Jeremias 2021

SA Journal of Industrial Psychology
ISSN: (Online) 2071-0763, (Print) 0258-5200

Page 1 of 14 Original Research
Is working from home the new workplace panacea?

Lessons from the COVID-19 pandemic for
the future world of work
Authors: Orientation: The COVID-19 pandemic has forced millions of employees to work from home
Jeremias J. de Klerk1
as governments implemented lockdowns.
Mandi Joubert1
Hendrikjan F. Mosca1 Research purpose: This study examined the impact of working exclusively from home on
Affiliations:
employee engagement and experience, and determined beneficial and distracting factors.
1
Faculty of Economic and
Motivation for the study: Remote working trends have risen steeply since the onset of
Management Sciences,
University of Stellenbosch COVID-19 and are unlikely to taper off soon. Organisations need to understand the impact of
Business School, Bellville, remote work when reconsidering working arrangements.
South Africa
Research approach/design and method: A dual-approach qualitative design was followed.
Corresponding author: The sample comprised 25 employees (N = 25) who were forced to work exclusively from home
Jeremias de Klerk, during COVID-19. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews.
mias.deklerk@usb.ac.za
Main findings: Working from home for protracted periods rendered paradoxical outcomes.
Dates:
Employees could work effectively with improved employee engagement and experience, but
Received: 29 Jan. 2021
Accepted: 13 Apr. 2021 there were challenges rendering adverse effects. The experienced benefits of working from home
Published: 21 June 2021 created expectations that this practice would continue in future, along with some office work.
How to cite this article: Practical/managerial implications: Organisations need to continue, though not exclusively,
De Klerk, J.J., Joubert, M., & with work-from-home arrangements. The ideal ratio of remote work to office work was seen
Mosca, H.F. (2021). Is working as two to three days per week. However, support and cultural practices would have to be put
from home the new
workplace panacea? Lessons in place.
from the COVID-19 pandemic
Contribution/value-add: The COVID-19 lockdown provided a unique environment to study
for the future world of work.
SA Journal of Industrial remote work. For the first time, employees and organisations were placed in a situation where
Psychology/SA Tydskrif vir they could experience working from home in a stark and compulsory form, devoid of idealistic
Bedryfsielkunde, 47(0), fantasies or romanticism.
a1883. https://doi.org/
10.4102/sajip.v47i0.1883 Keywords: remote work; work from home; flexible work arrangements; employee engagement;
employee experience; COVID-19; lockdown.
Copyright:
© 2021. The Authors.
Licensee: AOSIS. This work
is licensed under the Introduction
Creative Commons
Attribution License. Since the onset of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic in the year 2020, millions of
employees globally have been forced to work from home as governments of many countries
implemented various levels of lockdown restrictions. Before the pandemic, organisations adopted
work-from-home practices purely as a matter of convenience and to provide conducive working
conditions. However, in the year 2020, most governments enforced national lockdowns, which
obliged organisations to implement work-from-home arrangements (He, 2020). Early indications
suggest that employees would like this ‘new norm’ to continue after the pandemic abates
(Iometrics & Global Workplace Analytics [GWA], 2020).
Working from home, or remote work, is a flexible working arrangement (FWA), which consistently
correlates with important organisational benefits, such as improved employee engagement and
performance (Conradie & De Klerk, 2019; Lee, 2018; Rudolph & Baltes, 2017), and reduced
absenteeism (Schaufeli, 2013), enhanced financial returns and organisational effectiveness
Read online: (Khodakarami & Dirani, 2020). However, extensive remote working can also yield disadvantages,
Scan this QR such as social isolation and reduced employee engagement (Sardeshmukh, Sharma, & Golden,
code with your
smart phone or 2012; Vander Elst et al., 2017). The concept of employee experience is another useful framework to
mobile device consider employees’ holistic perceptions of employment relationships (Plaskoff, 2017) and is
to read online.
related to employee engagement practices (Pendell, 2018).
http://www.sajip.co.za Open Access

Survey polls relate working from home during the COVID-19 when employees should work, working hours will inevitably
pandemic with increased employee engagement and be affected as employees have the flexibility to work at times
expectations to continue this praxis (Iometrics & GWA, 2020; that suit their personal schedules.
Peppercomm Institute for Public Relations, 2020). However,
these results have not been tested with scientific rigour. It is Flexible working arrangements have been associated
thus risky to use them in making decisions for future work with improved employee health and well-being,
arrangements. There is a clear need to determine scientifically improved management of work and family role conflicts
the effect of enforced and exclusive remote work on employee (Mache, Servaty, & Harth, 2020; Rudolph & Baltes, 2017),
engagement and employee experience, as experienced increased engagement (Anitha, 2014; Conradie & De
during the COVID-19 pandemic, in order to plan for future Klerk, 2019; Rudolph & Baltes, 2017; Ten Brummelhuis
work modes. et al., 2012), greater job autonomy and psychological
resources (Mache et  al., 2020) and improved commitment.
Literature review Similarly, remote work has been correlated with
outcomes, such as higher productivity, as employees are
The 2020 COVID-19 pandemic lockdowns and willing to recommit part of the time saved by not having
remote work to commute (McNaughton, Rackensperger, Dorn, &
The coronavirus disease 2019 was first identified in China Wilson, 2014), improved morale (Boell, Campbell, Cecez-
in December 2019, which spread rapidly across the world Kecmanovic, & Cheng, 2013), fewer work interruptions
causing a global pandemic (World Health Organization (Gajendran & Harrison, 2007; Kazekami, 2020;
[WHO], 2020). By mid-January 2021, the number of COVID-19 McNaughton et al., 2014), better ability to coordinate
cases had already reached 95 million globally, resulting in work and non-work commitments (Boell, Cecez-
two million deaths, with cases continuing to rise exponentially Kecmanovic, & Campbell, 2016), greater job satisfaction
(WHO, 2020). In order to curb the spread of COVID-19, most
and commitment (Gajendran & Harrison, 2007; Kazekami,
countries, including South Africa, introduced lockdowns.
2020), less role stress and work–family conflict (Masuda,
Depending on the country, lockdown included the closure of
Holtschalg, & Nicklin, 2017) and increased work–life
many facilities and restriction on leaving home for non-
balance (Boell et al., 2013).
essential work. Organisations had to find ways to keep their
businesses afloat and employees productive, resulting in a
In contrast, the challenges of extensive remote working
marked shift to work-from-home practices. According to the
include reduced teamwork and collaboration (Boell et al.,
global survey of Iometrics and GWA (2020), 88% of
respondents were working from home regularly in 2020. By 2013), work–life blurring (Eddleston & Mulki, 2017),
early 2021, employees in most countries, including South increased isolation and lack of meaningful connections with
Africa, were still required or encouraged to work from home, others (McNaughton et al., 2014; Vander Elst et al., 2017),
where possible. overwork, infringement on family roles and work–family
conflict (Eddleston & Mulki, 2017), distractions, loneliness,
The general media frequently speculate about the outcomes worry and guilt (Mann & Holdsworth, 2003), increased stress
and future of working from home. One of the polls revealed and decreased life satisfaction (Kazekami, 2020).
that 74% of chief financial officers intended to shift some
employees permanently to remote work, mostly to save costs Company culture has a significant effect on the outcomes of
(Lavelle, 2020). Another poll revealed that 77% of respondents flexible working arrangements (Putnam, Myers, & Gailliard,
were satisfied with flexibility in balancing work and non- 2014). A culture that is not supporting and trusting can
work activities, and that 69% were satisfied with overall result in unrealistic organisational expectations and
productivity, well-being, engagement and a feeling of safety, demands on remote workers, which can lead to tension and
depending on the home environment and resource unhealthy work practices (Perlow & Kelly, 2014). Despite
availability (Iometrics & GWA, 2020). The poll further the benefits of remote working, concerns about remote
indicated that 76% of respondents wished to work from workers’ lack of physical presence and connection to the
home at least 1 day per week after the lifting of lockdown, organisation continue to surface (Belle, Burley, & Long,
with 16% not wanting to return to office at all. It is reasonable 2015). Working from home is more than a change in physical
to expect that these work-from-home experiences will have location; it also alters the physical environment of the
a far-reaching effect on how remote work is viewed and worker, including the equipment, tools and resources
managed in future. required to complete tasks and the nature of interactions
with other employees (Sardeshmukh et al., 2012). Working
Flexible working arrangements, remote work from home changes the nature of work and human
and working from home engagement in work processes (Boell et al., 2013). Moreover,
Flexible working arrangements provide flexibility in terms of it can be argued that mandatory working from home during
the place of work (working from home), time of work (flexible lockdown is a flexible spatial option in form, but not in
hours) and continuity of work (breaks in work activity) spirit, because it is missing the element of choice and may
(Ten Brummelhuis, Bakker, Hetland, & Keulemans, 2012). As not deliver the same benefits as voluntary working from
work-from-home arrangements do not necessarily prescribe home (Hyatt & Coslor, 2018).

