flow/ over land flow is called surface runoff.
Surface runoff provides the flash flood / discharge to the rivers.

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• Drainage basin and its quantitative characteristics:

• The drainage basins are the catchment area which provides the water
towards the certain river i.e precipitated water ultimately flows towards the
small river or stream near them.
• Generally, area is divided into different basins and catchments that is
covered by big rivers.
• In Nepal the major basins are Koshi, Narayani, Bagmati, Karnali,
Mahakali, West Rapti, Kankai and Kamala.

• The basin characteristics are generally determined by its geology,

geomorphology, area, slope and drainage basin dynamics.
• Geology: Includes the characteristics of soil and rock strata over which runoff
takes place. i.e. composition, texture and sequence of the rocks and soil layers
including faults and folds.
• Shape: basins are of two types. a) fan shaped b) fern shaped

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• For the fan shaped catchment which is broad and spread such that all the
tributaries are approximately of same size provides greater runoff because
peak flood from the tributaries is likely to reach the main river / stream
approximately at the same time.
• For the case of fern shaped catchment which is small and elongated, all the
tributaries have different length and meet the main river at regular intervals.
they receive water from the small area in one hand and in another the time of
concentration / travel water from the farthest area to the outlet of the catchment
will be high hence reduces the occurrence of peak flood intensity in
comparison to fan shaped catchment.

• The basin characteristics cont….

• Size: for the small basin over land flow is more where as larger basin channel
flow is predominant providing constant minimum flow than small basin.
• Slope of the catchment:
Which controls the velocity of flow
Steep slope for small basin produced higher peak.
It is related to overland flow, infiltration capacity, time of concentration of
rainfall in streams/ rivers.
• Elevation
• It is related to the effect of evaporation and precipitation and effect of snow.

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• The basin characteristics cont.…..

• Drainage density; Ratio of total length of channel to the total drainage area.
• higher the drainage density higher and faster runoff response can be occurred
and vice versa.
• Land use: Cultivated: low runoff. Barren: high runoff
• Soil: Types of soils, condition of permeability, geology controls infiltration,
water holding capacity reduces surface runoff etc.
• Orientation of the basin: wind ward side / lee ward side.

• Factors affecting Runoff:

• Basin characteristics / Physiological factors
• Climatic factors
Precipitation characteristics
• Duration of rainfall
• Type of rainfall
• Intensity of rainfall / magnitude of rainfall
• Rainfall distribution / coverage of rainfall
• Initial losses (interception and depression storage)
• Evapotranspiration

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• Rainfall- Runoff Relation( correlation )

• The relationship between the rainfall and the runoff is very complex is mainly
affected by the basin characteristics as well as precipitation characteristics.
• With the known values of precipitation and the resulting runoff can be plotted
in y- axis and x -axis respectively and drawing the best fit line by accepting the
result if the correlation coefficient is near to the unity. i.e., generally, more than
0.60.
• For the small basin linear relationship between precipitation P and runoff R is
given by
• R = aP + b
• Where, a and b are coefficients.
• the value of a and b can be calculated by least square method

𝑁( 𝑃𝑅) −( 𝑃)( 𝑅)
•𝑎= 2
𝑁( 𝑃2 )−( 𝑃)
𝑅−𝑎 𝑃
• b=
𝑁
• where, N = number of observations / data
• the coefficient of correlation r is given by
• r = [N∑RP -∑ R ∑𝑷] / √[N∑P2 - (∑𝑷)2. N∑R2 - (∑𝑹)2]
N(∑RP) −(∑ R )(∑𝑷)
•𝑟=
√[N∑P2 − (∑𝑷)2. (N∑R2 − (∑𝑹)2)]
• r lies between 0 and 1. the value of r between 0.6 to 1 indicates good
correlation.

