ECV 502: WRE-I

RESERVOIRS
The main function of a reservoir is to stabilize ethe flow of water, either by regulating a varying supply
in nnatural stream or by satisfying a varying demand by the ultimate consumers. Resulting from this
definitation, reservoirs can be classified as:
Storage/ conservation reservoirs retain excess water from periods of high flow for:
a. use during periods of drought
b. the storage of flood water to reduce flood damage below the reservoir
Distribution reservoirs which are provided within water supply systems to:
a. permit water-treatment or pumping plants to operate at a reasonably uniform rate
b. provide water from storage when the demand exceeds the rate in a. above
Stock tanks or farm ponds are used to conserve the intermittent flow from small creeks for useful
purposes.

Physical characteristics of reservoirs

For a reservoir with a level water surface, the fllowing zones of storage/physical characteristics can be
distinguished.
Storage capacity
This is one of the most important characteristics of reservoirs since their main function is to provide
storage. The storage capacity of reservoirs can be calculated using two ways:
1. Reservoirs of regular shapes e.g prismatic shapes can be computed using formulas for the volumes
of solids
2. Elevation-storage, or capacity curves are used to determine the storage capacity of reservoirs
on natural sites. The following procedure is used:
a. Topographic surveys are done to generate a contour map of the reservoir site
b. An area-elevation curve (see an example in the following figure for ) is constructed by
planimetering the area enclosed within each contour within the reservoir site
c. The integral of the area-elevation curve is the elevation-storage curver for the reservoir
d. The increment of storage between two elevations is usually computed by multiplying the average
of the areas at the two elevations bu the elevation difference
e. The summation of these increments below any elevation is the sorage volume below that
elevation

In the absence of adequate topographic maps, cross sections of the reservoir are sometimes surveyed
and the capacity computed from these vertical sections by prismodal formula

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Figure. An example of elevation-storage and elevation-area curves for a reservoir

Normal Pool level - Is the maximum elevation to which the reservoir surface will rise during ordinary
operating conditions. For most reservoirs normal pool level is determined by the elevation of the
spillway crest, or the top of the spillway gates.
Minimum Pool level - Is the lowest elevation to which the pool is to be drawn under normal
conditions. This level may be fixed by the elevation of the lowest outlet in dam or in the case of
hydroelectric reservoirs, by conditions of operating efficiency for the turbines.
Useful storage - Is the water held between the minimum and normal pool levels.
Dead storage/dead capacity - Is the water held below minimum pool level. It cannot be released by
gravity. It eventually fills with silt and other sediments.
Inactive storage/inactive capacity – is the amount of water stored just above the dead storage.
Under normal conditions, water in inactive storage is used only for purposes such as fisheries, water
quality, or other non consumptive uses.
Joint use capacity - Is the water layer above inactive storage. Water may be held for several purposes
e.g., irrigation, recreation, water supply, power generation etc.. It is also called active conservation
pool (or active stoeage capacity). In multi purpose reservoirs, this useful storage may be subdivided
according to the designated uses and their adopted plan of operation.
In flood-control projects, all space above the dead capacity and inactive capacity is called flood pool/
Flood-mitigation storage/flood-control capacity
Surcharge storage – is the water that is stored between normal pool level and flood level. During
floods, discharge over the spillway may cause the water level to rise above noral pool level. This is the
flood level. The surcharge is uncontrolled and exists only while a flood is occurring and cannot be
retained for later use. It can also be considered as temporary storage capacity or temporary flood
pool.

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The top of the surcharge capacity is also the maximum water surface/maximum water pool
elevation of the reservoir. This is the highest acceptable water surface elevation for a reservoir and is
based entirely on dam safety design and considerations.
Bank storage – This is the water stored in porous reservoir banks. Reseservoir banks are usually
permeable and water enters the soil when the reservoir fills and drains out as as the water level is
lowered.
- Bank storage increases the capacity of the reservoir above that indicated by the elevation-storage
curve.
- Amount of bank storage depends on the geologic conditions and may amount to several percent of
the reservoir volume
Valley storage – The water in a natural stream channel occupies a variable volume of valley storage.
For example in dry and wet seasons. The net increase in storage capacity resulting from the construction
of a reservoir is the total capacity less the natural valley storage.
𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 − 𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒
- This storage is of little significance in conservation reservoirs
- For flood mitigation, the effective storage in the reservoir is the useful storage plus
𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 + 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 − 𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒
The total capacity includes all storage above space in a reservoir from the top of the maximum water
surface within a reservoir down to the bottom of the dead storage.
The live capacity of a reservoir is the total amount of reservoir storage that can be released by gravity.
It equals the total capacity of a reservoir minus the dead capacity.
Freeboard is the difference in elevation between the dam crest and the maximum water surface of the
reservoir. Adequate freeboard is crirical to protect the dam crest from erosion due to wave action or
sudden water inflows into the reservoir that could overtop (flow over) the dam. If water spilled over a
dam crest and across the downstream face, severe erosion could cause a dam to breach and collapse in
a matter of hours.