Employee engagement, outcomes and engagement and family-related factors (Wood et al., 2020).
antecedents By applying the JD-R model, Bakker, Ten Brummelhuis,
Prins and Van der Heijden (2011) demonstrated that the
The challenges of COVID-19 for businesses have amplified
combination of substantial job demands, such as workload,
the importance of having engaged employees survive
and deficient job resources, such as supervisory support,
and prosper during these difficult times. Employee
correlates with work-home interference (WHI). Work-home
engagement can be defined as ‘a positive, fulfilling
interference is a common issue for employees, because most
motivational state of work-related well-being’ (Wood, Oh,
people have considerable family responsibilities in addition
Park, & Kim, 2020, p. 242). Employee engagement has
to their work demands. However, although work overload is
consistently been correlated with several important
an important antecedent of WHI, it does not necessarily
organisational outcomes (Bailey, Madden, Alfes, & Fletcher, result in WHI when employees experience sufficient
2017) that constitute a competitive advantage (Schneider, resources (Bakker et al., 2011). Research has shown that job
Yost, Kropp, Kind, & Lam, 2018), such as enhanced resources, such as supportive supervisors, play significant
commitment and performance, reduced absenteeism roles in enhancing work engagement and reduce WHI (Wood
(Schaufeli, 2013), enhanced organisational financial returns et al., 2020). In contrast, a scarcity of resources combined
and organisational effectiveness (Khodakarami & Dirani, with demands, such as the conflict between work and family
2020) and positive financial and customer metrics (Bailey roles, promote WHI and tend to erode work engagement and
et al., 2017; Schneider et al., 2018). well-being (Wood et  al., 2020). An individual’s work
environment can have a substantial influence on his or her
In their definition of employee engagement, Schaufeli, non-work-related life situations, and the other way around,
Salanova, Gonzalez-Roma and Bakker (2002) distinguished with both positive and negative effects on the individual’s
three dimensions: vigour (high levels of energy and mental well-being (Wood et  al., 2020). Flexible working
resilience, a willingness to invest effort in work), dedication arrangements, such as remote work, signal a supportive
(a strong psychological involvement in one’s work, a sense working environment in which employees are cared for by
of meaning, enthusiasm, inspiration, pride and challenge) and their organisation (Wood et al., 2020). Remote work offers
absorption (immersion in one’s work, being completely focused employees a level of control over their place of work (and, in
and happily engrossed in work). Kahn (1990) posited that practice, also time), providing a sense of psychological job
employee engagement is the outcome of psychological safety, resources.
available job resources and psychological meaningfulness
of the work. These antecedents have been linked consistently Conservation of resources (COR) theory (Hobfoll, 1989, 2002)
with employee engagement (Anitha, 2014). Positive describes how people react to the stressors in their
antecedents, such as job resources, positive psychological environment that might influence their well-being. People
states and positive leadership and perceived organisational draw on resources to cope with the stressors. If one still cannot
support are routinely linked with increased levels of cope, or if too many resources are consumed in the process, it
engagement (Bailey et al., 2017; Khodakarami & Dirani, 2020), will result in stress (Hobfoll, 2002). Hobfoll (2002) made the
whereas aspects such as abusive supervision are linked with distinction between contextual resources and personal
decreased levels of engagement (Bailey et al., 2017). resources. Personal resources are inherent to the individual
and include aspects such as personal characteristics, time
The job demand-resources (JD-R) framework explains availability and physical energy (Hobfoll, 2002). Contextual
employee engagement as the outcome of a balance between resources are located outside the self and can be found in
job demands and job resources (Bailey et al., 2017; Lee, 2018). the individual’s social context, such as one’s working
Job demands refer to ‘[t]hose physical, psychological, social environment at home, or the support provided by one’s
or organisational aspects of the job that require sustained manager. Ten Brummelhuis and Bakker (2012) applied COR
physical and/or psychological (i.e. cognitive or emotional) (Hobfoll, 1989, 2002) to develop the work–home resources
effort’ (Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004, p. 296). Job resources are: (W-HR) model to gain insights into how personal resources
[T]hose physical, psychological, social or organisational aspects
interact with demanding aspects of the work domain.
of the job that either/or (1) reduce job demands and the associated Working-from-home relates to both contextual and personal
physiological and psychological costs; (2) are functional in resources. For instance, increased autonomy (a contextual
achieving work goals; (3) stimulate personal growth, learning resource resulting from working from home) can be used to
and development. (Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004, p. 296) reschedule work in order to accommodate an individual’s
family-time requirements (a personal resource) (Ten
High job resource availability fosters higher levels of Brummelhuis & Bakker, 2012). Both work and home domains
employee engagement (Rudolph & Baltes, 2017; Schaufeli & potentially could augment personal and contextual resources,
Bakker, 2004), whereas, a lack of resources prevents which can be used to improve home and work outcomes (Ten
employees or excessive job demands and fosters mental Brummelhuis & Bakker, 2012). In contrast, the W-HR model
withdrawal or disengagement (Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004). also describes how the conflict between work and home
demands can deplete personal resources. For instance, family
The JD-R model is primarily used to investigate both time demands, such as home schooling as a result of working
the positive and negative relationships between work from home, may require the individual to continue working

