Hafta.

Hydrology - C E 302
Prof. Dr. Oral YAĞCI

WEEK 8: Basin and Surface Flow
Aydın Adnan Menderes Üniversitesi, Mühendislik Fakültesi, İnşaat Mühendisiliği Bölümü
CONTENT
• Characteristics of a River Basin

• Runoff Seperation
• Rainfall-Runoff Relationships
• Rational Method
• Runoff Due to Snowmelt
• Areal Distribution of Runoff in Turkey
Hydrograp
h
INPUT
(Precipitation etc)
SYSTEM
(Basin)
OUTPUT
(Hydrograph)
Ref: Mays, 2011
Characteristics of a River Basin
River basin (watershed, drainage basin): the surface that transmits the
runoff to an outlet on the waterway (stream, river).
The basin is a system that converts the precipitation falling on it to
the flow at the outlet.
• It may be expected that the geomorphological characteristics of a basin will
be closely related to its hydrological characteristics.
Ref: Allan and Castillo, 2007. Ref: Nicholas, 2009.

1. Soil type and geological formation
2. Vegetation
3. Basin size
4. Basin shape
1. Shape coefficient
2. Gravelius coefficient
3. Schumm coefficient
4. Dimension of an equivalent rectangle
5. Basin slope
6. Average elevation
7. Distribution of the basin area with respect
to distance from the outlet
• 1. Soil type and geological formation: The geology and soil type of
the basin determines its morphology, and influences the infiltration
and groundwater flow.
• 2. Vegetation: It influences the transpiration and interception losses

as well as the magnitude and velocity of snowmelt. It increases the
infiltration capacity.
• 3. Basin size: Maximum discharge per unit area is larger in smaller

basins, and the variation of flow along the year is more irregular. Time
of concentration, increases with the basin size.
Ref: Wanielista et al, (1997)
Perennial
Perennial River
Stream- Ephemeral River,
Reedy Creek, Florida Colorado
Spring,
Colorado.
http://cals.arizona.edu/watershedsteward
Intermittent river-
Middle Creek, Florida
• 4. Basin shape: Basins may have different shapes, which influence the shape
of the hydrograph and the peak flow. Various non-dimensional coefficients
may be used to determine the shape.
• 4a. Shape coefficient: L2/A,
where L is the length of the main stream measured along the thalweg (the line that
joins the deepest points of the streambed)
A is the basin area.
This coefficient takes larger values in long and narrow basins. Larger basins usually
have larger shape coefficients.
4b. Gravelius coefficient: It is the ratio of the perimeter length P of the
basin to the circumference of a circle of equivalent area. It is larger for
basins that have shapes far from a circle.
4c. Schumm coefficient: It is the ratio of the diameter of a circle of

equivalent area to the stream length. Its value varies from 0.6 to 1,
smaller in mountainous regions.
4d. Dimensions of an equivalent rectangle: They are the side lengths

of a rectangle of equivalent area and perimeter length.
• 6. Average elevation: The
average elevation influences
the temperature, and aIso the
vegetation and snow covers.
• 7. Distribution of the basin

area with respect to the
distance from the outlet: It
influences the distribution of
the flow at the outlet in time.
Characteristics of Stream Network
• 1. Stream density: It is the ratio of the total number of tributaries to the
basin area.
• 2. Drainage density: It is the ratio of the total length of tributaries to the

basin area. It varies from 0.5 to 2.5 km/km2. For high drainage densities,
the precipitation reaches the main stream faster, and the floods become
more severe.
• 3. Stream profile: It is the line that shows the variation of the talweg
elevation with the distance from the outlet. The slope is in the order of a
few hundreds in mountain streams and a few thousands or ten-thousands
in plain streams.
• 4. Shape of stream network: It is related to the geology of the soil. Streams
as a rule do not follow a straight path but meander (draw bends) or are
braided.
• 5. Stream order: It is the highest order in the basin when tributaries are
allotted orders starting with one at the smallest tributaries and increasing
by one at the junctions.
• 6. Stream cross-section: Cross-sections are usually irregular but the main

part can be approximated by a trapezoid. The flood plain may have a much
larger width. The depth and width usually increase in the direction of
flow.
• Concentration time, τ: defined as the time it takes the surface runoff
to reach the basin outlet from the farthest point of the basin.
It is the sum of the following components:
1. The time required for the precipitation intensity to exceed the
infiltration capacity,
2. The time for the filling of surface depressions,
3. The time for the sheet flow to reach the stream network,
4. The time for the flow in the network to reach the outlet
If:
Basin Area ↗ τ↗
Slope ↗ τ↘
• The amount of water flowing through the outlet cross-section over a
certain period of time is sometimes given as the runoff depth found
by dividing the flow volume by the basin area.
• 1 mm runoff depth is the same as 1000 m3/km2

