Lecture notes Dr. J.K.

Mwangi ECE 2402: Hydrology I

RUNOFF GENERATION AND FACTORS AFFECTING IT
INTRODUCTION
When rainfall occurs, some of it infiltrates into the ground, some evaporates while the rest flows as a thin
sheet of water over the land surface (overland flow). If a relatively impermeable stratum exists in the subsoil,
the infiltrating water moves laterally in surface soil and joins the stream as sub-surface flow (interflow). If no
such layer exists in the subsoil the infiltrating water percolates into the ground as deep seepage building up
ground water table. All the three types of flow contribute to stream flow with overland flow reaching the
stream channel first, followed by interflow and finally ground water.

Figure 1: Schematic representation of the runoff process

Runoff is the flow collected from a drainage basin at the outlet and is influenced by two major factors:
i. Precipitation characteristics
ii. Physiographic factors.

PRECIPITATION CHARACTERISTICS:
a. Type of Precipitation:
Rainfall produces runoff immediately while snow produces (delayed) runoff.
b. Rainfall Intensity:
If rainfall intensity is greater than soil infiltration rate then runoff is generated. The greater the difference
between the two, the greater the runoff generated.
c. Rainfall duration:
Rainfall duration is directly related to runoff volume as soil infiltration rate decreases with rainfall duration.
Long duration Rainfall produces a large volume of runoff.
d. Rainfall Distribution:
When rainfall is concentrated over a basin and the entire basin is contributing runoff is maximum. An intense
storm on one part of the basin results in a higher runoff than a moderate storm over the entire basin.
e. Direction of storm movement:
A storm moving in the direction of stream flow results in higher runoff peaks than when the storm is moving in
the reverse direction.
f. Climate Factors:
Factors e.g. temperature, wind velocity, relative humidity and average barometric pressure etc. affect
evaporation and water losses from the basin and hence impacts on runoff generated.

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 Lecture notes Dr. J.K. Mwangi ECE 2402: Hydrology I
PHYSIOGRAPHIC FACTORS (Both basin and channel characteristics):
a. Basin Size:
A large basin takes a longer time to drain runoff to the outlet. Peak flow decreases as area increases because
intense storms are usually over small areas and surface runoff period increases with area.
b. Basin Shape:
Runoff generated is greatly affected by basin shape. Fan shape [tends to produce high runoff very early] while
Fern shape [tend to produce less runoff].

Fan shaped basins give higher runoff because tributaries are almost of the same size and peak runoff from the
tributaries tends to reach the outlet at almost at the same time.
Fern shaped basins produce less runoff because tributaries are of different lengths and meet the main stream
at regular intervals thus the discharges are likely to be distributed over a longer period of time. The time of
concentration is more as the discharge travels a longer distance.
c. Basin Slope:
Controls time of overland flow and concentration of runoff in the main stream. Sloppy basins result in greater
runoff due to greater runoff velocity and less infiltration. Runoff quickly reaches the outlet hence high peaks.
d. Basin Orientation:
Evaporation and transpiration losses are directly affected by the amount of heat received from the sun. The
north /south orientation, affects the time of melting of collected snow. Basins oriented towards sun’s rays
most of the time will have increased evaporation hence reduced runoff.
e. Storage characteristics of the basin:
Artificial storages such as dams, weirs etc. and natural storages such as lakes reduce peak flow.
They also give rise to greater evaporation losses.
Meteorological Factors
Temperature, relative humidity, and wind affect runoff. High temperatures, low humidities and strong winds
increase evaporation thus reducing surface runoff.
Soil moisture:
Magnitude of runoff yield depends upon initial moisture content present in the soil at the time of rainfall.
If rain occurs after a long dry spell then infiltration rate is more, hence less runoff.

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 Lecture notes Dr. J.K. Mwangi ECE 2402: Hydrology I
Geological factors
Basin geology is responsible for infiltration rate during a storm. If good aquifer material forms the
basin then surface runoff will be less due to increased infiltration. Presence of faults, fissures and
cracks in the formation results in the diversion of storm water to new locations where they
terminate. Such formations also divert water from a basin to an adjoining one as watershed leakage.
Soil type:
Infiltration capacity varies with soil type, so runoff is greatly affected by soil type in a basin. High porosity
means more water storage and less runoff peak volumes. Small depression and even large lakes reduce runoff
from a basin by holding water during a storm (help in attenuating the flood to the desired levels).
Topographic characteristics:
Undulated land has greater runoff than flat land because runoff water gets additional velocity due to slope and
little time to infiltrate.
Drainage Density:
Is the ratio of the total length of streams [L] in the basin to total area [A]. It varies inversely as the length of
overland flow. Greater drainage density gives more runoff. DD indicates the efficiency of a drainage basin.
Storm characteristics and direction
Low intensity storms over long spells produce relatively less runoff. If the direction of the storm producing
rainfall is down the stream receiving surface flow, it will produce more flood discharge than when it is up the
stream. Windward basins receive more rainfall and hence produce more runoff than leeward basins.
Land use pattern
Arable land, grass land, forest or cultivated area all affect runoff generation. A forest area which has not been
denuded can hold large volumes of water hence less likely to flood. When forests are cleared, there is quick
concentration of flow which produces floods. Activities like ploughing /digging increase infiltration rate.
Storage characteristics
Storage in channels and depressions reduce runoff. Upstream reservoirs, lakes and tanks moderate flood
magnitudes due to their storage effects. They also increase water loss due to evaporation and infiltration.

