Botswana Game Ranching Handbook

THE BOTSWANA
GAME RANCHING
HANDBOOK
Produced by
THE BOTSWANA WILDLIFE PRODUCERS’ ASSOCIATION
January 2005
Acknowledgements
This handbook is intended as an introductory general guide to ranching with

wildlife in Botswana. It is meant to be read mainly by farmers, especially those that
are embarking on a new venture of which they have little or no experience. The
varied environments and conditions to be found throughout a vast country such
as Botswana demand a variety and range of advice and information that are far
beyond the practical limitations of a small handbook, so, at best, it seeks to cover
only the basic considerations for game ranching in this country.
For the sake of easy reading it has been written without including references in
the text. This does not mean that all the contents are original – far from it; the bulk
of the information is taken from one or two generally accepted reference works
for southern Africa. Game Ranch Management, an encyclopaedic volume com-
piled from the works of a great many knowledgeable authors, by Professor J du P
Bothma is the basis for much of the contents, which have been merely adapted
where necessary for Botswana’s unique situations. All aspiring and existing Bot-
swana game ranchers will find it indispensable. Other major sources include The
Capture and Care Manual, edited by Andrew A. McKenzie, and Wildlife Ecology and
Management, a guide to game ranching produced for Zambia by Ulrike Zieger and
Andrew Caldwell.
The production of this handbook would not have been possible without the as-
sistance of the German Development Service (ded) who very kindly donated the
required funding.
Our sincere thanks also go to Dr. Larry Patterson, who was commissioned to pro-
duce this handbook on behalf of the Botswana Wildlife Producers’ Association.
D.H. Moore
Chairman
1 • The Botswana Game Ranching Handbook

PREFACE
Botswana’s economy has seen significant changes since Independence. The tradi-
tional sources of national and personal incomes and livelihoods, namely agricul-
tural and in particular, livestock farming, have been replaced by other sectors in
the economy. It has also become necessary for us to find alternative uses for some
of our agricultural land, especially as our whole weather situation has made rain-
fed arable farming and livestock ranching very unreliable. Game ranching offers
one such alternative land-use.
In the past, ranches were exclusively used for livestock farming. The changing eco-
nomic circumstances have, however, been forcing livestock farmers to find more
economic uses for their land as livestock farming alone was unable to pay for their
investments. We therefore started witnessing an emerging trend whereby most
livestock ranches were also used for game ranching as an add-on activity whilst
cattle ranching remained the core enterprise on the ranch. However we are begin-
ning to see more and more livestock ranches being turned into game ranches ex-
clusively or ranches being established for game ranching. These developments are
in part dictated by the socio-economic circumstances and the changing lifestyles
of our time.
The management of game differs significantly from that of livestock. I therefore

welcome the initiative by the Botswana Wildlife Producers’ Association to develop
a Game Ranching Handbook. The book is intended to inform those who are
already in the industry and new entrants to the industry with information that will
assist them to maximise the returns on their investments.
Whilst game may not be susceptible to as many diseases as livestock, and they
require less care because of their better adaptability to the environment, the
establishment of a game ranch is a very expensive undertaking. The cost of the
construction of the infrastructure and its maintenance, especially the game proof
fence, are very expensive. It is therefore necessary that those who venture into
The Botswana Game Ranching Handbook • 2

the business are fully informed and continue to have good reference materials to
guide their operations. It is my belief that this Handbook will serve that purpose.
In our national economic development policy pronouncement, we have repeat-
edly emphasised the need for economic diversification if we are to compete in the
global market place. I am happy that the Botswana Wildlife Producers’
Association has positively responded to this call and instead of seeing our ranches
losing value due to depressed farming activities, came up with alternative uses
for the vast tracts of land we have previously reserved for livestock farming. Game
farming offers a viable alternative land-use especially as agricultural production
has been adversely hit by recurring droughts. Most game species are either brows-
ers and/or better utilisers of grazing resources. Some can live for months without
water and are therefore able to survive weather conditions under which livestock
would perish.
In terms of enterprise diversification, game ranching offers a better alternative

than livestock farming. Ranchers can sell game for hunting, use their ranches for
photographic safaris, game viewing, education and tourism. From a conservation
perspective, game ranches form an important segment of the protected wildlife
areas. In some countries endangered species can only be found on such ranches.
They can also be used for captive breeding to restock the wild. Game ranching
business is therefore an important activity that has the potential to support our
national objective of sustainable use of our wildlife resources. I applaud the
Botswana Wildlife Producers’ Association for continuing to promote game
ranching in Botswana and coming up with this Handbook to further empower
Batswana with knowledge to succeed in their game ranching operations.
The Honourable Kitso Mokaila

Minister of Environment, Wildlife and Tourism
January 2005

Contents
1 INTRODUCTION 7
1.1. Botswana’s natural environment 7
1.2. Landuse and wildlife conservation in Botswana 11
1.3. Development of game ranching in the region 12
1.3.1. Resources – land and wildlife 13
1.3.2. Utilisation of wildlife 14
1.3.3. Key species 15
1.3.4. Conservation successes 16
2 PLANNING A GAME RANCH 20

2.1 Management options 20
2.1.1 Hunting 21
2.1.2 Ecotourism 22
2.1.3 Live animal sales 22
2.1.4 Meat production 23
2.2 Compatibility of options 23
2.2.1 Ecotourism with consumptive options 23
2.2.2 Cattle ranching versus wildlife 24
2.3 Basic considerations 27
2.3.1 Location and access 27
2.3.2 Size and shape of ranch 28
2.3.3 Ecological considerations 28
2.3.4 Acquisition of land for game ranching 29
2.3.5 DWNP approval 29
3 ENVIRONMENTAL PRINCIPLES
AND MANAGEMENT 32
3.1 Ecosystems and habitats 32
3.2 Ecological principles 32
3.2.1 Plant succession 33
3.2.2 Population dynamics 34
3.2.3 Ecological capacity 38
3.2.4 Sustainable yield 43
3.2.5 Social behaviour 45
3.3 Environmental management 46

3.3.1 Management objectives 46
3.3.2 Fire 48
3.3.3 Aims and procedures for controlled burning 50
3.3.4 General guidelines for burning programmes 52
3.3.5 Habitat monitoring 54
3.3.6 Vegetation monitoring 58
4 DEVELOPMENT OF INFRASTRUCTURE 63
4.1 Ranch evaluation 63
4.2 Required infrastructure 63
4.2.1 Fencing requirements 64
4.2.2 Holding pens 67
4.2.3 Loading/offloading ramp 68
4.2.4 Roads 70
4.2.5 Airstrips 72
4.3 Provision of water 72
4.3.1 Water quality 73
4.3.2 Location of water points 73
4.3.3 Design and function of water points 74
4.3.4 Borehole pumps 75
5 WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT 78
5.1 Suitable species for Botswana ranches 78
5.1.1 Blue Wildebeest (Connochætes taurinus) 79
5.1.2 Eland (Taurotragus oryx) 80
5.1.3 Gemsbok (Oryx gazella) 81
5.1.4 Impala (Æpyceros melampus) 83
5.1.5 Kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros) 84
5.1.6 Ostrich (Struthio camelus) 85
5.1.7 Red Hartebeest (Alcelaphus buselaphus) 86
5.1.8 Springbok (Antidorcas marsupialis) 86
5.1.9 Warthog (Phacochœrus æthiopicus) 87
5.1.10 Waterbuck (Kobus ellipsiprymnus) 88
5.1.11 Zebra (Equus burchelli) 89
5.2 Establishment of wildlife populations 91
5.2.1 Live game auctions 91
5.2.2 Catalogue auctions 91
5.2.3 Directly from established game ranches 92
5.2.4 Through game dealers or game capture companies 92

5.3 Group composition 92
5.3.1 Sex ratio 95
5.4 Population monitoring 96
5.4.1 General monitoring 96
5.4.2 Known group count 99
5.4.3 Road strip count 100
5.4.4 Drive count 102
5.4.5 Aerial count 102
5.5 Population parameters 103
5.6 Harvesting wildlife 104
5.6.1 Harvesting of growing populations 105
5.6.2 Timing of harvest 105
5.6.3 Theoretical example of harvesting impala 106
5.6.4 Optional methods of harvesting 106
5.6.5 Capture methods 113
5.6.6 Loading and transport 115
6 VETERINARY ASPECTS 117

6.1 Notifiable diseases 117
6.1.1 Anthrax (kwatsi) 118
6.1.2 Contagious abortion (Pholotso) 119
6.1.3 Corridor disease 119
6.1.4 Foot and mouth disease (tlhako le molomo) 119
6.1.5 Lung-sickness (makgwafo) 119
6.1.6 Mange (lophalo) 120
6.1.7 Rabies (molafo) 120
6.1.8 Rinderpest 120
6.1.9 Trypanosomiasis 120
6.1.10 Tuberculosis 121
6.2 Other important diseases 121
6.2.1 Bovine malignant catarrh (snotsiekte) 121
6.2.2 Heartwater (metsi a pelo) 122
6.2.3 Botulism (mokokomalo/lamsiekte) 122
6.2.4 Black quarter (serotswana) 123
6.2.5 Plant poisoning 123
6.3 Parasites 123
6.3.1 External parasites 125
6.3.2 Internal parasites 126
6.4 Veterinary control measures in Botswana 127

1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Botswana’s natural environment

Much has been written about Botswana’s natural environment.
Its basic geology, climate, landscapes, soils, hydrology, vegetation and
wildlife have all been well documented. A great deal has also been
written about demography, landuse practices and recent infrastructural
developments. This introduction merely describes the country in simpli-
fied general terms in order to give a brief overview of the present-day
situation.
Located in central southern Africa, bisected by the Tropic of Capricorn,

Botswana is a largely flat country occupying a plateau some 1000m
above sea level. Its lowest point is in the Limpopo valley along the
eastern border and, apart from a few isolated groups of small hills and
koppies, areas of slightly higher ground are restricted to the Schwelle
(west of Kang), the Ghanzi ridge and the southeast, centred on Kanye. It
can be divided into two main zones according to soil type: the eastern
hardveld, which supports the vast majority of the people and therefore
developments, and the Kalahari sandveld of the central and western
areas which occupies approximately 75% of the country and is sparsely
inhabited and relatively undeveloped. (Fig1.1).
The climate is fairly extreme and semi-arid. Mean annual rainfall varies
from approximately 200mm in Bokspits in the southwest to almost
700mm in Kasane in the far north (Fig1.2). However, rainfall is very erratic,
with large differences between years and unpredictable distribution
in any given year. Reports over the last century or so suggest that the
country is becoming drier over the long term, with more of the rainfall
consisting of short, heavy storms resulting in increased run-off and less
beneficial soaking. Rain falls almost exclusively in the summer months

between October and March, when daytime temperatures may exceed
400C. In the dry winter night frosts occur frequently, especially in the
south and west. Evaporation far exceeds precipitation.
Water is scarce. Permanent surface water is largely restricted to the north

in the Chobe and Okavango river systems. Rivers in the east are seasonal
at best and more usually just ephemeral. Pans rarely hold rainwater
beyond the middle of the dry season. In the sandveld, there are no rivers
and pans are limited in number, leaving large areas completely devoid of
surface water all year round.
Game ranching will depend on the availability of groundwater almost

everywhere in Botswana. A professional survey should be undertaken
before any large-scale expenses are incurred for developments. Ground
water resources are fairly widespread, though they may be very deep in
the Kalahari and expensive to exploit. In some areas, e.g. Makalamabedi,
the ground water resources are extremely saline and may not be suitable
for some species.
The vegetation is dependent on soils and rainfall, and although there

is considerable local variation it can conveniently be divided into three
main types:
• a mixed wooded savannah, dominated by Acacia and Combretum
species on the eastern hardveld, extending north to around
Palapye;
• a mopane-dominated woodland and shrub zone in the north and
east, also mainly on hardveld;
• bush and shrub savannah on the Kalahari sandveld.

Fig 1.1 Population Density Fig 1.2 Mean Annual Rainfall
Fig 1.3 Designated Wildlife Areas

Species Kalahari sandveld Eastern hardveld Northern ranges
Buffalo ++
Bushbuck ++ ++
Duiker ++ ++ ++
Eland ++ + ++
Elephant + +++
Gemsbok ++
Giraffe + + ++
Impala +++ ++
Kudu ++ +++ ++
Red hartebeest ++
Reedbuck + ++
Roan antelope +
Sable antelope +
Springbok ++
Steenbok ++ ++ ++
Tsessebe + ++
Warthog + ++ ++
Waterbuck ++ +
Blue wildebeest ++ +++ ++
Zebra + ++
Table 1.1 Wildlife ranges in Botswana

Wildlife still occurs throughout the country, except in urban areas.
Populations of large ungulates such as wildebeest and hartebeest
suffered badly during the severe drought of the 1980s and their numbers
fell by up to 90% in the Kalahari. They have never really recovered from
this and human expansion with new developments and infrastructure
now form insurmountable obstacles to the repopulation of their natural
ranges. In contrast, over the same period the elephant population in the
north has more than doubled and extended its range accordingly. In the
more heavily populated east most large wildlife species have given way
to human development, but kudu and pockets of others, such as impala
and warthog still survive. Good numbers of many species have always
been maintained in the fenced freehold farms of Tuli Block and these
have formed an expanding nucleus of stock for the recent development
of game ranches. Table 1.1 indicates the natural ranges of most of the
large wildlife species within the country. Some of these have been
skewed by human interference, but it serves to show where most of the
species should thrive.
1.2 Landuse and wildlife conservation in Botswana

A large proportion of land is still available to wildlife in Botswana.
Approximately 17% of the country comprises national parks and game
reserves (commonly called protected areas [PAs]) and a significant
further amount is designated as wildlife management areas (WMAs).
It is often quoted that the total proportion of land therefore “dedicated”
to wildlife conservation is around 40% (Fig 1.3).
There is no practical difference between national parks and game

reserves. Both are fully protected by law and managed by the Depart-
ment of Wildlife and National Parks (DWNP), but national parks are
situated on state land and game reserves are on tribal land. WMAs have
existed in various stages of planning and development since the late
1970s, but final gazettement and meaningful status has varied in

different parts of the country. Functioning management of WMAs only
really occurs where they are leased as concession areas by the private
sector e.g. in the Okavango Delta.
The whole of Botswana, with the exception of urban areas, is divided by

DWNP into controlled hunting areas (CHAs) for administrative purposes.
This status does not reflect the presence or absence of wildlife and, in
fact, the majority of CHAs outside WMAs do not have a hunting quota
other than for small game.
Outside WMAs, in several of the communal farming areas, there is a

growing trend; turning away from traditional cattle rearing and investing
in wildlife. Fencing in these areas was initiated by Government with the
advent of the Tribal Grazing Lands Policy (TGLP) in the 1970s. Although
wildlife was initially excluded from the newly fenced areas, recent
developments, sometimes with government assistance (FAP and CEDA),
have been towards developing game ranches. The Hainaveld ranches in
Ngamiland are the best example of this trend. The Agricultural Policy of
1990 allows fencing of traditional grazing areas around boreholes in all
communal areas, but the local authorities in the form of the District Land
Boards have sometimes been reluctant to allow the implementation of
this policy.
1.3 Development of game ranching in the region

This section contains a condensation of a great deal of information
about the game ranching industry, its development and current status
in the region, and its prospects in Botswana. In order to make it readable
the facts and figures have been smoothed, but not doctored, and the
dozens of data sources, from government files, NGOs, private sector
reports and personal communications are not acknowledged in the text.
Substantial information is available from two neighbouring countries,
Namibia and South Africa; both of these have well-developed and long-

standing game ranching industries. Zimbabwe has had a very successful
game ranching and production industry, but it is presently in disarray
with a dearth of up-to-date statistics. Other neighbours have fledgling
industries and have contributed relatively little information, but similar
developments have taken place e.g. Zambia.
1.3.1 Resources – land and wildlife

Botswana has approximately 1million large wild animals of 32 species.
These animals mainly inhabit about 40% (230,000km2) of Botswana
– comprising protected areas, WMAs, and private land. Game ranches
presently amount to just over 1% of wildlife land (less than Moremi
GR). Game ranching began in the 1980s and there were still only 17
registered operators in 1999. There are now over 60 active game ranch-
ers, although some have not yet completed their registration with
DWNP. Total numbers of wildlife on game ranches are unknown, but an
educated guess would be approximately 50,000 animals (±5% of the
national wildlife herd).
Namibia also has 32 main species totalling approximately 750,000

animals. Most of these are the same as Botswana, though there are a
few differences e.g. Hartmann’s zebra. There are 400 commercial game
ranchers owning approximately 25% of wildlife land. Remarkably these
farms contain over 70% of the national wildlife herd (over half a million
animals). In the last 20 years there has been an increase of 80% in animal
numbers and 50% in species variety on private land. The creation of
conservancies by combining adjoining game ranches is a notable trend.
In South Africa game ranching may be said to be “fully developed” as

an industry. There are almost 10,000 game ranches comprising over 18
million hectares (though many are too small to be viable under Bot-
swana and Namibian conditions and many are mixed wildlife and cattle
enterprises). This is almost 75 times as big as in Botswana and can be

compared with the mere 7 million hectares of parks and reserves.
It is estimated that private ranches contain 2½ times the amount of
game that occurs in protected areas. It is often claimed that there is now
much more game, spread over more land, than there was at the end of
the 19th century after the depredations of white settlers and rinderpest.
Existing game Combined area Proportion of Proportion of

ranches (km2) wildlife estate (%) wildlife (%)
Botswana 60 2,750 1 5
Namibia 400 17,000 25 71
South Africa 10,000 180,000 72 71
Table 1.2 Regional comparisons of available land and wildlife resources
1.3.2 Utilisation of wildlife

Commercial game ranches rely on one or more of four basic sources of
income: safari hunting for non-residents, “biltong” or recreational hunting
for residents, live game sales and ecotourism. Combining these is not
always easy, but an excellent example of an enterprise that combines at
least three very successfully is Pilanesberg National Park - admittedly not
a game ranch, but the principles still apply. The following analysis briefly
compares the consumptive uses of wildlife in our region.
A simple breakdown is included in Table 1.3.
Botswana’s legal harvest through hunting amounts to less than 4,000

animals per year. There are insignificant live exports at this stage, so the
total offtake is in the region of 0.5% of the population. The majority of
this occurs in the WMAs in either concession or community-leased areas.
Non-resident safari (trophy) hunters amount to about 200 per year of
which 75% are from the USA. The hunting opportunities for residents

and citizens in non-leased areas have reduced dramatically in recent
years. No figures are available yet for the offtake from game ranches, it is
small but known to be increasing.
In Namibia the total annual offtake is around 100,000 animals, made

up of 10,000 live exports, 10,000 trophy animals and 80,000 hunted for
meat/biltong or recreation. This proportion amounts to 13% of the wild-
life population. Foreign trophy hunters exceed 2,000 per year of which
80% are European (70% German or Austrian) and only 6% from the USA.
In South Africa there are no available figures for the total offtake, but
trophy hunting alone accounts for 25,000 animals annually. There are
approximately 4,000 foreign trophy hunters of which 55% are American
and 32% from Europe.
Total value Trophy Biltong/ Jobs