Figure. Zones of storage in a reservoir

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Firm yield of a reservoir is the amount of water that can be stored with relative certainty during projected
hydrologic events. Water proveiders rely on firm yield estimates to determine available water supplies
during extended dry periods.
These zones of storage in a reservoir are shown in the following figures.

Figure. Classification of principal storage zones in a cross-section of a multipurpose reservoir

Level water surfaces can be assumed for most short, deep reservoirs. However, is flow is passing the
dam, there must be some slope to the water surface to cause this flow.
If the cross-sectional area of the reservoir is large compared with the rate of flow, the velocity will be
small and the slope of the hydraulic grade line wil be very flat.
In relatively shallow and narrow reservoirs, the water surface slope at high flows may depart
considerably from the horizontal.
Normally, a different profile will exist for each combination of inflow rate and water-surface elevation
at the dam.
The computauion of of the water-surface profile is an important part of reservoir design since it provides
information on the water level at various points along the length of the reservoir. This is important
because:
- The land requirements for the reservoir can be determined to guide the acquisition of land or flowage
rights over the land before construction of the reservoir.
- Dock houses, storm-drain outlets, roads, and bridges along the bank of the reservoir must be located
above the maximum water level expected in the reservoir
- In addition to water-surface elevation, inflow rate or a water-surface elevation on a gage near the
upper end of the reservoit must also be provided for storage reservoirs subject to marked back effects

Reservoir yield
Yield is the amount of water that can be supplied from the reservoir during a specified interval of time.
The time interval can be a day for small distribution reservoirs to a year or more for large storage
reservoirs.
Yield is depended on inflow and varies from time to time

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Safe yield (also called firm yield) is the maximum quantity of water that can be guaranteed during a
critical dry period. The critical period is taken as the period of lowest natural flow on record for the
stream. Since safe yield can never be determined with certainty, it is often treated yield in probabilistic
terms.
For example:
If a drought lasting m years is the critical event of record over an N-year period, what is the probability
P(N,m,n) that a worse drought will occur within the next n years? The number of sequences of length
m, in N years of record is N-m+1, and in n years of record n — m + 1. Thus, the chance that the worst
event over the past and future spans combined will be contained in the n future years is given
approximately by:
(𝑛 − 𝑚 + 1) 𝑛−𝑚+1
𝑃(𝑁,𝑚,𝑛) = = (𝑛 ≥ 𝑚) (2)
(𝑁 − 𝑚 + 1) + (𝑛 − 𝑚 + 1) 𝑁 + 𝑛 − 2𝑚 + 2
Example:
If the critical drought of record, as determined from 40 years of hydrologic data, lasted 5 years, what is
the chance that a more severe drought will occur during the next 20 years?
Using equation (2)
20 − 5 + 1
𝑃(40,5,20) = = 0.308
40 + 20 − 2 × 5 + 2

The maximum possible yield during a given time interval equals the mean inflow less evaporation and
seepage losses during that interval. i.e.
𝑌𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑀𝑎𝑥 = 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑔 − 𝐸𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 − 𝑠𝑒𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑔𝑒
Secondary yield is the water available in excess of safe yield during periods of high flow.

Selection of distribution-reservoir capacity for a given yield

It is a common practice to determine the reservoir capacity required to meet a specific demand. e.g. in
municipal water supply or in irrigation when it is desired to irrigate a specifies area.
Using the continuity principle:
𝑌𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 (𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 ) = 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 ± ∆𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒
Therefore, outflow must equal inflow less waste and unavoidable losses like seepage and evaporation.
The yield is estimated based on demand per a tim period. The inflows are for instance the discharge in
a stream. The reservoir capacity must be sufficient to supply the demand at times when the demand
exceeds the pumping rate.
Example:
The water suppy for a city is pumped from wells to a distribution reservoir. The estimated hourly water
requirements for the maximum day are as follows. If the pumps are to operate at a uniform rate, what
distribution reservoir capacity is required?