Other factors e.g. urbanisation affects runoff generation by increasing the area of impervious surfaces and
altering the natural drainage pattern. Urbanisation also affects peak runoff rates. The net quantity of water
available from a basin for purposes of water resources utilisation is called basin yield. It is a random variable
that varies from year to year.

RAINFALL - RUNOFF RELATIONSHIPS

In hydrological analysis, it is often necessary, to develop rainfall-runoff relationships that can be used to
extrapolate/ interpolate runoff from rainfall records (Easily measured and readily available). Through these
relationships runoff from ungauged catchments can be estimated.

RUNOFF ESTIMATION
Runoff may be estimated from rainfall by any of the following methods:

(i) Runoff coefficient.

Is the ratio of the volume of stream flow above base flow to the volume of rainfall and is expressed as:
R = KP where R = runoff, P = precipitation and K = runoff coefficient which depends on soil type (0.5 to 0.95).

(ii) Empirical curves and tables –Based on R-R relationships with factors that account for climatic / basin
characteristics. These curves enable computation of runoff from rainfall data. Examples include Binnie,
Strange and Barlow tables. They are limited in application (only to regions where they were developed).
Example of Binnie’s table

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 Lecture notes Dr. J.K. Mwangi ECE 2402: Hydrology I
Annual rainfall (mm) Runoff volume (Percentage)
50 15
60 21
70 25
80 29
90 34
100 38
110 40
The above percentages are obtained from basin studies and vary from region to region.
(iii) Infiltration methods:
Involve deducting infiltration losses from total rainfall or using infiltration indices. If rainfall intensity is always
higher than infiltration capacity, infiltration rate curve is defined and superimposed on rainfall hyetograph of
the storm with coincident base lines. The area above infiltration curve represents volume of runoff. If rainfall
intensity fluctuates above/below infiltration rate curve, infiltration indices ɸ and W with constant infiltration
rates are used. In this case infiltration rate is taken as constant throughout the storm

.
Infiltration rate curve method ɸ- Index method

1 3
(iv) Rational method- Q p  CIA where Q p is peak runoff (m /s), I is rainfall intensity (mm/hr.) for the
3.6
duration equal to the time of concentration, A is catchment area (km2) and C is a dimensionless runoff
coefficient (0.3- 0.82) that depends on soil type and vegetation cover. Value of C is important in this method.

(v) Hydrograph analysis:

Note:
Base flow is the initial flow in a river
before a storm and is not considered
as part of runoff.

Computing runoff by hydrograph analysis method

(vi) Unit hydrograph method:
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 Lecture notes Dr. J.K. Mwangi ECE 2402: Hydrology I
A unit hydrograph is a hydrograph due to a unit depth (1cm) of runoff (rainfall excess) after deducting all
losses e.g. infiltration. Area under the unit hydrograph represents total volume of runoff due to 1 cm of net
rainfall. If a storm produces x cm of net rainfall, then volume of runoff = (area of UH*x).

Unit hydrograph method

Rainfall excess and direct runoff: Rainfall excess is that portion of rainfall that is neither retained on the land
surface nor infiltrated into the soil. After flowing over the basin, it becomes direct runoff at the outlet.
Methods of estimating RE depend on available data. For example, if a stream flow hydrograph is available and
base flow can be separated to obtain a direct runoff hydrograph, then RE can be estimated using infiltration
indices. Infiltration index is the average rate of water loss such that the volume of rainfall excess equals
direct runoff. It expresses infiltration rate as an average throughout the storm, although it is high at the
beginning and low towards the end of a storm. Infiltration indices provide a means of replacing a time varying
infiltration function with an average value which eases hydrological calculations. Common infiltration indices
are ɸ and W-indices.
i. ɸ-Index- Constant rate of abstraction that yields an excess rainfall hyetograph whose total depth equals
depth of direct runoff over the basin (figure below). The shaded area though measured as rainfall, does not
appear as runoff and represents total losses (evaporation, infiltration, interception etc.). The unshaded area
represents measured runoff.

ɸ Index
ii. W-Index- Is a refined version of ɸ-Index that does not consider depression storage and interception as
losses and therefore includes them in computation. It is the average rate of infiltration which equals the
rate of precipitation less surface runoff and retention during time t.
P  Q  S Where t - time during which rainfall intensity > infiltration capacity
W
t
S–Total depth of depression storage + interception (cm) at time t during which rainfall rate > infiltration rate
P -Total depth of precipitation (cm) corresponding to time t
Q – Total depth of surface runoff (cm)

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 Lecture notes Dr. J.K. Mwangi ECE 2402: Hydrology I
W-Index equals ɸ-Index less depression and interception storages i.e. they are equal when When T = 0
Relative amounts of infiltration and runoff are determined by nature of rainfall, season of the year, land slope,
local soils and type of crops grown.
Example 1
A 6-hour storm produced rainfall intensities of 7, 18, 25, 12, 10 and 3 mm/hr. in successive one-hour intervals
over a basin of area 800 km2. If runoff observed was 2,640Ha-m, determine the ɸ index for the basin.
Solution
Total volume of runoff = 2640*10,000 = 26.4 *106 m3
Basin area = 800 km2 = 800 * 106 m2
Depth of runoff = 2640*104/800*106 = 0.033m = 33mm

The given rainfall hytegraph is as shown above

By trial and error if ɸ index is chosen as 8 mm/hr. rainfall volume above ɸ index = 0 + (18-8) + (25-8) + (12-8) +
(10-8) + 0 = 0 + 10 + 17 + 4 + 2 + 0 = 33 mm, which is equal to observed runoff. Therefore ɸ = 8 mm/hr. Repeat
the process taking ɸ index as 6 mm/hr. and 9mm / hr. respectively.

