General Topology and its Applications 5 (197s) 9-33

@North-Holland Publishing Company

.V. ARHANGEL’SKI~
Moscow State University,,Moscow, USSR

ins&u te of Mathematics, Wversity of Islam&ad, Jslamabad,Prlki2t.w

Richard WIEGANDT
MathematicalInstitute, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Budapest, lfungapy

Received 16 Jauary1973

The development of a generaI theory %r connectednesses and disconneetednesses of

topological spaces was started in Preuss’ I’h.D. the& [ 83, in S41,19) p [IQ) and [Ill r
Preuss’ investigations exhibited t&e until then hidden, but conjectured relatiorrship ba-
tween separation axioms and not-connectedness of topoio&cal spaces. Our present paper
clarifies the fact that the theory of connectednesses and disconnectednesses of topological
spaces corresponds to the radiml-semisimple theow of rings and to the torsion-torsion-
free theory of abelian categories (cf. Theorems 2.1. and 3.11.
It is the purpose of this pq~r to study ana’characterize disconnectednesses and con-
nectednesses of topological spaces. Dkconnectednesses witl be characte’rizedas hereditary,
productive and upwards-closed classes and connactednesses wi.!lbe classified as continu-
ously closed, second additive and q-reversible classes of topological spaces. It turns out
that the class of totally disconnected spaces is the sma&st noMrivi$ disconnectedness;
the largest and second largest non-trivial disconnectedness is the class of To- and Tl-spa- .
ces, respectively. It is shown that there are infinitely many disconnectednews and bhey
do not form a chain Ffnally some questions concerning the theory of connectednesses
and disconnectednesses are stated.

1. Preliminaries

The class of all topological spaces will be denoted by ;f.

A topological space (particularly a subspace of any other space) is
called non-~M~Z, if it cont;lins more than one point. Otherwise the
space is called P&M.

* This work was cded out when both authors were at the University of Ishunabad as visiting
professors under the auspices of UINESCCkUNDFSpecial Fund Project PAK-47.
10 A. E Arhangel’ski$.R. Wiegandt/ Cbnnectednessesmd disconnectednesses

+J%eantidiscrete topology on a sex X is the pair {X, 4). The set (0, I}
endowed with the antidiscrete topology, will be called the standard
two-point antidiscrete space and will be denoted by DA*The set (0, 1)
with the topology ({C, l}, {l), 8) will be called the standard two-pai.-:t
connected set and will be denoted by DC. (DC is the so-called Slerpifiski
space.) The set (O,?.}with the discrete topology {{O,l), (01, { 11, 0) will
be denoted by DD.
When we speak of a class p of spaces. it is always to be understood
that P is homeomorphically closed, i.e.; if X E P and Y is homeomorphic:
to X, then Y E P. Thus a class P is associated with a topological property.
A space (subspace) belonging to a class P will be cahed a P-spcace(-sub-
space).
Let P be a class of spaces. We say that:
P is hereditary, if each subspace of each P-space belongs to P;
P is productive, if the topological p rod=uctof each set of P-spxes is a
P-space;
P is conthuotrsly cbsed, if each continuous image of any P-snace * be-
longs to P;
P is upwards-closed, if for each continuous mappin& : X + Y such
that Y~p,I’(X)=yandCf‘-lO,)ly~ i3cBthespaceXisaP-space;
P is q-reversible, if for each factor (quotient) mapping j : X + Y such
that YEPandCf-I(y) YJcPitistruethatXEP;
P is extensional, if for each topological extension of any P-space be-
longs to P (a space X is a tcpologica! extension of its subspace Y if Y

P is first-additive, if the topological sum of any set of P-spaces be-

longs to P;
P is second-additive, if’each topological space admitting a covering by
a family F of P-subspaces such that nF J: $9,belongs to P;
P is a T&aw, if all spaces ofP are Tr-spaces.
In what follows two*operators introduced by Preuss [ 111 will play a
vital role.
Let P and Q be classes of topological spaces, and consider the classes
defined I-=*
Uy the cperztors (21and (3 as follows:

g Q = {X E T I el cry con$inuous mapping ~7: Y + X

is constant for each Y E Q}.
eP = {X E T f every continuous mapping
 A. V. Arharrgel’skii:R. Wiegandt/ Cmnectednesses ond disctmnectednesses 11

P3p is a class which Preuss called a &cconnectedness_

efinitiom 1.1. A class (3 Q will be called a disconnectedness and a class

C P will be called a connectedness. The operators CDand E!are called dis-
connectedness and connectedness operators, respectively.

Obviously *.viilroutloss of generality we are allowed to restrict ourselves

to continuously closed classes Q and hereditaqr classes P in the definition
of disconnectedness and connectedness, respectiveiy. In what follows,
the operators KDand E!will usually act on continuously closed and here-
ditary classes, respectively.

Proposition 1.2. Let Q be a continuously closed and F a hereditary class

of topologicul spaces. The disconnectedness 9 Q is equivalent to the
class
U = (X E T I X does not contain non-trivialQ-subspaces),
and the connectedness C?P coincides with the class
V = {X E T 1X ca, ,.not be mapped continuously on to a non-
triviaiP-space).