late at night to cope with work demands (Du, Bakker, & importance at particular points in employees’ journeys
Derks, 2020). This situation depletes an individual’s personal (Nelson & Neicu, 2020; Plaskoff, 2017).
resources, eventually contributing to role overload and
burnout, which is likely to put a strain on contextual resources COVID-19, working from home, employee
(Aw, Ilies, Li, Bakker, & Liu, 2021; Du et al., 2020). engagement and employee experience
Although working from home has become the standard of
Psychological detachment (an individual’s sense of being
working for millions, there is little previous research on
away from the work environment) represents an important
how working from home influences employee engagement
psychological mechanism that enables employees to recover
and employee experience (Masuda et al., 2017). Indeed,
from their work-related effort (Bakker, Du, & Derks, 2019).
Vander Elst et al. (2017) suggested that the disadvantages
Switching off from work-related issues through psychological
inherent in extensive working from home may exceed the
detachment enables people to stop consuming the personal
associated advantages. Whilst FWAs have previously been
resources required to be effective at work. Having personal
linked with employee engagement, it is uncertain how
resources available, then prevent negative spill-over from
working from home during COVID-19 has affected
work to home and promote the restoration of depleted
employee engagement and how this experience might
personal resources (e.g. engagement) to positively influence
influence the future of remote working. For instance, just as
well-being (Bakker et al., 2019). It could thus be reasoned that
working far away from one’s home is likely to result in
being away from the work environment when working from homesickness and ensuing depletion of personal resources
home would promote psychological detachment and (Du, Derks, & Bakker, 2018a), one might expect that
augment personal resources. However, Bakker et al. (2019) ruminative thoughts about the work environment (Du
found that regular rumination about work-related matters et al., 2018b) when separated from the workplace for a
when working from home erodes the ability for psychological prolonged period of time when working exclusively from
detachment and effective use of personal resources. The long- home may result in a similar experience. However, it is
term effect of working from home on personal resources and largely unclear how enduring separation from the
well-being is thus not clear and requires further investigation. workplace might influence employees’ work experience.
This study aims to explore the impact and experience of
Employee experience forced flexible work arrangements on employee engagement
and employee experience during the COVID-19 pandemic
The concept of employee experience originated from the
and to appraise employee expectations of flexible work
thinking used in customer experience (Plaskoff, 2017) and
arrangements in a post-pandemic future.
is increasingly viewed as a critical human capital trend
(Walsh & Volini, 2017). Although little scientific research
has been conducted on employees’ experience, improved Research design and method
employees’ experience has been linked to benefits, such The research study combined a double qualitative study
as improved productivity and revenue, improved conducted by two independent researchers using semi-
employee engagement and customer satisfaction (Hektner, structured interviews to control for self-selection bias,
Schmidt, & Csikszentmihalyi, 2019) and attracts a better minimising sampling bias, researcher bias and interview bias
talent pool (Van Vulpen, 2019). as discussed under the section on strategies to ensure
trustworthiness.
Employee experience can be defined as the employees’ set of
perceptions about their work experiences in response to
interactions with the organisation (Plaskoff, 2017) and relates Research setting and sampling
to the relationship between work complexity and behavioural The research study was conducted during the initial South
norms, such as collaboration and empowerment (Dery & African COVID-19 lockdown period from 27 March 2020
Sebastian, 2017). Morgan (2015) suggested a three-domain to 17 August 2020, when working from home was strictly
framework for employee experience: cultural, physical enforced. A dual-frame sampling approach was used.
and technological environments. The cultural environment Firstly, convenience sampling was used, comprising members
is about how employees experience the people in an of a social media group (Facebook) with 3700 members.
organisation and how things are performed (Morgan, 2015). An invitation to participate in the research was posted on the
The physical environment constitutes the tangible elements platform. The criteria to take part in the study were that
at the workplace with which employees interact. The participants needed to have worked from home exclusively,
technological environment entails all the tools available to at least during level 5 of the lockdown, but not before the
carry out the work. lockdown. In addition, a purposive sampling approach was
conducted to minimise self-selection bias by identifying a
Improving employees’ experience starts by understanding shortlist of potential participants from the researchers’
their needs and developing a culture, in which employees LinkedIn profiles, who showed a good fit with the criteria.
can reach their full potential (Plaskoff, 2017) and find Eventually, 25 participants were interviewed, of which 14
meaning (Lemon, 2019). When organisations understand the from the Facebook sampling process and 11 participants
employees’ needs, it helps them to understand what is of from the LinkedIn process.