Example 2:
A storm with a 10.00cm rainfall produced a direct runoff depth of 5.8cm. Given time distribution of the storm
is as shown in the table below, estimate the ɸ index.

Time from start of rainfall (hours) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Incremental rainfall per hour (cm) 0.40 0.90 1.50 2.30 1.80 1.60 1.00 0.50

Solution:
Total Infiltration = Rainfall depth – Runoff depth = 10.00 - 5.8 = 4.2 cm
Assume t = time of rainfall excess = 8 hours for the first trial
Then Φ index = 4.2/8 = 0.525cm / hr.
This value makes rainfalls for first (0.4) and eighth hour (0.5) ineffective as they are less than 0.525cm/hr.
For the second trial assume t = 6 hours
Infiltration = 10.00-0.4-0.5 -5.8 = 3.3cm which gives ɸ index = 3.30/6 = 0.55 cm/hr.

This value is satisfactory as it gives t = 6 and calculating rainfall excess

Time from start of rainfall (h) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Incremental rainfall per h (cm) 0.0 0.35 0.95 1.75 1.25 1.05 0.45 0.0
Total rainfall excess = total runoff = 0.55cm

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 Lecture notes Dr. J.K. Mwangi ECE 2402: Hydrology I
INFILTRATION
Infiltration is defined as the entry/passage of water into the soil through the soil surface. It is a major loss of
precipitation affecting the runoff measured at basin outlet in terms of magnitude timing and distribution.
Infiltration re-charges ground water thus contributing to soil moisture. The maximum rate at which the soil
under a given set of conditions can absorb water at a given time is its infiltration capacity.

At any instant actual infiltration f t can be equal to infiltration capacity f o only when the rainfall intensity is
greater than f o , otherwise actual infiltration will be equal to the rate of rainfall. This is observed during low
intensity rainfall when there is no surface runoff produced by rainfall. Once water enters into the soil, the
process of transmission of water within the soil (percolation) takes place thus removing water from near the
soil surface to down below and charging the ground water reservoir. Infiltration and percolation are
interrelated and when infiltration stops percolation also stops. During a storm, infiltration is highest at the
beginning of the storm, decays exponentially and attains a constant value f c as the storm progresses.

A plot of infiltration capacity curve

Horton (1930) expressed the decay of the infiltration capacity with time as:
f t  f c   f o  f c e Kt Where
f t = infiltration capacity at any time t from start of storm in mm/hr.
fc  Infiltration rate in mm/hr. at the final steady stage when the soil profile is fully saturated
f o = the maximum initial value when t=0 in mm/hr. at the beginning of the storm
t = time lapse from the onset of the storm
k = an empirical constant depending on soil characteristics, vegetation cover and other factors
f o , f c and k depend on a number of factors and e.g. soil characteristics and climate conditions and even for
the same catchment may vary from season to season and storm to storm.

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 Lecture notes Dr. J.K. Mwangi ECE 2402: Hydrology I
The overall effect of infiltration is to:
i. Reduce flood magnitudes
ii. Delay arrival of water in the channel
iii. Reduce soil erosion
iv. Recharge ground water reservoir
v. Help supply water to plants

Factors that affect infiltration include:

Intensity and duration of rainfall
Soil characteristics i.e. clay, silt or sand
Vegetation cover, land use, initial soil moisture content, quality of infiltrating water,
Depth of ground water table
Climatic conditions - Temperature affects viscosity of water and hence its flow
Catchment characteristics;. Drainage density; High D d means more surface runoff and less infiltration

Methods of determining infiltration: Infiltrometer (double / single) ring, observation in pits, artificial rainfall
simulators and Rainfall–Runoff analysis. Rainfall simulators involve allowing water to fall on a field plot through
artificial showers (sprinkler nozzles) at a uniform rate, collecting and measuring the resulting runoff and
estimating infiltration through hydrograph analysis. In R-R analysis, a network of rain gauges gives average
storm precipitation over a basin while runoff from the basin can be measured from the desired location
through stream gauging. Difference between precipitation and corresponding runoff averaged over the basin
over time gives total loss which forms the basis for estimation of infiltration. In double ring infiltrometer, two
rings are driven into the ground to a depth of 15cm using a plate and hammer while taking care to keep
disturbance of soil structure to a minimum. Point gauges are placed in the center of the rings and in the
annular space between them. Water is poured into the two rings to maintain the desired depth (2.5 to 15cm)
and water then added at regular intervals of 5, 10, 15, 20, -- 60 min up to 6 hours to maintain the original
constant depth. Measurements of infiltration are taken and a curve of infiltration against time plotted. The
outer tube eliminates edge effect of the surrounding drier soil and prevents water within the inner space from
spreading over a larger area after penetrating below the bottom of the ring. The rate at which water needs to
be added to the inner ring so as to maintain a constant level determines infiltration capacity and its rate of
variation.