Proof. If X E CDQ and Y is a Q-subspace of X, then the identical mapping

of Y is constant, hence Y is a trivial subspace, and X z U holds. If
X 4 CgQ then there exists a Q-space Y and a non-con,;tant mapping
q : Y -t X. Since Q is continuously closed, the image Y’ of Y by cpis
a non-trivial Q-subspace of X. IIence X & U follows.
Dual arguments prove t1 e second statement. 0

Applying Preuss’ results [ 111 on disconnectednesses and connected-

nesses we have

Proposition 1.3. The discomectedne:z operator cd and the connected-

riess operator C establish a Gaiois-correspondence between the contiruc-
ously closed and hereditary classes of’ topological spaces,
9 Q is hereditary and e P is con tinuously closed;
Q1 c Q2 imp,‘iesCDQ1 > Cg Q2 am' P, c F, implies C!Pj 3 C P,;
(DQCDQ=9QandCD’BP=eP.C1

It is co>r.-venientto introduce the following operators.

1% A. V. Arhmgel%ki~R Wiegmdt / Cmnmtedm~ and disconnectednesses

Definition I. If P is a class of topological spaces, then

B1P= (Y E T 1 Y is a subspace of a P-space)
will be called the hereditary cbsure of P;
I
9P = (Y E T 1 Y is a continuous image of a P-space}
will be &led the continuous closure ofP;
AP = (X E 2’ i eac&non-trivial subspace of X can be mapped
into a non-trivial P-space continuously)
will be called tI@ first reverse of .P;
I’P = (X E T 1 each non-trivial continuous image of X
contains a non- trivkll P-su bspace)
will be called the second reverse of P.

Proposition 1.5. If X E P n Q P, then X is a trivialspace.

If X E P CI@P, then X is a trivialspace. 0

2. Disconneetednesses

In this section we shall study properties of disconnectednesses and

establish two classifications of disconnectednesses.

Tkorem 2.:. A class P is a disconnectedness iff P satisfies the condition:

X E P iff each non-trivialsubspace of X can be mapped continuously
onto a non-t&&d P-spuce.

roof. By Proposition 1.3 ct Q is hereditary. It remains to show that if

A’4 r~30. tkn there exists a non-trivial subspace Y of X which cannot
be’&p<kd onto any non-trivial space of rb Q. But X $ Q Q implies the
existence of a non-trivial Q-subspace Y of X and by the definition of
rDQ, Y is a space as required.
Secondly, consider a class P satisfying the imposed condition. We
prove P =Q e P. If X $ P, then there exists a non-trivial c?P-subspace
Y of X. I-Iencc X $Q ‘2 P follows. On the other hand by Proposition 1.3
is always true. Cl

From here onwards we shall frequently use the criterion proved in

Theorem 2.1 as a definition of disconnectednesses.
 A. V. Arhangel ‘Ski; R. Wiegmdt / Conroectednt arrddisconnecteddnEtes 13

y [ 12, Satz 6.2.8. orollar) we have

o&ion 2.3. Every disconnectedness P is productive. CI

Theorem 2.1 implies trivially

Proposition 2.4. If 3 is a family of disconnectednesses, then the itieer-

section fI 5 is again a disconnectedness. fl

For each class P let us consider

[PII, = fl{f’I P’ is a connectedness and P C P’).
The class [PJ, will be called the D-closure of P.

Proposition 2.5. The D-closure of a class P is the smallest disconnlected-

fless containing I? 0

Proposition 2.6. For c;azyclass P of spaces [PID is ti;zeclass of all spaces

X such that each non&Ma1 subspace of X can be mapped continuously
onto a non-trivialspace o~SYP, i.e., [P] B = AGYP,

Proof. Clearly A%P is a disconnectedness, P C A%P and A%P is con-

tained in every disconnectedness containing P. CJ-

Proposition 2.7. If’P is a hereditary class of spaces then M = CDC?P.Cl

4%oof. By the hereditariness of P is follows P C Al? Now AP is minimal

and P cCD W holds. These result BP Ccl)U? On the other hand
PC APimpties P XAPandQ f? PcQeAP= AR U

We nee4 the following statement due to Preuss [9].

Proposition 2.8. If P is a disconnectedness and DA E P t’henP is the

class of all topological spaces. 13

Proposition 2.8. IfP is a discolnnectedness and DCJZP bu,t DA 6 P, then

P is #he class 11, of all TO-spaces(i.e. of a!1 topological spaces which do
not co in non trivialan tidiscrete subspaces). Moreover
where denotes the class t?f all an!idkrete spaces.
‘I4 A.,Y. Arhangell’ski~R Wiegandt/ Contmtednesses and disconnectednesses

PNX& XX E B am! Y is a non-trivial subspace of X, tken Y E P. If Y is

a;;ti&screte, then DA is homeomcrphk to a v f&pace of Y and hence DA
ISctzla.ttilaedin P contradic%;g the a:sumphion. Thus Y is ir3t antidis-
.i*u.ekIt temains to show that eaci;l s;aclc X, e-iery non-fr:tui:.Js&space of
civ~Sc~~is not antidiscrete? belongs k E:i&rr~*‘- bt 1:..A aim it is suf kient to
show that each space 2 which is ~;ot ZC:$F: +.*+I:, can be t-1,,qed into
DC by a continuous mapping. W!*??r,,a zp’irl<.
’ !) construct &: 3i 5 pping.
As Z is not anti&screte, there exists :m osen set U in 2 such ;“hj:

We define a mapping q : Z --f DC by the rule: q(x) = 0 for each x L- ’ ’

and #\x) = I for each x E U. Obviously cpis continuous. ‘Phe last ass<T.
tion follows from the defmition of the disconnectedness operator. 0

Proposition 2.10. There exist exactly two disconnectednesses which are

not T1+iasses: the ciass T of all topoir’ogical
spaces and the ciuss DO of
all TO-spaces.