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Hour Demand Pumping Required Hour Demand Pumping Required

ending (m/h) rate from ending (m/h) rate from
(m/h) reservoir (m/h) reservoir
(m3) (m3)
0100 273 529.3 0 1300 759 529.3 230
0200 206 529.3 0 1400 764 529.3 235
0300 256 529.3 0 1500 729 529.3 200
0400 237 529.3 0 1600 671 529.3 142
0500 257 529.3 0 1700 670 529.3 141
0600 312 529.3 0 1800 657 529.3 128
0700 438 529.3 0 1900 612 529.3 83
0800 627 529.3 98 2000 525 529.3 0
0900 817 529.3 288 2100 423 529.3 0
1000 875 529.3 346 2200 365 529.3 0
1100 820 529.3 291 2300 328 529.3 0
1200 773 529.3 244 2400 309 529.3 0
TOTAL 12,703 12,703 2,426
Solution:

Figure. Graphical illustration of the computation of rquired reservoir capacity

1. The average pumping rate is determined by dividing the total pumped by 24
2. The required reservoir capacity is the sum of the hourly requirements from storage, or 2426 m 3
. Graphcally, this is represented in the previous figure.
From the graph, the required storage is an integral from points a-b:
b
Storage = ∫ (O − I) dt
a

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where
O is the outflows (demand) ; I is the inflow pumping rate

Selection of capacity for a River Reservoir

Operation study is the study to determine required capacity for a river reservoir. It simulates the
reservoir operation for a period of time in accordance with an adopted set of rules.
An operation study may be performed with annual, monthly, or daily time intervals. Monthly data are
mostly commonly used, but for large reservoirs that carry over storage for many years, annual intervas
are satisfactory. For small reservoirs, daily timesteps are most preferable since the sequence of flow
within a month may be important.
The methods for zizing reservoirs depend on the size and size. There are two main techniques used for
determining thecapacity for river reservoirs:
1. The mass curve (also known as Rippl diagram)
2. The sequent peak procedure
Mass curve analysis (also known as Rippl method, after Rippl 1883)
The main disadvantage of the Rippl method is that it assumes that the sequence of events leading to a
drought or flood will be the same in the future as it was in the past
The Rippl procedure for determining the storage volume is an application of the mass balance method
of analyzing problems i.e.
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑠 − 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑠 = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒
In this case it is assumed that the only input is the flow into the reservoir (Q in) and that the only output
is the flow out of the reservoir (Q out). Thus
𝑑𝑆
= 𝑄𝑖𝑛 − 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑑𝑡
Rearranging and substituting finite time increments (Δt), the change in storage is then
𝑄𝑖𝑛 ∆𝑡 − 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 ∆𝑡 = ∆𝑆
By cumulatively summing the storage terms, the size of the reservoir can be estimated. For water supply
reservoir design, Q out is the demand, and zero or positive values of storage (Δ S) indicate there is enough
water to meet the demand. If the storage is negative, then the reservoir must have a capacity equal to the
absolute value of cumulative storage to meet the demand.

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Example
Determine the storage required to meet an average demand of 0.25 m 3 /s for the period from August
1994 through January 1997.
Month Qin (0.05)(Qin) (0.05)(Qin)Δt Qout Qout(Δt) ΔS Sum
(m3/s) (m3/s) (106 m3) (m3/s) (106m3) (106 m3) (ΔS)
(106 m3)
1994
Aug 1.7 0.085 0.228 0.25 0.67 -0.442 -0.442
Sep 1.56 0.078 0.202 0.25 0.648 -0.446 -0.888
Oct 1.56 0.078 0.209 0.25 0.67 -0.461 -1.348
Nov 2.04 0.102 0.264 0.25 0.648 -0.384 -1.732
Dec 2.35 0.1175 0.315 0.25 0.67 -0.355 -2.087
1995
Jan 2.89 0.1445 0.387 0.25 0.67 -0.283 -2.37
Feb 9.57 0.4785 1.158 0.25 0.605 0.553 -1.817
Mar 17.7 0.885 2.37 0.25 0.67 1.701 -0.166
Apr 16.4 0.82 2.125 0.25 0.648 1.477
May 6.83 0.3415 0.915 0.25 0.67 0.245
Jun 3.74 0.187 0.485 0.25 0.648 -0.163 -0.163
Jul 1.6 0.08 0.214 0.25 0.67 -0.455 -0.619
Aug 1.13 0.0565 0.151 0.25 0.67 -0.518 -1.137
Sep 1.13 0.0565 0.146 0.25 0.648 -0.502 -1.638
Oct 1.42 0.071 0.19 0.25 0.67 -0.479 -2.118
Nov 1.98 0.099 0.257 0.25 0.648 -0.391 -2.509
Dec 2.12 0.106 0.284 0.25 0.67 -0.386 -2.895
1996
Jan 1.78 0.089 0.238 0.25 0.67 -0.431 -3.326
Feb 1.95 0.0975 0.236 0.25 0.605 -0.369 -3.695
Mar 7.25 0.3625 0.971 0.25 0.67 0.301 -3.394
Apr 24.7 1.235 3.201 0.25 0.648 2.533 -0.841
May 6.26 0.313 0.838 0.25 0.67 0.169 -0.672
Jun 8.92 0.446 1.156 0.25 0.648 0.508 -0.164
Jul 3.57 0.1785 0.478 0.25 0.67 -0.192 -0.355
Aug 1.98 0.099 0.265 0.25 0.67 -0.404 -0.76
Sep 1.95 0.0975 0.253 0.25 0.648 -0.395 -1.155
Oct 3.09 0.1545 0.414 0.25 0.67 -0.256 -1.411
Nov 3.94 0.197 0.511 0.25 0.648 -0.137 -1.548
Dec 12.7 0.635 1.701 0.25 0.67 1.031 -0.517
1997
Jan 13.8 0.69 2 0.25 0.67 1.178

Calculation procedure:
Step 1: Calculate the allowable discharge by multiplying the discharge and the allowable percentage as
set by the regulatory restriction (e.g. it is 0.05% in this case). This gives column 3.