Double ring infiltrometer

Example:
From a double ring infiltrometer with an inside diameter of 30 cm, observations were made as per table 1
Table 1:
Time (minutes) 0 2 5 10 20 30 50 80 120 150
Cumulative water volume (ml) 0 130 280 510 680 900 1040 1190 1280 1343
Plot an infiltration rate curve for the soil from the data.

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 Lecture notes Dr. J.K. Mwangi ECE 2402: Hydrology I
Solution:
Area of the ring infiltrometer =  d 2 = 706.5 cm2
4
Time Time increment Volume of water Depth of water Increment Infiltration rate
(min) (minutes) added (ml) added col. 3 /area depth (cm) (mm/min) = 10xcol. 5/2
1 2 3 4 5 6
0 0 0 0 0 0
2 2 130 0.184 0.184 0.92
5 3 280 0.396 0.212 0.71
10 5 510 0.723 0.326 0.65
20 10 680 0.962 0.239 0.40
30 10 900 1.274 0.312 0.31
50 20 1040 1.472 0.198 0.10
80 30 1190 1.684 0.212 0.07
120 40 1280 1.812 0.128 0.03
150 30 1343 1.897 0.085 0.03

Plot of infiltration curve for the above example

Variation of infiltration capacity with soil types

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 Lecture notes Dr. J.K. Mwangi ECE 2402: Hydrology I

STREAM FLOW
Discharge is the volume of water flowing through a stream cross section per unit time. A river is a flow
channel that collects water from the entire basin and drains out to large basins.

A stream is a flow channel into which surface runoff from a basin drain. Streams vary in width and length and
may contain water perennially/intermittently. They are generally classified based on permanency of flows into:

1. Ephemeral streams: Carry surface runoff only and flow during and immediately after rainfall. They
have no permanent / well defined channels but follow depressions in the natural contour of the land.
Groundwater table is always below stream bed throughout its length.
2. Intermittent streams: Carry flow during wet seasons but are dry during dry seasons. Groundwater
table lies above stream bed during the wet season but drops below stream bed during the dry season.
Flow derived principally from surface runoff but may also come from groundwater during wet seasons.
3. Perennial streams: Flow at all times even in the worst of droughts. Groundwater table always above
stream bed, thus maintaining continuous supply. Also called effluent streams. In contrast in influent
streams GWT is below river bed and river flow continuously recharges groundwater.

Influent stream (loosing stream)

Effluent stream (gaining stream)

STREAMFLOW MEASUREMENT
Stream flow provides water for domestic, industrial, commercial and irrigation use. Stream flow records
provide information on water availability, its temporal and spatial variability for planning purposes.
Accurate stream flow records are essential for proper planning and management of water resources.
Measurement of stream flow:
Direct methods:
Area-Velocity methods (current meters and floats)
Dilution (tracer / chemical) method)
Electromagnetic method
Echo sounder method

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 Lecture notes Dr. J.K. Mwangi ECE 2402: Hydrology I
i. Area-Velocity method involves (i) Selection of a suitable gauging site (ii) Measurement of discharge
equation parameters (A and V) or (iii) Measurement of stage and development of a rating curve or table.

ii. Criteria for selection of a regular gauging station (RGS):

 A way from confluence with tributary streams to avoid backwater effect.
 Where river stage is not affected by operations of H-E power stations which create turbulence.
 Immediately upstream of natural riffles / falls or artificial control structures.
 Where channel bed is stable to ensure stability of the rating curve / table.
 Where a river does not overflow its banks to avoid loss of records during high stages.
 Straight and unobstructed river reach with no aquatic growths e.g. algae etc.
 Easily accessible at all times, especially for manual stations.
Bridge piers are commonly used for fixing manual gauges.

Although such sites may not be easily available in natural streams, good results can still be obtained through
proper judgment and taking adequate precautions during measurement of stream flow and river stage.

iii. Measurement of discharge parameters (Area and Velocity)

 Measurement of river cross sectional area (A) involves determining the width and depth of a river
and using area formulae for regular sections. River cross section is divided into panels, each
containing approx. 10% of flow and their widths and depths measured. The panels are treated as
rectangular / trapezoidal depending on method of analysis used.
 Velocity is measured along verticals bounding each panel at an appropriate point.
One or more measurements may be taken along a vertical and mean velocity along it computed.
 These measurements (panel width, depth of vertical and mean velocity along a vertical) are then
plotted on a river cross sectional sketch.
 Mathematical methods (mid- or mean-section) are then used to compute area and mean velocity for
each panel. The product of panel area and mean velocity gives panel discharge. When panel
discharges are summed up, the total discharge for the river cross section (Q) is obtained.

Measurement of width:
River width is measured from a fixed reference point (initial point) on the river bank using a measuring tape /
tag line stretched across the river. Accuracy of current-meter measurements depends on the number of
verticals used. They should be as many as possible and closely spaced to reflect the true shape of the river bed.