Qoof. Certainly T and DO are different disconnectednesses and they are

noi Ti -dasses. Now !et us consider a disconnectedness P which is not a
T, -class; there exists a space X which does not satisfy the T, -separation
axiom. Hence for some x, y E X we have x # y and x E [y 1.Thus the
subspace {x, y} of X is either homeomorphic to D, or to D,. Applying
Propositions 2.8 and 2.9 we get either P = 7’ or P = DO. 0

Propsiticn 2.11. T/ICclass D, crf all T1-spaces is a disconnectedness.

Proof. The ciass D, is hereditary does not satisfy the T1-separation

. !f X
axiom, then X contains a subspace btzinghomeomorphic to D, or to D,.
But none of them can be mapped continuously onto a non-trivial T,-
space. Thus D, is a disconnectedness. U

Having proved the previous propositions we are well eq%pped to esta-

blish the following fundamental criterion for disconnectednesses.

Theorem 2.12. A non-empt; classP of spacersis a disconnectedness iff

rhe j?ollowingthree corzditionsare fulfilled:
(i) P is hereditary,
(ii) P is productive,
(iii) P is upwards-closed.
 A. K Arhangel ‘skii,R. Wiegandt / Connectednessestmd di~c,:,r~:icech,~~~~~~ 3.s

rod. Necessity. We hawe already established proper&s cd:)a& ($1 fog

disconnectednesses in Propositions 1.3 a3d 2.3.’ We k.a~e to verify that
iff’ : X -+ Y is any continuous mapping such that JiX) -a.?‘, Y E P and
f --$i) E P fix each y E Y, t.?+~m z_ AAX E i-8. If Z is a non-trivia! subspace of
X then either f(Z)1 > 1 or tkirt exists a y* E J? such that 2 c f-$~@).
In the first case f restricted to Z, is a continuous mapping of Z onto a
non-trivial subspace Y’ of Y. Since P is hereditary, Y’ E P follows. In
the second case 2 is a subspace oi’ f -l(y *) and f -’ (y) E P, HencerZ E F*
is valid. In both CEPYS every non-trivial subspace of X can be mapped by*
a cx.Anuous mapping onto a non-trivial space of P, Thus X E P and
necessity is proved.
St&?kit’~zcy.Case I: DA E P. Then DCE P for DA is a one-ito-one cow
:,inuoz image of D, and P is upwards-closed. By the Embedding Lemma
I t 2. 6.4X] every topological space can be embedded into.a prok.~t of
copies of DA and D,. Using conditions (i) and (ii) it follows that P co-
incides with the class T of all topologkxl spaces, and that T is a discon-
net tedness.
Case 2: D, E P but DA $ P. From DA$P and condition (i) it lfollows
that all spaces in R are TO-spaces, i.e., P c D,. On the other hand by the
Embedding Lemma Pp, c P holds. Hence P = E),.
Case 3 : D, 4 P. In this case P is a T, -class, for P is hereditky and up-
wards-closed. Suppose that X is a space such that every non-trivial sub-
space of X can be mapped continuously onto a non-trivial space in P.
Consider all non-equivalent continuous mappingsf, of X onto non-
trivial P-spaces X, and take the product space TTa&. Now there is a
unique mapping
f:X-d-I,&
such that waf= & where 7t, denotes the projection
?r, : TX, xa -+ A&*

Since P is productive and hereditary, it follows that Y = f(X) E P. By the

construction it is evident that each diagram

(rpmaps X onto 2) can be completed to a commutative diagram

xol
46 A. VI ArhaPtgel 'skit A. Wie.:andt/ Cunnectednesses and discunnectednesses

(g is actually equivalent to a projection z&). c

The existence of such a continuous image Y means that P is epireflective
(cf. Herr~~ch[ 4, p. 941 and Tennyson [ 6,7]). It is na~ra~ to call f aswell
as& Y the reflection of X in P, since f is unique up to hom~omor~hism.
In our case the class P is ti addition upwards-closed. Let us now show
that f is a factor (quotient) mapping. LndGed,f = f’f”, where $” : X + Y’
is a factor mapping andJ” : Y’ + Y is a one-to-one continu~ous mapping,
Since P is upwards-closed and Y E P, we have Y’ E P. By tfle character-
istic property off, f” = gffor some continuous mapping8 of Y onto Y’.
obviously g is the inverse mapping off’_ Hence f’ is a hom~omo~his~
and f is topologically equivalent to fn which means that f .Isa factor
mapping. Thus we can identify the space Y gnd the mappingf with the
decomposition space
*=Cf-‘CYNyEY)
and th:: natural projection R of X onto Y*, respectively. As any space
of P, Y is a Tt-space. Hence each F E Y* is closed in X. We shall prove
that each element of Y* is a trivial subspace of X. This will imply that
X = Y* E P. Let us suppose the contrary: some F* E Y* is non-trivial.
By the assumption on X there exists a continuous mapping XI!: F* + Z
where 2 is some non-trivial space in P, and ?I!(F*) = 2, We put
2” = {\I/-l(z) I 2 E Z).
As Z is a TImspace, all elements of Z* are closed in F? Hence they are
also closed in X. Let us consider the decomposition
L - (F”)} u 2”
=*cr*
of X endowed with the natural topology of the decomposition space.
The: decomposition space td can be mapped onto the decomposition
space Y* by the natural map~~g:

Let us denote the natural projection of X onto L by I$. Then obviously

?rl n”(x) = n(x) for each x E X, and IQ is continuous. The restriction of
a quotient snapping onto a closed subset which is tne counte~mag~ of
some set by this mapping, is again a quotient mapping (see Dugundji [ 1,
a/L, &I]). The set F* is closed in X, ~‘-1 (n’(F*)) =;:F* and v is quotient.
Thus by the remark above, the re~t~ction of IF’to F* is a q~~ot~entmap-
ping. This means that the subspac 2 n’(P j of the space L is homeomor-
 A, K Ahwgel ‘ski? R. Wiegundt’/ Connec%fnesse~ and disconnectednesses 17

phic to the space of the decompositioln

of F*. But this decompo&ion of F* is just Z*. The decomposition 2’*

was generated by
!I! : Z” = (!I? --l(z) 1 z E Z}.