Wildlife Total
of offtake hunting Recreational (directly
population offtake (%)
(Pmillion) (%) hunting (%) employed)
Botswana 1,000,000 0.5 100 90 <10 1,000
Namibia 750,000 13 276 63 31 2,500
South
2,500,000 12 (?) 750 22 58 50,000
Africa
Table 1.3 Comparison of returns from consumptive utilisation
1.3.3 Key species

In Botswana the hunting industry is heavily skewed towards very
expensive, traditional “big game” safaris in large exclusive areas. The main
attractions are charismatic species such as lion, leopard, elephant and
buffalo. Safari companies rely heavily on these species to attract clients
and sell less glamorous species in a “package”. Recent quotas indicate a
decline in availability of some of these key species, either for ecological

or political reasons. This trend, if it continues, will dramatically curtail
this industry, leading to a swift fall in the value quoted in Table 1.3., but
would create further opportunities for game ranch development.
In Namibia the most popular trophies hunted are gemsbok, kudu,

warthog, springbok and hartebeest, which account for over 70% of
trophies. Note that these species also rank highly as meat/biltong
animals too and at least 5 times as many are utilised this way.
In South Africa the statistics are vast and complex, with almost 100
species being taken as trophies (including birds and reptiles), but 16
species account for 75% of trophy fees. The most popular trophies are
impala, springbok, blesbok, warthog, kudu, gemsbok and blue wilde-
beest, amounting to 60%. Charismatic species are also a draw card here
too, but the manipulation of trophy fees means, for example, that both
impala (3500 trophies) and white rhino (45 trophies) each earn over P7
million annually.
1.3.4 Conservation successes

Game ranching has played a significant role in the conservation and in-
crease in populations of several species in southern Africa. These include
previously critically endangered species such as the Cape mountain
zebra and bontebok in South Africa and the red hartebeest and black-
faced impala in Namibia. These and others have been actively conserved
on game ranches for many years. Utilisation has included controlled
hunting and live sales, to the extent that during the 1980s Namibian
ranches, for example, exported over 15,000 red hartebeest to South
Africa, securing the species in its native range. Game ranchers have
also played a significant role in providing safe range for both black and
white rhinos over the years and are now instrumental in the dispersal of
elephants, with 20% of the South African population on private ranches.
In Botswana it is estimated that at least 6,000 animals have already been

translocated to game ranches. This has effectively distributed breeding
herds of several species and contributed significantly to wildlife conser-
vation. One example is that game ranches in Ghanzi now contain over
1,000 zebra, several decades after the species had disappeared from the
Kalahari ecosystem. Another is the successful re-introduction of white
rhino to one private ranch.
Fig 1.3 White rhino on game ranch

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Blue wildebeest in capture boma

2 Planning a Game Ranch
2.1 Management options

Game ranching enterprises originally developed out of a desire by
landowners to have a wildlife retreat for their own enjoyment.
Economic considerations were limited to what the owners, invariably
rich people, wanted to spend and very little thought was given to
income generation. In more recent times wildlife production on private
land has developed into an industry, taking its place alongside agri-
cultural activities as a form of primary production, albeit with a strong
conservation component. A major consequence of this shift is that game
ranching needs to be economically viable. Income must be derived from
its products. This leads to a number of options for ranchers to consider
and demands a careful choice of objectives for the enterprise.
Potential sources of income

There are four generally accepted options for income generation
from a game ranch:
• Hunting
• Ecotourism
• Live animal sales
• Meat production
These are not mutually exclusive; in fact, the vast majority of game
ranches are compelled to employ a combination of ways to make
money. The optimum levels of each activity depend on many factors:
environmental, economic, seasonal and the stage of development of
both the individual ranch and/or the national industry The chosen objec-
tives have an important bearing on how the ranch should be developed
from the outset, not least in the management of the natural resources
and the provision of infrastructure. For example, maximum meat produc-
tion requires different management inputs from trophy production, and

ecotourism activities need different facilities from meat production or
live sales.
2.1.1 Hunting
This is normally divided into two categories - trophy hunting and
so-called biltong hunting. These terms are not ideal and the two forms of
hunting are not mutually exclusive. If we separate the activities in a way
more appropriate to Botswana, we might better describe them as safari
hunting and recreational hunting, with the former implying a high-cost,
guided hunt for non-residents and the latter a less expensive option for
residents/citizens.
Safari hunting
This is a specialised form of game utilisation, involving the hunting
of exceptional trophy animals and is practised by the hunting client
as a sport. The client attaches sentimental value to the trophy and is
therefore prepared to pay a high fee for it. The hunting client is guided
by a professional hunter. Animal numbers on the ranch must be limited
to the level at which competition for resources between individuals is
minimised and each animal is capable of reaching its genetic potential
in terms of growth and trophy production. Heavily stocked ranches will
not yield top quality trophies. The ranch should therefore be stocked
well below the ecological capacity of the vegetation. Sex ratios must be
maintained to produce the maximum number of males of trophy-bear-
ing age.
Recreational hunting
This is aimed at satisfying the demands of local resident and citizen hunt-
ers wanting to shoot an animal at minimal cost for home consumption.
The most important criteria for local hunters are the quality and price
of the meat. Trophy quality is less important. The optimum selection
of game for a ranch aiming at the local hunting market will closely

resemble the selection of game for venison production. The ideal species
for this purpose would be animals adapted to the local conditions, with
high reproductive rates and a good quality of venison, e.g. eland. Man-
agement can be simplified by stocking a limited spectrum of game. Sex
ratios of the breeding stock should be maintained at the optimum level
in favour of the females to ensure maximum production and reproduc-
tive success.
2.1.2 Ecotourism
This is a non-consumptive activity, where economic benefit is derived
from wildlife without killing or selling it. Income is derived from guests
who have the privilege of viewing or otherwise experiencing wildlife and
the natural environment on the ranch. The keyword here is biodiversity,
in terms of both habitats and wildlife species. A mosaic of habitats
should be maintained through appropriate management of all the
natural resources. Animal populations should be as high and varied as
possible, but limited to indigenous species. Any offtake must be carefully
managed to minimise disturbance and keep the animals as tame as
possible for game viewing. If possible, charismatic species such as rhino
should be included.
2.1.3 Live animal sales

The sale of live animals is currently an important cornerstone of the
game ranching industry. While numbers of game ranches continue to in-
crease this will remain the case because of the demand for stocking new
ranches. At present in Botswana only very few ranches have sufficient
stocks to be suppliers and there is a good demand. Ultimately though,
supply must equal and then outstrip demand causing a fall in prices for
common species. The future will then be in supplying smaller ranches
that consume more than they can produce (as is already the case in
some parts of South Africa), and in producing stocks of rarer species such
as roan and sable antelope.

2.1.4 Meat production
In its simplest form this is akin to beef ranching, where animal popula-
tions are managed for maximum productivity of venison and by-prod-
ucts. In practice it rarely, if ever, occurs in isolation, but is always accom-
panied by other forms of utilisation. Wildlife cannot normally compete
with domestic animals for meat production, but requires additional
advantages, such as a specialised export market or marginal conditions
e.g. lack of water resources. However, venison production is an important
aspect of most game ranches.
2.2 Compatibility of options

It is rare that a game ranch will be managed for only one of the above
options, since most will eventually produce an excess of one or other
types of animals e.g. females or non-trophy males which will need to
be utilised. To achieve maximum returns and profitability a game ranch
today will usually be managed for a combination of safari hunting and
live animal sales, with limited venison production. This, however, may
change with time.
2.2.1 Ecotourism with consumptive options

Tourism and the consumptive uses of game are often considered
incompatible options for various reasons. Many tourists feel repulsed
when knowing that the animals they view today may be shot by hunters
the next. The most attractive animals for viewing are the mature males
with magnificent horns, but these will be fewer if regular trophy hunting
takes place. Also, hunting may make animals shy and difficult to observe.
Tourist activities are disrupted on days when hunting or capture opera-
tions take place. Direct conflict and potentially dangerous situations can
arise when tourists and hunters frequent the ranch at the same time.
On the other hand, on a fenced game ranch with limited resources and
where predation is all but absent, removal of surplus animals is essential.

This can be done as a concentrated culling exercise once or twice a year
when tourist facilities are closed briefly. However, it requires a profes-
sional culling team and good facilities. This is a profitable option if the
venison market is good, and it should lead to minimal disruption of the
tourist operation. An alternative harvesting programme would combine
tourism with trophy hunting, live sales and venison production. In doing
so, it will have to be accepted that each of these options will be compro-
mised to a certain degree by the others, and that strict management will
be required. On a sufficiently large game ranch, spatial zoning provides
the best solution. Here activities are restricted to their respective zones
with free animal movement between them. On a small game ranch, the
same can only be accomplished through temporal zoning by giving
the exclusive use of the entire game ranch to tourists, hunters or game
capture teams respectively, at a given time.
Another conflict arises when choosing an optimum stocking rate. For

safari hunting and live sales of game, a ranch is stocked below the
ecological capacity to ensure that animals are not limited by natural
resources. For tourism, a high stocking rate is often advocated that will
facilitate game viewing. However, it is often overlooked that this system
constantly pushes an area’s potential to support animals to its limit
without leaving a safety margin for poor years. The ecological capacity
will invariably be overstepped at some time, leading to deterioration of
the vegetation as well as high mortalities among the game. Remember
it is more pleasing to watch fewer animals that are in excellent condition
than many animals in poor condition. Therefore, it is advisable to stock a
game ranch that is used also for tourism purposes conservatively. This is
especially true if tourism is combined with consumptive uses of game.
2.2.2 Cattle ranching versus wildlife

It has often been claimed that wildlife may generate greater financial
benefits than domestic livestock. In terms of overall meat production

per hectare, wildlife cannot compete with beef cattle except in very
dry regions. Cattle have for hundreds of years been bred for optimum
energy conversion and effective growth. For an economic evaluation
of a livestock versus a wildlife or mixed enterprise, every ranch must be
considered individually in the context of the prevailing habitat condi-
tions, market conditions, and the political and financial climate. A general
feeling is that wildlife ranching is ecologically sounder and financially
superior to cattle production if trophy hunting, live sales and game
viewing tourism are integrated and where the political environment is
conducive to marketing these assets. This is what Botswana should be
aiming at.
The success of a game ranching enterprise depends on the efficiency

with which it is marketed. The location of a ranch, its size, the number
and variety of game, quality of trophies on offer, and the comfort of the
facilities have an important impact on its attractiveness to both hunters
and tourists alike. The demands for live game and trophies, and thus the
prices obtained, are unpredictable. Such aspects do not concern the
cattle rancher, as the marketing of cattle is standard procedure and the
demand for beef and weaners, although fluctuating, is more predictable.
The pricing structure for commercial beef cattle is generally such that
the live value is closely correlated to the current meat value.
Cattle production, on the other hand, is associated with many expenses

not relevant to game, e.g. veterinary expenses and extra handling facili-
ties, even though the beef industry in Botswana also receives consider-
able financial assistance from government in the form of subsidies and
free services. The managerial input with cattle is very high. The intensive
management input on a cattle ranch, however, gives cattle several
advantages over game. Individuals in a cattle herd that are not perform-
ing well are easily identified and removed. Sick animals can be identified
and treated and cattle numbers can quickly and easily be adjusted to
climatic fluctuations, such as droughts.

Cattle can be managed through a rotational grazing system, and in this
way a large proportion of the available grass can be utilised as the cattle
are forced to be unselective. Game is usually managed in a continuous
grazing system, resulting in a less efficient utilisation of the vegetation.
Browse is utilised by a variety of game, but production from browsers
is small in comparison with that from grazers. However, the danger of
over-utilisation and deterioration of the vegetation is greater with cattle
ranching than with game, as evidenced by the severe encroachment of
undesirable bush species on many farms in the Tuli Block and Ghanzi.
Expenses related to fencing and roads can be similar for cattle and for
game. The increased internal fencing required for cattle could be equiva-
lent to the increased perimeter fencing required for game. However, the
fencing costs with game decline per unit area as the area increases, while
this is not so with cattle.
Mixed ranching can be a sound alternative financially and ecologically.

Many ranches in South Africa combine game and cattle in an effort to be
more profitable. Mostly those game species should be selected that have
little dietary overlap with cattle. However, some degree of competition
is unavoidable, as browsers, just like cattle, will first utilise the succulent
fresh leaves of forbs before resorting to browse and grasses respectively.
Although the production on mixed ranches is diversified, and economi-
cally less risky than offering fewer products, such mixed ranches tend to
be less attractive to game viewing tourists and hunters.
Game ranching requires that the habitat be managed for a diversity

of species. Most wildlife is more specific in its habitat requirements
than cattle, and there is thus an incentive to conserve a wide variety of
vegetation types. Generally therefore, game ranches are environmentally
sounder than cattle farms and can contribute substantially to a country’s
conservation efforts.

2.3 Basic considerations
The basic requirement for game ranching is obviously an adequate
quantity of suitable land. Location is very important and the land should
be in an area that has been designated by the authorities for this type of
landuse. The size and shape of the parcel of land, and access to it are also
important. The ecological classification, availability of water, variety of
habitat types and neighbouring landuses also have a significant bearing
on the chances of success.
2.3.1 Location and access

Land in Botswana is divided into three basic categories: tribal land, state
land, and freehold land. The first two categories allow only for leasehold
tenure, whereas in freehold areas, e.g. Tuli Block, ownership is outright.
On freehold farms, the landowner has the right to use his land for game
ranching as long as the authorities are informed. In leasehold areas,
game ranching status must be applied for, through either the local land
board or the Ministry of Lands and Housing (MLH).
Ease of access is important for practical and economic reasons. It may

be very hard to reach some areas because of the deep sand roads. This
makes deliveries of animals and other commodities more costly. It may
be difficult to obtain labour in very remote areas; on the other hand,
a peri-urban location, while convenient, may lead to poaching and
vandalism.
Many other constraints differ with location, e.g. buffalo and other
valuable species may not be moved to certain areas because of current
veterinary regulations; other regulations may differ between WMAs
and elsewhere. Natural or ecological constraints affect many aspects,
e.g. springbok will not normally survive to the east of the railway line
because of the prevalence of heartwater ticks; zebra may develop
overgrown and deformed hooves if kept on deep sandveld.

2.3.2 Size and shape of ranch
The ideal size of a game ranch varies mainly with ecological classification
and the intended purpose of the ranch. For example, ranches generally
need to be bigger in more arid areas than in highly productive zones,
and more land is normally needed to hold viable numbers of larger,
wide-ranging animal species. As a rule of thumb for Botswana, it can be
recommended that the minimum size in most areas should be ap-
proximately 4,000ha, although smaller ranches can be viable for certain
purposes. It should always be remembered that the smaller the property
is, the more intensive the level of management that is required. Taken
to extremes – almost any species can be kept successfully in the small
confines of a zoo, but then very high levels of specialised management
are required. On large, exensive ranches the required management
inputs per animal are much less.
The shape of the ranch influences many things, both ecologically and
economically. The best shape approximates a square. Considering only
the perimeter fence: a 6,000ha ranch that is almost square requires ap-
proximately 30km of fence, one that is 15 x 4km requires 38km of fence
i.e. 25% more cost.
2.3.3 Ecological considerations

The lack of any significant geology or varied topography over the greater
part of the country means that soils and climate (overwhelmingly
rainfall) are the main ecological influences. Well-drained sandy soils
predominate in the west and centre of the country, with more clays and
harder soils in the east and north. Rainfall increases from the southwest
to the northeast, with an annual average of 250mm in Bokspits and
almost 700mm in Kasane. This essentially means that there is more and
varied primary productivity (plant growth) and more surface water in the
north and east. It follows that to be viable, game ranches in the western
and central sandveld areas need to be larger than in the east.

2.3.4 Acquisition of land for game ranching
The process of acquiring land for purposes of game ranching varies with
the type of land category.
• Tribal Land: Those interested in game ranching on Tribal Land

have to obtain permission from the district land board. Before the
land board will consider either a new application, or a request
to change landuse to game ranching, they require approval from
DWNP. Once DWNP approval has been received, the land board
will consider the application. Normally leases are for fifty years
at a current (2000) rental of P0.70 per hectare. This price is to be
reviewed every five years
• State Land: On state land application is made to the Department of
Lands, Ministry of Lands and Housing.
• Freehold land: On freehold land no permission is required from the
district authorities.
In the case of Freehold and State Land however, at the time of writing
the DWNP still require a management plan to be submitted and ap-
proved before the game ranch can be registered and issued with an
approval certificate.
2.3.5 DWNP approval

To obtain DWNP approval to game ranch on a particular piece of land
they require that a management plan be submitted to their district of-
fice. The Department issues guidelines which state that the plan should
cover:
Project background,
Project objectives,
Technical plan,
Start-up,
Production process,

Marketing,
Financial plan (excluding freehold land)
Employment and job creation,
Localisation and
Any other relevant information.
There are a number of consultants in Botswana who are experienced in,

and willing to assist in, preparing these management plans.
The National Policy on Agricultural Development, passed in 1990 but

only recently implemented, allows for the fencing of communal land
around boreholes. Guidelines have been given to the land boards by the
Department of Animal Health and Production (DAHP) in the Ministry of
Agriculture to assist in the demarcation of ranches. These cover areas
such as carrying capacity, rental and lease agreements.

Helicopter - a very useful tool for wildlife management on game ranches

3 ENVIRONMENTAL PRINCIPLES
AND MANAGEMENT
3.1 Ecosystems and habitats

Ecology is a concept that describes how all the natural components of
the environment function together and influence each other to sustain
life. An ecosystem consists of living organisms and the non-living aspects
of the environment (for example soil and climate) which act interde-
pendently to influence one another and which are all essential for the
preservation of life in a particular area. In one sense an ecosystem places
biological and geographical limits on the concept, e.g. desert, savanna
and bushveld can be regarded as different ecosystems, or an ecosystem
can also be thought of as a collection of habitats, such as riverine
woodland, papyrus swamp and seasonal floodplains as in the case of the
Okavango Delta.
A habitat can be conceived as the living space of an organism or animal

– a specific combination of natural elements such as vegetation, water,
and breathing space in which an animal survives and can hopefully
thrive.
3.2 Ecological principles

Ecosystems are dynamic and change continually. They should be able
to exist quite naturally, without interference from man. A disturbance
or change in any facet of an ecosystem has a ripple effect on the whole
system and will lead to natural adjustments. In effect the system may be
said to be in a kind of equilibrium. Two qualities are important: stabil-
ity – resistance to change; and resilience - the ability to recover from
change. Understanding these effects and their likely time scales are of
great importance in managing a game ranch. Resilience is a valuable
quality that management should aim to preserve or enhance.