Most participants (52%, N = 13) were between the ages of This technique began with correcting the electronic
30 and 40 years, 24% (N = 6) of participants were between transcriptions, which allowed for building familiarity with
20 and 30 years, 20% (N = 5) were between 40 and 50 years the data (Saunders, Saunders, Lewis, & Thornhill, 2011),
and 4% (N = 1) were between 60 and 70 years. The sample followed by organising the textual data thematically through
group consisted of six men (24%) and 19 women (76%). a process of coding, axial coding and thematic analysis
Most participants described their position in the (Cassell, 2015) to arrive at the key sub-themes and themes.
organisation as middle management (44%, N = 11), followed The software package, ATLAS.ti, was used for analysing the
by junior management or professional (32%, N = 8), senior qualitative data.
management (20%, N = 5) and executive management (4%,
N = 1). Participants represented 14 different industries,
with the largest representation from financial services
Ethical considerations
(24%, N = 6), transportation (12%, N = 3) and construction This research study was approved by the Research and Ethics
(8%, N = 2). Participants represented a wide variety of Committee (Social, Behavioural and Education Research) of
professions, such as accounting, information and Stellenbosch University.
telecommunication, production, environmental science,
financial management, public relations, marketing, legal, Findings
project management, property valuation, human resources
The key sub-themes and themes of the thematic analysis
and tertiary education.
were identified from the interviews (Table 1), which are
discussed later. Although these themes and sub-themes
Data collection and recording represent a useful heuristic categorisation of the findings,
Semi-structured interviews were carried out for data they are interdependent and not neatly separable. Overlap in
collection, and interview guides were developed to ensure the discussions is thus unavoidable.
trustworthiness of the data collection process. The first set of
questions were related to the interviewee’s remote working Theme 1: People can work effectively from
experiences during working from home. The second set of home, but not without challenges
questions were related to employee engagement and Sub-theme 1.1: Realities of working from home are not
employee experience as discussed in the literature review. necessarily aligned with expectations
Interviews were conducted through Microsoft Teams or Work-from-home arrangements were initially received with
Zoom because of lockdown restrictions. After each interview, enthusiasm and excitement, with idealisations about the
recordings were transcribed using either the Microsoft Word convenience of not having to go to work and the flexibility to
transcribe function or Otter.ti software, followed by manual do other things besides work. However, after the initial
checking and corrections where necessary. excitement subsided and reality kicked in, the realised
experience was not always positive. Participants, especially
Strategies employed to ensure trustworthiness those who had not previously worked from home,
underestimated the adverse experiences that inevitably
Combining purposive sampling with convenience sampling
accompany extensive remote working:
contributed to controlling for self-selection bias and
‘At the beginning it was quite fun to be at home and it really has
minimising sampling bias. Two researchers developed their
gotten more and more difficult.’ (P1, 30–40, middle management)
interview guides independently to minimise researcher and
interview bias. The research study was conducted whilst ‘Working from home has been probably one of the most
participants were still subject to working from home, challenging things that I have gone through in a very, very long
preventing wishful ideations of what working from home time.’ (P14, 30–40, professional)
could be like, or post-hoc recollections.
TABLE 1: Key themes and sub-themes of the thematic analysis.
Key themes Sub-themes
Care was taken not to draw any conclusion whilst doing
People can effectively 1.1. Work-from-home realities are not necessarily aligned
the interviews or transcriptions, but to let themes emerge work from home, with expectations.
from a structured thematic analysis using Atlas.ti software. but not without 1.2. Job demands, personal and contextual resources and
challenges. demands significantly influence work-from-home
ATLAS.ti has the benefit of speed, consistency, rigour and experiences.
access to analytical methods not available by hand (Given, Working from home 2.1. Increased flexibility renders appreciated benefits, but
renders paradoxical blurs boundaries and makes work-life balance difficult.
2008). The findings were triangulated, as the two sets of data outcomes. 2.2. Working from home provides some organisational
benefits, but reduces collaboration.
gathered by the respective researchers were independently
Working from home 3.1. Energy, enthusiasm and immersion increase for some,
transcribed and analysed by them before combining common influences employee but decrease for others.
engagement and 3.2. Working from home influences employee experience in all
sub-themes and themes from their analyses. employee experience, three of its domains: cultural, physical and technological.
but not uniformly. 3.3. Being forced to work from home influences engagement
and employee experience.
Data analysis Work-from-home
experiences created
4.1. The perceived effectiveness of virtual working created a
new norm.
expectations of 4.2. Employees want and expect to continue with
A thematic analysis approach (Braun & Clarke, 2006) was continuing with this work-from-home arrangements, but not exclusively so.
followed to analyse the data rigourously and systematically. praxis in future.

The work-from-home experience was not merely a have increased job satisfaction, others may be subject to more
continuation of a normal working environment from a distractions, depleting personal resources and decreasing job
remote location, but was accompanied by significant satisfaction.
experiences of discomfort and uncertainty:
‘For people who are used to fieldwork and meeting other
Lockdown restrictions initially required the closure of schools
people and being out and about, the cabin fever was and crèches, disabling parents’ access to their accustomed
probably worse than for most other professions.’ (P9, 60–70, support structures. Participants with children, especially
middle management) women, experienced significant distractions, accompanied
by increased stress and anxiety and long working hours
These findings confirm that working from home can be during this time:
motivating, but an exclusive work-from-home arrangement ‘If obviously you have to spend a few hours with your kids …
over a long period can be demotivating. The following then you have to try and make those hours up at night.’
discussions provide insights into the reasons underlying this (P10, 30–40, professional)
finding.
However, when lockdown regulations relaxed, schools
Sub-theme 1.2: Job demands, personal and contextual reopened and childcare in the form of schooling became
resources and demands significantly influence experiences readily available again. Their children’s school attendance
Participants with previous work-from-home experiences provided participants with relief from parenting duties
were more likely to have a positive work-from-home and a significant improvement in their work-from-home
experience. Contextual resources (Ten Brummelhuis & experience:
Bakker, 2012), such as an appropriate room or private space ‘I’m lucky now because my kids are back at crèche. So, yeah, that
for use as an office, are essential. More than 70% of I think is my biggest thing is that there’s not those other
participants either had a separate room to use as an office or distractions and also you can be really effective.’ (P10, 30–40,
created one. In contrast, eight participants mentioned that professional)
they had to set up an office in a communal space, such as the
dining room, which was not ideal: These findings support those of previous research, which
suggest that remote working may infringe on family roles
‘You cannot now just work from the dining room table; it
and increase work–family conflict (Eddleston & Mulki, 2017).
doesn’t work. You have to have that separate … It also helps
Again, these findings confirm that contextual demands in
with making sure that you keep that separation.’ (P1, 30–40,
the face of low contextual resources tend to deplete personal
middle management)
resources (Ten Brummelhuis & Bakker, 2012). As school
closure was distinct to the COVID-19 lockdown, this
As working from home continued, participants invested in
distraction will not specifically be considered further in
setting up dedicated office spaces and resources to ensure an
themes and future recommendations for the purposes of this
effective work-from-home space. The findings confirm the
study. However, it remains an issue that requires much
importance of the job demands and resources model;
attention and research.
sufficient contextual job resources are essential to cope with
personal and work demands (Rudolph & Baltes, 2017; Ten
Work-from-home experiences largely depended on how
Brummelhuis & Bakker, 2012). participants perceived being supported by their
organisations and managers. Organisational support
Several participants attributed effective work-from-home signalled messages of care and assurance that well-being of
practice to experiencing fewer interruptions at home. staff was important:
Whereas constant interruptions at the office distract, work-
‘A lot of this is dependent on the company you work for, and
from-home arrangements provided quiet spaces where
how they treat you, and how they react to everything, and I can
participants could focus and be productive. However, some just be quite grateful for being part of a company that reacted
participants experienced significant interruptions whilst well, listens to the complaints, [and] addresses them.’ (P1, 30–40,
working from home, for example, from garden services or middle management)
constant barking of neighbours’ dogs, which adversely ‘They’ve delivered office chairs to our homes. If you needed
affected their work-from-home experience: headsets, they would deliver it to your door. … that mind-set
‘There are things that can distract you, that can make you less that came from them helped to know that you have their full
productive than what you think you should be.’ (P3, 20–30, support.’ (P2, 30–40, middle management)
middle management)
Organisational culture played a significant role in employees’
These findings confirm that contextual demands in the face experience as a contextual resource (Ten Brummelhuis &
of low contextual resources can deplete personal resources Bakker, 2012), and working from home was positively
(Ten Brummelhuis & Bakker, 2012). It also confirms previous experienced in a trust-based culture:
research findings (Gajendran & Harrison, 2007) that although ‘If your manager is a very trusting and open person and they
some individuals enjoy fewer interruptions at home and may lead by … then they’re very open. So, that helps you to be a bit