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• Rainfall- Runoff Relation( correlation )

• But for the larger basin the Exponential relationship between R and P is done.
• R = a. P β
• Taking log on both sides ln R = ln (a. P β)
• ln R = β ln P + ln a……… 1
• compare this equation 1 with the equation of straight-line y = mx + c
• then, y = ln R. m = β. x = ln P and c = ln a
• The values of a and β can be calculated by least square method
• m =β= [N∑xy -∑ x ∑𝒚] / N∑x2 - (∑𝒙)2
• c = [∑ 𝒚−𝒎∑𝒙] / N
• c = ln a. So, a = ec
• r = [N∑xy -∑ y ∑𝒙] / √[N∑x2 - (∑𝒙)2. N∑y2 - (∑𝒚)2]

• Stream gauging (site selection, types of gauges and measurements):

• Stream gauging means to measure the flow depth as well as discharge of the
river for the systematic records that can be utilized for the design of the
hydraulic structures as well as to control the flood and its mitigations.
• Criteria for the site selection:
• The gauging site is the particular location of the river from which required
depth, velocity as well as discharge of the river can be taken timely for the
future records. Following points should be considered for the selection of the
gauging site.
• Site should be easily accessible.
• The reach of the river should be straight up to 100m u/s and100 d/s from the
gauging place having stable banks so that cross section of the river does not
change according to the seasons. i.e., well defined and regular cross section.

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• Criteria for the site selection contd……

• The velocity of flow should not be too low or too high i.e. in between
0.10 to 5m/s.
• Part of the river where is the chance of having great fluctuation in stage of
the river.
• No wild animal’s activities in the site i.e., drinking, crossing or even
bathing.
• No excessive algal or aquatic weeds / plants growth in the river water that
disturbs the gauging.
• No back water effect at the site due to the construction of hydraulic
structure near it.
• Not having excessive turbulence and eddies.

• Types of gauges:
• Different types of gauges can be used for measuring the depth of the river.
• 1) Staff gauges: They are the wooden bar / metal bar provided with
graduations. the level at which the river water wets the graduation will be the
depth of flow of river at that time of measurement. This reading should be
taken manually.

fig: Staff gauge

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• 2) Wire gauge: The rope/ wire is provided with the weight disk attached to
it is lowered into the river towards the bed from the fixed reference point
with the help of pulley arrangements.
• The wet portion of the rope with the disk length is measured by tape to
know the depth of flow.

pulley

Cable / rope

metal disk / weight

• 3) Float gauge: It is the recording type gauge, which consists of the float
attached with the wire/rope is counter balanced by the weight.
• Due to the rise or fall in stage of river the float moves up ward or downward
accordingly.
• The movement of the rope / angular displacement of pulley provides the
input to the shaft to record on the revolving drum.

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• 4) Bubble gauge / pressure gauge: It consists of small tube which is placed

at the bed level of the river and the compressed air of CO2 or N2 is
continuously bubbled out with the pressure which is measured by the
manometer in the recorder house. P = γ.H. hence, H =P/γ
•

• Stream flow measurements by velocity Area method ,current meter, floats , velocity
rod and dilution techniques.
• The discharge of stream can be computed by using velocity area method.
• i.e. Discharge = Velocity of flow x cross sectional area of flow = V x A
• so, velocity of flow as well as cross section area of flow must be known to
find the discharge.
• Measurement of flow velocity:
• Floats: Surface float
• Velocity rod / Sub- surface float
• Current meters

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• 1) Floats: floating objects such as wooden piece, cork, apple, slipper etc. can
be used to measure the velocity of flow of the river/ stream. For the surface
floats: consider the figure;
• The straight reach of the river is chosen
having length of L between two sections 1
and 2.
• The surface float is flown from section 1 at
time t= 0 and when it reaches section 2, time
is taken as t = t
• The travel time of float will be (t -0) = t sec
Now, measured velocity Vm = L / t
• Average velocity of flow Va = Cv x Vm
• where, (Cv = Coefficient of velocity 0.85 to
0.95)

• 2) Velocity Rod / Sub-surface float: Floating object is flown from under water
in between the sections. Velocity rods are the straight wooden or hollow tubes
of tin having diameter of 25 to 50mm and counter weight is provided to keep
them under water vertically such that small portion of the length of tube can be
remained above water surface during running under water.
• Single point method: Float is flown at 0.60 times the depth of water from the
top surface.
• Vo.6D = Va = L/t as usual in the surface float. No need of multiplying by
velocity coefficient to get average velocity of flow.
• Double point method: Flown at 0.20 times and 0.80 times depth of river water
from the surface. velocity at 0.20 depth and 0.80depth is measured separately
and average velocity is considered as the velocity of flow.
• V 02D = Length of reach / time taken by float to reach section 2 from section 1
V 0.8D = Length of reach / / time taken by float to reach section 2 from section
1
• Vm = Va = [V0.2D + V 0.8D] / 2

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Current meter: It is the mechanical device to measure the flow velocity. (0.1 to
9m/s) two types of current meter
Vertical axis (Cup type). up to 3 to 5m/s.
Horizontal axis (Propeller type). 6 to 9m/s higher velocity

fig: vertical axis current meter fig: Horizontal axis ( Propeller type)current meter

Velocity is measured by using formula V = aN + b

Where, N = number of revolutions per sec.

a and b are current meter constant

Velocity of flow can be measured using single point or double point method.