The ecosystem concept gives rise to several principles which should be
understood and applied whenever we interfere with natural systems
under the guise of management. Game ranching, like forestry or agricul-
ture, is a prime example of such interference. Many of the problems on
ordinary farms and game ranches could be prevented if more ranchers
understood the ecosystem concept and applied the principles which
arise from it.
3.2.1 Plant succession

Any area, owing to a combination of its basic characteristics, e.g. soil,
climate, slope, drainage and incidence of fire, will tend towards natural
climax vegetation. For example, in Botswana this could be mopane
woodland or teak forest in the northeast, or mixed savanna in areas of
the Kalahari. Whichever it is, it is the result of a progression from bare
ground through several intergrading phases, any of which may be
interrupted by natural events or human interference, with the result that
an intermediate vegetation type may predominate and be maintained.
Overgrazing, for instance, will result in bush encroachment of grasslands
in some cases, while elephants are famously known to convert wood-
land to grassland if their numbers are excessive in a certain area.
The purpose for which a game ranch is managed (for example tourism,
hunting or venison production) will determine which stage of succes-
sion is to be created and maintained by habitat management and the
manipulation of the game populations. Both over-utilisation and under-
utilisation can be equally detrimental. Rather than trying to achieve a
stable situation, good management aims at maintaining change within
reasonable limits and allowing natural resilience to come into effect.
Irregular, large-scale events which at first may appear disastrous are
important in invigorating an ecosystem, particularly its vegetation. In
a bushveld situation these episodes might be severe drought, heavy
flooding, prolonged frost or an exceptionally hot fire.

3.2.2 Population dynamics
This is a complex subject which can be highly theoretical, requiring an
understanding of mathematics and statistics beyond that of most ranch-
ers. However, certain aspects are based on obvious principles and should
be clearly understood. The main aspects of game populations which are
particularly important in game ranch management are growth, age and
sex composition, social organisation and behaviour of the population.
These aspects can act singly or in combination, but all are linked to the
population’s potential to increase.
Population growth
Since fencing should eliminate immigration of animals to a game ranch,
the only way, apart from purchase of live game, in which numbers can
increase, is through breeding. Almost all game species have the same
theoretical pattern of population growth (Fig 3.1). Only the rate varies,
with larger species normally taking a longer time period to reach equilib-
rium. Three distinct phases are involved:
• establishment – a period of slow increase,
• exponential (rapid) growth – if conditions allow
(adequate forage, space etc. and predators controlled),
and
• equilibrium – when numbers oscillate around the eco-
logical carrying capacity.
From the graph it can be seen that a population starting from a small
number will take several years to grow to a useful size, but that if a herd
of 25-40 individuals is the starting point equilibrium is reached much
more quickly. This is important to remember when buying or capturing
“start up” stock. It is economically sounder to begin a game ranching
venture with larger numbers of a few species rather than small numbers
of many species. Harvestable populations and thus income are achieved
more quickly.

Population growth rates are important, especially when determining
levels of offtake. Calculating these rates involves mathematical equations
beyond the scope of this handbook, but a basic understanding will allow
the principles to be applied in a sufficiently practical way.
Fig 3.1 Population growth curve
Wild populations have a potentially high growth rate (inherent growth

rate) when they are not subject to environmental or management limita-
tions, but in practice environmental and/or management pressures often
do not allow this potential to be reached. The growth rate indicated by
the steep portion of the curve in Fig 3.1 is the exponential growth rate,
i.e. the growth rate at a given point in time. This is the value that should
ideally be used in management calculations, however, in most cases a
simple approximation, the finite growth rate, can be calculated quite
easily and is good enough for most purposes.

The finite growth rate (λ) is obtained by dividing the results of two
consecutive annual counts (y/x), then multiplying the result by 100, then
subtracting 100 to get a percentage growth rate. For example:
impala count in July 2004 (x) = 200, impala count in July 2005 (y) = 270;
y/x = 270/200 = 1.35; (1.35 X 100) – 100 = 35% annual growth rate.
A mathematical constant (0.7) can be used to calculate the approximate

time needed for a population to double; e.g. a population with a
sustained exponential rate of increase of 10% will take 0.7 ÷ 10% (0.1)
= approximately 7 years; a rate of increase of 3% will give a doubling
time of 0.7 ÷ 0.03 = 23 years; and a rate of increase of 25% will cause the
population to double in approximately 3 years (2.8).
Birth rate
Birth rate is calculated as the number of living progeny produced per
adult female over a given period (normally a season or year). The species
found on typical game ranches normally breed once per annum and
have single young, except on rare occasions. Females of different species
reach sexual maturity at different ages. They are less fertile in their first
year, but after that, in theory, they should produce a calf each year. Under
good conditions a calf crop of 85% (85 calves per 100 adult females)
should be possible. There can be many causes of a poor calf crop. The
majority can be influenced by management. They may include:
• Females in poor condition - veld condition (overgrazing, drought),
mineral deficiencies;
• Unbalanced sex ratios – too many or too few breeding males;
• Incorrect herd social structure – particularly age structure;
• Heavy predator pressure – losses of newborn calves;
• Poaching.

Mortality
Mortalities occur mainly at two stages – very young animals and old
animals. Where predators occur, the mortality of the annual calf crop is
naturally about 50% in the first year of life. Old animals also die in larger
numbers, particularly when harsh conditions prevail, such as at the
end of the dry season or during droughts. However, post-weaning and
throughout adulthood mortalities should be very low (<2%) on ranches
where large predators are excluded or kept to a minimum.
Since a population decline can only be the result of decreased produc-

tivity or increased mortalities, studies of the productivity of game can
help to determine the problem in a particular population. If there is little
or no growth and the productivity is healthy, then mortality is too high. If
the number of mortalities on a game ranch is particularly high amongst
adult animals but normal among younger animals, then the problem is
likely to be excessive hunting pressure because other important mortal-
ity factors usually affect the younger animals more heavily. If the popula-
tion decline is the result of a shortage of food or poor habitat, there is a
characteristic increase in mortalities among young animals, often also
linked to lowered productivity, in other words low calving percentages.
Where excessive mortalities and/or subnormal productivity is deter-
mined or suspected, the causes must be determined and eliminated by
correct veld or population management.
Sex ratios
An imbalance in the sex ratio of animals often leads to a poor mating
frequency, especially in animal species where one male, for example,
tries to maintain and serve a harem of ten or more females as well as
keeping other males out of his territory and thus away from his breeding
group. The male can thus become physically too exhausted to breed,
although he maintains his territory and harem, or he spends so much
time defending his territory that he does not have enough time to mate

with all the females when they are in œstrus. A rough guide to recom-
mended sex ratios is given in Table 3.1.
3.2.3 Ecological capacity

More discussion and division has occurred regarding the concept of car-
rying capacity than any other facet of game ranch management. It is, of
course, of vital importance to understand how many animals can be car-
ried on a ranch because of the ecological and economic consequences
which depend on it. Modern opinion is that the term “carrying capacity”,
which originated in livestock management about 75 years ago, should
not be applied to game ranch management. A great deal of research has
taken place recently in this respect and new methods of calculating the
optimum stocking rates of various types and combinations of wildlife on
different types of veld are now available. These lead to the definition of
ecological capacity and mainly require detailed habitat monitoring and
assessment, ideally over a long continuous period. For our purposes the
following brief definition should suffice.
“The ecological capacity is the ability of the vegetation to support animals

and maintain them in a healthy and reproductive state without deterioration
of the vegetation in the long-term.”
The term ecological capacity is preferred because the stocking density of

game on a ranch is not only limited by the available food resources, but
also by their social behaviour such as territoriality or preferred group size.
It is generally expressed as the number of hectares necessary to support
one large stock unit (LSU) - one LSU being taken as the equivalent of a
steer of 450 kg body weight growing at a rate of 500g per day on natural
grazing. LSU values (Table 3.1) are allocated to the animals on the basis
of their mean metabolic body mass relative to cattle. Mixed feeders
utilise graze and browse at different times of the year and the approxi-
mate ratios of each are usually given as percentages, which can change
depending on the habitat.

The ecological capacity of a game ranch is usually composed of a
grazing and a browsing capacity. Herbivorous animals are classified
according to their feeding habits and food plant selection. All animals
are to some extent selective. When placed in an area with a continuous
grazing system, animals will favour those areas offering the best food
resources. Cattle can be forced to be unselective feeders with a rota-
tional grazing system using paddocks. However, wildlife is usually kept in
a continuous grazing system and different species will display a more or
less selective feeding behaviour. They are usually classified accordingly
into bulk grazers, selective grazers, mixed feeders and browsers.
The ecological capacity fluctuates naturally in relation to changing envi-

ronmental conditions and as a result of previous management practices.
For example, a series of drought years can reduce the capacity substan-
tially, whereas sound wildlife management practised over many years
may increase it. The estimated ecological capacity of a ranch should
therefore be re-evaluated every few years, based on data obtained from
game and vegetation monitoring programmes.
Grazing capacity
Grazing capacity refers to the number of grazing animals that can be
supported by the vegetation in the long-term. The grazing capacity is
influenced by many factors, such as the soil, slope, altitude, climate, type
of vegetation and former management practices, such as fire and stock-
ing rates. Annual rainfall has the greatest impact on the grazing capacity
in the drier parts of Africa, such as Botswana.
Detailed methods exist to estimate the current grazing potential of an

area. These involve intensive studies of the vegetation and focus on the
grass species composition and determination of the state of health of
the grass layer. Alternatively, the state of the vegetation of a ranch can be
subjectively assessed and compared to areas of similar vegetation type

in the vicinity. Comparisons should be made against the full spectrum of
grazing conditions, i.e. with ungrazed sites, well managed and severely
depleted sites. Vegetation that has been excessively overgrazed or burnt
will be in a depleted state and will have a lower grazing capacity.
The recommended stocking rate for cattle (without supplementary

feeding) for that particular region is then taken as a starting point to
calculate the grazing capacity for a game ranch. For several reasons,
however, this does not equal the ability of the vegetation to support
game: (i) Wildlife performs best if the stocking density is kept below the
ecological capacity of its environment. At this stocking level, competi-
tion for the available resources is low and maximum sustained yields
can be obtained from the game population. (ii) In natural wildlife areas,
vegetation can support more wildlife than livestock because large game
herds naturally migrate over vast areas, exposing the vegetation to a
short period of heavy grazing followed by a prolonged period of rest. On
fenced ranches, migration is impossible. Rotational grazing systems have
been developed for livestock that simulate a migratory grazing pattern.
However, game cannot be rotated easily, which results in a continuous
grazing pattern. (iii) Another important point to consider is that cattle are
bulk grazers, whereas many wildlife species are selective grazers. Where
a cow utilises an entire tuft of a palatable grass, a sable antelope for
example would nibble only on the tips of a few of the leaves of the same
grass tuft. Although a wide game spectrum will utilise a greater variety
of food plants, the overall utilisation of plant matter will be lower with
wildlife than with cattle on the same ranch.
Therefore, total cattle LSU must not be converted directly into LSU for
game as this would result in overstocking, which would have detri-
mental effects on the game populations and on the grazing capacity
in the long-term. Overgrazed vegetation will take many years before it
is restored to its original state. Therefore, it is recommended as a rule of

thumb to take only 70 % of the predetermined cattle LSU as the grazing
capacity for game. This figure must be kept still lower if the subjective
comparison to other sites in the vicinity has revealed that the vegeta-
tion of the ranch is not in an optimum condition owing to, for example,
previous overgrazing with livestock.
Game ranches are usually stocked with a variety of game. When select-
ing the species care should be taken to include sufficient bulk grazers
in the stocking programme. They feed on coarse and tall grasses, which
are mostly ignored by the selective grazers. When these coarse grasses
are not regularly removed, they will become moribund and form dense
stands, which are not utilised and become a fire-hazard. A widely ac-
cepted recommendation in southern Africa is to stock an equal amount
(LSU) of bulk grazers and selective grazers. On game ranches in Bot-
swana, where buffalo are not readily available, it is often difficult to keep
sufficient bulk grazers. Zebra or even cattle can however be substituted
as bulk grazers.
Browsing capacity
No reliable, objective methods exist to estimate the browsing capacity
of Botswana bush. Local experience and discretion must be used. As a
rough guide, a 2:2:1 ratio of 2 LSU bulk grazers: 2LSU selective grazers:
1LSU browser is often recommended as a game ranch stocking scenario.
Over-utilisation of browse (except when caused by elephants) is not

as damaging in the long term as over-grazing. The latter leads to soil
erosion and rapid irreversible change. Overstocking with browsers is
relatively easily noticed (browse lines, broken branches, etc) and the
condition of the browsers deteriorates rapidly owing to malnutrition, e.g.
high mortality rates frequently occur in kudu during winter as a result of
over-browsing.

Mean adult
Recommended LSU Preferred Water
Bulk grazers mass
sex ratio m:f equivalent feed dependency
m f
Cattle 750 550 - 1 Tall grass +
Buffalo 800 550 1:20 1 Tall grass +
Ostrich 150 110 1:4 0.25 Unselective -
Waterbuck 260 180 1:10 0.5 Tall grass +
White rhino 2100 1600 1:4 2.5 Short grass +
Zebra 350 300 1:6 0.75 Unselective +
Selective
grazers
Blue
250 180 1:10 0.5 Short grass +
wildebeest
Red
150 120 1:10 0.4 Short grass +
hartebeest
Reedbuck 80 50 1:5 0.15 Tall grass +
Roan
280 240 1:10 0.65 Tall grass +
antelope
Sable
230 210 1:15 0.55 Tall grass +
antelope
Tsessebe 140 125 1:10 0.4 Short grass +
Short grass/
Warthog 100 70 1:10 0.2 +
omnivore

Mixed
feeders
Eland 30:70 750 500 1:15 1 Unselective -
Short grass/
Gemsbok 240 210 1:10 0.45 some -
browse
Short grass/
Impala 50:50 50 40 1:10 0.15 +
browse
Springbok 40 35 1:12 0.08 Short grass -
Browsers
Mixed
Black rhino 850 880 1:4 1.65 +
browse
Mixed
Bushbuck 50 30 1:6 0.15 +
browse
Mixed
Duiker 15 15 1:1 0.1 -
browse
Giraffe 1200 850 1:3 1.5 Browse -
Kudu 350 200 1:10 0.5 Browse +
Table 3.1 Ecological parameters of most commonly ranched species
3.2.4 Sustainable yield

Under ranching conditions most of the factors that cause mortalities or
limit the numbers of animals should be eliminated, or at least control-
led and minimised. This leads to the creation of an available excess of
animals each year that is normally harvested in one or more of the ways
mentioned earlier. The target for this harvest is the maximum sustainable

Put the spring bok in your step
P.O. Box 293, Kang, Botswana

Mobile: +267 71830682
Tel: +267 6518050
Fax: +267 6518049
21961 MEDCOM

yield (MSY), which is normally the maximum number of animals that
can be removed from the system without causing disruption or decline
of the breeding population. Variations may occur, e.g. when managing
specifically for trophy production or sales of breeding stock, but we will
remain with the basic principle.
MSY can most simply be described by referring again to Fig 3.1. If a

population is reduced from the ecological capacity to some point on the
steep portion of the curve, it will, if conditions remain favourable, grow
to reach the ecological capacity again. The biggest off-take that will
still allow the population to recover fully in one year is the MSY. Under
excellent conditions this can be quite substantial, e.g. approaching 50%
in impala.
In practice, the off-take will vary according to prevailing conditions, but

it can also be manipulated to stimulate (or suppress) population growth.
With regular game counts it can be determined quite quickly whether
the harvesting levels (quota) are too high or too low and they can be
adjusted to comply with the predetermined objective.
The complex mathematics involved in the theoretical calculation of

off-takes puts them outside the range of this booklet, but a simple basic
principle is that the MSY of a population at ecological capacity (K) is in
theory achievable by initially reducing the population by 50% and then
harvesting at half the maximum inherent growth rate per annum.
3.2.5 Social behaviour

Each wildlife species has a characteristic pattern of social behaviour.
This must be taken into account when stocking a game ranch because
animal behaviour has a profound effect on stocking rates, habitat
management and the co-habitation of different species. Herd size and
composition, family units, dominance hierarchies, home range and

territoriality, breeding behaviour and other seasonal changes are just
some of the many considerations. Habitat type and distribution have a
major influence too, e.g. species which live in large herds tend to inhabit
open areas, whereas solitary, crepuscular species are mainly found in
closed woodland and thickets.
Some species have strong herd structures and tend to be more territo-
rial, such as roan, sable and other low-density species. This is a key factor
in their management because they often do not compete well with
other species when they are forced to live in too close contact. Others
such as eland and buffalo are more gregarious and less sensitive when
it comes to social limitations. Zebra form small strict family groups of 6-8
individuals with one stallion. These are kept intact even when they form
aggregations of thousands as in the Makgadikgadi migration.
3.3 Environmental management

3.3.1 Management objectives
A set of objectives for managing the veld and habitats should be put in
place. These might be:
• To achieve and maintain the ecological capacity of the various
habitat types
• To monitor habitat condition
• To set acceptable limits of change
• To rehabilitate any degraded habitats
• To ensure optimum economic returns (maximum sustained yield)
Habitat condition
The various habitats occurring on the ranch should be assessed for
ecological condition. This evaluation should include a basic resource
inventory covering the land types (topography), soil characteristics,
vegetation and water resources. This can be done at various levels of
detail. Professional ecologists using sophisticated computer software can

be engaged to provide a full ecological evaluation of the ranch. At the
other end of the spectrum an experienced rancher can make a rapid as-
sessment of key indicators. The abundance of annual grass species, forbs
and certain woody species can indicate the condition of the veld. Poor
condition could be the result of overgrazing, drought, soil degradation
(e.g. erosion), bush encroachment or fire (excessive or too infrequent).
Soils and vegetation map

It is important to know the distribution of the various soil and vegeta-
tion types on the ranch. This can be done inexpensively from aerial
photographs, with some ground truthing for positive identification and
evaluation. A vegetation map is essential to determine the extent of
each habitat type in order to plan a stocking programme, implement a
monitoring programme or establish infrastructure. Roads, for example,
should follow vegetation boundaries (ecotones) where possible, to take
advantage of the higher use made of these areas by animals.
Bush encroachment
This can be defined as the growth of excessive numbers of indigenous
woody plants to the detriment of grassy areas. It is invariably caused by
overgrazing or incorrect burning regimes, i.e. poor management prac-
tices. Common examples of such encroachers are moselesele
(Dichrostachys cinerea) and mongana (Acacia mellifera). Bush encroach-
ment leads to a decrease in grass cover and the grazing capacity of an
area can therefore be reduced drastically. Any consequent increase in
available browse will not compensate for the loss of grazing.
Control or elimination of bush encroachment can be very problemati-
cal and expensive. Chemical and mechanical methods can be used to
remove encroaching woody species. Examples of the latter are ring
barking, repeated cutting and uprooting (by hand, by chains or even by
bulldozer). It is far preferable to use biological means of control where
possible, i.e. fire and browsing.