more at ease in terms of the flexible type of working from Theme 2: Working from home renders
home.’ (P12, 40–50, senior management) paradoxical outcomes
Lack of trust and an unsupporting work culture, however,
Sub-theme 2.1: Increased flexibility renders appreciated
benefits, but blurs boundaries and makes work–life
extracted longer hours of employees, which, in turn, led to balance difficult
stress, anxiety and exhaustion resulting in the depletion of
Working from home enabled participants to better manage
personal resources (Ten Brummelhuis & Bakker, 2012).
their personal lives, allowing them the flexibility to attend to
Some participants reported implicit organisational
personal commitments during the day:
expectations that they always be available online,
sometimes even after hours. Several participants noted ‘I can take my son to his extramural activity and I can sit in the
car and work. … I literally just take my laptop and I go and carry
perceived pressures of having to respond immediately to
on working. But I can watch him. So, it’s that flexibility … just
mails in order to prove that they were working, and felt that
being able to do things like that, which is very cool.’ (P2, 30–40,
they could not take any break and had to work excessive
middle management)
hours:
‘I feel like I have more anxiety [now] that I’m at home … I feel Most participants observed benefits of increased flexibility,
that I can’t go for a walk, that I must be at my computer all the experiencing less work pressure and being able to attend to
time.’ (P1, 30–40, middle management)
their personal things, contributing positively to improved
‘There is almost a tendency to work longer hours. You feel the well-being:
pressure to show that you are delivering.’ (P4, 40–50, professional)
‘I think what I will miss if I had to go back to the office is the
flexibility in terms of just taking time out to sort of energise
The pressure and expectation to be constantly available,
myself … regular breaks, 15 minutes, half an hour; going for a
however, diminished as organisations settled into the work- walk. Having a quick power nap to recharge.’ (P8, 40–50,
from-home rhythm, with more acceptance that everyone was middle management)
working, even when not immediately available. This, in turn,
significantly boosted employees’ experience: Time and cost savings, such as not having to commute to
‘[N]ow I love it. I love it. I love it. I love it. It’s just, I feel like we work and not requiring formal work attire, were seen as
are treated as adults.’ (P19, 30–40, middle management) major work-from-home benefits. Working from home also
resulted in participants being more relaxed, and experiencing
Organisational and managerial support had a significant reduced strain on personal relationships and improved
impact on the work-from-home experience and engagement work–life balance and well-being:
of employees. This finding confirms that of previous research,
‘You inevitably save money by working from home because
suggesting that organisational support results in increased
you’re not travelling, so it’s not the petrol, you don’t tend to then
levels of perceived job resources (Khodakarami & Dirani, buy lunch … or clothes. I’m now in a tracksuit and leggings all
2020; Ten Brummelhuis & Bakker, 2012) and work engagement day, all week.’ (P1, 30–40, middle management)
(Bailey et al., 2017; Wood et al., 2020).
‘[Previously] I only saw my daughter 15 minutes in the evening
when I got home … then my husband has to do everything, and
Concluding reflections – Theme 1 that also puts strain on a marriage [and] on your relationship.’
The findings under theme 1 confirm that although working (P5, 30–40, middle management)
from home can be motivating and promote engagement
(Conradie & De Klerk, 2019), an exclusive work-from-home These findings confirm those of previous research
arrangement that extends over a long period tends to (Rudolph & Baltes, 2017), which found that employees
generate negative outcomes and can be demotivating. The who work remotely are likely to be satisfied and less likely
latter finding is a new contribution that was enabled by the to experience work–family conflict. These benefits
COVID-19 lockdown situation, as previous studies could promote the experience of increased personal and
not investigate the impact of working from home for an contextual resources (Ten Brummelhuis & Bakker, 2012).
extensive period of time. The findings suggest a work- Paradoxically, the flexibility and pressures that inherently
related version of ‘home-sickness’ (Du et al., 2018b) when accompany working from home blurred work and home
working from home extensively and exclusively, which is a boundaries and made prioritising and work–life balance
new contribution. The findings also confirm the importance difficult:
of organisational and managerial support (contextual ‘The line between work and personal life became very blurry.’
resources) (Ten Brummelhuis & Bakker, 2012) on the work- (P22, 30–40, junior management)
from-home experience to increase levels of personal
resources (Ten Brummelhuis & Bakker, 2012), which, in The absence of natural daily structures made it
turn, promote engagement and well-being (Wood et al., complicated to distinguish between work and personal
2020). Augmenting contextual and personal resources is life and to create distance between home and work,
important to obtain the maximum benefit from the working- making it challenging to maintain a healthy work–life
from-home experience. balance:

‘The downfall to that is then 10, 11 o’clock at night, you’re still ‘[Y]ou need to make a point of talking to somebody or emailing
sitting behind your laptop … the balance is a little bit difficult.’ them or sending them an instant team message, whereas in the
(P14, 30–40, professional) past, you could just pop up and say hi, listen … But now it’s
actually an effort to talk.’ (P19, 30–40, middle management)
‘It’s difficult, because you work at the place where you sleep.’
(P24, 20–30, junior management) ‘Everything just took so long. So, something which would
normally take me five minutes to work out took me 10 days to
A noteworthy finding was that although commuting was sort out because you have people who don’t respond to emails or
WhatsApps.’ (P10, 30–40, professional)
generally frustrating, it played an important role in creating
a tangible boundary between work and home:
Paradoxically to the improved organisational benefits of
‘The drive home from work actually forced your brain to switch
working from home, these are not necessarily sustainable
off. Sometimes we left our laptops at work when the work wasn’t
over long periods as working from home inevitably fosters
that tough. So it was a deliberate break that you’ve had to take.’
the loss of personal interaction and collaboration, a key
(P21, 20–30, senior management)
obstacle bemoaned by all participants:
This finding confirms that working from home makes ‘Working from the office, that fosters collaboration … and
connection, which is important because we are human beings.
psychological detachment from work difficult (Du et al.,
We are … wired for connection.’ (P8, 40–50, middle management)
2018b) and this tends to deplete personal resources.
On an emotional level, all participants felt isolated, craving