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• Determination of sectional Area:

• Mean Section method:
• The average depth of the consecutive sections separated with fixed intervals is
used to find the sectional area.
• from the figure below if the sections are taken at a interval width of b1..b6 and
respected depth of stages are y0, y1, y2 ………y5 then,
Area of first section A1 = b1 x (yo+y1)/2
for 2nd sectional area = A2 = b2 x (y1+y2)/2
for the 3rd section = A3 = b3 x (y2+y3)/2
and so on for other sections.
• if b1 = b2 = b3 = b4 = …bn = b of equal fixed width of the segmental area Total
area will be A = ∑𝑨𝒊 = b/2 (yo + 2y1 + 2y2 +……. + 2yn-1+yn)

• Total Discharge = Q = ∑𝑸𝒊 = ∑(Ai x Vi )

• Q1 = A1 x V1 Q2 = A2 x V2
• and so on.
• Mid sectional area Method:

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• the width for the 1st segment = w1 = (b1 + b2/2)2 / 2 b1

• other intermediate segments = w2 ……..wn-1 = (b2+ b3)/2 …… (bn-1 + bn-2 )/ 2
• i.e. average width of consecutive segments.
• For the last segment width = wn = (bn + bn-1/2)2 / 2 bn
• Sectional area of each segment = A1 = w1 x y1
• A2 = w2 x y2
• An = wn x yn
• A = ∑Ai = A1 + A2 + ⋯ + An
• Q = ∑𝐐𝐢 = ∑Ai Vi = A1 V1+ A2 V2 + A3 V3 +………+ An Vn
•

• Salt dilution methods

• .The salt dilution method is a simple and practical technique for measuring
the discharge of mountainous streams where turbulence is high and flow does
not exceed 5m³/s.
• The optimal flow for this measurement method is 1.5 m³/s.
• The technique is based on the principle that a given amount of salt is diluted
more by a large amount of water than by a small amount. This means that the
higher the discharge the more diluted will be salt that is placed in the water
upstream.
• The salt dilution method involves injecting (inserting) a known amount of salt
into a stream. This process is technically known as slug injection.

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𝑆 ∗𝑘
•𝑄=𝑐 ∗
( 𝑐 𝑡 −𝑁 𝐶0 ) 𝑇

• Where , C = calibration factor

• 𝑐 𝑡 = sum of the conductivity reading
• N = Number of observation
• C0 = base level conductivity
• T = Measurement interval
• N C0 = N * Initial conductivity reading

• Stream flow computation by slope area method.

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• Considering the two sections of the river reach 1 and 2 of L meter apart as
shown in figure above.
• here;
• z1 and z2 bed level of section 1 and 2 from datum respectively. y1 and y2 are the
water depth of section 1 and 2 respectively.
• V1 and V2 are the velocity of flow of section 1 and 2 respectively.
• V12/2g and V22/2g are the kinetic head of section 1 and 2 respectively
• h1 and h2 are static head of section 1 and 2 respectively.
• hL = head loss includes both eddy loss he and friction loss hf.
• Applying Bernoulli’s principle between the sections;

• then, Z1 + y1 + V 2/2g = Z2 + y2 +V 2/2g + hL

= (h1 -h2) + (V12-V2 2) / 2g = he +hf
hf = (h1 -h2) + (V1 2-V2 2) / 2g – he
• Now according to Manning’s formula for uniform flow;
Q = A x Velocity = A x (1 / N) R 2/3 S 1/2
• if; (1/N) A R 2/3 = K Average conveyance factor.
then; S = hf / L = Q2/K2 where, K = √(K1 K2)
Q = K √𝑺
• for K1 = (1/N) A1 R1 Conveyance factor for section 1
2/3

• K2 = (1/N) A2 R2 2/3 Conveyance factor for section 2

• N = Rugosity coefficient of river bed material.
A1 and A2 = sectional area of section 1 and 2 respectively.
R = Hydraulic mean radius = A/P
P = wetted perimeter