Measurement of depth:
Depth of vertical and current meter position on the vertical are measured using a wading rod or sounding line
depending on river size. To obtain accurate depth measurements using a sounding line, the sounding weight is
equipped with an electrical bottom-contact which gives a signal when it touches the stream bed. If the
sounding weight cannot maintain the sounding line within 5° of the perpendicular to the water surface, the
angle between the sounding line and the vertical is measured to facilitate depth adjustment (should be <30°).

iv. Air and wet line corrections in depth measurement when using a current meter suspension cable.
Current meter cable, though designed to carry the meter can also be used to determine the position at
which the current meter should be lowered below the water surface. Normally the cable is lowered
from a cable car and may not remain vertical once in water due to water wave action.

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 Lecture notes Dr. J.K. Mwangi ECE 2402: Hydrology I

Cableway with cable car

 When the vertical angle of departure is below 5º no correction is required.
 When the vertical angle is 5º< Ө < 30º, correction may be applied or sounding weight increased in
order to reduce Ө to between 0 and 5º.
 If vertical angle > 30º increase weight to bring it <30° or discard readings altogether.
 The corrections applied to the cable length include for both air and wet lines. These are based on
the angle of deviation and are given in standard tables.

Determination of mean velocity in a vertical: Mean velocity in a vertical is calculated from point readings at
current meter positions in a vertical. The readings (rev/per time) are converted into velocity using current
meter equation (V= a + bN), where N is in rev/sec while a and b are current meter constants. Number of point
velocities used to determine mean velocity in a vertical depends on accuracy required:

 Surface velocity: Vmean = 0.85 Vs where Vs is stream surface velocity

 One-point method: Vmean = V0.6D for shallow streams
V  V0.8 D
 Two-point method: Vmean  0.2 D
2
V0.15 D  V0.5 D  V0.85 D
 Three-point method: Vmean  (for deep streams)
3

Vertical profile of velocity distribution

Current meter position d is always measured from the water surface

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 Lecture notes Dr. J.K. Mwangi ECE 2402: Hydrology I

Vertical axis (cup type) current meter

Horizontal axis (Propeller type) current meter

Exercise
Using the data given in table 1, plot the velocity distribution curve along a vertical and use the graph to: (i)
Estimate mean velocity by 1- point, 2- point and 3- point methods. (ii) Calculate the ratio of mean velocity by
graphical integration method and velocity at the water surface. Velocity at water surface = 2.1m/s
Table 1
Depth below surface (m) Point velocity (m/s)
0.0 2.1
0.2 2.2
0.4 2.25
0.6 2.22
0.8 1.98
1.0 2.0
1.2 1.7
1.4 1.22
1.6 0.56
1.7 0.0 river bed

Computation of stream discharge:

From the computed panel widths, depths of verticals, mean velocities for verticals, panel discharges can be
computed using either mean or mid-section methods.

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 Lecture notes Dr. J.K. Mwangi ECE 2402: Hydrology I
Mean section method:
Assumptions (1) end panels are triangular in shape (2) mid-panels are trapezoidal in shape (3) mean velocity of
the panels is the average of the means of the velocities of the bounding verticals.

Mid-section method involves introducing mid-ordinates in the middle of the panels to divide their widths into
two equal parts. Panels are then re-defined as per the new vertical ordinates.

Assumptions (1) areas bounded by mid-ordinates are rectangular in shape (2) end areas outside extreme
ordinates are neglected (3) velocity in each panel bounded by the new ordinates is taken as the velocity in mid-
vertical and is used to compute panel discharge.

Mean Section Method:

 V  V  d  d x 1 
q x   x x 1  x Wx
 2  2 
[

Mid-Section Method:

 W  Wx 1 
[ q x  Vx  x 1 d x
 2 

Depth-Velocity Integration Method:

 Draw depth-velocity curve for each vertical by plotting velocity observations against their
corresponding depths and joining with a smooth curve.
 Measure the area enclosed by each curve and its vertical using a planimeter.

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 Lecture notes Dr. J.K. Mwangi ECE 2402: Hydrology I
 Plot areas obtained over the water-surface line of the measuring cross-section and draw a smooth
curve through the points. The area enclosed between this curve and the water-surface line which can
be measured using a planimeter represents discharge through the cross section.
Example
Using the following data compute the river discharge by both mid and mean section methods.
Distance from initial point (m) 2 4 5 8 10 12 14 16 17 18
Depth (m) 0 0.3 0.5 1.5 1.0 2.0 1.2 0.8 0.2 0
Mean velocity m/s - 0.1 0.14 0.5 0.16 1.20 0.90 0.92 0.1 -
Answers: Mid-Section = 10.464m3/s and Mean section 9.328m3/s

Depth-velocity integration method of computing current-meter measurement

Example
Using data given in Table 2, compute stream discharge by mid-section method. Current meter equation is:
Given as V = 0.04+0.65N where N = Rev/second
Table 2:
Distance from Depth (m) Meter depth (m) Revs Time (sec)
Bank (m)
0.6 0.3 0.18 10 50
1.2 1.07 0.85 22 55
0.21 35 52
1.8 1.58 1.28 28 53
0.30 40 58
2.7 1.92 1.52 32 58
0.40 45 60
3.4 1.34 1.07 28 45
0.27 33 46
4.0 0.67 0.40 22 50
4.6 0.24 0.15 12 49
5.2 0