Consequently it follop/s that there exists a natural one-to-one continuous

map&q of the space Z* onto 2. As Z E B and P is upwards closed, we
conclude that Z* E P, i.e., &(,!I*) E P’. But $(F*) = ni’(F*). If
P E Y* - {F*), then Ti ‘(P) = P is a one point subset of L which means
that the counterimages by s1 of all points of the set Y* - {F*) are trim
vial. Thus r< I(..) AlP for each P E Y% Since Y* E & and P is upwards-
closed, L E P. Hence the mapping 7t’::X + L, is a continuous mapping of
the space X onto a space belonging to P. By the characteristic property
of the mapping IB: .X -+ Y* there exi$;tsa continuous mapping 6 : Y* -+L
such that 9 v = I’. On. the other hand, q 7r’= X. Thus 8q:“I = 71’and as
np is an ont+mapping, it follows tha:: rppis one-to-one which contradicts
~7+(F*)l
1
:= iZ*I = IZI> 2.
This means that all elements of Y* as.e trivial and consequently X E P.
Thus P is also a disconnectedness in (Jase 3. This completes1the proof of
Theorem 2 II 2.17

We shall complete this chunk of g*eneralinformation on disconnected-

nesses with the following elementaqf assertions.

Proposition 2.13. The class D, ofai/M4laE spaces is a disconnectedness. Cl

Proposition 2.14. A disconnectedness P differing jirsm the class DT of all
trivialspaces, contains (~11
discrete space~~.

The easy proof is left to the reader. El

Proposition 2.15. If P is any disconnectedness different .from

P is first additive.

The proof is straightforward, one must refer to Proposition 2.14. D

 We are going to discuss connectednesses. The following theorem pro-
vides another definition of connectednesses, dual to that of Theorem 2.1.

Theorem Xl c A ClUSbY is a connectedness ifj’Q satisfies the following

every non-r;-viviaE
continuous image of X has a non-trivial

oof. I-et P be a hereditary class and czonsiderthe connectedness E!P.

Proposition 1.3 t?P is continuously closed. Further, if X 4 @P, then
XIhas a non-trivial continuous image Y in P, and by the hereditariness
1’ has only trivial e P-subspaces. Eence e P satisfies the imposed
condition,
Next, we prove that Q = (? CaQ* If X 4 Q, then X has a non-trivial
continuous image ‘Ywithout non-trivial Q-subspaces Hence P’E CDQ
and X 4 eG9 Q follows. Taking into account Q c e q Q we get
Q=E!CDQ.o

In the following this criterion will usually be used for proving con-
net tedness.

P’aoposition 3.2. Eixh connectedfless contains all trivialspaces. The c?ass

D, of al2 trivialspaces and the class T of all spaces are comectedrmses. 0

Proposition 3.3. The class CAof all antidiscrete spaces is a comzected-

ness.

Proof. Any continuSous image of an antidiscrete space is antidiscrete.

Now if X is not antidiscrete, then it can be mapped continuously onto
D,. Hence D, is a clontinuous image of .Y which does not contain non-
trivial antidiscrete subspaces. Consequently X $ CA and CA is a connec-
tedness. El

Theorem 3.1 implies immediately

The intersectiotl of auy

I fumilv
. of connectednesse:~ is
again a connectedness. q
 R. Wiegandt1(Connecfedmses and disc~onnectednes.ves
A. V. Arharvgel’skiE 19

ropasition 3.5. For every class PBof spaczs

[I (P’ i,-a comectedness and P C P’)
is the smallest comectedness cuntuini~g P. This intersectkm will be cal-
led the C-closure ojP and will be denoted by [Plc. In particular, if P is
continuously closed, then I?P = [Pjcm

The assertion follows immediately from Propositions 3.2 and 3.4. ~II

Proposiition 3.6. Let P be any continuously closed class of spaces. Then

CP=tS P.

Proof. We have 3 n Q P = DT.Hence none of the non-trivial spaces in P

canbe mapped continuously onto a non-trivial space in 19 P, i.e.,
P C C?(DI? By Proposition 1.3 9 P is heraditw. Moreover, by Proposi-
tion I .2 FD P is a connectedness. It remains to show th.at if P* is a con-
nectedness and B c P*, then C?cd .P C P*. Let us consider any nor&ivial
space X E e 9 P. If Y is a non-trkial continuous image of X, then
Y 4 CDP which means that some. non-trivial subspace Z of Y belongs to
P. By this argument we have shc&m that each Mop-trivial continuous
image of X contains a non-trivial subspace in Kl*:Since Ifr*is a connee
tedness, X E F* follows. Thus (3(2)P c P*. 0
As we have seen in +fieproof of Theorem 2.12, for a hereditary and
productive class P and for each topological space X there is a conkuous
mappingf of X onto a space Y E AD such that if 9 : X + Z is any continu-
ous mapping of X onto Z E P, the:n there exists a (unique) continuous
mapping g : Y -+ 2 for which ‘p= gf. It is obvious that tIhe mappingf is
unique up to a topological cquivaience of mappings. Th.is mapping f is
called a reflection of X in P. Sometimes we will say that Y is a reflec-
tion of X in P. Any topological space X can be decompbosedin the fol-
lowing manner for any dual pair P and Q = E’P of disconnectedness and
connectedness.