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• he = ke (V12/2g – V22/2g). where, ke = eddy loss coefficient

• Procedure:
• Calculate wetted perimeter, hydraulic radius K1 and K2 at section 1 and 2. Compute k
using K = √ (K1 K2)
• Assume V1 = V2
• Calculate hf using equation hf = (h1 -h2) + (V12-V22) / 2g - he
• Calculate Q; using Q = K √𝑺 = K √ (hf / L)
• Find V1 and V2 V1= Q/A1 and V2 = Q/A2
• Again calculate hf; hf = (h1 -h2) + (V12-V22) / 2g - he
• If new hf and old hf are almost equal
• then Q is okey otherwise repeat the process from 2.
• Compute Q using final value of hf.
•

• Development of Rating curve and its uses.

• Rating curve is the graphical representation of the depth of flow (stage) of the
river to the corresponding discharge. Stage G is plot along ordinate axis
whereas discharge Q is along abscissa as shown in figure.
• Once the rating curve is plotted for a river at certain location of the gauging
point, then we can calculate discharge or depth of flow from this curve with
known / measured value of depth or discharge respectively, i.e., if depth is
known, discharge can be calculated from rating curve and if discharge is
known depth can be computed from rating curve.

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• The equation of the rating curve is given by:

• Q = Cr (G – a) ß
where, Cr and ß are the constant of rating curve.
a = Stage corresponding to zero discharge.
• Taking log on both sides log Q = log Cr (G – a) ß
log Q = ß log (G-a) +log Cr
comparing with equation of straight-line y = mx + c
then, y = log Q, m = ß, x = log (G-a) and c = log Cr.
• the constants can be computed by least square method
m = ß = [N ∑ 𝑿𝒀 − ∑ 𝑿. ∑𝒚 ] / N ∑ X2 - (∑X)2
C = [∑𝑦 − ß∑𝑋]/ N
C = log Cr
Cr = 10C
• Coefficient of correlation r = [N ∑ 𝑿𝒀 − ∑ 𝑿. ∑] / √[{N ∑ X2 -(∑X)2} x {N ∑ y 2 - (∑y)2}]

• Determination of stage for zero discharge: a

• The constant a of the rating curve is the stage corresponding to zero discharge is the
hypothetical value that is not measured in the field. following method is used for
determining a.
• Method 1: Plot G vs Q in arithmetic scale and draw the best fit rating curve. By
extrapolating the curve by eye judgement find a as the value of G corresponding to
zero discharge.
• now with this value of a, plot log (G-a) Vs Log Q, if the straight-line rating curve
appears then that a is correct otherwise select another trial value of a by trial and error
that satisfies the straight-line plot of log (G-a) Vs Log Q.
• Method 2: Plot G vs Q in arithmetic scale and draw the best fit rating curve. Choose
three discharge values as Q1, Q2 and Q3 from this curve such that Q1/Q2 = Q2/Q3.
• From A and B vertical lines are drawn whereas from B and C as horizontal lines are
drawn as shown in figure to find D and E. two straight line ED and BA are drawn and
they intersect at point F. from F horizontal line is drawn to cut at y -axis. this cut
portion value of G will be a.

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• Method 3: Plot G vs Q in arithmetic scale and draw the best fit rating curve.
Choose three discharge values as Q1, Q2 and Q3 from this curve such that
• Q1/Q2 = Q2/Q3 and find the corresponding stages G1,G2 and G3 respectively.
• Use the relation: (G1-a) / (G2-a) = (G2-a) / (G3-a)
• a = (G1.G3 – G22) / (G1+G3- 2G2)

• Permanent control and Shifting control:

• If the rating curve of the river at any gauging station does not change with
time i.e. it is constant then, it is called permanent control.
• Similarly, the rating curve of any gauging station is not constant but
changes with time then it is called shifting control.
• The main causes of shifting control are:
• Backwater effect
• Weed growth, dredging or channel encroachment.
• Aggradation or degradation in alluvium channel
• Unsteady flow effect of rapidly changing stage.