These findings confirm that working from home presents
for physical and personal interaction, resulting in negative
complex paradoxes to setting priorities and work–life balance,
experiences:
confirming the previous research findings (Kazekami, 2020;
Vander Elst et al., 2017) that although remote working may ‘I think [exclusively working from home] is emotionally and
mentally taxing as opposed to anything else. Limited human
have assisted employees in combining their work with their
interaction is very mentally and emotionally demoralising.’
family roles, blurred boundaries between work and family
(P14, 30–40, professional)
life made psychological detachment from work difficult.
Insufficient bandwidth prevented the use of webcams,
Sub-theme 2.2: Working from home provides some
organisational benefits, but reduces collaboration resulting in the loss of non-verbal communication and social
cues. This affected social interaction negatively:
Notwithstanding the difficulties discussed above, most
participants experienced an increase in productivity and ‘We don’t put our cameras on when we have meetings, so you
don’t pick up on social cues. I’m such a people person and I
efficiency. Working online facilitated opportunities and
would like to pick up on your body language.’ (P1, 30–40, middle
benefits, which were previously unthinkable:
management)
‘The company themselves … have told us they’ve realised
how productive people can be at home.’ (P1, 30–40, middle Work interactions became task focussed, dominated by
management) operational matters, at the cost of connecting personally.
‘I get more done in a half-day than I used to get done at the Participants increasingly felt lonely and secluded as
office.’ (P13, 30–40, middle management) communication became less relational and more transactional:
‘There isn’t a sense of connection because it’s always focused on
Although several participants observed distractions and operational issues, on work matters, and not … well-being. Where
disruptions at home, paradoxically they also reported fewer people are at. What are they struggling with? It’s always delivery
disruptions than at the office and felt that they had been outputs, KPIs [key performance indicators], objectives.’ (P8, 40–50,
more productive: middle management)
‘I find I work much more efficiently, because in the office, we are

in an open-plan office and there are these ongoing conversations.
These findings confirm those of previous research (Kazekami,
Someone’s always on the phone. Someone’s having a chat. 2020; Mann & Holdsworth, 2003; Vander Elst et al., 2017),
Someone is asking a question … I found [working from home] to be which suggested that experiences of isolation and loneliness
more efficient.’ (P4, 40–50, professional) stemming from a lack of physical interaction are negative
emotional outcomes of remote work. It also confirms how the
This finding is aligned with previous research findings difficulty of personal interaction and collaboration when
(Boell et al., 2016; Kazekami, 2020; McNaughton et al., working from home diminishes contextual resources to
2014), which suggest that remote work often contributes to deplete personal resources (Ten Brummelhuis & Bakker,
higher productivity. Paradoxically, participants missed the 2012).
efficiency of instant responses obtained by walking to a
colleague for a quick discussion. Working from home meant Concluding reflections – Theme 2
sending a message and waiting until a colleague had time to The findings under this theme confirm that working from
respond or formally making a phone call or arranging for a home tend to blur the boundaries between a person’s work
discussion. Participants found the absence of instant life and personal life (Wood et al., 2020), which result in
informal communication frustrating: several complex and paradoxical outcomes (Kazekami, 2020;

Vander Elst et al., 2017). Although remote working assists roles, with adverse impacts on engagement and employee
employees in combining their work roles with their family experience:
roles, blurred boundaries between work and personal lives ‘A big part of my role has changed … I’m also the occupational
make setting and keeping priorities and boundaries between health and safety [officer] … I’m a first aider, a floor warden and
work and personal lives very difficult. Moreover, consistent fire warden … in a way I was office mom as well. So that whole
ruminating thoughts about work matters make psychological role is taken from me completely.’ (P9, 60–70, middle
detachment from work difficult (Du et al., 2018b), which tend management)
to deplete personal resources.
This finding confirms the previous research finding (Lemon,
The findings confirm that remote working often contributes 2019: Maslach & Leiter, 2005) that engagement and employee
to higher productivity (Boell et al., 2016; Kazekami, 2020; experience are associated with meaningful work, and also
McNaughton et al., 2014). However, employees miss and long Kahn’s (1990) notion that psychological meaningfulness
for the efficiency and intimacy of regular physical interaction promotes engagement. Most participants reported increased
and collaboration with colleagues. This finding also confirms levels of immersion, mostly attributed to fewer disruptions,
that working from home tends to lead to experiences of allowing greater levels of concentration. However, immersion
isolation and loneliness stemming from a lack of physical levels varied from day to day:
interaction (Kazekami, 2020; Mann & Holdsworth, 2003; ‘Definitely way more immersed in my job than I was before.’
Vander Elst et al., 2017). These negative emotional outcomes (P1, 30–40, middle management)
of remote work deplete personal resources (Ten Brummelhuis ‘You get immersed, but it also depends from day to day. You
& Bakker, 2012). Similar to the findings discussed under struggle to switch off some evenings … You are wholly fed-up,
theme 1, this finding is new to the extent that it suggests a work- you just want to finish.’ (P3, 20–30, middle management)
related version of ‘home-sickness’ (Du et al., 2018b).
This finding also confirms previous research (Masuda et al.,
It can be argued that these findings demonstrate that that 2017), which revealed that engagement is not a static state but
remote work is not simply about a change in work space, fluctuates.
but that it changes the nature of work itself (Sardeshmukh
et al., 2012) to the extent that it influences both personal and Paradoxically, extensive working from home also led to a
contextual resources (Ten Brummelhuis & Bakker, 2012), decrease in employee engagement and signs of burnout,
and creates conflicting work and personal life demands. which negatively affected energy levels and increased
However, these influences and demands tend to be pressure and anxiety. Decreased energy levels and increased
paradoxical in nature and, at least to some extent, fatigue led to a decrease in enthusiasm:
unpredictable. ‘I have been feeling exhausted. Even now I’m feeling quite
exhausted. I … felt like I just couldn’t cope anymore.’ (P8, 40–50,
Theme 3: Working from home influences middle management)
employee engagement and employee ‘It felt like 24/7, weekends, until two o’clock in the mornings …
experience, but not uniformly it drained my energy, but I just had to keep on going.’ (P7, 40–50,
Sub-theme 3.1: Energy, enthusiasm and immersion senior management)
increase for some, but decrease for others
For most participants, the attributes of working from home This finding suggests signs of burnout, that is, a state of
positively affected the dimensions of employee engagement: complete mental and emotional exhaustion (Maslach &
energy, enthusiasm and immersion (Schaufeli, 2013): Leiter, 2005), and confirms the finding of Sardeshmukh et al.
(2012) that engagement may decrease with extensive remote
‘I sleep a bit more because I don’t have to get up so early …
working. These findings confirm how the depletion of
I think my energy is definitely a bit more, because the mind is in
personal resources in the face of contextual work demands
a good space.’ (P13, 30–40, middle management)
(Ten Brummelhuis & Bakker, 2012) adversely influence
‘Energy levels probably increased a bit, because you are getting engagement and employee experience.
it [work] done faster.’ (P1, 30–40, middle management)
Subtheme 3.2: Working from home influences employee
Enthusiasm was notably linked to an experience of being experience on all three of its domains
able to make meaningful contributions or experience the As the themes and sub-themes are interdependent and not
final contribution of own work: separable, the influence of working from home on employee
‘I felt very valued, very important because there was a lot of experience is explicated in the preceding discussions.
focus on HR having to be involved … So, I really felt good Without duplicating those discussions, it can be concluded
about my job. And inspired and driven.’ (P12, 40–50, senior that working from home significantly influenced employee
management) experience on all three of its domains, namely, physical,
cultural and technological (Morgan, 2016). This finding
In contrast, working from home also had the consequence emphasises that remote work is not simply about providing
of reducing the meaningfulness of jobs and even informal spatial mobility but that it changes the nature of work itself,