Theorem 3.7. Let P be a disconnectedness, and let Q dmote the con-

nectedness dual to P.IfX is an a&iPrary ,tupologicalspmx, therl there
exists a mapping .f‘: X + ‘1’such that:
(i) I’ E P;
(i:,!f--lb) E Q for each y E Y;
(iii) f is a factor fytrotient) mappirzg;
(iv) f is a rejlection of X ill P;
(v) if X’ is a subs/lace ofX af;ci X’ ,4 @ theil x” e J’ --I (_I”)f& W?ftt?
yE Y.
20 A. V. Arhmgel ‘Sk&R. Wiegmdt / Connectednesses and disconnectedn&es

roof. Let us mention first that if P = ov then the assertion

ican be proved by simple straightforward arguments. So let us suppose
that the disconnectedness Pbis a T&ass. Tn the proof of Theorem 2.12
it was shown that each reflection in a disconnectedness is a quotient
mapping. Thus (iii) is true. Beside the main part of the proof of Theo-
rem 2.12, it was shown that f-l @) cannot be mapped onto a non-tri-
This just means that

So condition (ii> is verified. Conditions (i) and (iv) are fulfilled by the
definition off. If X’ C X and X’ $J’-l Q) for all y E Y, then f(X’) is a
non-trivial subspace of Y. Hence f(X’) E P and X’ has a non-trivial con-
tinuous image in This implies that X‘ 4 U, and we have shown that
condition (v) is satisfied by f. •J

CsrdIary 323 (Preuss [ lo]): -If Q is a connectedJ?ess and X is any spca,e,

then for each x E X there exists a (unique) sub~pare _Qxof X such that
x E Qx and Qx contains all subspaces of X containing x which are in Q.
This subspace Qx will be called the Q-component ojX at x. Moreover,
the relation

hcJds jor every reflection jof X in the disconnectedness CDQ dual to Q.

roof. Let us fix a reflection f of X in CDQ and put Q, = f-‘f[x). Clear-

ly it is sufficient to verify the first property of Qx. But this has already
been done in ‘Theorem 3.7, (v). •I

From Corollary 3.8 one can easily derive

orollary 3.9 (Preuss [ 10, 3.1 Satz]). Each connectedness is second ad-
ditive. [T1

The information contained in Corollary 3.8 permits us to choose a

natural reflection among all reflections of a fixed space X in a fixed dis-
connectedness P. We put = e P and denote by P(X) the set of all
-components of .K endo ed with the decomposition (i.e. the quotient)
?Twe shall den the natural projection of X onto P(X).
and T is a reflection of X in
most natural to call1the ae on 71the natural reflelztion of X
 A. V. Ahangel ‘Skii R. Wiegandt/ Cmmectednesses and disconnectedr;esse$ 21

of spaces mztaining all triviielspaces, i3:a con-

nectedness iff ing three coraditims are satisfied:
0i is continuously clmed;
ii
( ) is second additive;
..‘
( 111) is q-reversible.

ity. We have already shown that every connectedness has

d (ii) (cf. Proposition 1I 3 and (forollary 3.9). Ktremains
is q-xeversible.
Let us consider an arbit:rary mapping f :X + 19iuch that f(X) = Y, J’is
a quotient mapping, Y-E Q and

For each x E X we take the Q-component Qx of X at x. Since x E j’-lfcx) EQ

the characteristic property of the -compommts implies f -‘f(x) c IQ,.
Taking into account tnat f is a quotient and an onto map&g, this 4cono
dition implies that there exists a continuous mapping !P of the space Y
onto the space CDQ(X) of all Q-components of X such that 1~= !I!./’where
n is the natural projection of X onto CDQ(X). But

Together with the fact that \Ipis a continuous mapping of Y onto

(a Q(X), these relations imply that CDQ(X) is a trivial sdbspace. !-krrce
X is a Q-component of itself, i.e., X E Q.
Sufficiency. Since g is continuousiy cio~ed, we have oQ to shas that
if every non-trivial cont;nuous image of a space .Y contains a non-&iv&B
subspace in Q, then 2 E Q.
If Q is a subclass of all antidiscrste spaces, then Q coincides either
with the class D, of a.11trivial spaces or with the &ss C, of all antidis-
Crete spaces. This follows immediately from assuralption (ii) of ‘theorem
3.10.
Taking into! account that s) Q = Q, and that each non-trivial space
which is not antidiscrete can be mapped continuously onto the spsce
D,, it remains; to consider the case ,\vhen D, E . VA mw need the
following
7.2 A, V. Arhmgd’skfi, R. Wiegmdt / Cbmmctednesses and disconnectedmmes

Prawf.
(‘iv)implies (0). Put X = DC and: Y = (1). Then Y E !.; %r edch
trivial space belongs to Q, further Y is dense in X. Thus D,“= X E Q.
(0) innplies (iv). Put Y’, = Y u {x)for each x E X - Y. We want to
show Y, E Q. We distingiish two cases.
Case 1. The set (x) is’not closed in YX.Then there exists a yXE Y
such that yXE E(x)]. The subspace {y,, x} of tht:: space YXis a continu-
ous image of the space D,. By (0) and (i) we have {yX,x) E Q. Hence

and condition (ii) implies YXE Q.