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 Lecture notes Dr. J.K. Mwangi ECE 2402: Hydrology I
Solution
i. Calculate point velocities at each current meter position using the given current meter equation.
ii. Determine mean velocity in each vertical using 1 or 2-point method after verifying CM position.
iii. Sketch the river cross-section and indicate on each vertical its depth and mean velocity.
iv. Draw mid-ordinates in each panel bounded by the verticals.
v. Calculate the new panel widths as defined by the mid-ordinates.
vi. Mean velocities and depths are now at the center of the new panels.
vii. Calculate areas of these panels by multiplying the widths calculated in (v) above with center depths.
viii. Calculate panel discharges by multiplying areas calculated in (vii) with mean velocities as in (vi).
ix. Sum up the panel discharges in step (viii) to obtain total discharge for the river.
Repeat using the mean section method and compare the results.
Measurement of river stage
River stage is the elevation of the water surface relative to a datum (permanent/temporary). Stage
measurements are made by noting the elevation of the water surface in contact with a graduated staff which
may be placed vertically or inclined. It may also be segmented for ease of installation.

Staff gauge Sectional gauge

Sectional gauges are used in rivers with large fluctuations in water levels. Manual gauges have limitations in
that they have to be read frequently to obtain a continuous stream flow curve especially in rapidly changing
stages to avoid missing a peak stage during floods. To overcome this, automatic gauges are used instead.

Automatic stage recorder

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 Lecture notes Dr. J.K. Mwangi ECE 2402: Hydrology I
An automatic stage recorder consists of a float tied to one end of a cable running over a pulley and on the
other a counterweight. The float rests on the water surface while the counter weight keeps the cable in
tension. A change in water surface makes the float to either rise or fall which in turn makes the pulley to
rotate thereby actuating a pen arm resting on a clock driven drum wrapped with a chart. The circumference of
the drum represents the time axis while its height represents the stage. The clock and drum are designed such
that the chart can run unattended for a specified period of time. A stilling well offers protection to the float. An
arrangement to draw water from the river at its lowest level is ensured through provision of intake pipes at
different levels between the river and intake well. The intake well should be high enough to accommodate the
highest of floods. Automatic gauges record continuous stage of a river over time.

Computation of stream discharge using stage - discharge relationship:

Since it is difficult to measure river discharge continuously or at short intervals, a stage–discharge (S-D)
/gauge–discharge (G-D) relationship at site is often established from data obtained from careful observation of
the entire range of stages and corresponding discharges. Once this relationship (rating curve) has been
established the problem becomes simple reading the river stage and finding the corresponding discharge from
the S-D or G-D graph or equation established at the site. The rating curve is obtained by plotting discharge (Q)
against corresponding stage (H) and may also be expressed as a rating table or (3) rating equation (Q = aHb). A
rating curve is the average curve between (H) and (Q) during rising and falling stages of the river (figure
below).

Although it is a normal curve, individual Q measurements may deviate from corresponding stages due to:
 Change in river channel roughness
 Change in elevation of the channel due to scouring or silting
 Aquatic growth which may reduce flow velocity.
Extreme stages may be captured by automatic gauges, flood marks on permanent objects or flood sticks
coated with a soluble paint. A rating curve represents the integrated effects of a wide range of channel and
flow parameters termed a control. A permanent control is where H-Q relationship does not change with time
while a shifting control is where it changes with time as a result of weed growth, aggradation or degradation
of the channel bed. A rating curve therefore needs to be monitored regularily for any changes in channel bed.

H - Q relationship is unique for a gauging station and is defined by a graph of measured H and Q. A best fitting
curve for the data set is called a rating curve (see below). Constants a and b in the rating equation Q = aHb are
found by a log-log plot of H and Q or by using the statistical method of least squares.

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 Lecture notes Dr. J.K. Mwangi ECE 2402: Hydrology I

Example: Using stage- discharge values given below, establish a rating equation for the station
H (m) 0.50 0.80 1.20 1.32 1.40
1.56
Q 0.90 4.00 6.40 7.10 8.30
(m3/s) 8.95 Solution
Plot H versus Q on a log–log paper. From the
plot, a is the y-intercept and b is the gradient of the resulting straight line. Write two equations (1) log Q = log
(a) + b log H and (2) multiply equation 1 by log H to give the form log HlogQ = log (a) log H + b (log H)2.
Substitute each row of data in the two equations and sum the results for equations 1 and 2. Solve the
simultaneous equations for a and b. Answer Q = 4.4 H1.7 i.e. a = 4.4 and b = 1.7.
From the recorded stage (H) on the gauge, discharge Q can be computed from the above equation or read
directly from the previously calibrated rating curve.

Rating curve on a log-log paper which gives a straight line

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 Lecture notes Dr. J.K. Mwangi ECE 2402: Hydrology I
Extension of Rating Curves
During high floods, the river may be inaccessible, making it necessary to extend the H-Q curve beyond the
highest recorded discharge. Similarly, the magnitude of a design flood may have been estimated using other
methods and it is desired to get the corresponding stage using a rating curve. Both of these require extension
of the rating curve. The curve is extended downwards for stages below the lowest observed stage and
upwards for stages above the highest observed stage. Extensions are subject to errors in alluvial rivers due to
aggradation / degradation and should be treated with caution and counter checked with other methods.