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Step 2: Convert the discharge into a volume for each timestep by multiplying the discharge and the
time. In this case, the time step is one month and should be converted into seconds since the discharge
has time dimension of seconds. Take note of 31-day and 30-day months e.g.
For the month of August, 1994 with 31 days: 0.085 × 31 × 86400 = 227664 m3
For the month of September, 1994 with 31 days: 0.078 × 30 × 86400 = 202176 m3
This gives column 4.
Step 3: Calculate the rate of demand. In this case an average monthly demand of 0.25 m 3/s is used.
This yields column 5
Step 4: Convert the rate of demand into a volume of demand per month in a similar manner like in step
2. This gives column 6. For example:
For the month of August, 1994 with 31 days: 0.25 × 31 × 86400 = 669600 m3
For the month of September, 1994 with 31 days: 0.25 × 30 × 86400 = 648000 m3
Step 5: Calculate the storage that is needed for each month ΔS as the volume of Inflow – volume of
demand. This givens column 7
For the month of August, 1994 with 31 days: 227664 − 669600 = −441936 m3
For the month of September, 1994 with 31 days: 202176 − 648000 = −445825 m3
Step 6: Calculate the cumulative storage, Σ(ΔS) as the sum of the value in the 7th column for that
timestep and the last value calculated in the 8 th column. For August 1994, it is -441,936 m3 since this is
the first value. For September 1994, it is
For September 1994, it is − 441936 + −445824 = −887760 m3

From August 1994 through March 1995, the demand exceeds the flow, and storage must be provided.
The maximum storage required for this interval is 2.370 X 106m3.
In April 1995, the storage (ΔS) exceeds the deficit (Σ(ΔS)) from March 1995. If the deficit is viewed as
the volume of water in a virtual reservoir with a total capacity of 2.370 X 106m3, then in March 1995,
the volume of water in the reservoir is 2.204 X 106m3 (2.370 X 106 - 0.166 X 106). The April 1995 inflow
exceeds the demand and fills the reservoir deficit of 0.166 X 106m3.
Because the inflow ( Q in ) exceeds the demand (0.25 m 3 /s) for the months of April and May 1995, no
storage is required during this period. Therefore, no computations were performed.
From June 1995 through December 1996, the demand exceeds the inflow, and storage is required. The
maximum storage required is 3.695 X 106 m3. Note that the computations for storage did not stop in May
1996, even though the inflow exceeded the demand. This is because the storage was not sufficient to fill
the reservoir deficit. The storage was sufficient to fill the reservoir eficit in January 1997.

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A. Storage as a function of draft and runoff

Draft: with respect to storage reservoirs, drafting is the use of suction to move water from the reservoir
Runoff: The flow if surface water into the reservoir. It may be overland flow or flow through natural
channels. Channel flow is of importance in the estimation of reservoir storage.
A dam thrown across a river valley impounds the waters of the valley. Once the reservoir has filled,
the water drawn from storage is eventually replenished by the stream, provided runoff, storage and
draft are kept in proper balance. This can be done using graphical or analytical means and is usually
based on historical records or replications generated by suitable statistical procedures of operational
hydrology.

Figure. Mass diagram method for the determination of storage required in impounding reservoirs. (A
constant draft of 750,000 gpd/mi2 = 23 MG/mi2 for a month of 30.4 days is assumed.) Conversion
factors: 1MG = 1,000,000 gal = 3.785ML = 3,785,000 L; 1MG/mi2 = 1.461 ML/km2; 1 gpd/mi2 =
1.461 L/d/km2.
Assuming that the reservoir is full at the beginning of a dry period, the maximum amount of water S
litres/m2 that must be withdrawn from storage to maintain a given average draft D litres/m 2 equals
the maximum cumulative difference between the draft D and the runoff Q in a given dry period, or

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𝑆 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 ∑(𝐷 − 𝑄)

To find S, ∑(𝐷 − 𝑄) is summed arithmetically or graphically. The mass diagram method (see the
previous figure) is usually used to determine

∑(𝐷 − 𝑄) = ∑ 𝐷 − ∑ 𝑄

The shorter the interval of time for which runoff is recorded, the more exact the result. As the
maximum value is approached, therefore it is advised to shift to short intervals of time e.g. from
monthly to daily.