Case 2. The set (x.1is closed in YX.Then we put p(x) = 0 and (pdy)= 1
for each y E Y. The mapping p :Yx+ D, is quotient one which can be
verified easily, we mention only that the set cp-‘({ 1)) = Y = Y, - {x} is
open in YX.Alss
cp(Y,) = D, E Q, @(l)= YE Q (P-‘(O) = 1x1f Q
are valid. By condition (iii) it follows that YXE Q.
So for both cases we have seen that YXE Q for every x E X. Thus
S={Yx IxEX- y)
is a subfamily of Q, in addition
UF=X, nF=Y+@.
Applying condition (ii) it follows that X E Q and the lemma is proved. q
We come back to the! proof of Theorem 3.10. Applying Lemma 3.11
and D, E Q:,we obtain that Q satisfies condition (iv).
For each .Yf X let Q,*denote the set
Q:,=U{YIYCXJEX~~~YEQ).
By (ii) we have QX E Q and (iv) implies [QJX E Q. From x f fQ,lxit
follows that [QJx = Q:,. Clearly if x’, x” E X, then either QXt
. = Qxtl or
Qxt f’ Q/ = (8. Thus the family
G={AcXIA=Q, forsomexEX)
is a decomposition of x’ into disjoint &sed subsets of X. Obiviously the
f&owing conditions are satisfied by G:

(b) if Y c X and Y E Q, then Y CIZ r”orsorne 2 E G. We endow G

 A. 14 Arhangel ‘skii,R. Wiegandt/ Cunnectednesse~and disconneccednesses 23

with the quotient topolo,v (i.e. with the topol.ogy of the decomposition
space). Then the natural projection ;iiof X on?;0 G is a quotient mapping.
Let us show that the space G is trivial. Suppose the contrary. Now by
the assumption on X the space G contains a non-trivial subspace G’ which
belongs to Q. From condition (iv) it follows that
G” = [G’JG E Q.

Let us consider the s&space X* - ;r-l(G*) and .‘i-

L b: myping I* of tl-:e
space X* onto the space G* which is just ITrestskted to

Since G* is closed in G and n is a quotient mapping, it f’ollowsthat a* is

also a quotient mapping. For each A E G we have x*-$?) = ~~$4 ) E Q
and G* E: Q. Hence by (iii) X* f Q. 9ut on the other hand
llr(X*)I = IG*l
> IG’I > I

and so X * is not contained in any element of G contradictilng (b). Thus

the space G is trivial. This means X f G. By (a,) it fo!lo~ that X E Q and
the proof of Theorem 3.10 is complete. II
Let us mention that every cannectedness is productive (see [ 10,4.3
Satz]).

4. Some concrete disconnectednesses and connectednesses

Previou.siy we have met four concrete disco.nnectednesses:

the cla.cs T of all topological spaces,
the class D, of all To-spaces,
the class D, of all T, -spaces,
the class D, of all trivial spaces.
By the GaIois-c:orre!;pondence we have the following corresponding
connectednesses:
the class Lp, = (? ‘r of al! trkiai spaces:
the ~126sCA = eD, = riDA], of all antidiscrete spaces,
the class C, = (3D, = I‘{&, DA) of those spaces which are not de-
composable into any disjoint family 2 of non-empty closed subsets
such that Ii? I >, 1 (such spaces will be called aIbsolute@ cmnected
spaces; see also f 11, Examples]);
the class 7’= e Lb, of all spaces.
24 , A. I!*Arhangel%kii;R Wiegandtf Ccannectednes~es
md d&&mectednessa

The next proposition is an immediate consequence of Propositions

2.10 and 2.11.

Proposition 4.1. Among all non-trivialdismmectednesxs there exists a

lujgest one DO, with D, Itrls)e
second largest one. Correspbnditigly, CA is
the smallest and C, the second smallest non-trivialconnectedness. Cl

Let us recall that a topological space is called totally disconnected, if

each connected subspace of this space is trivial.

Proposition 4.2. The class DC of all totally disconnected spaces is the

smallest non-trivialdisconnectedness, and the class C of all connected
spaces is the largest non-trivialconnectedness.

Proof. Clearly D, = (b C where C is the class of all connected spaces.

Let us consider now any non-trivial disconnectedness E’.By Proposition
2.34 we get DD E IPwhere D, is the standard two-point discrete space.
Let X be any toMy disconnected space and Y a non-trivial subspace of
X. The.n Y is not connected which means that Y = Y0 u YI where Y,
and Y, are closed disjoint non-empty subspaces of Y. We put (dy) = 0
for leachy E Y0 and q(y) = 1 for each y E YI. Obviously q~is a continu-
ous mapping of 2’ onto D,. Since P is a disconnectedness, it follows
that X E P. Thus DC 6 P, i.e., D, is the smallest non-trivial disconnected-
ness.
On the other hand, the class C of all connected spaces is continuously
closed, and if a spiace is not connected, then it can be mapped continu-
ously onto D, E D, = Q C. Hence C is a connectedness and C = @De
holds. .Applying Proposition 1.3 we obtain the second statement. 0

Next we exhibit the existence of sufficiently many disconnectednesses.