3.3.2 Fire
Fire has been a natural part of southern African ecosystems for thou-
sands, if not millions, of years. All vegetation types have adapted to the
effects of fire. Using fire as a management tool, however, is a complex
subject with an immense volume of research findings, many of which
are inconclusive and some are downright contradictory. Of course it
depends to a large extent on the habitat type under discussion because
they all have individual and varying tolerance of fire.
Fire can be used on a ranch to improve veld condition by removing

moribund material, preventing bush encroachment, increasing habitat
diversity and to create firebreaks. Everyone is aware that animals are
attracted to fresh grass growth stimulated by a fire. This is because the
palatability and nutritional value of grasses are enhanced for a limited
period after burning, e.g. the crude protein content may be doubled.
Up to a third of a game ranch can be burned each year, but obviously in
rotation. Because of the inevitable incidence of droughts and wildfires,
any burning programme on a ranch must be adaptive. One basic rule
of thumb, however, is that prescribed burning is not advisable in areas
receiving less than 400mm of annual rainfall and must be undertaken
only with careful planning when the rainfall is less than 550mm p.a., i.e.
most of Botswana.
Impact of fire on grasses

Fire and grazing are both means of defoliating the grass sward. Most
palatable grass species are adapted to moderate utilisation. These
grasses become choked with moribund material and lose their vigour
when they are not defoliated over an extended period. This situation
then favours the growth of tall, fibrous grasses. Excessive utilisation, on
the other hand, depletes the storage reserves of the palatable grass spe-
cies. These palatable grasses are then weakened and become replaced
with mostly unpalatable grass species upon which selective grazers

are reluctant to feed. Where grazing is limited or selective, regular fires
are necessary to remove old grass growth, but with heavy grazing, fire
should be withheld.
Shortly after a fire, grasses will produce a green flush to keep alive. This
requires the grass plant to draw nutrients and energy from its storage
organs. This green flush is highly attractive and nutritious to grazing
animals. When it is grazed off, the grass plant must further draw on its
reserves to survive prior to the onset of proper growth in the early rainy
season. When a grass plant is repeatedly exposed to such treatment,
its reserves become depleted; the plant is weakened and is eventually
replaced by less desirable grass species or forbs. This results in a decline
in the condition and grazing capacity of the grass sward. To avoid these
effects, the burnt areas must be protected from high grazing pressure
shortly after a fire. The green flush that is produced on the burnt area
must exceed the short-term forage requirements of the game that is
attracted to it. To achieve this, an area that is burnt must be sufficiently
large, or several areas must be burnt simultaneously.
The deliberate use of fire to stimulate an out-of-season green flush for

grazing is viewed as an unacceptable practice by most pasture scientists
in southern Africa. The combined effects of over-grazing, increased water
run-off, increased soil erosion and decreased vigour of the grass sward
can lead to widespread and drastic deterioration of the vegetation.
However, heavy grazing of the green flush after a fire may be beneficial
when tall fibrous grasses dominate the grass sward. Such a system
of burning and grazing will deplete these grass species, and they will
gradually be replaced by grasses better suited to grazing. Ranchers refer
to this process as ‘sweetening of the land’. The process is effective only
under exceptional circumstances in Botswana and should not be applied
generally.

Impact of fire on woody savanna vegetation
Where man-induced burning is minimised most burns are caused by
lightning. African savannas with a dry season from May to October are
extremely prone to this kind of fire source. Other major factors in the
frequency and intensity of fires are fuel load and fuel moisture. Moist
savanna (>600mm annual rainfall) is much more prone to “natural” fires
because fuel loads build up more quickly. Annual or biennial burns are
the natural regime in moist savanna. In drier savanna (<600mm annual
rainfall) the natural state is far less frequent fires, between 3 and 5 years,
except in periods of unusually high rainfall when the moist savanna
regime might come into play.
It can be simply stated that “cool” fires maintain the structure and spe-
cies composition of woodlands, whereas “hot” fires tend to convert the
woodland towards a more open savanna. Fire tends to decrease the
height of shrubs and small trees, benefiting most browsing species, e.g.
impala and kudu. Where most research has been carried out, in naturally
grazed woodland in Zambia and South Africa for example, too frequent
burning (annual or biennial) has been shown to reduce the basal grass
cover and increase the proportion of less palatable grass species. The
less frequent but more intense burns of the “natural state” result in much
greater species diversity and a changing pattern of burnt areas which is
suitable habitat for a wide range of animals.
3.3.3 Aims and procedures for controlled burning:

Controlled burning can be successfully used to achieve the following
objectives:
Primary aims:
• Remove moribund grass material;
• Control the encroachment of undesirable bushes and trees;

• Force trees to coppice, and thereby lower the canopy into the
reach of browsing animals;
• Remove potentially dangerous fuel loads, and reduce the subse
quent impact of wild fires;
• Create firebreaks and
• Remove unpalatable grasses to stimulate utilisation.
Secondary aims:
• Reduce tick burdens;
• Improve visibility (æsthetics) and
• Facilitate hunting.
Timing of burns
Actively growing plants are more susceptible to damage by fire than
dormant plants are. When a scorching effect on the trees and bushes
is desired to reduce woody density, a fire should be applied when the
woody vegetation is actively growing. When a fire is needed to remove
moribund grass material to stimulate growth and vigour of grasses, a fire
should be applied when these plants are dormant.
Fires applied during the cool dry season (May to August) do not burn as
hot as fires in the hot dry season (September to November). Some green
plant material is still present during the cool dry season, which limits the
available fuel-load at this time. Also, during this season the daily tem-
peratures are lower than during the hot dry season. The following effects
can be expected depending upon the timing of a fire:
Early fires (before August): encourage the growth of woody plants, but
hamper grass growth because the grasses are not protected at the time
of seeding. Early fires decrease seed dispersal and the translocation of
nutrient reserves to the root storage organs.
Mid-season fires (August to September): remove some moribund grasses
but also inhibit the growth of other grasses when these are not yet

dormant, and will damage the smaller woody plants. Fires at this time of
year can be hot, and will damage emerging leaf buds.
Late fires (October or later): damage woody plants, remove moribund
grass material, and facilitate grass re-growth.
Intensity of fire
Fires applied at midday burn hotter than fires applied early in the
morning when some dew is present, the ambient temperature is lower
and the relative humidity of the air is higher. The heat intensity of a fire
also depends on the wind direction at the time. A fire burning with the
wind is referred to as a headfire, whereas fires burning against the wind
are referred to as backfires. Headfires burn much hotter than backfires,
but move rapidly through an area and have their point of highest heat
intensity located high above the soil surface. Beneath a headfire, the dor-
mant grass buds are not exposed to high temperatures and are seldom
damaged. Backfires, however, move slowly, and have their point of high-
est heat intensity close to the soil surface. The dormant grass buds are
therefore exposed to the high temperatures for longer and are scorched
to a greater extent by backfires than by headfires. Woody vegetation, on
the other hand, is scorched to a far greater extent by headfires.
3.3.4 General guidelines for burning programmes

Depending upon the objective of controlled burns, the following
general guidelines can be applied regarding their intensity and timing:
To remove moribund grass material, a late fire within 2 days after the
first rains is recommended. As the soil is slightly moist, some litter will be
retained to provide protection against wind and water erosion.
A headfire should be applied that moves rapidly with the wind. It should
be a cool fire and therefore is best applied in the early morning or late
afternoon.

To control tree and bush density, a hot headfire should be applied at
midday during September/October. However, fire alone is seldom effec-
tive in achieving a high kill rate of woody plants. To achieve this heavy
browsing pressure should follow soon after the fire. This is only practical
with the use of domestic goats in small fenced camps, but is unlikely to
be achievable on a game ranch.
If the aim of the burn is to control only the undergrowth in woodlands,

while protecting the larger trees, or to stimulate the production of leaf
material at lower heights, a cool headfire should be applied in the early
morning during June and July. Such a fire tends to burn in a patchy
manner and has to be re-ignited in many places.
Firebreaks are created to protect an area against the incursion of wild

fires. If burnt too early, an excessive amount of vegetation remains that
may support a fire later in the season. A balance is needed between
burning sufficiently late to attain an adequate scorching effect, and
having a network of firebreaks in place prior to the anticipated start of
the wild fire period. Discretion is necessary depending on the timing of
the last rains, but firebreaks can usually be burnt in June.
To stimulate the utilisation of coarse swards and ultimately lead to a

change in grass species composition (‘sweetening’), hot headfires can be
applied during the early or mid dry season (June/July/August).
Fire management in various vegetation types in Botswana

• Mopane woodland: supports limited grazing, but the grasses are
usually sweet and nutritious. It is therefore unlikely that there will
be a build up of moribund material. Burning is likely to be
necessary to inhibit bush encroachment and encourage grass
growth. Often there will be insufficient material to burn, but
mopane is fire sensitive and young bushes can be reduced with

headfires if there is enough combustible material.
• Teak/miombo woodland on Kalahari sand: fire must not be totally
excluded or bush encroachment will occur. It probably will benefit
from burning to remove moribund material every three or so years.
Fires should not be hot or damage to mature trees will occur.
Burn in July at the latest, or immediately after the first rains.
• Eastern mixed acacia/combretum woodland: burning prescription
depends on rainfall levels. Soils are more prone to capping and
erosion if burning is excessive. Preferably burn only in wetter years
when fuel loads are sufficient to produce a hot enough burn to
prevent bush encroachment and improve browse.
• Kalahari mixed shrubland: sandy soils not degraded by fire.
Most grasses have deep roots and are able to flush well after a burn.
Only burn in wetter years to limit bush encroachment.
• Dry grasslands: normally below 450mm rainfall and should not be
burned. If the grassland has been under-grazed and moribund
material builds up there will be a decrease in vigour of the sward
and tall, rank grasses will begin to predominate. “Sweetening” the
grassland by careful burning followed by heavy grazing of the
green shoots may reduce these and stimulate more palatable
species which would be useful.
• Floodplains: rank, coarse grass species can be burned early in
wetter floodplains to produce sweeter grazing and provide useful
firebreaks. In drier floodplains, on sandy soils with sparser grasses,
burning should not normally be necessary.
3.3.5 Habitat monitoring

It is absolutely essential to monitor the environment on a game ranch.
Successful management depends on recognising trends and responding
to them (adaptive management). This can only be achieved through a
long-term monitoring programme. It is not necessary to instigate a com-
plex system requiring professional ecologists, though some scientific

advice at the outset might be an advantage. Any competent rancher can
collect the required information, interpret it and then act accordingly by
adjusting his management practices.
A basic set of data collections for a Botswana game ranch should

include:
• rainfall;
• incidence and distribution of fire;
• soil erosion;
• species composition, dynamics and cover of woodland and grass
land and
• wildlife abundance and distribution
Habitat types
As mentioned earlier, a detailed vegetation map of the ranch should
be drawn. This should normally be derived from aerial photography.
Standard aerial photographs at a scale of 1:50,000 are available for many
areas from the Department of Surveys and Mapping in Gaborone. These
form an excellent basis for preparing a list of broad habitat types. These
may be similar to:
• riverine thicket
• mopane scrub
• mixed woodland
• shrubland
• floodplain
• old lands
• dry grassland
Rain gauges
In Botswana rainfall is the environmental variable that has the greatest
impact on the productivity of the vegetation and as such on the ecologi-
cal capacity. It is imperative for a ranch to record the annual precipitation

in order to be able to adjust the stocking density in time before the
vegetation and/or game are negatively affected by drought conditions.
Because of the variation in rainfall caused by localised showers and

thunderstorms, it is advisable to have a series of rain gauges strategically
situated to cover as many habitat types as possible. Rain should be
recorded on a daily basis. The timing (frequency), spatial distribution and
amount of rainfall are all important parameters to record. A rain gauge
is placed on level terrain at a site where it is not obstructed by trees,
buildings, radio antennæ, water tanks etc. One rain gauge per 1,000 ha is
sufficient for monitoring purposes.
A reduction in annual rainfall will lead to a temporary reduction in the

ecological capacity of the vegetation. In such situations a reduction in
the stocking rate is necessary. As a rule of thumb, it is recommended to
reduce the game numbers that have been set as the minimum numbers
by a further 5 % for every 50mm that the annual rainfall has dropped
below normal. The annual rainfall is known at the end of the rainy season
in April, but the limitation in the ecological capacity will become obvious
only later during the hot dry season from September to November. The
harvest must therefore be planned early and timed in such a way to
remove sufficient game before the ecological capacity is exceeded.
Incidence of fire
Every fire that occurs on a ranch must be recorded including the date
and cause of the fire. The burnt area should be shaded on a map of the
ranch. Prior to the start of the following burning season, the past history
of each site that is considered for the coming burn must be evaluated to
avoid the site being burnt excessively.
Soil erosion
This is obviously much more important in some areas, e.g. the Tuli Block

in the Eastern hardveld is more prone to soil erosion than the Kalahari
sand areas around Jwaneng. There are a few simple ways of measuring
the loss of soil from a specific place and two suggestions are shown in
Fig 3.2.
(a) Use of stakes or nails to measure erosion changes
INSTALLATION
Nail
Millimetre scale
Washer
REMEASUREMENT
Soil
(b) Measurement of soil erosion around tree roots Growth rings seen in cross section
Minimum level of former soil surface

Depth of erosion
Spirit level Present soil surface
Fig 3.2 Measuring soil erosion

3.3.6 Vegetation monitoring
Monitoring the vegetation on a ranch is an essential component of wild-
life management. Monitoring must be aimed at detecting trends and
changes that take place over time. For effective monitoring, a baseline
index of the vegetation is required against which the future state of the
vegetation can be compared.
Savannas tend to fluctuate between being dominated by grasses or
trees. Heavy browsing and frequent hot fires shift the balance in favour
of open woodland with greater grass cover. It is advisable to monitor
both the tree and bush density and the grass species composition to
maintain this equilibrium in the most desirable state.
Monitoring grassland
Grass species differ from one another in their reactions to grazing pres-
sure. Some grasses will thrive only when they are very lightly utilised, and
these species will disappear from an area when it is heavily grazed. Other
grasses are stimulated by moderate grazing pressure, but disappear
when under- or over-utilised. Other grasses will only become dominant
in an area that is severely over-utilised. If these ecological responses of
the grass species are known, then it is possible to deduce the grazing
history and the current condition of a grass sward simply by determining
which grass species are dominant. One can then also monitor the grass
species composition over time. A change in the grazing management
will be reflected by a change in the grass species composition, which will
indicate if the condition of the sward is improving or deteriorating. Even
without expert scientific knowledge, competent ranchers should be
familiar with the vegetation condition of their ranches. They will be able
to identify some grasses or forbs that indicate good and poor grazing
conditions. A simplified version of the scientific methods can then easily
be conducted, as outlined below, without professional assistance.

Approximately 6 grasses need to be identified which can serve as key
indicators of the vegetation condition in a particular area. One or two
of these grasses should indicate under-utilised swards, one or two
grasses healthy and well-utilised swards, and one or two should indicate
over-grazed or deteriorated swards. A rancher then selects several
monitoring plots of approximately 30 x 30m which are representative of
the surrounding vegetation. Three to four such plots are sufficient per
major vegetation unit. Within each plot, 200 points are evaluated. This
is done by walking in a meander or spiral pattern through the plot. At
every second step, a walking stick is put down to the ground. The plant
nearest to the stick is identified as either one of the key plants or as
another plant and is counted. After 200 such recordings, the percentage
contribution of each key grass within the grass sward is calculated. Plots
are monitored at the same time every year, best during early summer,
when most grasses are in flower or seed and are easily identified.
Results of plots belonging to the same vegetation unit can be combined

and are compared with those of preceding years. This may reveal a
gradual increase or decrease in the percentage contribution of certain
key grasses. If an increase is seen in the grasses indicating under-utilisa-
tion, then grazing pressure and/or the frequency of controlled fires can
be increased. If the grasses that indicate over-utilisation become more
abundant with time, then the stocking rate should be reduced well
below the mean stocking rate for one or two years and fire be simultane-
ously withheld so that the vegetation can rest. During times of drought,
grazing pressure on the vegetation is effectively increased and can result
in a rapid decline in the vegetation condition. Animal numbers should
be reduced in advance to avoid this situation.
Results must be interpreted with caution. Fluctuation will be normal and

only if a marked change or a consistent trend over several years is seen,
should action be taken.

High grazing pressure may occur following burning of an area. If a
sharp decline in the vegetation condition of a site is detected following
a controlled burn, then the area burnt is too small and is causing an
excessive concentration of grazing animals. The area concerned should
then be protected from fire for a few years until an improvement in the
vegetation condition score is detected. The areas to which controlled
burning is applied must also be enlarged.
Monitoring woodland
Fixed-point photography is a simple method to monitor changes in the
tree/bush density. With this method the vegetation is photographed
regularly and sets of photographs taken over the years are compared.
Digital cameras have made this a simple exercise. Several fixed-points
should be established in each major vegetation type, taking pictures of
representative vegetation. In order to detect changes, such photographs
need to be taken at the same time of year, in a consistent direction,
with the same angle lens and from a consistent height. A commonly
used method is to plant a metal pole permanently at the site to be
monitored. These poles can have a camera-plate attached on the top on
which the camera is rested when taking the photograph. A 50-mm lens
is mostly used. The direction in which the photograph is taken is kept
constant by using a compass. Altematively, a simple 1.5m tall pole can
be planted some 20m away from a road. The photograph is then taken
while standing on the verge of the road facing perpendicularly towards
the pole and seeing the tip of the pole in the centre of the camera’s
viewfinder. Additionally, a person can stand in the vicinity of a prominent
tree or the marker pole with a calibrated measuring stick to facilitate the
evaluation of the photographs. Whichever method is used, consistency
is important. It is recommended to take photographs annually during
December, as most trees and shrubs are already in full leaf at that time
while the grasses are not yet too tall.