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• If the shifting control is due to back water effect, it can be reduced by

providing another secondary gauging station / auxiliary gauge can be installed
some distance d/s of the gauging station and readings of both the gauges are
taken. the difference water level of main gauge and the secondary gauge gives
the fall value F.
• then, Q/ Q0 = (F /F0) m
• Where, Q = Actual discharge
• Q0 = Normalized discharge at the given stage when the fall = F0
• F = Actual fall
• m = Exponential constant having normal value of 0.50

• If the shifting control is due to unsteady flow effect, then for the same
stage there will be more discharge than in the steady uniform flow
condition. the actual discharge is given by:
•
𝟏 𝒅𝒉
Q / Q0 = (𝟏 + ∗ )
𝑽𝒘 ∗𝑺𝒐 𝒅𝒕
• Vw = Velocity of flood wave
• S0 = Bed slope of river
• dh/dt = rate of change of stage
• Qo = discharge under steady flow condition.

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• Numerical 1: Determine the discharge per unit width of the stream 5 m deep from
the following recorded values of velocity.
Depth above bed m 1 2 3 4
Velocity m/s 0.60 0.74 0.85 0.90
• Solution:
• The average velocity of flow can be measured by either single point method or
double point method.
• For single point method 0.60 x depth of flow is considered from the top surface.
• So, velocity at 0.60 depth from top = 0.60 x 5 = 3m form top i.e. 2 m from bed =
0.74m/s
• Similarly, for double point method; 0.20 depth = 1m and 0.80 depth = 4m from top
Velocity at 0.20 depth = 0.90m/s
• Velocity at 0.80 depth = 0.60m/s
• Average velocity of flow = 0.90+0.60 /2 = 0.75m/s
• Calculation of discharge:
• Using single point method = Q = 0.74 x (5 x1) = 3.72 m3/s
• Using double point method = Q = 0.75 x (5x1) = 3.75m3/s

• Numerical 2: Following data were collected for a stream gauging station.

compute the discharge by
• Mid-section method
• Mean section method
Velocity m/s
Distance from Depth of water
one end m m 0.20 depth 0.60 depth 0.80 depth
0 0 - - -
1.2 0.70 - 0.40 -
2.4 1.70 0.70 - 0.50
3.6 2.5 0.90 - 0.60
4.8 1.3 0.60 - 0.40
6.0 0.50 - 0.35 -
7.2 0 - - -

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1. Using Mid- section method:

Depth
Velocity Area of section
Width m of flow Discharge m3/s
Segment m/s m2 Remarks
W m Qi = Ai x Vi
Vi Ai=W X D
D

1 1.35 0.40 0.70 0.945 0.378 V= V0.60D

2 1.20 0.60 1.7 2.04 1.224 V= (V0.2 +V0.8)/2

3 1.20 0.75 2.5 3.00 2.25 V= (V0.2 +V0.8)/2

4 1.20 0.50 1.3 1.56 0.78 V= (V0.2 +V0.8)/2

5 1.35 0.35 0.50 0.675 0.236 V = V0.60D

Total:Q = ∑𝑸𝒊 4.868 m3/s

Note: width of 1st and last segment W1 and Wn = (b1+ b2/2)2 / 2b1 = (1.2 + 1.2/2)2 / (2 x 1.2)
= 1.35m
for other intermediate sections, W = (1.2 + 1.2)/2 = 1.2m

• Using Mean section method:

Distance Average
Average Sectional Discharge
from Width Velocity of velocity Depth
depth area Qi Remarks
End W flow m/s m/s of flow
Dm Ai= Dm x W = Ai x Vi
m Vi

0 - 0 - 0 - - -
1.2 1.2 0.40 0.20 0.70 0.35 0.42 0.084
2.4 1.2 0.60 0.50 1.70 1.20 1.44 0.72
3.6 1.2 0.75 0.675 2.50 2.1 2.52 1.701
4.8 1.2 0.50 0.625 1.30 1.90 2.28 1.425
6.0 1.2 0.35 0.425 0.50 0.90 1.08 0.459
7.20 1.2 0 0.175 0 0.25 0.30 0.053
Total: Q = ∑𝑸𝒊 4.44 m3/s

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• Numerical 3: Following data were obtained in a stream gauging operation,

current meter with calibration V = (0.32N + 0.032) m/s, where N = No. of
revolution / sec was used to measure the velocity at 0.60 depth. Using the
velocity area method calculate the discharge in stream.