Figure. Use of mass curve to determine the reservoir capacity

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The slope of a mass curve at any time is a measure of the inflow at that tim . Demand curves representing
a uniform rate of demans are straight lines.
Demand lines drawn tangent to the high points of the mass curve e.g. N0 1 in the previous figure,
represent rates of withdrawal from the reservoir. Assuming the reservoir to be full wherever a demand
line intersects the mass curve:
- the maximum departure between the demand line and the mass curve represents the reservoir
capacity required to satisfy the demand.
- The vertical distance between successive tangents represents water wasted over the spillway
If the demand is not uniform, the demand line becomes a curve (i.e. a mass curve of demand) but the
analysis remains the same. In this case, the demand line for nonuniform demand must coincide
chronologically with the inflow mass curve i.e.June demand must coincide with June inflow etc.
The previous figure is an example of a mass curve for a period of 4 years with two peaks.

Example
What reservoir capacity isi required to assure a yield of 75000 acre-ft/yr for the inflows shown in the
following figure?

Figure. Use of a mass curve to determine the possible yield from a reservoir of specified capacity
Solution

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- The tangents to the mass curve form the previous figure are drawn so that their maximum departure
from the mass curve is 30,000 acre-ft.
- The tangent from B has the least slope, 60,000 acre-ft/yr, and thisis the minimum yield.
- The tangent at A indicates a possible yield of 95,000care-ft in that year, but demand could not be
satisfied between points B and C without storage considerably in excess of 30,000 acre-ft.
The sequent peak procedure.
Values of the cumulative sum of inflow minus withdrawals (including average evaporation and seepage)
are calculated. See the following figure.
The first peak (local maximum of cumulative net inflow) and the sequent peak (next following peak that
is greater than the first peak) ar eidentified.
The required storage for the interval is the difference between the initial peak and the lowest trough in
the interval.
The process is repeated for all cases in the period under study and the largest value of storage can thus
be found.

Fig. Illustration of sequent peak algorithm

If inflow and drafts are repeated cyclically, in successive sets of T year, the sequent peak procedure may
be used to determine minimum storage for no shortage in draft based on two needed cycles. See example
below.
Example: Calculation of required storage from runoff records

Solution:
From the recorded monthly mean runoff values (column 2), find the required storage for the estimated
rates of draft (column 3) (Note: Volume is in US gallons)
From the following table:
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Colum 1: contains order of months

Column 2: Contains the observed flows

Column 3: The values 27, 30, 33, and 36 MG/mi2 = 0.89, 1.1, 1.09, and 1.18 MDG/mi2 respectively, for
30.4 days/month. For a total flow of 462 MG/mi 2 in 12 months, the average flow is 462/365 = 1.27
MGD/mi2, and for a total draft of 360 MG/mi2 the development is 100 x 360/462 = 78%
Column 4: Positive values are surpluses; negative values are deficiencies

Column 5: P1 is the first peak, T1 is the first trough in the range P1P2, where P2 is the second higher
peak; similarly, T2 is the second trough in the range P2P3
Table . Calculation of required storage

Order of Recorded Estimated Storage, Reservoir

b
months runoff, Q draft, D Q-D Σ (Q - S = P -T Waste, W stateb
(1) (2) (3) (4) D) (5) (6) (7) (8)
1 94 27 67 67 67 0 R
2 122 27 95 162 162 0 R
3 45 30 15 177P1 176 1 L
4 5 30 -25 152 151 0 F
5 5 33 -28 124 123 0 F
6 2 30 -28 96 95 0 F
7 0 27 -27 69 68 0 F
8 2 27 -25 44 43 0 F
9 16 30 -14 30 29 0 F
10 7 36 -29 1T1 0 0 E
11 72 33 39 40 39 0 R
12 92 30 62 102 101 0 R
1 94 27 67 169 168 0 R
2 122 27 95 264 176 87 L
3 45 30 15 279 P2 176 15 L
4 5 30 -25 254 151 0 F
5 5 33 -28 226 123 0 F
6 2 30 -28 198 95 0 F
7 0 27 -27 171 68 0 F
8 2 27 -25 146 43 0 F
9 16 30 -14 132 29 0 F
10 7 36 -29 103 T2 0 0 E
11 72 33 39 142 39 0 R
12 92 30 62 204P3 101 0 R
Conversion factors: 1MG/mi2 = 1.461 ML/km 2

a
Runoff Q, draft D, and storage S are expressed in MG/mi2.
b
P, peak; T, trough.
c
R, rising; F, falling; L, spilling; E, empty.