Let r be an infinite cardinal. Throughout this paper we shall denote by
C7 the class
CT= {X E T 1X is connected and ].P’i< T}.
C’learly CT is continuously closed ;;nd the class
1X does not eontaim nontrivial
subspaces in C,.)
is a disconnectedness.
 A. VIArhangel‘ski; R WieganEit/ Connectedzlessesand disconneckednesses 25

3. If pf, G 71 < 72, then

Q CT13 Q CQ, Q CT1# Q cr2.

roof. Only the relation CBC,, # 9 C,%needs proof. Let us fix a setX
such that [XI = q and endow X with the topology
~Iz={ACXIA=g orIX--Al<q)
Clearly, if UE. TTl, V E Trl and U # 0, V + 0, then C n V # $4.This
implies that (X, T7,) is connected. Hence

On the other hand, if the cardinahty of a subspace of (X, ‘Jr,) is less

than rl, then this subspace is discrete by the definition of the topology
Trl. This means that no non-trivial subspxe of (X, T*,) belongs to Crl.
Thus (X, YII1)E bDCT1and so (X, Trl) E Q CT1- Q Cr2. 13

Proposition 4.4. The class $j ofall disconuectednesses different from

the classes D, and DC has no smallest element.

Proof. Obviously
I)c = I7(CoC7 I r runs over all cardinal numbers}
and D, # cbGT for every 7. Thus $‘jcontains every CDCT. Assume P is
the smallest element in 3. Then
PC fl((oC, la2 Ho) c

implies that P C. DC.

This contradicts D, ; DC $8 l 0

Taking into consideration C = E!D, and the Galoistcorrespondence

between connectednesses and disconnectednesxs, we arrive at

Proposition 4.5. The family of all ?son-trivialconrwtednesses different

jkom the classes C, T, has no largest eiement. q

Consider the class C of all connected spaces, the &s

connect
pact spaces and the class H of all ftim:tionnaZly
is called functionally connected, if every continuaus
on this space is constant: enotes the real Ii
-26 A. V=Arhmgel Oki[ R. Wiegmdt / Connectednews und disconnectednesses

space X is cdled functionally disconnected, if on each non-trivial sub-

space of X there exists a non-constant continuous real valued function.
Clearly D; = Q H is the disconnectedness of all functionally disconnec-
ted spaces, If we put R = SU(R}, then taking irkto account Proposition
2.6 we get

Proposition 4.6. D, = CDH = AR. U

The class DK = Q (B n C) consists of all spaces which do not contain

non-trivial bicompact connected subspaces.
Let us show that neither of the classes DK and D, contains the other
one.

aoposition 4.7. DK - D, # 8 and DH - D, + 8.

Yrosf. Obviously each Euclidean space belongs tc D, but not to D,.

Thus D, - D, # 8. On the other hand there exists an infinite countable
Hausdorff space on which each cantinuous real-valued function is con-
stant (see [ 12, 5,3]j. Let X be such a space. Then X (f D,. Since each
bicompact subspace of X is countable and a countable connected bi-
compact Hausdorff space is necessarily trivial (cf. [ 2, pp. 104, 24 1 ),
therefore X E D,. Thus X E D, - D, . 0

Corollary 4.8. The disconnectednesses do not form a chain. 0

Take the class R = % {R} of topological copies of all subspaces of the

real line R. In view of the definition of the class H and D, and of Pro-
positioa 4.7 we get

Proposition 4. (cf. [ 111) The classH ofall functionally connected spuces

is a :omected~~ess nnd H = eD, holds. Hand eDK are connectednesses
neither of them contairzingthe other class. 0

We say that a disconnectedness P is generated by a family 2 of spac:s,

if P = I 2 ID. Many connectednesses are generated by a finite set, for ins
stance D, = [II,],, D, = [D& a#vIT= [I&ID.

reposition II10, The class I-spaces is not finitely generated.

 A. V. Arhmgel ‘ski; R. Wiegandt/ Connecbednesses and disconnectednesses 2.7

00 e shall psove more: if 2 is any set of T1 -spaces, then [ 2 ]u #

For each infinite cardinal number r let us fix a T1-space X7 such that
IX, I = T and U C X, is open if and only if U = @or X - U is fMe. Let
P be a cardinal number bigger than the cardinality of every s
Such a T* exists, for 5,!is a set. Now we make use of the foll
perty of the spaces X,: if a T, -space Y is a continuous image of X7 by
fand IYI < IX,] then IYI = 1. To prove this we mention that f-lb)
muat be infinite for at least one y E Y. As Y is a Tr -space, fwlCy) is
closed in X,. Hence the equality f-‘(j) = Xr follows, Taking into account
the special choice of ?*, we conclude that X,, can not be mapped con-
tinuously onto any subs$ace of a space in ij . Thess X,* 4 [ 2 ID i.e.
D, - [ 2 ]D # 9. cl

Throughout the remaining part of this paper X7 will always denote

the space Xi considered in the proof of roposition 4.10, further we
put D,, = [{X,)lD for each c~dinal, number 7.

Proposition 4. Il. If Ho< 7” < T’, then D, 7t1c Dlrl and D1?s # D,,t I

Proof. From the argument made above it becomes clear that

XTIE D,,t - D171f. Since Xylr is homeomorphic to a subspace of X71,so
the relation D,,, > Dlrlf follows. Cl

Proposition 4.12. If Y is a T, -space and IYI < T then Y E D,,.

Proof, The set Y can be mapped by a one-to-one rapping onto X,. We

fix such a mapping p. But from the definition of ;he topology of X, it
follows that each one-to-one mapping of any T, -%paceinto X7 is conti-
nuous. Hence each non-trivial subspace of Y is mapped by p continuous-
ly onto a non-trivial subspace of XT. Thus Y E D Ir. cd

Proposition 4.13. D, = U(D1, I 72 Ho}.