Methods of extending rating curves include:

Logarithmic method: An equation of the form Q  bH  a  is assumed to be an appropriate fit between H
n

and Q where a is the stage corresponding to zero discharge in the river. Taking logarithms on both sides Log Q
= Log b + n log (H-a) showing a plot of Q vs (H-a) on a log paper will be a straight line which can be
extrapolated to determine Q values corresponding to high stages. n is slope while log b is y intercept. A trial
value of a is assumed and a plot of Q and (H-a) made on a log-log plot. If a straight line is obtained, the
assumed value of a is correct. If not, the procedure is repeated with different values until a nearly straight line
is obtained.

Stage –Discharge plot: Arithmetic plot

Analytical approaches using the least squares regression analysis may also be used to obtain values of a, b and
n. The straight line obtained may then be used in extrapolation to obtain values of H and Q outside the range.
Reliability of extrapolated values depends on the stability of gauging section control.
Using the data given below, establish the rating equation by both analytical and graphical methods

Stage (m) 0.7 1.2 1.7 2.0 2.5 2.7 3.1 3.3 3.7
Discahrge (m3/s) 1.6 2.4 3.4 4.5 5.4 6.2 7.7 9.0 10.3
Solution Q  a  H b and a = 2.02 and b = 1.19

ELECTRONIC INDUCTION METHOD

This method is based on the principle of electro magnetism that when a current is passed through a conductor,
it develops a magnetic field. It involves burying a large conductor carrying a current below the river bed. This

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 Lecture notes Dr. J.K. Mwangi ECE 2402: Hydrology I
generates a controlled vertical magnetic field across the entire width of the river. When river water of depth h
flows over it, a current of I amperes in the conductor produces a voltage V in water which is recorded by
electrode probes placed at the banks of the river. Voltage produced is proportional to the average velocity of
water in the channel and sis measured using electrodes provided at the banks and connected to the coils. The
measured discharge is obtained from the equation
n
 E.d 
Q  C1   C 2  Where E is the voltage produced, d is the depth of water and I is the current in the coil.
 I 
C1, C2 and n are system constants. The method is costly as it requires sophisticated equipment and is suitable
only for rivers with varying cross sections due to sedimentation, weed growth etc. and for tidal rivers where
the channel changes rapidly in both magnitude and direction. The method is finding increasing application.

DILUTION TECHNIQUES OF STREAMFLOW MEASUREMENT

Measurement of stream discharge by dilution method depends on determining the degree to which an added
tracer is diluted by flowing water. From measurement of the rate of injection, the concentration of the tracer
in the injected solution and the concentration of the tracer at a downstream sampling section, discharge is
computed. The method depends on the continuity principle applied to a tracer which is allowed to mix
completely with stream flow. It involves adding a solution of a non-reactive, chemical tracer to a flowing
stream and monitoring its dilution after mixing thoroughly with stream flow as it travels downstream. The
greater the flow, the higher will be its level of dilution. Method is used in streams that are too shallow or too
slow for current meters to be used. A common tracer is common salt (NaCl) which is cheap, easily available
and can be measured easily using a conductivity meter. At concentrations used during dilution gauging, it is
harmless to the stream ecosystem. Other common tracers include fluorescent dyes e.g. Rhodamine, which can
be measured at very low concentrations and hence useful for high stream flows. Method is difficult to use
compared to the current meter and hence should be used only when the current meter method cannot work.
Two approaches are common in dilution gauging; (1) constant rate injection method which involves injecting a
tracer at a constant rate for a period long enough to achieve a constant concentration and measuring its
dilution at a downstream sampling section. (2) Gulp injection method which involves injecting the tracer as an
instantaneous "slug," and monitoring its passage of this rising-and-falling "tracer wave" downstream.
Constant-rate injection method gives better results and is commonly used, especially for low flows. However,
it requires equipment for controlling tracer injection and hence is impractical for high-volume flows.

Constant rate injection method

A tracer of known concentration C1 is injected at a constant rate Qt at section 1. At section 2, the concentration
gradually rises from the background value of C0 at time t1 to a constant value C2 (fig. below).
At steady state, the continuity equation for the tracer is given by:
Qt C1  QC0  Q  Qt C 2 → Q  Qt C1  C 2  Equation 1
C 2  C0 
This technique in which Q is estimated by knowing C0, C1, C2, and Qt is also known as plateau gauging.
Dilution gauging is based on the assumption of steady flow. If flow is unsteady and flow rate changes
appreciably during gauging, there will be a change in storage volume in the reach and steady-state continuity
equation used to develop equations 1 and 2 will not be valid and this may give rise to systematic errors.

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 Lecture notes Dr. J.K. Mwangi ECE 2402: Hydrology I

Constant rate injection method

Tracers
A good tracer should have the following properties:
 Be non-toxic and cheap
 Capable of being detected in a distinctive manner in low concentrations and using simple methods
 Dissolve readily in stream water at ordinary temperatures
 Either absent in stream water or present in very low concentrations.
 Not decomposable in stream water or retained/absorbed by sediments, plants or other organisms.
 Harmless to man and animals in concentration it assumes in the stream.

FACTORS that affect accuracy of tracer-dilution methods include stream turbidity, loss of tracer between
injection and downstream sampling sites and incomplete mixing throughout the stream cross section before
the downstream sampling section is reached.

Three common types of tracers are:

1. Chemicals (common salt and sodium dichromate)
2. Fluorescent dyes (Rhoda mine-WT and Sulpho-Rhodamine B Extra)
3. Radioactive materials (Bromine-82, Sodium-24 and Iodine-132).