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Column 6: The required maximum storage

𝑆𝑚 = (𝑃𝑗 − 𝑇𝑗 ) = 𝑃𝑚 − 𝑇𝑚 = 𝑃1 − 𝑇1 = 177 − 1 = 176 𝑀𝐺 ⁄𝑚𝑖 2 in this case
The fact that 𝑃2 − 𝑇2 = 279 − 103 = 176 𝑀𝐺 ⁄𝑚𝑖 2
Also implies that there is seasonal rather than over-year storage. Storage at the end of month
𝑖 = 𝑆𝑖 = min{𝑆𝑚 , [𝑆𝑖−1 + (𝑄𝑖 − 𝐷𝑗 )]} ;

For example in line 2, Sm = 176 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑆𝑖−1 + (𝑄𝑖 − 𝐷𝑗 ) = 67 + 95 = 162; 𝑆𝑖 = 162;

𝐼𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒, ℎ𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟, 𝑆𝑚 = 176 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑆𝑖−1 + (𝑄𝑖 − 𝐷𝑗 ) = 162 + 95 = 257 𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝑖 = 𝑆𝑚 = 176
Column 7: the flow wasted 𝑊𝑖 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥 {0, [(𝑄𝑖 − 𝐷𝑖 ) − (𝑆𝑚 − 𝑆𝑖−1 )]};
For example line 3, (𝑄𝑖 − 𝐷𝑗 ) − (𝑆𝑚 − 𝑆𝑖−1 ) = 15 − (176 − 162) = 15.
There is no negative waste
For variable drafts and inclusion of varying allowances for evaporation from the water surface created
by the impoundage, the analytical method possesses distinct advantages over the graphical method. The
principal value of the mass diagram method is not for the estimation of storage requirements, but for
determining the yield of catchment areas on which storage reservoirs are already established.

NB: before finalizing the decision regarding reservoir capacity, it is usually desirable to perform a
detailed operation study on one or more periods of data cycles. The detailed analyses should consider:
- Seepage as a function of reservoir level
- Evaporation as afunction of reservoir area and variable evaporation potential
- Operating rules must be dependent on natural inflow, reservoir storage

Water losses in reservoirs

Construction of a reservoir has a number of effects on the hydrology of the site:
1. It increases the exposed water-surface area above that of the natural stream and increases the
evaporation loss.
2. There is an increase in runoff from the area occupied by the reservoir water surface because all
precipitation falling on the water becomes available
3. There is net loss of water flowing past a dam through seepage. However, this is very small
compared to evaporation and precipitation and can be neglected.
In terms of depth of water:
𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝐸𝑤 − (𝑃 − 𝑞)
𝐸𝑤 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑃 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑞 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑢𝑛𝑜𝑓𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑟

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Example
You have been given the following data for two reservoirs
Ew (mm) P (mm) q (mm)
Reservoir 1 1524 203.2 7.62
Reservoir 2 1092.2 1168.4 381

𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑟 1 𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 1524 − (203.2 − 7.62) = 1328.42

Calculate the net loss for reservoir 2.
Volume of water loss:
The volume of water loss per year is calculated by multiplying the depth loss by the average area of the
reservoir water surface during the year. Accurate results are possible if the calculation are conducted on
a monthly or weekly basis

Reservoir reliability
The reliability of a reservoir is defined as the probability that it wll deliver the expected demand
throughout its lifetime without incurring a deficiency.
In water resources engineering projects, the lifetime is taken as the economic life which can be between
50-100 years.
A probability analysis can be done to calculate storage probability curves. This kind of analysis is often
done on extreme values using for example the Gumbel extreme-value distribution to produce a reliability
curve. An example is the curve in the following figure:

Figure. A reservoir reliability curve

The curve represents the probability that the demand during the project life can be met as a function of
reservoir capacity.
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For example, in the previous curve, a reservoir capacity of 615,000 acre-ft (758x106 m3) is required if a
reliability of 99.5% is desired while 550,000 acre-ft (678x106 m3) is adequate if a reliability of 95% is
acceptable.
Zero risk or 100% reliability is impossible and the traditional concept of safe yield or firm yield has no
meaning.
Use of reliability analysis permits cost benefit analysis of achiving various levels of reliability and to
determine whether an increase in reliability is sensible

Sediment transport
Every stream carries some suspended sediment and moves larger solids along the stream bed as bed
load. Since the specific gravity of soil materials is higher than that of water i.e. about 2.65, the suspended
sediments tend to settle lto the channel bottom but are kept in suspension by upward currents in turbulent
flow conditions, thus countering the expected gravitational settling.
When sediment rich water reaches a reservoir, the velocity and turbulence are greatly reduced and the
larger suspended particles and most bed load are deposited as a delta at the head of the reservoir.
The following figure gives a cross section of a reservoir with settlement at the upstream and downstream
parts.