All photographs of fixed points must be stored, and be compared with
each other every year. Subjective assessments must then be made for
any discernible changes in the tree and bush density of each site. The
number of tree and shrub seedlings should be observed carefully as an
initial indication of an increasing woody density. A decreasing woody
density would be observed as a slow die-off of the woody plants, which
may occur as the loss of whole plants, or of parts thereof, and will first
be discernible in the appearance of dead branches. A rapid increase
in sapling density together with a die-off of larger woody plants may
indicate that hot fires have scorched the vegetation and caused plants to
coppice.
If an increase or decrease in the woody vegetation is suspected, the

photographic collection should be taken into the field. The site must
then be compared with the surrounding vegetation to ensure that the
trends seen in the photographs are indeed a reflection of the trends
taking place on a wider scale. As no simple way exists to quantify an
increase or decrease in tree density from a photograph, a subjective as-
sessment of its severity has to be made instead. A ‘considerable’ change
is understood here as an approximately 50 % increase or decrease in
the woody density. If the tree and bush density increases considerably
in any of the monitored sites, the respective vegetation block should
be considered for burning during the following dry season. If a decline
in woody density is noticed to the extent that the decline is considered
undesirable, then fire must be withheld from that area and/or the brows-
ing pressure be reduced.

Cheetah with young kudu - this species probably causes the most
economic losses on Botswana game ranches

4 Development of Infrastructure
4.1 Ranch evaluation

We have mentioned earlier the pros and cons of location, size and shape
when it comes to choosing a game ranch. The ecological, legal and ad-
ministrative factors have also been discussed. Game ranch development
requires high capital inputs and the next logical step is to evaluate the
ranch according to an inventory of existing and required infrastructure
and facilities.
In Botswana the original game ranches were converted cattle ranches.

A recent trend is to fence “new” land and create a game ranch from
previously open range, either in communal grazing areas or in WMAs.
Obviously then there are great differences between properties and
their requirements. A thorough survey may be required to establish the
amount, location and condition of any existing improvements such as
fences, roads, water points, holding pens, loading ramps and buildings.
Some of these may be of value in their present state, others might
need modification and some may need removing. Depending on the
objectives for the ranch, new infrastructure such as camps, fences, game
viewing roads, boreholes, etc. will be required. These should if possible
be surveyed and costed at the outset, particularly if financial assistance
from schemes such as CEDA is required.
4.2 Required infrastructure

Some or all of the following fixtures will be required to operate a game
ranch:
• Fences;
• Holding pens;
• Loading/offloading ramps;
• Roads;
• Airstrip;

• Firebreaks;
• Buildings/camps/staff accommodation;
• Water points and
• Power.
In addition, a great number of items of equipment are also necessary.

The following list indicates some of the most substantial and expensive
requirements:
• Machinery: generator, water pumps, windmills(?), workshop & tools;
• Vehicles: e.g. 4-wd pick-up, hunting car; game viewing car; tractor &
trailer, grader;
• Office and communications: radios/cell phones, GPS, computer,
aerial photos;
• Butchery equipment;
• Refrigeration/cooling facilities;
• Firearms;
• Veterinary requisites.
4.2.1 Fencing requirements

Animals challenge fences in different ways: by jumping, crawling, bur-
rowing and breaking, according to species. Some species display more
than one type of reaction to barriers. Table 4.1 gives an indication of how
various species usually behave towards fences.
Jump Crawl Burrow Break No challenge

Gemsbok
Buffalo
Eland Hartebeest
Elephant
Kudu Roan Blesbok
Giraffe
Impala Sable Warthog Springbok
Hippo
Waterbuck Tsessebe “mini” antelopes
Rhino
Zebra Warthog
Other large antelope bulls
Wildebeest
Table 4.1 Animals and fences

The draft Botswana Game Ranches Regulations state that the land in
respect of which a game ranch certificate is issued should be enclosed
by a game proof fence as prescribed in the Third Schedule (Table 4.2).
Minimum No. Of Horizontal

Category Type Of Animal
Height(M) Line Wires
Eland, Kudu, Waterbuck, plus all

(a) 2.30 17
under (b) and (c)
(b) Giraffe, Impala, plus all under (c) 1.83 12
Gemsbok, Ordinary Duiker, Oribi,

Ostrich, Red Hartebeest, Roan
(c) 1.37 12
Antelope, Sable, Springbok,
Tsessebe, Wildebeest, Zebra, etc.
17 plus steel
cables of minimum
Buffalo, Rhino, Elephant, diameter10mm and/or 2
(d) 2.30
Hippo. electrified strands at 0.5m
and
1.5m above ground level. -
Table 4.2 Schedule 3 – Game ranch fencing requirements
Although different categories are specified for keeping different species,

it is highly recommended that a 2.4m high fence with 17 strands should
be the standard. The further addition of cables, mesh and/or electrified
strands can be considered in special cases.

Materials
Poles: straining posts, standards and droppers
These can obviously be either wood or steel and sometimes a mixture is
best in order to get the benefits of each material. Wood is cheaper and
easier to fix securely in sand or soft soil. Steel lasts longer, is fire-, termite-
and lightning-proof.
Straining posts should be set at 300 – 500m intervals in flat, sandy
country, but much closer together in rocky and hilly terrain. They are also
required where a fence changes direction. Standards should ideally be
set at 25 – 50m intervals and droppers spaced at 1 – 3m. The spacing
of straining posts and standards affects the elasticity of the fence, with
wider spacing allowing more “give”.
Wire: strands or mesh

A lightly galvanised smooth steel wire is generally recommended, 12
gauge (2.24mm diameter) is sufficient. Barbed wire is not recommended,
though it is less likely to be stolen for snares. The lower wire strands are
placed closer together than the higher ones, varying between 75mm at
the bottom and 200mm at the top.
In certain situations, e.g. intensive breeding camps or where domestic
dogs are common, it may be necessary to use diamond “jackal mesh” on
the bottom of the fence. It is available in various gauges and mesh sizes
and is not normally necessary above 1.5m from the ground, although it
may need to be buried to a depth of 0,5m to be really effective.
“Veldspan” or similar products are specially designed mesh fencing ma-
terials which are available in a range of mesh sizes and heights. They are
more expensive but can reduce labour costs by being quicker to erect.
Electric fences
In certain circumstances and locations it may be desirable to electrify a
game fence. This requires careful planning and design, according to the
species it is required to control. Most species, even elephants, can be

taught to respect electric fences, but the emphasis lies on “teaching”. Al-
though just a single electrified strand will often function quite effectively,
it is recommended that electrification be used as a way of reinforcing the
standard 17-strand 2.4m fence.
A conventional electric fence uses three strands, with their positions

(height and offset distance) determined by the species which must be
controlled. Technical specifications are constantly being improved and
the best, most up-to-date advice can be obtained from a number of
Botswana-based suppliers. It is not recommended to try to “do-it-your-
self”, because an important factor is the guarantee and after-sales service
which will be provided by a reputable contractor. Another important
consideration is human safety; although one function may be to deter
poachers, the fence must not be lethal.
Steel cables
DWNP regulations insist that steel cables be incorporated into non-
electrified fences which are to contain buffalo, rhino, hippo or elephant.
Two 10mm (min.) cables set at 500mm and 1500mm above ground level
are adequate.
4.2.2 Holding pens

Holding pens or bomas are required for a variety of purposes. Probably
the most common use is to hold newly acquired animals after delivery
and offloading to allow them a short period to acclimatise to their new
environment. Designs are available for a whole range of bomas for
different purposes or species, but here only a general purpose, simple
and inexpensive facility is described. The most economical structure
is probably a permanent frame with removable plastic cladding. This
should be stored away from sunlight when not in use.

Necessary criteria:
Siting: away from human activity, buildings, noise, odours, etc; away from
perimeter fences; easily accessible.
Construction materials: steel or wooden poles; wire mesh with opaque,
plastic capture sheet as cladding; sunken concrete water troughs.
Dimensions: 2 sizes 5 x 5m and 10 x 6m; height 3m.
Shade: natural trees, reeds or shade netting over at least 25% of each
pen.
Passages and doors: passages should not exceed 1200mm in width; doors
should open against the outer passage wall to funnel animals into pens.
Access: provide feeding hatches to minimise disturbance; water troughs
to be filled from outside the pens; inspection “peep” holes.
4.2.3 Loading/offloading ramp

If this is to have a dual function it should be approximately the same
width as the average truck door (±1m) and taper to the width of the
passage or pen door. The ramp should be ±1,4m high to match most of
the trucks and trailers used in Botswana.
Free release ramps

In Botswana many of the ranches are large enough to be suited to the
free release of most species. Some ranchers prefer this rather than using
holding pens. The siting of such a ramp is crucial. It must be well away (at
least 500m) from any fences and preferably fairly close to water.
The ramp must be approximately 1,4m high and preferably 2,5m wide.
There should be no raised sides. Provision must be made for offloading
from the side and the back of vehicles and trailers. Ideally, the ramp can
be made lower by excavating the truck access point, but allowance must
be made for the truck/trailer to manœuvre adequately. The last point is
often overlooked. The slope of the ramp is not critical, as most species
can handle a 1-in-2 slope, but 1-in-3 is ideal, that is to say the length is
three times the height.

4.2.4 Roads
On most existing ranches the road system is limited to tracks along
fences and fairly direct roads to the homestead and other management
features such as kraals. The system of roads will not normally have been
designed with game ranching in mind. New ranches, on the other hand,
can develop a purpose-built road system. Roads have an ecological
impact which can be quite significant. It should be possible to design a
system for the ranch which combines maximum usefulness with mini-
mum negative impacts.
Generally in conservation areas there are four types of roads, classified as:
• Management roads: these are usually specifically routed for use
by management staff and avoid, where possible, scenic areas and
destinations used by clients or guests. They are often closed,
sometimes by physical barriers, to visitors.
• Game-viewing/Tourist roads: on ranches where photographic
tourism occurs the aim is to provide the guest with the best
opportunities of experiencing the scenery and other natural
resources on the game ranch. Tourist roads should never include
long straight stretches of road but should preferably follow an
ecotone. Where possible they should be situated in the more open
vegetation types and be about 100m from the border of more
dense areas. Tourist roads often link waterholes and traverse as
many habitat types as possible.
• Hunting roads: these are usually twisting minor tracks that disturb
the veld as little as possible. Hunting roads must enable the hunter
or cropping team to deliver any hunted or captured game to the
skinning or holding facilities with the minimum delay.
• Firebreaks: effective firebreaks should be at least 8m wide. They
should be planned and built in such a way that they separate
the different major eco-types on the ranch. This enables the game
rancher to incorporate burning into the habitat management
programme. A firebreak can also serve as a tourist road.

Ecological effects of roads
Depending on their construction and location, roads can have various
ecological effects on a game ranch. The following are some examples:
• Construction work destroys plants (especially trees) and
small animals.
• Poorly planned roads may create erosion problems and lead to
habitat deterioration.
• Firebreaks are escape routes for most animals during veld fires.
• Roads are used by game as routes between watering points and
grazing areas.
• Mammals such as impala and blue wildebeest sleep on roads
during rainy or moonless nights, especially in areas where
predators occur.
• Culverts or storm-water drains serve as burrows and dens for
warthog, jackals and hyænas.
• Pioneer plants along roads attract hares and steenbok.
• Snakes bask in the sun on roads when the environmental
temperature is low.
• Ground-nesting birds breed next to roads.
• Nocturnal animals are blinded by vehicle headlights at night and
are run over.
• Quarries near roads provide water for animals out of season, which
can lead to over-utilisation of certain areas.
• Roads influence the movement and thus distribution of some
nervous species, e.g. sable and eland. This may prevent them
accessing important feeding or breeding areas.
Road construction
The highest standard of road that is likely to be required is an all-weather
gravel road suitable for game viewing tourist traffic. Recommendations
and specifications should be obtained from a suitably qualified engineer.
Points to remember are that it should be stable in dry and wet condi-

tions, and that drainage is of paramount importance. Roads on clay soils
tend to become muddy and form potholes in wet weather, whereas
sandy roads are dusty and form corrugations.
4.2.5 Airstrips
Airstrips can be merely for private use, or they must be registered by the
Department of Civil Aviation, Ministry of Works and Transport (DCA) if
commercial traffic (including charter flights) is to use them. In the latter
case guidelines and regulations should be obtained from the DCA, who
will inspect the airstrip and associated facilities before registering it.
Obvious things to bear in mind when planning the construction of an

airstrip are the direction of the runway, safe approaches and the position
of possibly dangerous obstacles such as koppies, power lines, masts and
buildings. Remember also that animals tend to be attracted to airstrips
and can be a serious threat to aircraft taking off and landing. It may
therefore be necessary to fence the airstrip. The prevailing wind direc-
tion in Botswana is from the northeast and most airstrips are therefore
orientated between 06 and 09 degrees (M). A minimum safe length of
airstrip for light single-engine aircraft is approximately 600m as long as
the approaches are unobstructed.
4.3 Provision of water

Water requirements are one of the most important items when planning
a game ranch. With evaporation rates consistently several times as high
as the annual rainfall, the availability of potable water is often a severe
limiting factor in a semi-arid country like Botswana. Nearly all wildlife
species at least sometimes require drinking water, though this will vary
according to many factors including species, age and condition, as well
as with prevailing environmental conditions. Under ranching condi-
tions it must be assumed that all animals require to drink. The amount
required by an individual will vary greatly, but it is often quoted that an

animal will consume on average 4 - 5% of its body mass in water every
day. This is roughly equivalent to 2.5l per adult impala, 10l for a wilde-
beest and 14l per average zebra.
On Botswana game ranches most drinking water is artificially provided

from boreholes. These need to be carefully sited and designed, in order
to complement any natural water points (usually seasonal pans) and
cater for the different species’ requirements.
4.3.1 Water quality

Poor quality water can lead to serious problems which often remain
undetected or are attributed to other factors. These can include poor
breeding performance, unthriftyness and poor growth rates, or even out-
right disease through contamination and poisoning. It is good practice
to have all the water sources analysed by a professional laboratory.
In many areas the groundwater is saline, i.e. contains high levels of

various salts, usually carbonates and bicarbonates of sodium, magne-
sium and calcium. These are measured as “total dissolved solids” (tds).
Although these may soon make the water unfit for human consumption,
it is surprising how much salinity can be tolerated by some species of
wildlife. The taste and smell of water, which is æsthetically important to
human beings, does not necessarily have the same effect on animals. In
extreme cases, e.g. gemsbok and springbok in the Kalahari, wildlife will
consume water with very high salt levels up to 10,000 tds, though under
most circumstances half of this is normally the upper limit. (For human
use the WHO recommends 1,000 tds as the upper limit.)
4.3.2 Location of water points

Several factors play important roles in planning the distribution of water
points. Habitat distribution and existing permanent and seasonal natural
water sources must be evaluated. The behaviour, territoriality and rang-

ing of the different wildlife species must also be taken into consideration.
Most species display a critical water distance and do not normally range
further than this distance away from water. For example, impala have a
short critical water distance of approximately 2km. On a ranch of 2000ha
with sides of 4 and 5km it would be necessary to have at least two water
points placed centrally 2km part in order for impala to utilise the whole
ranch. Territorial species such as sable would require a water source
within each herd’s territory, and the numbers of bushbuck would be
maximised by having water sources spaced not more than 300m apart
in suitable habitat. At the other extreme, wildebeest and zebra quite
normally graze up to 5km from a water source and can go much further.
Consequently, on large properties permanent water supplies can be
spaced as much as 15km apart.
Besides territoriality, several other aspects need to be considered when
spacing water points: If only one waterhole is available, animals are
forced to concentrate there leading to localised overgrazing, trampling,
soil erosion and bush encroachment. Local animal concentrations also
facilitate the spread of diseases and parasites. If new animals are released,
it is important to have several water sources located around the ranch
so that such animals will discover these quickly. Newly released animals
often spend considerable time near the perimeter fence and water must
be made available there temporarily.
4.3.3 Design and function of water points

When planning water supplies for a game ranch, a range of factors
should be taken into consideration. Water sources may be natural, e.g.
rivers and rainwater pans, or artificial, e.g. earth dams and troughs or
reservoirs. Occasionally the opportunity exists to enhance a natural
source through artificial means, e.g. weirs. The requirements for an ideal
waterhole might be:
• Sufficient water must be economically exploitable.
• The design must satisfy the drinking preferences of different game
species.
• The waterhole must be controllable (can be opened or closed) to
encourage game movements.
• The location, relative to that of other waterholes, must be
considered to limit overgrazing.
• The waterhole must be permanent and reliable during times of
drought.
• Sufficient shade where game can rest after drinking should be avail
able in the area around the waterhole.
• The waterhole must be constructed in such a manner that it allows
maximum game viewing coupled with minimum disturbance of
game movements.
• Waterholes should not be placed on watersheds (high-lying areas
between two drainages) or on highly erodible soils.
• Waterholes must be designed in such a way that they provide the
minimum cover for predators, but sufficient for shy species, e.g.
bushbuck.
• The water quality must be suitable for game.
• The waterhole must appear as natural as possible.
Apart from the above, consideration must be given to the possibility of

problems arising from erosion, trampling of vegetation, evaporation,
injuries through accidents or fighting and the incidence of diseases.
4.3.4 Borehole pumps

Pumps which are used for game ranching are largely limited to windmill,
power-head and borehole turbine pumps and sometimes centrifugal
pumps, which are often used when water is pumped from a river to a
storage dam. The choice of pump is determined by factors such as the
water delivery capacity and depth of the borehole, pump efficiency
and economic factors with regard to purchase and maintenance of the
pump. The choice of a pump will in each case be dictated by the specific
set of requirements. Before a pump is chosen, it is essential that the

supply of water available from the borehole be known. The borehole
should preferably be tested during the driest months of the year and the
delivery volume of the pump should not exceed two-thirds of the tested
water supply.
Windmills - the advantages of windmills are that they are relatively

cheap and that their maintenance costs are low. The main disadvantage
is that during windless months a water shortage may occur. In certain
areas strong gusts of wind can also easily damage windmills. Windmills
should preferably be placed out of sight of tourists at waterholes.
Borehole turbine pumps - are centrifugal multi-stage pumps which are

constructed as compact units of which the diameter is slightly smaller
than that of the borehole. The pump is vertical and is propelled by
means of the axial line. Thus the borehole must be straight and vertical.
Electric submersible pumps - are centrifugal multi-stage pumps that are

powered by a submerged electrical motor which is cooled by the water
in the borehole. The electrical power is supplied by a cable, so the elec-
trical accessories can be installed in a meter-box and thus save the cost
of constructing a pump house. Pump houses are unattractive to tourists,
but they are essential to protect certain installations against weather
damage or some game. Solar-powered pumps are expensive but require
less maintenance than windmills and will give a more consistent supply
of water.
N.B. Plastic pipes must always be buried to at least 500mm because

many animals, from dassies to elephants, will damage them, and also
sunlight will quite quickly degrade the material.