Common salt is detectable within an error of ± 1% up to a concentration of 10ppm while sodium dichromate
can be detected up to concentrations of 0.2 ppm. Fluorescent dyes can be detected at levels of tens of
nanograms per litre and hence require only small amounts of solution. Radioactive tracers are detectable up to
accuracies of tens of picocuries per litre and permit large-scale dilutions but they require sophisticated
equipment and handling by trained personnel. Availability of detection instruments, environmental effects of
the tracer and operational costs are factors that determine the choice of tracer.

Length of Reach
Length of reach between dosing and sampling sections should be adequate to achieve complete mixing.
Required length of reach depends on channel cross-section dimensions, discharge and turbulence levels. It
varies from about 1km for small flows (about 1.0 m3/s) to about 100km for large flows (300m3/s). Mixing
length becomes very long for large rivers which is a constraint of this method. The method estimates
discharge directly and in an absolute way and is suitable for small turbulent streams such as mountain streams.

Examples 1
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 Lecture notes Dr. J.K. Mwangi ECE 2402: Hydrology I
A 25g/l solution of a fluorescent tracer was discharged into a stream at a constant rate of 10cm3/s.
Background concentration of the dye in stream water was zero. At a downstream section sufficiently far away,
the dye was found to reach an equilibrium concentration of 5ppb. Estimate the stream discharge.

Solution:
This is a constant rate injection method.
Q = Q1 C1  C2  , Q1 = 10 cm3/s = 10*10-6 m3/s
(C2  C0 )
C1 = 0.025, C2 = 5x10-9, C0 = 0
6
Q = 10x109 (0.025  5 x10 9 )  50m 3 / s
5 x10

Example 2:
Into a stream with no initial trace of salt, a salt solution of concentration 20mg/c.c is introduced at a constant
rate of 2 l/min. Samples collected at a point sufficiently downstream indicated an equilibrium salt
concentration of 0.05 ppm. Using the information to determine the discharge in the stream.

Solution:
C0 = 0, C1 = 20 mg/c.c. = 20/1000 = 0.02 mg/l
C2 = 0.05 ppm = 0.05/1,000,000 = 5*10-8
q = 2 l/min = 0.002/60 = 3.33*10-5 = m3/s
C 
Q  q 1  1 = 3.33*10-5  0.02  1 = 13.33 m3/s
8
 C2   5 * 10 

OTHER DISCHARGE MEASURING METHODS

Moving Boat method

Applicable to rapid measurement of discharge in large streams e.g. during floods when sites become
inaccessible or at locations where unsteady flow conditions require rapid measurement of discharge. Requires
no fixed facilities. Uses the velocity area-method but differs in data collection in that it is dynamic as opposed
to static. Current meter position is fixed at a constant depth (about 50 cm) from the free water surface which is
a departure from the conventional area-velocity method. Data is collected by a special propeller type current
meter while the observer is on a boat rapidly traversing the river cross section. Since the current meter while
measuring velocity moves with the same velocity as that of the boat, it records the resultant of boat and
stream velocities which is the vectoral sum of the two. As the boat traverses the stream, a sonic sounder
records the depth of flow at different points which helps define the channel geometry. Major limitation of this
method is the high velocity of water and safety considerations.

Slope area method

Channel flow is computed using either Chezy or Manning’s open channel formulae.
Q  AC RS and Q  A 1 R 2 / 3 S 1 / 2 where A is cross sectional area, S is slope, R is hydraulic radius, C is Chezy’s
n
constant and n manning’s coefficient. A straight reach of the river is selected. Gives approximate values
because of the difficulty of choosing the right n value, cross sectional areas used being different from those
prior to the flood and slope being an estimate as water surface during a flood can be warped.

Hydraulic structures
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 Lecture notes Dr. J.K. Mwangi ECE 2402: Hydrology I
Applicable to small streams using flow measuring devices e.g. rectangular, triangular or trapezoidal weirs,
venturi-meters or Parshall flumes. Flow expressed as a function of structure geometry and some reference
head. The discharge equation contains an empirical coefficient (cd). An existing dam across a stream or a bridge
opening may be used to measure discharge indirectly. In case of a dam, discharge is expressed as a function of
the length of dam and the head of flow above the dam. In the case of a bridge discharge is a function of the
area of flow at the constriction and the drop-in water surface near the bridge.

Measurement of velocity by floats

These are used to measure the velocity of flowing water during high floods and give best results in small
streams. Site selected for measurement of velocity using floats should be a straight reach, free from cross
currents and eddies. The float is released 15m upstream of the defined section and the time for it to travel the
distance noted with a stop watch. Discharge is computed by the velocity area method. A float is allowed to
travel on the water surface and the time it takes to travel a known distance is noted which when divided with
the time taken gives surface velocity of the float. Distance travelled by the float must be long enough to give
accurate results. Mean velocity at a vertical is taken as 0.85 times the average velocity of the float at the
surface. Floats can be influenced by prevailing winds and hence not travel along straight paths between
sections. Several floats should therefore be introduced into the stream at various points to give mean
velocities for several verticals and for each float at least three readings taken. Essential requirements of a float
are:
 Stability while floating
 Distinct visibility
 None reaction with water.

An arrangement of velocity measurement by floats

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