Figure. Schematic drawing of the sediment accumulation in a typical reservoir

Smaler prticles remain in suspension longer and are deposited further down the reservoir. The smallest
particles may remain in suspension for longer and pass the dam with water discharged though
sluiceways, tubines, spillways or other outlet works.
The suspended-sediment load of streams is measured by sampling the water. Sediment load is measured
in parts per million (ppm).
The relation between suspended-sediment transport Qs, and streamflow Q can be represented
mathematically as:
𝑄𝑠 = 𝑘𝑄 𝑛 ; 𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑛 = 1

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Figure. An example of sediment-rating curve for a river.

A sediment-rating curve may be used to estimate suspended-sediment transport from the continuous
record of streamflow in the same manner thatth eflow is estimated from the continuous record of stream
flow, in the same manner that the flow is estimated from the continuous-stage record using a stage-
discharge relation.
However the sediment rating curve is much less accurate because:
- Rates of erosion vary from storm to storm due to variations in rainfall intensity, soil condition,
vegetative development
- Sediment eroded from a basin during one storm may be deposited in the stream channel, and remain
until subsequent stoem washes it downstream
- Portions of the drainage area may be more susceptible to erosion than others, and higher sediment
loads may be expected when a storm centres over such areas
Due to the above:
a. the rate of suspended-sediment transport and the rate of streamflow are rarely closely correlated
b. total sediment transport may be estimated by adding a suitable amount to the suspended-
sediment transport to allow for the bd-load contribution
In the absence of suspended-sediment data, the total sediment transport of a stream may be estimated:
a. by comparison with similar watersheds whose sediment transports have been previously
determined from suspended-sediment-load data
b. from studies of reservoir-sediment accumulation
The total amount of sediment that passes any sectin of stream is referred to as the sediment yield or
sediment production

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Reservoir sedimentation
The ultimate destiny of all reservoirs is to be filled with sediment. If the sediment inflow is large
compared with researvoir capacity, the useful life of the reservoir may be very short.
Researvoir planning must therefore include consideration of the probable rate of sedimentation in order
to determine whether the useful life of th proposed reservoir will be sufficient to warrant its construction.
Knowledge of reservoir sedimentation rates is critical and can be determined using surveys on reservoirs
that have been in existence for years. The surveys can provide data on:
- the specific weight of the settled sediments
- the percentage or entering sediment that is deposited in the reservoir
These data can be used for interpretation of data from future reservoir surveys.
The specific weight of settled sediments vary with the age of the deposit and the character of the
sediment. The specific weight (dry) of sediment samples from reservoirs range from 650-1500 kg/m3
with an average estimate of about 800 kg/m3 and 1300kg/m3 for old sediments.
The following formula is used to estimate specific weight (dry) of deposited sediment:
%𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑 %𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑡 %𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑦
𝑊= (𝑊1 + 𝐵1 log 𝑇) + (𝑊2 + 𝐵2 log 𝑇) + (𝑊3 + 𝐵3 log 𝑇)
100 100 100
W is the specific weight (dry) of a deposit with an age of T years.
W1 , W2 , W3 is the specific weights of sand, silt, and clay at the end of the first year
B1 , B2 , B3 are constants having the same units as W that relate to the compaction characterictics
of these soil types. Typical values of these parameters are given in the following table
Reservoir operation Sand Silt Clay
𝑾𝟏 𝑩𝟏 𝑾𝟐 𝑩𝟐 𝑾𝟑 𝑩𝟑
Sediment always submerged or nearly submerged 93 0 65 5.7 30 16.0
Normally a moderate reservoir drawdown 93 0 74 2.7 46 10.7
Normally considerable reservoir drawdown 93 0 79 1.0 60 6.0
Researvoir normally empty 93 0 82 0.0 78 0.0
Deposition of sediments occurs during the life of the reservoir and thus the total volume occupied by
deposited sediments, W must be calculated on annual basis. Sediment deposited in earlier years will
occupy less space per unit weight than the more recent deposits because of compaction that occurs over
time.
Exercise:
Estimate the specific weght (dry) of deposited sediment that is always submerged. The sediment is 20%
sand, 30% silt, and 50% clay by weight. Calculate how the specific weight of the deposited material
varies with time.

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Researvoir trap efficiency

Researvoir trap efficiency is the percentage of the inflowing sediment that is retained in a reservoir. It
is afunction of the ration of reservoir capacity to total inflow.
- A small reservoir on a large stream passes most of its inflow quickly and the finer particles may not
have time to settle but are discharged downstream.
- A large reservoir on the other hand may retain water for several years and permit almost complete
removal of suspended sediment.
The following figure gives a relationship of reservoir-trap efficiency to the capacity inflow ratio on the
basis of data from surveys of existing reservoirs. The relationship can also be used to estimate the
amount of sediment a reservoir will trap if the average annual sediment load of the stream is known.
From the figure, the trap efficiency of a reservoir decreases with age as the reservoir capacity is reduced
by sediment accumulation.
The useful life of a reservoir can bee calculated by determining the total time required to fill the critical
storage volume provided the specific density of the sediments is known.