employee engagement and experiences in work processes virtual meetings had proved that effective remote performance
(Sardeshmukh et al., 2012). was possible:
‘It has sort of now has become an acceptable norm.’ (P7, 40–50,
Sub-theme 3.3: Being forced to work from home senior management)
influences engagement and employee experience
Participants had varied experiences regarding compulsory
As virtual communication became the norm, there was a
working from home. Especially those who were able to
drastic improvement in all participants’ skills and online
work from home effectively or were used to remote working
meeting capabilities, and an appreciation of the flexibility
did not experience significant effects and appreciated the
that virtual meetings allowed:
working from home decree:
‘I can jump into a meeting like this one, I’m done in 45 minutes
‘I was more grateful as opposed to unhappy about being
or an hour or whatever. And then I can carry on with work. I can
forced to come and work from home.’ (P1, woman, middle
work up to a minute before the meeting and a minute after the
management)
meeting.’ (P18, 30–40, executive)
This finding is somewhat unique as the previous research

The introduction to digital collaboration tools mostly had a
study has emphasised that employee choice is required for
positive impact:
remote working to show full positive outcomes (Hyatt &
Coslor, 2018). However, the finding can be ascribed to the ‘Because the technology actually allows everybody working
together on a document, it’s actually much easier now because
context of the COVID-19 pandemic during which people
everybody is … working on the document together. Whereas, in
may have preferred to stay at home for safety reasons.
the office, you have to stand up and go and speak to somebody
As lockdown restrictions were decreed, these assisted
else and you don’t have everybody working together at the same
participants do deal with psychological implications: time.’ (P21, 30–40, middle management)
‘It helped with like guilt because there was no other option …
We had no other options, so I think it helped.’ (P2, 30–40, middle The downside to online working was that more meetings
management) were held and some participants spent their entire day on
meetings, even after hours, resulting in ‘Zoom fatigue’ and
These findings demonstrate the role that personal factors and increased irritability:
the social environment play in employees’ experience and
‘[P]eople also started getting zoomed fatigue … you were forever
the consequences of being forced to adapt to remote work.
just on-screen in all these virtual meetings.’ (P22, 30–40, junior
management)
Concluding reflections – Theme 3
The findings under theme 3 confirm that engagement and Notwithstanding their adverse outcomes, virtual meetings
employee experience are associated with meaningful work and online working were experienced as surprisingly
(Bailey et al., 2017; Lemon, 2019), and also Kahn’s (1990) effective, creating perceptions of remote work (especially
notion that psychological meaningfulness promotes working from home) becoming the new working norm.
engagement. It also confirms that although working from
home promotes engagement in the short term, engagement Sub-theme 4.2: Employees want to continue working
may decrease with extensive remote working (Sardeshmukh from home, but not exclusively so
et al., 2012), even to the point of burn-out (Maslach & Despite the challenges relating to working from home, more
Leiter, 2005; Wood et al., 2020). Similar to the concluding than 70% of participants preferred working from home over
reflections under theme 2, the findings emphasise that office work:
remote work is not simply about changing spatial mobility
‘I definitely would prefer working from home, just purely based
but that it changes the nature of work to the extent that it on time wasted in traffic and the frustration and not to talk about
influences both personal and contextual resources (Ten the saving on vehicle maintenance and fuel costs.’ (P16, 40–50,
Brummelhuis & Bakker, 2012). These findings demonstrate junior management)
the important role that personal factors and the social
environment play in employees’ experience of working Although all participants expressed their desire to continue
from home and the consequences of being forced to adapt with working from home, only three (12%) were in favour of
to remote work. working from home exclusively, with the others preferring to
alternate the flexibility of working from home with the
Theme 4: Experiences of working from home structure and interaction of office work:
created expectations of continuing with this ‘I think there should be a good balance between going to the
praxis in future office and working from home, not exclusively working from
Sub-theme 4.1: The perceived effectiveness of virtual home.’ (P13, 30–40, middle management)
working created a new working norm
Enabling employees to work from home forced organisations Some participants suggested the need for working from
to digitise and implement online work practices. Several different environments as a reason for alternating between
participants observed how adapting to working online and remote work and office work, as ‘living at work’ became