Proof. Follows trivially from Proposition 412, 1’3

Corollary 4.14. In the collectim of all disconlzected)2e~~s;ses

which are not
T, 13, or D,, there is no large:? disconnectednless. IIll

Consider the space X, where c denotes the cardinal. number of the

continuum. ny one-to-one mapping of onto Xc is continuous, so we
have
, -:. 38
~‘- _ A. V,Arkh~eI?&& R. Wiegandtj Conneetethesses and diseonnectednesses
, I
.- .
*=AR=[{X&=D1,.O,

Ibe that a connectedness

say’ is finitely generated, if
where X!is a finite set of spaces. For instance, clearly C, = [ QJc
and C, = ‘[II& (where Cr denotes the class of aU absolutely connected
spaces).
For each cardinal number 7 2 MOwe put
“c,=e(Dc,.
We have shown earlier that if Q # y2, rl 3 HOthen CDCT1+ cb CT2e By
duality we conclude that e7. # 2(,, whenever q and r2 are different in-
finite cardinal numbers. 9 C7 = C7 implies c,, = NT. Hence cT c tZr c C.
On the other hand
C = I&CT 1T is a cardinal number}.
Tlnus also
6 = ti (CT 1r is a cardinal number}
holds. From this it follows easily that C is not finitely generated: each
finite family 2 of elements of C is contained in ??r for a sufficiently big
7. BA C contains ET+, which is strictly larger than &. Consequently
[ 2 lc + C. It is also obvious that C is not generated by any set of spaces.
These considerations mean just

roposiiion 4.16. C is not finitely generated. El

5. Some general remarks

Sl. The class C of all connected spaces is characterized by the

following properties:
. (1) C Lscontimously closed;
(ii) C is second additive;
(v) C is not the class of all topologicul spaces;
(vi) C is maximal witI+respeci to properties (i), (ii), (v’l.

roof. By Theorem 3.10 the class C satisfies conditions (i), (ii), (v). The
theore:m *willbe proved, if we show that any class C* satli.sfyingconditions
(0, (ii) and containing non-connected space coincides with the class of
all topological spa ::es. 3 X be a non-connected space of C*. X can be
 A. K Arhmgelk?k&R. ‘Wgmdt / Comecfednessesand diwonneetednesses 29

r-napped cmtinuously onto the space D, SQ (i) tinplies D, E

by (i’, C* contains all two-point -spaces,and all trivi.al spaces. If Y is not
a trivial space and x is a fixed point elf ly,,then

further # Q. Hence (ii) implies 1’ E C*..D

It is remarkable that q-reversibility. does not occur in Theorem 5. I.

Theorem 5.2. The class B, irfall tota!@ d&connected spaces is charac-

terized by the following properties:
(i) DC is hereditary;
(ii) DC is productive;
(iii) DC is upwards-closed;
(iv) DC is not the class of trivialspmes;
(v) D, is r&zimal with respect to properties (Ii), (ii), (iii) and (iv).

Proof. The statement is just a combinlation of Theorem 2.12 and Pro-

position 4.2. 0

Proposition 5.3. There ate ~rlnlytwo cmtimously closed disconnectedly

nesses, the classes .D, a& T.

The proof is a straightforward application of Proposition 2.14. 0

Proposition 5.4. There exist only thme hereditary

” connectednesses, the
ckzsses D,, Tand that of all antid&mte spaces.

Roof. Let .P be a hereditary connectedness other than DT and C,. Now

B contains a non-trivial space X whi,ch is not antidiscrete. Clearly .X can
be mapped continuously onto the two-point connected space D,, and so
n)c E P ho& for P continuously cl~secl.
Applying the Embedding Lemma HIY: obtain P = Tc C?

If we restrict ourselves tct Mausdlorf’f’

spaces or conlpletely regular
spaces, we can not expect a theory off’connectednesses and disconnectie!d-
nesses analogous in all essential parts ‘1:~that developed heftire. For in-
stance, Theorem 2. i 2 restricted to th(s class of all
nc$ tfue, consider the &SF 0: of all Hausdqrff spaces YJhich are
Indeed,
strongly totahy disconnected,(a space is strongly totally disconnected, if
each point of it is an intersection of open-and-closed sets).
subclass o of all totally disconnected Hausdorff spaces,
moreover , productive End upwards-closed with respect
to the &W of all Hausdorff spaces.
<Itwould be interesting to develop a similar theory, if instead of con-
tinuous mappings one would consider perfect mappings. (A perfect
mapiing is a continuous one such that each point has a bicompact
counterimage.)

Finally, we expose some problems.

(a) Construct a Hausdorff functionalfy disconnected space which is
not functionally Hausdorff (a space X ki called functionally Hausdorff,
if for each x, y E X, x # y there exists #acontinuous real-valued func-
tion $ on X such that j@) + f(j9)).
(b) Let P be the intersection of finitely many finitely generated con-
nectednesses. Is it true that P is a finitely generated connectedness?
(c) The same question as in (b) for disconnectednesses.
(d) Let T be. - given (finite or infinite’] cardinal number. Do there ex-
ist sets P and Q of spaces such that
Vl~ + [P!,, [Q’lc # CQlc
whenever P’ and Q are sets of spaces with cardinal&y IP'IJQ'l < T?
(e) Are there two disconnectednesses D’ and D”, neither of which
coincides with DC, such that L,’ n W = DC?

igs. 1 and 2 show concrete disconnectednesses and connectednesses

previous3y described.
A. V=Arhangd’ski~R. W&B:
ndf / Comermdnesses and disconnectednesses 31

Fig. 1. Concrete disconnectednesses

Fii. 2. Cone:ete connectedmsses
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