Figure. Researvoir trap efficiency as a function of the capacity-inflow ration

Sedment transport fluctuates widely from near zero during dry weather to extremely large quantities
during major floods. Thus:
- it is difficult to predict te sediment accumulation to be experienced during short periods of time.
- it is also unwise to assume that the accumulation during a period of a fw years can indicate the true
average annual sediment transport.

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Exercise:
Using the reservoir trap efficiency curves, find the propable life of a reservoir with an initial capacity of
30,000 acre-ft if the average annual inflow is 60,000 acre-ft and the average annual sediment inflow is
200,000 tons. Assume a specific weight of 70 pcf for the sediment deposits. The useful life of the
reservoir will terminate when 80% of ots initial capacity os filled with sediment.

Reservoir sedimention control

The most common method of sedment control is to designate a portion of the reservoir capacity as
sediment storage. However, this postpones the problem rather than reducing or addressing the problem.
Reservoir sedimentation cannot be preventd but can only be retarded. This can be done in a number of
ways:
1. select a site where the sediment inflow is naturally low. Some basins are more prolific sources
of sediment than others because of soil type, land slopes, vegetation cover and rainfall
characterictics
2. Make the reservoir capacity large enough to create a useful life sufficient to warrant the
construction. Although trap efficiency of large reservoirs is high, it does not increase linearly,
and the useful life of a large reservoir is longer than that of a small reservoir if all other factors
remain constant
3. Use fo soil conservation methods over the catchment area of the reservoir. E.g. use of terraces,
strip cropping, contour ploughing etc. retard overland flow and reduce soil erosion.
4. Use of check dams in gullies to retain some sediment and prevent it from entering streams
5. Increasing vegetation cover on the reservoir catchment area. This reduces impact of raindrops
and minimizes soil eosion
6. Stream bank protection. If a soil does not have a sediment load at equilibrium, it tends to scour
its bed or cave its banks. Stream bank protection can be done by revetment, vegetation etc.
7. Once inside the reservoir, sediment accumulation can be reduced by providing means for
discharging some sediment. Sluice gates are commonly used for this purpose and can be installed
at different levels of the dam. Sluice gates at various levels will sometimes permit discharge of
thefiner sediments before they have time to settle to the bottom. In many reservoirs, a sediment-
laden inflow may move through the pool as a density current, or a layer of water with a density
slightly different from that of the main body of reservoir water. The density may be due to density
of dissolved minerals, or temperature differences. Reservoir-trp efficiency may be decreased
from 2 to 1o% if it is possible to vent such density currents through sluiceways
8. Sluice gates near the base of the dam may permiti flushing some sediment downstream, but the
removal will not extent far upstream from the dam
Physical removal of sediment deposits is rarely feasible.

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Researvoir clearance
The removal of trees and bushes from a reservoir site is an expensive operation and is often difficult to
justify on an economic and environmental basis. If left in the reservoir area, trees and bushes have the
following disadvantages:
a. the possibilities that the trees will eventually float and create a debri problem in the dam
b. decay of organic matter may create undesirable odors or tastes in water supply reservoirs
c. trees projecting above the water surface may create an undesirable appearance and restrict the
use of the reservoir for recreation

Reservoir leakage
- Most reservoir banks are permeable, but the permeability is low that leakage is of no importance.
- If the walls of the reservoir are of badly fractured rock, permeable volcanic material, or cavernous
limestone, significant leakage may occur
- The lekage may result into:
o Loss of water
o Damage to property where the water returns to the surface
- During construction, leakage through a few, compact, well-defined channels or within a small area
of fractured rock may be sealed by pressure grouting. However, pressure grouting is expensive for
a large area.
- Small reservoirs, e.g. distribution reservoirs can be lined with plastic membranes to assure water
tightness

Reservoir-site selection
General rules of for choosing a reservoir site include:-
1. A suitable dam site must exist. The cost of the dam is often a controlling factor in selection of
a site.
2. The cost of real estate for the reservoir (including road, railroad, cemetery, and dwelling
relocation) must not be excessive
3. The reservoir site must have adequate capacity
4. A deep reservoir is preferable to a shallow one because of lower land costs per unit of capacity,
less evaporation loss, and less likelihood of weed growth
5. Tributary areas that are unusually productive of sediment should be avoided if possible
6. The quality of the stored water must be satisfactory for its intended use
7. The reservoir banks and adjacent hillslopes should be stable. Unstable banks will contribute
large amounts of soil material to the reservoir
8. The environmental impact of the proposed reservoir must be studied and made available to the
public to ascertain the social acceptability of the projet

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