Dist. from 0 2 4 6 9 12 15 18 20 22 23 24
right bank m

Depth m 0 0.50 1.1 1.95 2.25 1.85 1.75 1.65 1.5 1.25 0.75 0

No. of 0 80 83 131 139 121 114 109 92 85 70 0

revolutions

Time of
observation 0 180 120 120 120 120 120 120 120 120 150 0
sec

• Using Mid-section Method:

Dist. Sectional No. of Revolution per
Average Average Vi = 0.32N Discharge
from Width b Depth area Time T revolution second Nos./T + 0.032
width W depth = Qi = Ai x Vi
right D Ai = W X D =N m/sec
bank Nos.

0 - - 0 - 0 0 0 0 0.032 0.000
2 2 2.25 0.50 0.25 0.563 180 80 0.44 0.17 0.096
4 2 2 1.10 0.80 1.60 120 83 0.69 0.25 0.400
6 2 2 1.95 1.525 3.05 120 131 1.092 0.38 1.159
9 3 2.5 2.25 2.10 5.25 120 139 1.158 0.40 2.100
12 3 3 1.85 2.05 6.15 120 121 1.01 0.36 2.214
15 3 3 1.75 1.80 5.40 120 114 0.95 0.34 1.836
18 3 3 1.65 1.70 5.10 120 109 0.91 0.32 1.632
20 2 2.5 1.50 1.575 3.544 120 92 0.767 0.28 0.992
22 2 2 1.25 1.375 2.75 120 85 0.71 0.26 0.715
23 1 1.5 0.75 1.0 1.50 150 70 0.47 0.18 0.270
24 1 1.125 0 0.375 0.422 0 0 0 0.032 0.014
Total: Q = ∑𝑸𝒊 =11.428 m3/s

For first segment W1 = [b1 + (b2/2)] 2/ 2b1 = (2 + 2/2)2 / 2 x 2 = 2.25m for other
intermediate segments W = average width
for Last segment = [bn + (bn-1/2)]2 / 2bn = (1+1/2)2 / 2 x 1 = 1.125m

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• Numerical 4: The high flow water surface elevation of a stream at two sections
A and B, 10 km apart are 206.923m and 206.652m respectively. The cross
sections and wetted perimeters are as follows. Assume N= 0.02, the eddy loss
coefficient is 0.30 for gradual expansion and 0.10 for gradual contraction.
Estimate the discharge at the stream.
Section A Area : 73.293 sq.m. Wetted perimeter: 26.818m
Section B Area: 93.375 sq.m. Wetted perimeter: 30.228m
Solution: Discharge of stream can be solved by slope area method.

• We, have
• frictional head loss between two sections: hf = (ha – hb) + (Va2-Vb2)/2g - Ke.
(Va2-Vb2)/2g
• N= Manning’s roughness coefficient = 0.02
• Length between section L = 10km = 10,000m
• ha – hb = 206.923-206.652 = 0.271m
• Ke = eddy loss coefficient for gradual expansion = 0.30
• Wetted perimeter of A = Pa = 26.818, Area of A = Aa = 73.293 sq.m.
• Wetted perimeter of B = Pb = 30.228 Area of B = Ab = 93.375 sq.m.
• Hydraulic mean radius for A = Ra = Aa/Pa = 73.293/26.818 =2.733m
• Hydraulic mean radius for B = Rb = Ab/Pb = 93.375/30.228 = 3.089m
Calculation of Conveyance factors for A and B

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• Ka = 1/0.02 x 73.293x 2.733 2/3 = 7163.51

• Kb = 1/0.02 x 93.375x 3.0892/3 = 9902.52
• Average conveyance factor K = √(𝐾𝑎. 𝐾𝑏 ) = 8422.398= 8422.40
• Calculation of data in the tabular format:
Q = K √𝑆f
Velocity hf =
at Velocity (Va2-Vb2)/2g
= K √ ℎ𝑓/ l )
Ke. (Va2-Vb2)/2g 0.271+X-
section at = 0.051 (Va2-
Trial No. A Section B = 0.015(Va2-Vb2) Q= 8422.40√𝒉𝒇
= = Vb Vb2) Y
=Y /10000
Va= = Q/Ab =X
Q/Aa m
m3/s
1. Va =Vb - - 0 0 0.271 43.845
2. 0.598 0.469 0.007 0.002 0.276 44.248
3. 0.604 0.474 0.007 0.002 0.276 44.248
⸫ The discharge of stream = 44.248 m3/sec