Runoff Seperation
Total runoff at the outlet of a drainage basin is composed of several parts.
The excess rainfall, which is the rainfall minus the losses, moves as surface flow
by gravity following the slope of the basin from the higher points of the basin
toward the lower points.
Runoff Seperation
A part of the infiltrated water
moves at the outer layers of
the soil (unsaturated zone)
and returns to the surface
when it is blocked by an
impervious layer, this is called
the subsurface flow.
The rest of the infiltrated water percolates deeper to join the groundwater
and finally feeds a stream as groundwater flow .
Runoff Seperation
• It is easier to divide the total flow into two parts with respect to the time of
arrival to the stream:
• Direct runoff: It consists of the surface flow and the part of the subsurface
flow that reaches the stream without delay after the infiltration. Usually the
larger part of the subsurface flow is included in the direct runoff.
• Base flow: It consists of the groundwater flow and the delayed part of the
subsurface flow that reaches the stream after a long time.
Runoff Seperation
Let us consider a storm with
constant intensity in order to
study the separation of the
water falling on the earth
schematically:
• Initially the soil is dry and

a large part of the water
infiltrates into the soil,
⚫ Which wets the soil and then
becomes subsurface and
groundwater flow
⚫ Plants intercept a part of the
rainfall,
Runoff Seperation
A line consisting of points that transmit the

rainfall on it to the outlet in the same
interval of time is called an isochrone.
As the rainfall continues, areas bounded by

isochrones that are further from the outlet
will contribute to the streamflow, and the
discharge will increase.
Rainfall-Runoff
Relationships
Rainfall-runoff relationships are used in
estimating the direct runoff depth for a
given rainfall depth, especially in ungauged
basins.
The large scatter of the points around the

curve shows that other factors influence the
relationship.
Rational Method
Rational method is commonly
used for the estimation of
maximum streamflow
Q=C i A
i= Intensity of rainfall with a

duration equal to the
concentration time of the
basin
Units used in this equation

must be homogeneous.
Runoff Due to Snowmelt
• A certain amount of heat is required to melt the
snow, which is equal to 80 calories for 1 g of. ice.
• Melting heat varies from 65 to 90 calories according
to the temperature and water content of snow.
• This energy can be supplied by various sources:
• Radiation from the sun
• Heat of air over the snow
• Condensation of moisture in the air on the snow
surface
• Rainfall
• Heat transmitted by the soil
The amount of snowmelt can be computed using following emprical
formulas.
• On rainy days:
M= 0.24kWT+0.013PT+1.3T+2.3
M= depth of water due to snowmelt on a day, mm

W= wind speed, km/hour,
P= daily rainfall, mm
T= average daily temperature, °C
k= varies from 0.3 in forests to 1.0 in open areas
• On sunny days:
M= 0.24kWT + 1.3FT + 0.1(1-F) Hi (1-a)

W= wind speed, km/hour,
F= percentage of the area with forest cover
Hi= radiation from the sun, kal/cm2day
a= albedo of the snow surface
This formula can be used when F is less than
0.60.
• Degree-day method
M= KT
T= average daily temperature, °C
K= degree-day factor (increases as the snow melts from 1 to 10)
The variation of the depth of snow cover and the temperature by elevation must
be considered when the elevation varies significantly in a region.
Such regions must be divided into parts with elevation difference not more than
300-500 m, and the snowmelt must be computed for each part separately.
.
Areal Distribution of Runoff in
Turkey
• Runoff has large variations over Turkey
because of variable climate. Specific discharge
varies from
1.12 to 31.6 l/s-km2
References
• Bayazıt, M. 2001. Hydrology. İTÜ Matbaası, İstanbul.
• http://www.soest.hawaii.edu
• http://oceanworld.tamu.edu
• http://imnh.isu.edu
• http://water.usgs.gov
• http://ohiodnr.com
• http://www.fs.usda.gov/detail/gmug/home/?cid=stelprdb5361221

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Hydrology - C E 302

Prof. Dr. Oral YAĞCI

• Characteristics of a River Basin

Ref: Allan and Castillo, 2007. Ref: Nicholas, 2009.

• 2. Vegetation: It influences the transpiration and interception losses

• 3. Basin size: Maximum discharge per unit area is larger in smaller

4c. Schumm coefficient: It is the ratio of the diameter of a circle of

4d. Dimensions of an equivalent rectangle: They are the side lengths

• 7. Distribution of the basin

• 2. Drainage density: It is the ratio of the total length of tributaries to the

• 6. Stream cross-section: Cross-sections are usually irregular but the main

• 1 mm runoff depth is the same as 1000 m3/km2

• Initially the soil is dry and

A line consisting of points that transmit the

As the rainfall continues, areas bounded by

The large scatter of the points around the

i= Intensity of rainfall with a

Units used in this equation

M= depth of water due to snowmelt on a day, mm

M= 0.24kWT + 1.3FT + 0.1(1-F) Hi (1-a)

M= depth of water due to snowmelt on a day, mm

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