Lecture 3: The Neuromotor Basis for Motor Control

Part 1: The Neuromotor Basic for Motor Control

Introduction
- The neuromotor system forms the foundation for the control of movement
The Neuromotor Basis for Motor Control
- The human nervous system is divided 2 main sections:
A. Central nervous system
 Spinal cord, brainstem, cerebellum, & cerebral region
B. Peripheral nervous system
 All nervous system structure not encased in the skull or vertebral column
- Neuromotor system
o Is defined as the parts of the nervous system that are involved in the control of
voluntary, coordinated movement
Part 2: The Neuron
Structure of Neurons
- The functional unit of the nervous system is the neuron:
o Neurons transmit info throughout the nervous system
o Typical neuron has 4 main components:
1. Soma: synthesizes a large quantity & variety of proteins used as
neurotransmitters
2. Dendrites: are branchlike extensions that serve as the main input sites for
the cell
3. Axon: is the output unit of the cell, specialized to send info to other
neurons, muscle cells, or glands
4. Presynaptic terminals: transfer elements of the neuron
Synapses & Cell Communication
- Presynaptic membranes “deliver info” in the form of
neurotransmitters
- Postsynaptic membranes “receive info” b/c they have receptors
for neurotransmitters
Transmission of Info by Neurons
- Neurons function to provide:
o Reception, integration, transmission, & transfer of info
- Neurons function via rapid changes in the electrical potential across the cell membrane
o The redistribution of ions creates a difference in electrical charge which is
transmitted the length of the axon (action potential)
- AP reaches the presynaptic terminals & causes releases of neurotransmitters which cross
the synaptic cleft & bind to the postsynaptic cell
- Neurotransmitter binding causes excitatory & inhibitory postsynaptic potentials which
summate through temporal & spatial summation
o At threshold stimulus AP generated in postsynaptic cells
o Transmission regulated by neuromodulators
- Neuron has integrated info from many synapses
Spatial & Temporal Summation
Part 3: The Peripheral Nervous System
The Peripheral Nervous System
- All nervous system structure not encased in the skull or
vertebral column
- Afferent axons
o Carry info toward the CNS
- Efferent axons
o Carry info away from the CNS

Sensory Neurons
- Sensory Neurons  Afferent
- Transmit info from the periphery to the CNS
o Receptors  fine/crude touch, proprioception, pain & vibration
o Located in muscles, skin & joints
- Typical sensory neuron: Pseudounipolar
o Appear to have a single projection from the cell body
 2 axons & no true dendrites
o Cell body of sensory neurons located at the dorsal root ganglion of the spinal
nerve

Motor Neurons
- Motor Neurons  Efferent
- Transmit info from the CNS to muscles
o Influence the control of movement by activating muscle contraction
 - 2 types:
1. Alpha motor neurons
 Located predominantly in spinal cord
 Axons synapse on skeletal muscle fibres to create the motor unit
 Activity influenced by upper motor neuron tracts
2. Gamma motor neurons
 Activity regulated through alpha-gamma coactivation
 Regulates sensitivity of intrafusal fibers (muscle spindles) to maintain
accurate level of proprioception
Gamma Motor Neurons

Lower Motor Neurons (LMNs)

- LMNs arranged into ‘pools’ which supply individual muscles

Interneurons
- Specialized neurons that originate & terminate in the brain or spinal cord
- Function as relays transmitting info b/w:
o Axons from the brain & motor neurons
o Axons from the sensory nerves & the spinal nerves ascending to the brain
 - Interneurons are integral in the transmission of signals to multiple areas, reflexes, &
movement
- Neuron ratio:
o 1 Sensory neuron
o 10 Motor neuron
o 200000 Interneurons

Neurons

Part 4: The Central Nervous System

Central Nervous System
- 2 structures directly involved in the control of voluntary movement:
o Cerebrum
o Diencephalon (Thalamus)
o Cerebellum
o Brainstem
o Spinal cord

Cerebrum
- Anatomy
o Divided into 2 hemispheres (longitudinal fissure)
o Entire surface covered by gray matter (cerebral cortex)
 Varies in thickness b/w 2-5 mm
 Arranged into sulci (shallow grooves) & gyri (cortical folds)
o Deep white matter represents myelinated axons arranged into tracts
- Each hemisphere is divided into 4 main lobes:
o Frontal lobe – vital to the initiation & controls of movement
o Parietal lobe – controls perception of sensory info
 o Temporal lobe – memory, abstract thought & judgement
o Occipital lobe – visual perception

Movement
- Voluntary movement is controlled from the top down
o Brain  spinal cord  muscle
- Neural activity leading to muscle contraction & movement begins w/ a decision made in
the anterior part of the frontal lobe
- Activates motor planning areas which determine the specific upper motor neurons
utilized
A. Primary motor cortex
B. Premotor cortex
C. Supplementary motor cortex
Primary Motor Cortex
- Located in the frontal lobe anterior to the central sulcus (precentral gyrus)
- Contains upper motor neurons which activate alpha motor neurons to skeletal muscles
- Function:
o Involved in the initiation & coordination of voluntary movement for fine motor
skills
 Control of the hand & face
 Primary motor cortex organized into the motor homunculus
Motor Homunculus
Premotor Area
- Located anterior to the primary motor cortex
- Function
o Organization of movements before they are initiated
 Activation of large muscle groups (trunk & girdle)
 Utilized in anticipatory postural adjustments
o Rhythm coordination during movement
 Enables transition b/w sequential movements of serial motor skills (eg.
keyboard typing, piano playing)
o Control of movement based on observation of another person performing a skill
 Relate sensory cues to desired motor plans
Supplementary Motor Area
- Located on the medial surface of the frontal lobe adjacent to primary motor cortex
- Function:
o Essential role in control of sequential movements
o Involved in preparation & organization of movement
o Role w/ other brains structures in modifying the continuous bilateral, multi-joint
movements
Basal Ganglia
- Located in the insular cortex deep to the cerebral hemispheres
- Consists of 4 large nucleii
o Caudate nucleus
o Putamen
o Substantia Nigra
o Globus pallidus
- Function:
o The basal ganglia regulates motor control by inhibiting unwanted movements
o Role in predicting effects of actions & the execution of motor plans
 Movement initiation
 Regulates force of agonist muscles during movement
o Additional thalamic loops predict future event by processing spatial working
memory to select desired behaviours =, prevent undesired behaviours & shift
attention
Parkinson’s Disease
- Common disease associated w/ basal ganglia dysfunction
o Pathology – death of dopamine producing cells in the substantia nigra
 - Results in motor control problems
o Bradykinesia (slow movement)
o Akinesia (reduced amount of movement)
o Rigidity of muscles
o Tremor