Buffalo - valuable species such as this are a major boost to profitability

5 Wildlife Management
This chapter deals with the establishment and maintenance of healthy

wildlife populations. It briefly describes how to monitor those popula-
tions and keep accurate records, and finally outlines optional methods of
harvesting wildlife for income generation.
5.1 Suitable species for Botswana ranches
Indigenous, exotic and endemic species

Indigenous species are those that occur or have occurred naturally in a
particular area and therefore include re-introduced species. The defini-
tion of “particular area” may complicate the issue, e.g. red lechwe are
indigenous to the Okavango Delta but not to the Kalahari Desert, and
vice versa with springbok, however, both are indigenous to Botswana.
Exotic species are those that do not and never have existed naturally in
an area. Endemic species are those that occur naturally in a particular
area and nowhere else.
DWNP has not yet developed a national policy on the ranching of

exotic species and generally it is not considered a good idea. They do
however allow importation of certain exotic species by game ranchers
who already have stocks of these species, notably black wildebeest and
blesbok. With correct management and proper safeguards ranching
exotics may be successful and profitable, e.g. lechwe thrive on some
mountainous game ranches in the Eastern Cape, very different and far
away from their natural range. For the time being however in this hand-
book for Botswana we will confine ourselves to those species normally
considered indigenous to the country.

Not all species are suitable for every game ranch and careful consid-
eration should be given to which animals will do best with the least
management in any given situation. The less suited an animal is to its
environment, the more intensive management is needed to keep it and
the more expensive this is, the obvious extreme examples being exotic
species in zoos.
Very brief descriptions and shorthand notes on the commonly ranched

species and their requirements are given below. Some of the breeding
characteristics of species occurring in Botswana are given in Table 5.1
5.1.1 Blue Wildebeest (Connochætes taurinus)

Preferred habitat: Open woodland with shade and water
Feeding: Short grass grazer
LSU equivalent: 0,5
Breeding: Mating Feb/April; calving Nov/Jan;
weaning 8 mths
Growth: Sexual maturity 2yrs, 15 mths; first calf 2yrs
Mass (kg): Adult live: 250, 180; average carcass 82
Trophy: Minimum age 5yrs, minimum size 23”
Longevity: 18yrs
Status: Seventh Schedule Part II – game animal
In Botswana they were found throughout the country, but have

decreased in the Kalahari areas owing to progressive drying out of the
environment, cordon fences curtailing their migrations and human
expansion taking over pans in particular. They can exist for long periods
without drinking if their food has a high enough moisture content. They
are prolific breeders and are most numerous in the Tuli Block, though
they can be ranched easily all over the country. They are good meat pro-
ducers and there is moderate demand for trophies. There is little demand
for live sales and prices are generally low because of their ubiquitous

status. However, there is great demand for the “red” tinged type that is
frequently seen in the central Tuli Block area, but it is not known if this
characteristic will consistently breed true. Nevertheless, some collectors
will pay several times the normal value for these animals.
They are asymptomatic carriers of bovine malignant catarrh (snotsiekte),
a virus that causes deaths in cattle and there are restrictions on move-
ments in RSA because of this. On the other hand there is some evidence
that they can inhibit the breeding of certain ticks.
5.1.2 Eland (Taurotragus oryx)

Preferred habitat: Versatile, semi-arid scrub and most savanna types
Feeding: Mostly browse (70%), but graze fresh
summer grass
LSU equivalent: 1
Breeding: Mate all year, but calving peak Aug/Sep;
weaning 5 mths
Growth: Sexual maturity 2yrs, 18 mths; first calf 3yrs
Mass (kg): Adult live 700, 450; average carcass 360
Longevity: 15yrs, 20yrs
Status; Seventh Schedule Part I - partially protected
They are very gregarious, often forming very large herds (>300) and
develop strong age-group bonds. They are highly mobile and are
prodigious jumpers, easily clearing 2m high fences. They breed well
and produce very high quality venison. They can be prone to severe
tick infestation, especially if confined to small areas and can succumb to
heartwater. Trophy demand is high, and their versatility ensures popular-
ity and a consistent demand for live animals. Individuals with more
prominent stripes are in greater demand as examples of the subspecies
known as Livingstone’s eland (T.o.livingstonii). These tend to occur mainly
in north-eastern Tuli Block. Large bulls will fight and are difficult to
translocate.

5.1.3 Gemsbok (Oryx gazella)
Preferred habitat: Open arid grassland, but adapts to bushveld
quite well
Feeding: Mixed feeders, but basically grazers. Dig for
succulent roots.
LSU equivalent: 0.45
Breeding: Breed all year, but calving often correlated
with rainfall
Growth: Sexual maturity 2yrs; first calf 3yrs
Longevity: 17yrs
An attractive game ranch species with high demand for trophies

(females’ horns are usually longer) and excellent meat production. It
thrives in low rainfall areas, but drinks regularly under ranching condi-
tions. It has been successfully introduced onto “bushveld” ranches in
Limpopo Province, RSA and also does well in the Tuli Block and western
Central District sandveld. Live animals are in high demand.
Species Mating Gestation Births Peak Wean (days)
Blesbok March - May 210-240 Nov. -Jan. Nov.-Dec. 120
Buffalo March - May 330-346 Oct. - April Jan. - Feb. 150-210
Bushbuck Whole year 180-200 Whole year Oct.-Nov., 180
Bushpig Whole year 110-120 Oct. - Feb. - -
Duiker Whole year 200-210 Whole year - -
Eland Whole year 271-279 Whole year Aug.-Oct. 150
Elephant Nov. - April 660 Sept. - May Jan. - March 720
Gemsbok Whole year 261-275 Whole year Aug.-Sep. 105

Feb. -
Giraffe Whole year 450-457 Whole year 180-240
March,
Hartebeest Feb. - April 240 Sept. - Feb. Sept.-Nov. 150-210
March-
Hippo Whole year 225-257 Whole year -
June
Impala April-June 194-200 Oct. -Jan. Dec. -Jan. 120-180
Klipspringer Whole year 210-215 Whole year Dec.-Jan. 120-150
Kudu June-July 260-280 Dec. - May February 180
Lechwe Whole year 225(?) Whole year Aug. –Dec. 180-210(?)

Mountain
Whole year 236-251 Whole year Apr. - May -
reedbuck
Oribi May - June 200-210 Nov. -Jan. Oct. - Dec. 60
Reedbuck Whole year 225-240 Whole year Dec. - May -

Jan., Jun.-
Rhino: Black Whole year 450 Whole year 365
Jul
Rhino: White Whole year 480 Whole year Mar. - Apr. 365
Roan antelope Whole year 276 287 Whole year None 180
Sable antelope May-July 224-240 Jan. - March Feb. - April 240
Springbok Whole year 165-180 Whole year Sep.-Jan. 120
Steenbok Whole year 168-173 Whole year Sept.-Oct., 90
Tsessebe Jan. - April 235-245 Sept. - Dec. Oct.-Nov. -
Warthog May-July 150-175 Oct. - Dec. Nov. - Dec. 63
Waterbuck Whole year 270-280 Whole year October 276
Wildebeest: Black March-July 250-260 Nov. -Jan. Dec. -Jan. 120-150
Wildebeest: Blue March-May, 250-260 Nov. -Jan., Nov. - Dec. 120-180
Zebra Whole year 360-390 Whole year Dec. - Feb. 308 - 330
Table 5.1 Reproduction in Botswana wildlife

5.1.4 Impala (Æpyceros melampus)
Preferred habitat: Open woodland, close to water.
Frequents ecotones
Feeding: Mixed feeder
Breeding: Rut March/May, lambing Oct/Dec
Growth: Sexual maturity 2yrs, 18m ; first lamb 2yrs
Longevity: 14yrs
An attractive and gregarious species, with herds commonly comprising

a breeding male and up to 100 females (fewer in dry conditions). Other
males form bachelor herds of 10 - 30 individuals. They demonstrate
conspicuous and noisy behaviour during the rut. They are highly produc-
tive (often >90% lambing percentage) and can be harvested at up to
50% per annum in good conditions. Impala are popular game ranch
animals because they are adaptable, resilient, breed well and produce
high quality venison and popular trophies. They can be destructive to
their environment when overpopulated and their numbers need to be
strictly controlled.
A trend exists among ranchers to harvest male impala heavily, prob-

ably due to the fact that large herds of impala rams are seen outside
of the rutting season. It must be considered, however, that the rutting
season is a time of intense activity for breeding males, which devote
all their energy to mating, fighting other males, and displaying their
dominant status. They get little opportunity to feed, and quickly become
exhausted. A different individual then usually replaces the breeding male
in a female herd every five to seven days, and the exhausted male rejoins
the bachelor herd to recuperate. Female impala will cycle only twice

during the rutting season. A breeding herd requires the constant attend-
ance of a capable male, if all females are to be adequately served. From
a management perspective, it is therefore imperative to keep sufficiently
large bachelor groups to accommodate this mating behaviour.
5.1.5 Kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros)

Preferred habitat: Savanna woodland
Feeding: Browser
LSU equivalent: 0.5
Breeding: Rut April/June, calving peak Jan/March
Growth: Sexual maturity 18m, first calf 2,5yrs
Longevity: 9yrs, 15yrs
Greater kudu are widespread throughout most of Botswana. They are

mainly found in open woodland, usually avoiding open grassland. They
prefer riparian woodland and thickets along drainage lines, broken
terrain with sufficient bush, and are often found in rocky areas. They live
in small breeding herds, consisting of mature cows with their offspring.
These female herds occupy ranges, which can vary in size from 1 up to
about 25km2. Bulls live in bachelor groups for most of the year, and join
the breeding herds only during the rutting season. Calves are born at
the height of the rainy season, and hide for two to three months before
joining the breeding herd.
Greater kudu are diurnal, unless they live in proximity to human activ-
ity, when they become nocturnal. They are excellent jumpers and are
known to clear 2.5m high fences. They are almost solely browsers,
utilising a wide variety of food plants, but generally preferring forbs to
woody species. They make some use of open grassland areas during

spring and early summer, when forbs are abundant there. Large-scale
losses of kudu during the late dry season are quite common and have
been attributed to tannin poisoning. This should be seen rather as a sign
of starvation due to overstocking, whether it is aggravated by tannin
poisoning or not. The recommended stocking rate for kudu is not more
than three individuals per 100ha. In game counts, kudu numbers tend
to be underestimated. The most reliable counting technique for greater
kudu on a small or medium size game ranch is the known group count
in which the individual kudu groups are identified. This is easiest during
spring and early summer when their group structure seems to be tighter
than during the winter season.
Although greater kudu are attractive animals, they are among the less
profitable species, as they are widely available on game ranches and
therefore have little live sale value. Nonetheless, they produce very
popular meat and desirable trophies.
5.1.6 Ostrich (Struthio camelus)

Preferred habitat: Open grassland and dry shrubland
Feeding: Grazer mainly,
Breeding: Mating July/Sep; hatching Oct/Dec
Growth: Sexual maturity 3yrs, 2,5 yrs; first eggs 3yrs
Longevity: 30yrs
They are of value only for tourism and occasionally as hunting trophies
or meat. Wild ostriches have no value to the commercial meat and skin
trade. In the Tuli Block heavy predation of the eggs by jackals is a
problem.

5.1.7 Red Hartebeest (Alcelaphus buselaphus)
Preferred habitat: Open grassland and dry shrubland
Feeding: Grazer, rarely browses except under
adverse conditions
LSU equivalent: 0.4
Breeding: Mating March/April; calving Oct/Nov;
weaning 7 mths
Growth: Sexual maturity 2yrs, 2,5 yrs; first calf 3yrs
Longevity: 15yrs
They are normally associated with the Kalahari environment. Although

naturally they only occurred in the east in a limited area between
Sherwood and Buffels Drift, they are now found on game ranches over
a much wider area, where they have adapted to open woodland condi-
tions.
5.1.8 Springbok (Antidorcas marsupialis)

Preferred habitat: Open grassland, pans and dry short scrub.
Feeding: Mixed feeder
Breeding: No strict season, gestation 6m, lambs born mainly
in summer, weaned at 4m.
Growth: Sexual maturity 18m, 6m ; first lamb 1yr
Mass (kg): Adult live 40, 35; average carcass 17
Longevity: 12yrs
Kalahari springbok are noticeably larger and heavier than those

occurring in other parts of southern Africa. Careful selection is neces-

sary when importing from neighbouring countries. Springbok occur
throughout the Kalahari, but have declined dramatically in many areas,
mainly because of human expansion. They cannot be successfully
ranched in the eastern parts of the country and are particularly prone
to heartwater. They also seem to be very vulnerable to predation under
ranching conditions, with cheetah in particular causing heavy losses.
Even low fences easily contain them.
Meat produced is of a very high quality, with potential for export. Al-
though they can exist without water as long as their food plants contain
at least 10% moisture, they will drink when water is available. Drinking
increases markedly when temperatures are high and they will consume
water which is far more saline than most other species will accept.
5.1.9 Warthog (Phacochœrus æthiopicus)

Preferred habitat: Open grassland, floodplain and woodland
Feeding: Mainly grazers, but will eat fruit and dig for roots,
tubers etc.
LSU equivalent: 0.2
Breeding: Mating April/May; farrowing Oct/Nov;
weaning 5mths
Growth: Sexual maturity 2yrs, 18mths; first litter 2yrs,
mean size 3 piglets
Mass (kg): Adult live: 100 kg, 70; average carcass 28
Longevity: 17yrs
Warthogs occur throughout Botswana, even in the drier parts of the

Kalahari. They require aardvark burrows for shelter, which they change
frequently. Although they are very prolific breeders, up to 50% of young
piglets succumb in the first 6 months to predation and adverse weather
conditions.

Warthogs are an attractive part of the African wildlife spectrum, and a
valuable asset on game ranches. Warthog are useful indicators of over-
grazing as they are the first game to visually lose body condition. They
are also a well sought-after trophy, particularly by European hunters, and
the meat is of high quality. There is little competition between warthogs
and grazing antelope. If overstocked, however, warthogs can damage
the grass sward due to their digging behaviour. A high number of
warthogs may adversely affect the breeding success of terrestrial game
birds because they are said to be particularly fond of eggs.
5.1.10 Waterbuck (Kobus ellipsiprymnus)

Preferred habitat: Floodplain, open woodland, long grass/reeds
<2km from water
Feeding: Long grass roughage grazer
LSU equivalent: 0.5
Breeding: All year round, calving peak Feb/March,
weaning 9 mths
Growth: Sexual maturity 3yrs, 2,5 yrs , first calf 3,5 yrs
Longevity: 16 yrs
Status: Sixth Schedule – protected
They are common in many parts of Tuli Block and also occur naturally,
but less frequently, in Chobe and Ngamiland. A few have recently been
introduced on to game ranches in Orapa, Jwaneng and Ghanzi.
Mature males establish permanent territories rarely exceeding 1km2,

which they defend vigorously and will not leave even in droughts. Fe-
male and bachelor herds form loose aggregations which move through
these territories. Numbers are easily underestimated because they are
cryptic. They are prone to ectoparasites (ticks and lice) especially when

stressed. They have a strong musky smell and carcasses must be skinned
carefully to avoid contaminating the flesh. Live sales fetch high prices
and limited trophy hunting has recently been allowed.
5.1.11 Zebra (Equus burchelli)

Preferred habitat: Open woodland and grassland, water dependent
Feeding: Long grass roughage grazer
Breeding: All year round, pronounced peak in summer,
weaning 11 mths
Growth: Sexual maturity 2 yrs, 2 yrs , first foal 3-4 yrs
Longevity: 22 yrs
Status: Seventh Schedule part II – game animal
Good populations of zebra have been established on several game

ranches from wild stock, especially in Ghanzi.
Zebra are typical of the savanna plains, preferring open woodland or

medium to tall grassland in the proximity of water. They are bulk feeders,
utilising a variety of grasses, which are not used by the more selective
grazers. In the process of using stands of tall grass, such areas are tram-
pled down. Therefore, zebra have the added positive effect of opening
up such grasslands for other game. They are partial to burnt areas. Zebra
live in close family units, which consist of a dominant male with two to
three (maximum of six) females. They are not territorial, but the stallion
defends his harem against other males. The family unit is kept intact
even when numerous zebra congregate, forming large herds. Zebra
mares are usually good mothers with close bonds with the foal. Sub-
adults leave the family unit at the age of one or two years. The females
join a new stallion, and the young males form bachelor groups until they
are old enough to breed and acquire their own females.

Zebra are a valuable ecological asset for most game ranches, which tend
to be overstocked with selective grazers. Their tourist potential must also
be considered, as for many overseas visitors, zebra are one of the most
attractive African game animals. The zebra is often believed to be a pro-
lific breeder, and that its numbers on a game ranch will increase rapidly.
On the contrary, they breed comparatively slowly as mares give birth to
their first foal at an age of three to four years only. The reputation of rapid
breeding might originate from the fact that zebra are such conspicuous
animals, and that they move quickly from one area to another, hence
their numbers are often overestimated. Too drastic a reduction could
result in a long recovery period before the population builds up again.
There is a demand from international hunters for trophies from male

zebra. There is no specific trophy requirement for zebra skins although
the rancher should watch for older stallions losing the hair on their
necks, and thus producing an unacceptable trophy. Darker skins, i.e.
with broader black stripes, are considered by some hunters to be a
superior trophy. Sexing a zebra in the field can be difficult. Although
not a hard and fast rule, a mature female zebra can be recognised by
her potbelly while a male zebra has a flat belly, and a thicker neck and
wider rump than the female. Also, the black area between the buttocks
is broad in females and narrow in males. When running off, it is usually
the male zebra that is last, and which stops to look back at the cause of
the disturbance. Zebra venison is difficult to market, as many people do
not eat zebra meat for cultural reasons. Currently, good quality skins are
worth more than live animals.
A subspecies known as Chapman’s zebra (E.b.chapmani) is recognised

mainly from Zimbabwe and there is an added demand for this. The main
characteristic is that the stripes continue down the legs as far as the
hooves. Many Botswana zebras display these markings too, especially in
the populations in the Makgadikgadi and northern Tuli areas.

5.2 Establishment of wildlife populations
Having decided on the spectrum of wildlife for a game ranch and the
initial required stocking rates for the desired species (see Ch.3), methods
of acquiring the animals must be explored. Live game can normally be
sourced in a variety of ways:
5.2.1 Live game auctions

These are held frequently at various centres throughout RSA and Na-
mibia and are advertised in the farming press and in wildlife and hunting
magazines. The animals can be viewed in sales pens and having made a
successful bid, arrangements for transport to the ranch will be required.
This is often available through the auction proprietors.
Disadvantages:
• payment is at the fall of the hammer;
• prices vary widely and tend to be high;
• animals are handled excessively leading to stress;
• auction pens can harbour infection and parasites;
Advantages:
• animals can be viewed and evaluated at the time of purchase.