• Numerical 5: The stage discharge data of the river are given below. Establish
the stage discharge relationship to predict the discharge for the given stage.
Assume the value of stage corresponding to zero discharge as 35m. Estimate the
discharge corresponding to stage value of 42.50m and 48.50m
• Stage m 35.91 36.90 37.92 39.07 41.00 43.53 44.40 45.40 46.43 48.02 49.05 49.55 49.68

Discharge 89 230 360 469 1208 2853 3800 4650 5330 5900 6800 6900 6950
m3/s

Solution: The equation of the rating curve is Q = Cr (G-a) ß

Taking log on both sides; log Q = log (Cr (G-a) ß)

log Q =ß log(G-a) + logCr ….(1)
Compare equation (1) with y = mx + C

where, y = log Q, m = ß, x = log (G-a) and C = log Cr

This can be solved by lest square method

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m = ß = (N∑𝒙𝒚 - ∑𝒙. ∑𝒚) / [N ∑ x2 – ( ∑𝒙)2]

C = log Cr = [ ∑𝐲 – m ∑𝐱] / N
Cr = 10C
• Stage for zero discharge a = 35m
Stage G Discharge Q G-a x = log (G-a) y = log Q x2 x.y
35.91 89 0.91 -0.041 1.949 0.001 -0.077
36.90 230 1.90 0.279 2.361 0.077 0.656
37.92 360 2.92 0.465 2.556 0.216 1.188
39.07 469 4.07 0.609 2.671 0.370 1.626
41.00 1208 6.0 0.778 3.082 0.605 2.397
43.53 2853 8.53 0.930 3.455 0.866 3.213
44.40 3800 9.40 0.973 3.579 0.946 3.482
45.40 4560 10.40 1.017 3.658 1.034 3.720
46.43 5330 11.43 1.058 3.726 1.110 3.942
48.02 5900 13.02 1.114 3.770 1.242 4.199
49.05 6800 14.05 1.147 3.832 1.317 4.395
49.55 6900 14.55 1.162 3.838 1.352 4.459
49.68 6950 14.68 1.166 3.841 1.361 4.478
N =13 ∑𝐱 = 10.658 ∑𝐲 ∑ x2 = 10.506 ∑ x.y = 37.679
= 𝟒𝟐. 𝟑𝟏𝟖

• Now, m = ß = (N∑𝒙𝒚 - ∑𝒙. ∑𝒚) / [N ∑ x2 – ( ∑𝒙)2]

• = [13 x 37.679 – 10.658 x 42.318] / [ 13 x 10.506 – 10.6582] = 1.688
• C = [ ∑𝐲 – m ∑𝐱] / N
• C= [42.318- 1.688 x 10.658] / 13 = 1.871
• Cr = 10C = 10 1.871 = 74.323
• Now the equation of rating curve will be
• Q = Cr (G-a) ß
• Q = 74.323(G – 35) 1.688
• Now finding the value of discharge corresponding to gauge depth of 42.5 and
48.50m using above equation.
• For G = 42.50m
• Q = 74.323 (42.5-35)1.688 = 2229.598 m3/s
• For G = 48.50m
• Q = 74.323(48.50-35) 1.688 = 6013.49 m3/s

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• Numerical 6: Given below are the monthly rainfall P and the

corresponding runoff R values covering the period of 18 months for a
small catchment. Develop a correlation equation between R and P.
Month Rainfall P cm Runoff R cm Month Rainfall P cm Runoff R cm
1 5 0.50 10 30 8
2 35 10 11 10 2.3
3 40 13.8 12 8 1.6
4 30 8.2 13 2 0
5 15 3.1 14 22 6.5
6 10 3.2 15 30 9.4
7 5 0.10 16 25 7.6
8 31 12 17 8 1.5
9 36 16 18 6 0.5

• Solution:
• Linear Correlation between R and P for the small catchment is given by
• R = aP+ b equation of straight line
• Can be solved by least square method as that of rating curve.
• a = (N∑𝑷𝑹 - ∑𝑷. ∑𝑹) / [N ∑ P2 – ( ∑𝑷)2]
• b = ∑𝐑 – a ∑𝐏] / N
• Correlation coefficient
• r = (N∑𝑷𝑹 - ∑𝑷. ∑𝑹) /√[ N ∑ P2 – ( ∑𝑷)2 x N ∑ P2 – ( ∑𝑷)2]

• Do by yourself. Assignment
• Thanks End of chapter 4

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