Cerebellum
- Coordinates movement & postural control
- Cerebellum integrates large amount of sensory info & adjusts activity of UMNs
o Outer cerebellar layer covered by gray matter
- Compares actual motor output w/ the intended movement
o Utilizes the internal feedback & high fidelity tracts
- Maintains equilibrium & balance
- Involved in learning the timing, rhythm, & synchronization of movements
o Learning & executing stored motor patterns

Additional Areas
- Brain stem
o Located beneath the cerebrum & continuous w/ the spinal cord
o 3 components:
1. Pons – connects the cerebellum to the cerebrum
2. Medulla – regulatory center for internal physiologic processes
 HR, breathing rate, body temp
 Decussation of motor tracts
3. Reticular formation – integrator of sensory & motor info
 Integrates info to exert direct influence & modify activity of the
CNS through neuromodulation (sleep cycles, habituation, central
pattern generators)
- Thalamus
o Acts a relay station for info to & from cerebrum
o Receives & integrates sensory info from spinal cord & brainstem & transfers info
to appropriate region of cerebral cortex
Spinal Cord
- Spinal cord functions as more than simple conduit to transmit signals b/w the brain &
peripheral nerves
o Divided into gray & white matter
- Gray matter contains interneurons, unmyelinated axons & cell bodies
o Distinctive H-pattern arranged into (dorsal & ventral horns)
- Dorsal roots contain sensory axons transmitting info to the spinal cord
 - Ventral roots contain axons of motor neurons to muscle
Sensory Neural Pathways
- White matter represents myelinated axons arranged into sensory & motor tracts
- Several ascending neural tracts
o Connect receptors to sensory areas of the cerebral cortex & cerebellum
- 2 main sensory tracts
A. Dorsal column medial lemniscus tract: fine touch, proprioception, & vibration
B. Anterolateral spinothalamic tract: crude touch, pain, & temp
- Tract to cerebellum important for motor control
A. Spinocerebellar tracts: primary pathways for proprioceptive info & interneuron
feedback to cerebellum
Spinal Cord Tracts

Motor Neural Pathways

- Descending tracts containing upper motor neurons travelling from brain (CNS) to spinal
cord
o Activate LMNs travelling through ventral roots to muscle
o Control circuits (cerebellum & basal ganglia) regulate activity of UMN tracts
- Medial upper motor neuron tracts:
o Involved in controlling posture & gross movements, usually occurring
automatically w/o conscious effort
o Recticulospinal, medial corticospinal, medial/lateral vestibulospinal
- Lateral upper motor neuron tracts:
o Utilized in fine control & distal limb movements
o Ability to activate individual muscle independently of other muscles
o Lateral corticospinal, rubrospinal tract
Motor Unit
- Motor unit:
o Consists of a lower motor neuron & specific muscle fibers it innervates
- Each muscle fiber generally receives input from only 1 neuron, yet a single neuron may
innervate many muscle fibers
- All-or-none principle – AP will stimulate all muscle fibers associated w/ an individual
motor unit
- A single motor unit will innervate only one specific muscle fiber type
- Number of muscle fibers innervated by motor unit depends on type of movements
associated w/ the muscle
o Fine movements (ex. Eye muscles = 1 fiber/mu)
o Gross movements (ex. Pec major = 700 fibers/mu)

Motor Unit Recruitment

- The individual & combined actions of motor units produce specific muscle actions
- The force of muscle action varies from slight to maximal via 2 mechanisms:
1. Increased # (recruitment) of motor units
 A muscle generates considerable force when activated by all of its motor
units
2. Increased frequency of motor unit discharge
 Repetitive stimuli reach a muscle before it relaxes to increases the total
tension (temporal summation)
- Henneman’s Size Principle: motor neurons are recruited in order of ascending size
o Allows the orderly recruitment of motor units to produce a smooth muscle
action by allowing the CNS to fine tune skeletal muscle activity to meet demands
of the motor task
o Recruitment strategy minimizes the development of fatigue & permits equally
fine control of force at all levels of force output
The Neural Control of Voluntary Movement
- From intent … to Action
- Performing a motor skill typically begins w/ a cognitively derived intent that is based on
the situation & goal
- Movement implementation of intent requires the interaction of many CNS structures
working both hierarchically & in parallel to perform motor skill
- Carson & Kelso (2004): emphasized the importance of considering cognitive intent when
evaluating the neuromotor processes in movement
o Had participants perform finger flexion movement 1. On beat & 2. Off beat
o Experiment demonstrated varied active brain regions in subjects performing
exactly the same movement but w/ different cognitive intentions