5.2.2 Catalogue auctions
These are often held in conjunction with live auctions, though not
always. Animals are sold subject to payment of a deposit, for delivery
at some specified date in the future. The balance is payable on delivery.
Prices tend to be slightly lower than at live auctions.
Disadvantages:
• deposit may be tied up for a considerable time before delivery;
• animals are not seen until delivered.
Advantages:
• less stress on animals;
• prices tend to be lower;
• full payment is only made after satisfactory delivery.

5.2.3 Directly from established game ranches
In this case the price is negotiated between the seller and the buyer. One
or the other party (usually the seller) will then engage a reputable game
capture company to catch and deliver the animals.
Disadvantages:
• animals are usually not seen until captured;
• logistical arrangements to be made (permits etc);
Advantages:
• lower prices due to exclusion of “middlemen”.
5.2.4 Through game dealers or game capture companies

This is probably the most common method of acquiring game in Bot-
swana. Dealers will source the required animals and quote a price which
will depend on the price paid to the farm of origin, the capture cost
and the cost of transport to the destination. In Botswana the transport
costs are often the most significant factor. Prices will depend on loads
because it obviously costs the same to transport one animal as it does a
full truckload.
Disadvantages:
• possible higher prices due to dealer’s commission;
• animals are usually not seen until delivered;
Advantages:
• all logistics are taken care of.
5.3 Group composition

The numbers, ages and sexes of groups of introduced animals is crucial
to the success or otherwise of establishing viable and therefore exploit-
able populations on a game ranch. When introducing a new “seed”
population, the number and structure of the group influences the
subsequent growth rate and therefore the level of income which can be
generated until the population reaches its desired level. The following
simple hypothetical example illustrates this.

Impala are introduced as two herds: A: 3 adult females and one ram;
B: 8 adult females and 2 rams. The following assumptions are made: (1)
the lambing percentage among the mature females is 80 %; (2) lambs
are born at a sex ratio of 1: 1; (3) females give birth for the first time at
the age of two years; and (4) the natural mortality rates do not differ
between the two populations. The population growth curves for popula-
tions A and B should look as in Fig 5.2
Fig 5.2 Hypothetical Population Growth
Herd A grows considerably slower than herd B. After 10 years, herd A has
reached a size of 106 and herd B of 236 individuals. If one impala were
valued at US$ 100, the initial additional investment of US$ 600 in herd B
has resulted in an additional value in live impala of US$ 13 000 after this
10-year period.
It is also important to consider that a limited harvesting of surplus males

and old females can take place much earlier in herd B than in A, i.e. once
the population has entered the upswing part of the growth curve and

while it is still growing to the desired level. That means that investing
more in the establishment phase by introducing a larger initial herd
leads to a faster financial return than when few animals are bought. It is
therefore advisable to acquire more individuals of a few species than few
individuals of many species.
The number of reproducing females in the initial herd obviously has the
greatest influence on the subsequent growth of the population. Female
sub-adults should also be introduced, to avoid a generation gap in the
population structure.
Concerning the males, at least two, but preferably three mature males
should be introduced. This reduces the risk of inbreeding and the risk of
losing one or two generations of offspring in case the only male dies or
does not mate. Besides, the stimulation of a competing male is necessary
in some species to induce breeding. Some sub-adult males should be
introduced, so that male replacements are available at all times. Surplus
males can then be harvested as trophies while the population is still
growing.
For herd game, the following population composition can be taken as a

general guide for introductions:
2-3 adult males /4-6 adult females / 3-4 sub-adults (1: 1) / 4-6 juveniles
(1:1)
If a larger herd can be acquired, the ratio should lean towards more adult
and immature females.
In practice, concessions will often have to be made. Mass capture of

game cannot be too selective and the buyer must understand that it
may be impossible to combine a herd of the exact structure that he

has ordered. Acceptable limits should be agreed upon before game is
caught and translocated.
5.3.1 Sex ratio

The ratio of mature males to mature females can be manipulated
through management. A greater proportion of females results in a
higher lambing/calving percentage for the overall population. When the
objective of a ranch is to produce animals for live sales or for venison, the
greatest proportion of females per male allowable for a species will yield
the most profitable result. To maintain a sex ratio with a high proportion
of females, a high number of male offspring must be removed annually
from the population before they mature. Immature males are difficult to
sell live as the demand is biased towards female breeding stock, and a
proportion of these young males will have to be culled for venison.
When the trophy value of a species is high, it is economically wasteful

to cull males prior to maturity. When trophy hunting is exercised on a
ranch, trophy fees usually constitute the bulk of this ranch’s income. A
sex ratio of one mature male to one mature female is then optimal for
economic reasons. In natural systems, this is the commonly found sex
ratio for game. Excessive conflicts between males in herd game spe-
cies are avoided by forming bachelor herds, whose members respect
the established dominant males and keep out of their territories, or by
displaying submissive behaviour. The dominant males are occasionally
challenged by potential successors and are replaced when they lose
strength. This contest is natural and even necessary to stimulate breed-
ing. Problems can arise on small or overstocked ranches when the space
requirements of the bachelor herds are not met and these are forced
to stay in or close to the established territories. To avoid this situation,
one must consider the average territory/range size, herd size and social
density of each game species when planning the stocking programme
and leave sufficient space for the bachelor groups.

5.4 Population monitoring
Except on very small intensively managed properties it is not necessary
to know the exact numbers of game. In fact, it is almost impossible to
count a variety of species accurately. The most important thing is to
understand and quantify any trends in population changes. This means
that censuses should aim at precision (reliable repeatability at compara-
ble accuracy) rather than absolute accuracy. Combining this information
with detection of changes in the habitats through assessment of veld
condition is all that is needed to manage the ranch successfully.
5.4.1 General monitoring

Animals should be monitored on a regular basis throughout the year for
a variety of reasons. It is advisable to keep familiar with the animals to
detect problems at an early stage and rectify these where intervention
is required. Sick and injured animals can then be removed before they
have a negative impact on other game or on the tourist enterprise. Some
benefit from such animals can be salvaged before they die, or they can
be submitted for disease investigation. When animals are required for
hunting or game viewing, a person who is familiar with the whereabouts
of the animals is invaluable. General game monitoring should routinely
be conducted throughout the year on at least 2 to 3 days per week.
In doing so, staff drive or walk different sections of the ranch in such a
way that the entire ranch is covered every week. Relevant observations
should be recorded on a field form using a map overlaid with a grid for
location references. Animal observations that should be recorded in-
clude the game species, number of individuals, their age and sex classes
where possible, and their location. Other records include the species, sex
and approximate age of carcasses found, sick or injured animals seen,
signs of poor body condition, births, fights, unusual behaviour, attempts
to escape, drying up of water points, finding of snares, or damage to the
fence. Whenever animals are taken off, be it for trophy, venison or live
sale, the species, age, sex and body or carcass weight and trophy size

where applicable must be recorded. A staff member who is well experi-
enced in this routine, will easily organise and perform the annual census.
In particular known group counts will entirely depend on him, as well as
other related duties such as accompanying hunters.
Annual census
The primary objective of a game count is to estimate the number of
animals in a given area. The main problem is to obtain a count which
will form a reliable foundation for population management. Game
counts can comprise total counts, where the objective is to count all the
animals in a given area, or they can take place on a sample basis, where
deductions about the entire area can be made from counts conducted
on a smaller area. The problem is aggravated by the fact that animals are
usually not evenly distributed, but rather tend to congregate in patches
in preferred sections of the habitat, i.e. they are “clumped”.
Timing: The ideal time for an annual census for each species is after its
calving/Iambing season, as this is the time of maximum animal numbers.
For many seasonal breeders this time will be during or at the end of the
rains. Unfortunately, visibility is then at its lowest and it is impossible to
achieve accurate or precise counts. Visibility is best during the months
of October to December. Although many of the trees are already in leaf
at that time, the grasses are dry and usually somewhat flattened or only
just sprouting. It is recommended that most counts be conducted in
November or early December as at this time many of the antelope spe-
cies have already given birth. Births that will be missed at this time are
those of waterbuck, zebra, kudu, buffalo, and wildebeest, who give birth
mainly from December to March. Some game species have protracted
birth seasons and for these, timing of the count is not crucial provided it
is performed at a consistent time every year.
Technique: There is no single comprehensive counting technique which

is suitable for all types of game and habitat. Knowledge of the animals
and their habitat requirements are essential before any game count can
be attempted. Game in treeless regions or open bush veld areas can,
for example, easily be counted by means of aerial counts. In dense bush
veld or woodland a combination of methods produces better results.
5.4.2 Known group count

Gregarious species whose numbers are low can be most accurately esti-
mated through becoming familiar with their groups and home ranges.
This method is invaluable for private ranches as it is easy to conduct, is
accurate if conducted with care, requires a minimum of personnel (is
best done by the persons patrolling the ranch throughout the year) and
costs are minimal. It can be carried out in all types of habitat, from open
grassland, woodland to mountainous terrain. This type of count should
be performed on all game species that can possibly be counted this way.
It involves patient observation of those animals that live in identifiable
groups or as identifiable individuals. Groups are quietly observed when
they are encountered in suitably open habitat. If animals become too
nervous, the count is aborted and repeated on another occasion. It is
at times helpful to have a second person to drive the respective animal
group gently and slowly towards the hidden observer. Eland tend to split
up in smaller units and re-unite again into one herd, and care must be
taken to count them all. Zebra live in close-knit family units that some-
times aggregate into a larger herd. When this aggregation is resting, the
family units are more easily identified and evaluated as they will tend to
graze in clear groupings. The location of each group should be recorded
to avoid double counting. For the location records, a map of the ranch is
required that is overlaid with a grid pattern of approximately one hectare
per grid square. Each grid is defined by vertical and horizontal co-ordi-
nates. This can easily be hand-drawn over an existing map. All members
of an encountered group are classified into their respective age-sex
categories and recorded on an appropriate record sheet. The following

age-sex categories can be used:
• Adult male: after reaching sexual maturity;
• Adult female: after giving first birth;
• Sub-adult male: all males between 1 year old and sexual maturity.
• Sub-adult female: all females between 1 year old and first birth.
(For most species this generation is presented by the last year's
juveniles. For some species, which mature slowly, this category
includes the juveniles of the last two years, namely zebra, tsessebe,
eland, sable antelope, roan antelope and waterbuck; for buffalo
three to four generations of juveniles comprise this sub-adult male
group.)
• Juveniles: all calves/Iambs/foals/piglets under 1 year of age.
The known group counts should be conducted every year over a two to
four week period during November/December. At this time the count
includes all those seasonal breeders that have given birth by then and
all possible protracted breeders. Other seasonal breeders are counted
once their young are born (e.g. zebra, buffalo, wildebeest) or once the
young have left their hiding places and accompany their mothers (e.g.
waterbuck, kudu). This will mostly be by March.
5.4.3 Road strip count

Some game cannot be identified easily as individuals live solitarily or
are difficult to encounter and these are best counted in a road strip
count. It is also a more appropriate technique for large wildlife areas,
where it becomes more difficult to know individual herds. A road strip
count requires open habitat with good visibility or an appropriately tight
network of roads in denser vegetation. All areas should be visible from
roads. In such circumstances, results of a road strip count represent an
estimate of the total game numbers. If the road network is not as dense,
the rancher must determine the width of the strip along the roads in
which game can be counted prior to the count. The area of these strips is

then calculated. The number of game observed in these strips represents
a fraction of the total number. The total number can be extrapolated
when the entire area of the ranch is known. This method assumes that
game is evenly distributed. To improve the precision of this count, it is
advisable to consider the various habitat types separately, as game will
show preferences for one or the other. Results of road strip counts are
often underestimates of the actual game numbers, particularly for the
elusive and small species.
Road strip counts are best conducted during November or December

when visibility is highest. It should be repeated three times during a 1-
week period. The entire ranch or representative parts thereof are covered
on one day by road and observations are made from a vehicle. At least
two observers and a driver each with binoculars and familiar with
identifying and sexing the animals must systematically drive a set route
at slow speed (±20km/h). The same procedure and route should be
followed every year. Animal numbers and respective age/sex categories
for all animals not included in the known group count are recorded on
appropriate field forms. Additionally, locations of animals observed must
be marked on a map while counting as an attempt to prevent double
counting of individuals or groups. Particular attention must be paid to
this issue, as double counting is a common error. The less the variety
of species to be counted, the easier it is to conduct the census and the
more reliable it becomes. If counts vary between counting days, the
highest count per species is taken as a final figure.
Duiker, bushbuck and bushpigs are likely to be undercounted in this

method due to their secretive behaviour. The accuracy of their counts
can be improved by plotting all relevant observations over a 2-month
period on a map. This will visualise the existing territories or home
ranges. Animal numbers and population structures can then be calcu-
lated from these.

5.4.4 Drive count
In a drive count, animals are driven by a line of beaters and recorded
by these and additional observers as animals are passing through their
respective lines. It can be carried out in most habitat types and will yield
accurate results if conducted professionally. It requires good co-ordina-
tion in a well trained, knowledgeable and highly disciplined team. This
method is only advisable if a professional team can be hired for the
occasion and the known group counts have been unsuccessful. To at-
tempt a drive count with a team of unskilled farm workers will probably
be disruptive to the animals and result in chaos.
5.4.5 Aerial count

An aerial count is costly, but it is quick and can yield reliable results if
the entire ranch area is flown systematically and visibility is optimal. An
experienced helicopter pilot covers approximately 1,000 - 2,000ha per
flying hour in most Botswana areas. In wooded habitat, animal numbers
are invariably underestimated. Helicopter counts typically give a total
number per species but not a breakdown of the population structure.
Species where a known group count can be applied, should not be
included in an aerial count in order to improve the precision of counting
other species and save on flying time. Counts using fixed-wing aircraft
provide a suitable technique for large ranches (> 20,000 hectares). They
are more economical, but rather than attempting a total count, a strati-
fied sample count is normally used. The precision of such counts de-
pends on the habitat, the visibility of the game, the accuracy with which
the pilot maintains speed, flying height and direction, the choice of the
strip width in which game is counted, the time of day, and the experi-
ence of the crew. At best they are crude tools and need painstaking skill
and care to generate precise results. Only experienced professionals
should undertake aerial censuses.

5.5 Population parameters
These are simply a set of values expressed as percentages of the total
population of a species. They are usually called “rates”, e.g. birth rate, mor-
tality rate, etc, because they refer to a time period (normally one year).
They are used in various simple calculations for management purposes.
Annual birth rate: this is the number of young born to a population in a

year, expressed as a percentage, e.g. if 40 impala lambs are born from a
total population of 160 impala, the birth rate is 40/160 x 100 = 25%.
Annual mortality rate: this is the number of naturally occurring deaths

in a population in a year, expressed as a percentage. It should include
any unaccounted disappearances. For example, in a population of 160
impala there might be 8 deaths, so the mortality rate would be 8/160 x
100 = 5%.
Annual harvesting rate: this is the number of animals removed from

the total population in one year expressed as a percentage, e.g. if in
a population of 160 impala 32 were killed or sold the harvesting rate
would be 32/160 x 100 = 20%.
Annual growth rate: this is the increase in the total size of the population
in one year expressed as a percentage. It should include any animals
harvested (killed or live sales), e.g. in an impala population if there were
160 at the end of 2003 and there would have been 192 at the end of
2004, the growth rate would be (192-160)/160 x 100 = 20%. However, if
30 had been harvested the actual population at the end of 2004 would
be 162, so the correct equation to use is
([162 + 30] – 160)/160 x100 = 20%.
N.B. In a well managed game ranch the calculated annual harvesting

rate might approximate the annual growth rate; however, it might be
desirable to manipulate the population in favour of adult females if

maximum annual growth rates are desired for venison production, but
this might not be appropriate if trophy hunting or photo-tourism is the
main purpose of the ranch.
5.6 Harvesting wildlife

There are a number of options for management of a game ranch and
these have been described in Ch.2. For the purposes of this section it is
will assumed that, as on most game ranches, a sustainable harvest over a
long time period is one of the management aims.
Basic parameters describing population dynamics have been described

above and the concept of sustainable yield was discussed in Ch.3. The
annual harvesting rate can be calculated or estimated from available
census figures and other data, or quite often through careful trial and
error. In practice a combination of both methods is probably most
useful – adjusting offtakes according to observed results. The ques-
tion is: to what number should a population be reduced to achieve
the desired objective, and what percentage offtake (harvest or quota)
does this imply? As a starting point, a population that is in equilibrium
can often quite safely be reduced by 25 - 30 % initially, and even 50%
might be possible in some cases. However, a conservative approach
is recommended and it is crucially important to monitor the effects of
any harvesting to avoid rapid changes which may lead to a catastrophic
decline in any population.
Harvesting must always be a flexible option. Environmental, economic

or other conditions may change abruptly and will impose different
management choices on the ranch. If, for example, a series of drought
years occurs there may be increased natural mortality and the harvest
should be reduced, or conversely, it may be necessary to reduce num-
bers quickly to avoid excessive mortality. Each year the situation requires
careful monitoring and adjustments made.

5.6.1 Harvesting of growing populations
Animal populations that have not yet reached their maximum number
(equilibrium) can sustain a limited harvest and it would be wasteful not
to do so. In this case the minimum population structure for this species
should be determined. No offtake of females should be considered
until the number of mature females exceeds the calculated minimum
number. Males, once they produce a quality trophy, should be harvested,
as their trophy quality may decline thereafter, always provided that
sufficient males remain for breeding purposes.
5.6.2 Timing of harvest

Ideally the majority of surplus animals should be harvested before or
at the beginning of the dry season. This way, adequate food reserves
are available to sustain the remaining animals through the dry months
until the start of the next growing season. The timing though depends
on other factors as well. Most trophy hunts take place from May to
September. Hunting in the concession areas is restricted to the hunting
season and as many hunters coming to Botswana combine hunts in
concessions with hunting on private ranches, the latter are still affected
by the official hunting season. Also, this is the best time for capture
operations as it is not too hot or humid, visibility is good and neither
the birth nor the mating seasons for most species are disrupted. This
leaves the rancher only with flexibility regarding those animals that are
culled for venison. It is tempting to wait with culling exercises until the
capture operations are over (there might always be a last minute buyer).
However, it is a poor policy regarding the vegetation and the available
food supply for the remaining game, as many surplus animals have to be
carried through the dry months. A game rancher is better advised to take
off surplus animals that are unlikely to be sold live as early as possible.
This not only favours the remaining game but animals culled soon after
the rainy season will be in optimal body condition and will yield higher
carcass weights than at the end of the dry period.