overwhelming. All participants mentioned the need for resources, this resulted in adverse experiences and
physical interaction as a major reason to also work from the decreased engagement. Organisational support, a conducive
office: organisational culture and trust were seen as key requirements
‘Flexibility to be able to going in to the office, engage, but also of working from home, whereas a lack of face-to-face
work at home, I think is very suited and much better environment interaction was found to be a key obstacle. Other factors
and style of working.’ (P12, 40–50, senior management) contributing to employee engagement and employee
experience included flexibility and improved work–life
Most participants mentioned the ability to carry out more balance, physical infrastructure, task meaningfulness and
work, the ability to concentrate and flexibility as important cost and time savings by not having to commute to and from
reasons for working from home to continue: the office. Whilst this study’s findings have confirmed
contradictions regarding varying levels of disruptions at
‘Although we still tend to work core hours, I find … bit more
home, the study generally revealed greater productivity at
flexibility in general. I can pop out to the shop quickly. I can go
and … do this and that and then just catch up with a few things
home than at the office, although not for all. Working from
on the weekend.’ (P5, 30–40, middle management) home provided appreciated benefits at an individual level
(e.g. improved work–life balance, and cost and time savings)
Although the preferred number of work-from-home days and at an organisational level (increased productivity and
varied between 1 and 4 days per week, more than 60% of employee retention).
participants preferred working from home 2-3 days a week.
The paradoxical findings revealed that extensive working
Other participants felt that the ideal way would be the ability
from home inevitably came with various unwanted
to choose when to work from home or the office:
consequences. Whilst most participants noted their ability to
‘I would like to go to the office twice a week, and have the manage their personal and professional lives better, they also
flexibility of choosing when I go to the office … So if my work is
found that blurred boundaries between work and family life
done, I have the option of going home or doing other stuff.’ (P19,
made psychological detachment from working and work–
30–40, middle management)
life balance difficult. They experienced disadvantages, such
as decreased emotional well-being and social isolation.
Although the previous research study found that variation
People, being unique, were influenced differently by external
in working from home and office work was required to
factors that could either create a conducive or non-conducive
improve engagement and employee experience (Lee, 2018;
work-from-home environment. The paradoxes demonstrated
Sardeshmukh et  al., 2012), the findings of this study
that remote working solutions were imperfect in isolation
contradict the notion (Vander Elst et al., 2017) that the
and required supplementary arrangements to balance the
disadvantages of remote working exceed its advantages.
disadvantages.
Concluding reflections – Theme 4 The findings confirmed a preference for remote working, but
The findings under this theme suggest that working from not exclusively so, as face-to-face interactions remained
home is largely expected to become a new working norm, at important. Participants preferred the flexibility of being able
least partly so, and notwithstanding some adverse outcomes. to combine remote work with office work and the option to
This finding supports the outcomes of several survey polls work remotely for 2–3 days a week, so as to obtain the best
(Iometrics & GWA, 2020; Lavelle, 2020), which suggest that from both the options. Being forced to work from home
working from home, at least partly, is expected to become a without choice was not seen as an ideal approach, although,
new norm in the way of work. because of COVID-19 safety concerns, it was largely
appreciated and experienced as organisational support.
Discussion During lockdown restrictions, challenges, obstacles and
emotional grievances were tolerated in the context of the
In this research study, working from home proved to be pandemic; however, the accompanying beneficial experiences
an effective alternative work arrangement. However, would remain in memory and drive future expectations.
notwithstanding idealistic expectations and excitement
Research contribution
about it, exclusive working from home could hamper
employee engagement and employee experience to the point
of burnout. The findings confirmed that remote working The COVID-19 lockdown provided a unique ‘experimental’
was more than just a change in physical location; it also environment, in which organisations were placed in a
altered the surrounding environment, resources required, laboratory-like situation where employees could experience
organisational expectations and interactions with other pure, sustained work from home, without the option of going
employees. A multitude of factors contribute to or detract to the office or attending social gatherings. The extreme
from the work-from-home experience. When job resources COVID-19 context provided a rare opportunity to investigate
and organisational support exceeded job demands, this the benefits and obstacles of working from home in a real-life
resulted in higher levels of employee engagement and situation, thus eliminating idealistic fantasies or romanticism.
positive experiences. Conversely, where job demands, such This facilitated the extraction of the complex relationships
as increased workload and family commitments, exceeded between the paradoxical outcomes of extensive working

from home – as far as could be established – for the first time. about the efficacy of working from home, but were forced to
For instance, the emergence of a work-related version of follow this route. This resulted in additional pressure on
‘home-sickness’ (Du et al., 2018b) is a new finding that was participants to prove that they could work from home
specifically enabled by this unique research setting. effectively. The pandemic had much wider psychological
impacts on employees than just forcing working from home,
This research study reveals the usefulness of the JD-R such as anxieties about personal health, job security, home-
framework (Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004) and W-HR model (Ten schooling and childcare. The COVID-19 pandemic forced
Brummelhuis & Bakker, 2012) with regard to understanding organisations and employees on short notice to prepare for
the dynamics and outcomes of working from home extensively. working from home and not all were ready. Initial harsh
A key contribution of this research study is the recommendation, lockdown restrictions made it more challenging to manage
notwithstanding the paradoxical outcomes, that organisations work–life balance. Working from home and lockdown were
continue with work-from-home arrangements, however not initially regarded as temporary measures, and people were
exclusively. Previous studies on the adoption of flexible motivated to make it work to save organisations and their
work arrangements assumed both the willing participation jobs. The fatigue of apparent long-term lockdown may have
and the availability of appropriate policies. Very little research influenced the findings. The study was conducted from the
exists where both the employee and the employer were forced perspective of employees, and the effectiveness of working
to implement work-from-home arrangements. The study from home was not considered from the organisation’s point
uniquely demonstrates that working from home applies to of view. Care must thus be taken before applying the findings
flexibility of place, and that remote work cannot, in practice, be indiscriminately.
dissociated from when employees work. The experimental
study revealed that organisations should not try to force a Similar research is recommended to explore the impact of
single remote work solution but should rather seek various extensive unforced remote work (whether voluntary, offered
options that create conducive working conditions. or chosen) on the engagement and employee experience of
employees. Future studies should investigate remote
Practical implications and recommendations working experiences from the perspective of employers.
for practice More research is required on how social isolation can be
curbed, and how interaction and collaboration can be
Although exclusive working from home is not encouraged,
enhanced when a large contingent of staff works remotely.
organisations will have to consider remote policies and
Comprehensive research is also required to study the long-
practices in the post-pandemic future in order to gain many
term effects of blurred boundaries between work life and
consequential benefits and to address increasing remote
family life on individuals. The long-term effects of the
work expectations, for instance, consider allowing employees
continuance of home-schooling also require further research.
to work remotely for 2–3 days per week, or allow employees
to work from the office as and when needed. This will require
a review of organisational practices, and cultural and physical Conclusion
support for work-from-home arrangements. Remote working trends accelerated by the COVID-19
pandemic are unlikely to disappear as employees found
Leaders will need to develop skills to manage their employees working from home to be both productive and attractive.
working remotely and provide physical and mental support. Indeed, many employees may favour organisations that
If a remote work policy is adopted, expectations and provide remote working opportunities. Almost all work can
deliverables should be clearly communicated and managed now effectively be carried out remotely, and employees
interactively – with clearly defined KPIs – and discussions to expect work from home to continue at least partly.
be held at regular intervals. Employers and managers Organisations that want to benefit from improved employee
need to be sensitive about employees’ workload as loyal, engagement and experience should afford employees remote
and engaged employees may overextend themselves. work opportunities, even after the end of the COVID-19
Work-from-home practices require managers to be aware of pandemic. However, the paradoxical findings of this study
the pressures that cause employees to work excessive hours demonstrate that working from home represents neither a
at home and to support employees in finding a work–life panacea nor a proverbial headache. Rather the answer to
balance. It remains the manager’s responsibility to maintain
future work arrangements lies in developing a healthy
the relational side of teams and to create opportunities for
balance between the physical office presence and working
social interaction and collaboration. Beyond attention to
from home, with an appropriate organisational and
operational issues, dedicated opportunities should be sought
managerial support.
to focus on employees’ well-being.
Limitations and recommendations for future Acknowledgements

research Competing interests
Several aspects could have influenced participants’ work- The authors declare that they have no financial or personal
from-home experience in the context of COVID-19 lockdown relationships that may have inappropriately influenced them
regulations. Some organisations might have been sceptical in writing this article.

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SA Journal of Industrial Psychology

ISSN: (Online) 2071-0763, (Print) 0258-5200

Is working from home the new workplace panacea?

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On an emotional level, all participants felt isolated, craving

‘I find I work much more efficiently, because in the office, we are

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This finding is somewhat unique as the previous research

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Limitations and recommendations for future Acknowledgements

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