5.6.3 Theoretical example of harvesting impala
Table 5.3 illustrates a theoretical population of 400 impala, typically
made up of the various proportions of each age and sex category. If we
assume the population is in equilibrium and we can harvest 25%, leaving
a minimum population of 300 which should rebound to equilibrium of
400 during the next year, then the theoretical harvest should be approxi-
mately as indicated.
Total Adult Adult Sub-adult Sub-adult Juvenile
Original 400 58 160 45 50 87
Minimum 300 35 115 35 35 80
Harvest 100 23 45 10 15 7
Table 5.3 Theoretical harvest from impala herd
The options for harvesting methods are discussed below. In this case it
might be decided to offer the 23 adult males as hunting trophies, shoot
12 adult females for monthly rations and offer the remaining 65 animals
as a live sale package of 33 females with 7 juveniles and 25 sub-adults.
5.6.4 Optional methods of harvesting

Removing animals from a wildlife population on a ranch can be done
in a variety of ways. Sport (trophy) and recreational hunting, cropping
for venison and/or other products, and live sales are the main options.
Smaller scale hunting for rations may also be significant.

Safari hunting
This is especially important in the Botswana context. In Botswana the
hunting industry is heavily skewed towards very expensive, traditional
safaris in large exclusive areas. Safari companies rely heavily on “big
five” species to attract clients and then sell less glamorous species in
a package. Recent quotas indicating a decline in availability of some
species provide an opportunity for game ranching to develop to meet
this demand. At present many game ranches offer mainly plains game
to supplement the experience of foreign clients of safari companies.
A growing number however are competing by carrying out their own
marketing and successfully offering a more complete hunting package.
In RSA, for example, trophy hunting takes place almost exclusively on
private game ranches and caters for more hunts than the rest of Africa
combined.
The high unit prices paid for trophy animals will always be an important
source of income for game ranchers, irrespective of other forms of utilisa-
tion. Only a certain number of animals are really of outstanding trophy
quality. As a general guideline, researchers regard 5 % of the animals in
a natural population as being of trophy quality, and this is influenced by
factors such as the species of animal, whether both sexes have horns or
not, and nutritional quality. In practice every game rancher must deter-
mine his own percentages during an annual game count because there
is no reliable formula for calculating the numbers of trophy animals.
A great deal of research has been done to try to correlate trophy size
with age in the various species. It has not proved completely reliable, but
the following can be used as an indication of when some species can
be expected to become trophy animals: buffalo 5yrs, impala 4,5yrs, sable
6,5yrs, springbok 2,5yrs.

Management for trophy production:
Animal numbers must be limited to the level at which competition for
resources between individuals is minimised and each animal is capable
of reaching its genetic potential in terms of growth and trophy produc-
tion. Heavily stocked ranches will not yield top quality trophies. The
ranch should therefore be stocked well below the ecological capacity of
the vegetation. Sex ratios must be maintained to produce the maximum
number of males of trophy-bearing age. This requires the sex ratio to be
maintained at approximate parity and a balanced removal of young and
old females to compensate for the increased removal of mature males.
Ranch requirements: At present many hunters visit game ranches in

Botswana only after having hunted in concession areas in remote parts
of the country. A short period of two to three days is often allocated in
which to hunt game that they were unable to obtain elsewhere. Many
hunters are looking for a wide variety of game on the game ranches.
Their time is limited and the trophies must be readily accessible. This
requires a good network of simple roads that are æsthetically planned
to suit the vegetation layout. Roads should therefore not be in a rigid
grid pattern. A game scout who knows the whereabouts of the available
trophy animals at the time of the hunt is invaluable to the hunter who
has limited time. Visiting hunters require accommodation, which ideally
should be provided on the ranch on which they hunt. Foreign trophy
hunters pay a high price for their hunting trip and generally expect a
good standard of accommodation. The rancher can increase his profits
through supplying comfortable facilities to accommodate small hunting
parties, with quality catering provided. Increasing numbers of hunters
do come to Botswana to hunt exclusively on private game ranches
without visiting concession areas. With a growing private game industry
offering a wider game spectrum and good quality trophies this trend will
hopefully continue. Special attention must also be given to the general

atmosphere created on a ranch, the ethical aspects of hunting, and the
quality of the trophy handling process.
Recreational hunting
This is a neglected but growing sector of game ranching in Botswana.
It is the logical successor to citizen and resident hunting which is now
all but defunct in the controlled hunting areas. Increasing affluence and
urbanisation of the population ensures that there are growing numbers
of citizens and residents who are seeking a relatively short, inexpensive
and convenient hunting experience. Recreational hunters usually want a
combination of trophy, meat and enjoyable atmosphere from their hunt.
Trophy quality is not of paramount importance and they will often take
non-trophy males or surplus females. In Namibia these clients account
for 30% of hunting on game ranches and in RSA the figure is over 60%,
while at present in Botswana it is below 10%.
Recreational hunters will expect to be more self-reliant than safari hunt-
ers and will not demand such high standards of accommodation, etc.
Venison production
There are basically five ways of removing animals for meat production:
Conventional hunting: This method can be applied on foot, from a

vehicle or at a waterhole for a variety of game. Advantages of this
method are that it causes little disturbance, game do not run much and
consequently they yield a high quality of venison. Selection can also take
place with regard to sex and age. However, this method is of practical
value only where game has to be shot on a small scale.
It may be unethical to shoot game at waterholes, but it is effective for

timid animals such as kudu and bushbuck, for game which occur in
small groups such as warthog, or in areas of impenetrable bush where
walking is virtually impossible. On game ranches where hiking trails are

offered, game should preferably be shot from vehicles, while on ranches
that concentrate primarily on game drives, hunting should take place on
foot.
Shooting at night: The animals are dazzled with a strong light and shot
from vehicles at a distance of approximately 25m on dark moonless
nights. Light-calibre rifles with telescopes are used to ensure minimal
meat loss from bullet wounds. Shot placement is important since shots
in the neck, shoulder and buttocks can lose up to 3, 20 and 50 % of car-
cass value respectively. The advantages of night-shooting are that more
head and neck shots can be fired; heat, wind and flies are limited or
absent at night; lower night temperatures allow better meat quality; and
night-shooting does not disrupt other game as much as day-shooting.
A disadvantage of night shooting is that it is more difficult to distinguish
the sexes of game where both sexes have horns.
Using a passive boma: Similar in some ways to shooting at a waterhole.

The great advantage of this is that animals can be killed when conven-
ient and when optimum conditions occur. The animals are calm and sex
differentiation is easy. It is only feasible for small numbers of animals.
Shooting from a helicopter: Animals are normally shot in the head with
a twelve-bore shotgun from a helicopter. A ground team follows in a
vehicle to collect the dead animals. This method is applied by commer
cial game harvesting teams, since it requires a high capital investment
and professional expertise.
The advantages of this method are that wounded animals are easily
traced, the animals are harvested more quickly, better selection can take
place from the helicopter, and a quick estimate of the game population
can be made. The disadvantages of the method are that it is expensive,
it results in a poorer quality of meat on account of animals having been

chased, and it is difficult to carry out in woodland areas.
Capture boma and helicopter: This method is not often applied in

practice as other methods are usually more economical. The exception
is when the boma and helicopter are already available because live
capture is taking place. Game is driven into a plastic capture pen with
the assistance of a helicopter and then shot with a light-calibre rifle from
the ground. This has great practical advantages for bushveld areas since
large numbers of animals can be harvested in a short time, the animals
can be harvested in areas which are accessible to processing and
refrigeration vehicles, and no wounded animals are left behind.
Management for venison production:

To manage a ranch primarily for venison production, the ranch should be
stocked with species that are well adapted to the local conditions, have
high reproductive rates, and which yield a good quality venison. The
selected game must be gregarious without having behavioural limita-
tions on their stocking rate. Carcasses of smaller game such as impala
are easier to handle and market than larger carcasses. Management is
simplified when a limited variety of game is stocked. Species are selected
to minimise competition and ensure that all major habitats are utilised
adequately. Ranch size and diversity of habitat are less crucial when
considering venison production. Depending on the location of the ranch
suitable species include impala, springbok, eland, gemsbok, kudu and
blue wildebeest. Limited local markets exist for venison, but efforts are
under way to locate export possibilities.
A combination of beef and venison production can be ecologically

sound, particularly so when mixed-feeders and browsers are combined
with cattle. Other forms of utilisation of the game should be included if
possible to maximise profit.

Population size and sex ratios are maintained at levels that yield the
maximum growth rate for each species. The minimum ratio of mature
males to females is kept that will ensure reproductive success and
highest calving/lambing rates. This system aims at a maximum number
of producing females. The population is kept well below the ecological
capacity. This will ensure that the population growth occurs within the
exponential part of the growth curve. Culling should preferably be done
by professional teams. The frequency of culling will depend upon the
market demand. Carcasses should be processed and cooled on the
game ranch, using either permanent or mobile facilities.
Ranch requirements
Minimal infrastructure is required other than sufficient water points
to ensure even utilisation of the ranch area and access tracks for light
vehicles to all parts of the ranch. If no mobile culling unit is available,
permanent butchering facilities including cool-rooms complying with
national or international health standards must be established on the
ranch or nearby.
Live sales
Commercial game capture is a highly specialised undertaking which
requires large capital expenditure for equipment and expensive operat-
ing costs for the hire of helicopters, specially designed transport, drugs,
etc. Capture operations are usually described as using either mechanical
or pharmacological methods. In general the routine capture of most
plains game is by mechanical means, using either nets or plastic bomas;
drug immobilisation is normally reserved for large, rare or very expensive
individual animals such as rhino and giraffe.
The terrain is an important criterion for deciding on an appropriate
capture method. Bush is needed to hide nets and bomas, but if it is too
dense or there are high trees the use of a helicopter may not be possible.

Stress and “overstraining”: These two terms are used very often in
connection with the capture and translocation of wild animals. They are
frequently confused; be aware that they are different things. Stress is a
complex physiological condition that almost defies definition. It occurs
owing to a wide range of causes including poor nutrition, exposure,
inadequate space, injury, separation anxiety and overexertion. Any
combination of harmful circumstances will cause stress. If the cumulative
effects of these become overwhelming the animal will succumb and
die. “Overstraining disease” (capture myopathy), on the other hand, is a
specific condition which occurs owing to excessive forced exercise. This
causes a very high build up of lactic acid leading to mainly irreversible
changes in muscles. This damage is often serious enough to cause
death, even up to a few weeks later. The two conditions are not related,
but they often occur together. Different individuals, as in people, dem-
onstrate varying degrees of tolerance to stress, but it must be kept to
a minimum by performing capture operations as efficiently as possible
and under optimum conditions. Certain species are especially prone to
capture myopathy e.g. tsessebe and zebra. Remember that animals are
not naturally fit athletes, working animals such as racehorses require
intensive training to become fit.
5.6.5 Capture methods

A number of methods are available to take off live animals:
• Plastic boma and helicopter:

This is the most common method used for plains game in
Botswana. Large numbers can be caught efficiently in a short
time. Suitable species include blue wildebeest, eland, gemsbok,
impala, kudu, ostrich, red hartebeest, waterbuck and zebra. The
most important criterion is a suitable boma site with good bush
cover for camouflage.

• Nets:
Using nets is the second most common way to catch multiple
numbers of game. The nets can be tightly fixed to trees and poles
in any number of trap designs, including replicating plastic bomas
where the terrain or vegetation makes it difficult to hide the latter.
They are also frequently used as “drop nets”, when they are attached
only loosely and designed to fall and entangle the animal. The most
critical factor when using nets is to have enough competent staff to
handle the animals and extricate them efficiently. It is also
necessary to be aware of the normal flight paths of the animals
being chased in order to position the nets correctly. The most
suitable species include animals that live in open plains, such as
black wildebeest and springbok, or those inhabiting dense bush
like bushbuck.
• Passive capture:
This can be done by means of a permanent capture boma situated
around a well-frequented feature such as a waterhole. The boma
is left open and animals gradually get used to entering and leaving
it at will. They can also be enticed there by salt or concentrate feeds.
When the required animals are inside the entrance is closed quickly,
trapping them. There should then be a system of herding them into
holding pens and/or to a loading ramp. A similar technique uses
either a “drop” boma or “pop-up” boma which is made of plastic
capture sheeting that can be triggered remotely to trap animals at
salt licks, water holes etc.
The advantages of these methods are that they cause minimal
stress, but their drawback is that only small groups of animals are
usually caught and the group composition is often unsuitable.
• Chemical immobilisation:
This is nearly always by means of darting, usually from a helicopter.

A number of different drugs are available for this use – some
of them, like M99, are extremely dangerous and addictive and
tightly controlled by law. Botswana regulations also require that
darting be done only by a registered veterinarian. These techniques
are expensive and are normally only used to capture valuable
individual animals. In practical terms they can be applied to almost
all species above the size of an impala.
• Net gun:
This can be used to capture a wide range of species. It is normally
fired from a helicopter and netted animals must be recovered
quickly by a competent ground team. It is a very dangerous
technique and should be left to experienced professionals.
5.6.6 Loading and transport

Most casualties occur during this phase of game translocation. It is an
extremely stressful experience for captured animals and may be quite
prolonged (some deliveries take in excess of 24 hours). It is essential that
suitably constructed trucks and trailers are used for game. Cattle trucks
are not adequate for most species. In some species, e.g. red hartebeest
and springbok, casualties are markedly reduced by the use of tranquilis-
ers; others must be transported in complete family groups, e.g. zebra,
or in individual compartments or crates, e.g. kudu bulls. In the interests
of animal welfare, as well as economics it is advisable to use properly
equipped and experienced professional teams to move animals.

Red hartebeest entering crush section of capture boma

6 Veterinary Aspects
As with any form of livestock ranching or animal husbandry, considera-

tion must be given to the incidence of disease. Its effects on wildlife and
the ranch may be important, as well as its significance to neighbouring
properties, allied agricultural activities, national and sometimes regional
interests. A limited disease management programme should be imple-
mented on the ranch aimed at disease prevention and control since
treatment of individual wild animals is usually prohibitively expensive.
Such a programme will include immediate burning of dead animals,
avoidance of overpopulation and general good ranch management.
For our purposes diseases are normally classified as being due to infec-
tious agents, most notably viruses and bacteria; or to parasites, both
internal and external; or to metabolic disorders, which may be caused
by environmental factors such as mineral deficiencies, poisons, etc.
Naturally, diseases regarded as most important are those that can spread,
particularly to other species, even though in some cases they may not
cause severe health problems to wildlife, e.g. foot and mouth disease.
6.1 Notifiable diseases

These are diseases which must by law (Diseases of Animals Act cap
37:01) be reported to the nearest office of the Department of Animal
Health and Production (DAHP). If an animal or any carcass product
is suspected of showing signs of any such disease the government
veterinary officials will impose all necessary precautions until the case
is confirmed or otherwise. These precautions usually take the form of
restrictions on movement of animals, but may include the destruction of
infected or “at-risk” animals, and quarantine and vaccination of animals
within certain areas.

They are invariably infectious diseases and include most notably:
• anthrax
• contagious abortion (Brucellosis)
• corridor disease (Theileriosis)
• lung-sickness (contagious pleuropneumonia)
• foot and mouth disease
• mange
• Newcastle disease (birds)
• rabies
• rinderpest
• swine fever
• transmissible spongiform encephalopathies
• tuberculosis
• trypanosomiasis
There are several others which game ranchers are very unlikely to
experience. Nevertheless, any suspicious sick animal or carcass should be
investigated in order to prevent a potentially catastrophic situation from
developing.
The following section gives brief notes on those of greatest concern to

game ranchers.
6.1.1 Anthrax (kwatsi)

This is a bacterial disease. The infectious agent (Bacillus anthracis) can
lie dormant in the soil as spores for many years. Infected animals are
usually found dead and commonly have dark blood oozing from any
natural orifices (anus, nostrils, etc). Cutting up such carcasses is forbidden
because it causes the release of millions of spores, which then contami-
nate the immediate environment. Vultures are suspected of spreading
it naturally at waterholes in arid environments. All mammals including
man are susceptible. Vaccination is cheap and effective, but should be
repeated annually.

6.1.2 Contagious abortion (pholotso)
Another bacterial disease, caused by Brucella abortus. Animals (and peo-
ple) are usually infected by contamination from afterbirths of aborted
fœtuses. Buffalo seem to be most often affected. Vaccination is possible
but impractical.
6.1.3 Corridor disease

This is caused by a protozoan called Theileria parva which is transmitted
by brown ear ticks. It is carried without symptoms by buffalo, but is very
deadly to cattle. It is the subject of stringent screening and movement
controls in buffaloes in RSA.
6.1.4 Foot and mouth disease (tlhako le molomo)

This is considered the most important animal disease in Botswana
because of the threat it poses to beef exports and thus the economy. It
is caused by a virus (fmdv) which is highly contagious to cloven-hoofed
animals. The virus is susceptible to ultraviolet radiation and dessication
and therefore because of the climate in Botswana it does not spread
as dramatically as it does in moist temperate areas such as Europe.
Buffaloes are known to carry the virus, although they do not show
any symptoms themselves. They are considered a risk to susceptible
cattle populations and there are stringent regulations and thousands
of kilometres of veterinary cordon fences in Botswana designed to
keep buffalo and cattle apart by creating disease control zones. Fig 6.1
indicates the current situation in the country. Other wildlife species, e.g.
kudu, impala and warthog can become infected in exceptional circum-
stances, such as in disease outbreaks in cattle.
6.1.5 Lung-sickness (makgwafo)

This is included because of the recent outbreak in Ngamiland. It is a
bacterial disease caused by Mycoplasma mycoides. Apart from occasional
cases in Asian buffalo (Bubalus sp) it is not known to affect anything other
than cattle.

6.1.6 Mange (lophalo)
Mange is caused by microscopic insect mites. They occur without any
signs on most animals. Poor veld conditions and other stressful cir-
cumstances cause these infestations to multiply and cause skin lesions.
Treatment of the diseases depends on the species and the life cycle of
the mite.
6.1.7 Rabies (molafo)

The importance of rabies is its danger to human beings. It is a fatal dis-
ease with no cure. It is caused by a virus and all mammals are suscepti-
ble. The virus is normally passed on through infected saliva. Infected wild
animals are usually noticeable by a profound change in their behaviour,
e.g. they may lose their fear of man and approach vehicles and buildings,
etc. In some areas of Botswana jackals are quite commonly infected and
responsible for infecting other species, especially dogs, small ruminants
and cattle. Human preventative vaccination is effective and all dogs are
required by law to be vaccinated. These vaccinations are conducted free
by DAHP, annually in June/July.
6.1.8 Rinderpest
This presently does not occur in southern Africa. Further north however
it is still a serious problem and sporadic outbreaks occur in East Africa.
It is caused by a virus and is highly infectious and fatal to a wide variety
of cloven-hoofed animals. The famous historical pandemic of a hundred
years ago wiped out millions of wild and domestic animals in the region
and its ecological effects can still be seen. No imports of animals are
allowed from countries where it still occurs.
6.1.9 Trypanosomiasis
Usually called nagana, this is a protozoal disease which can affect a
wide range of species. There are several forms, the most well known
being “sleeping sickness” in people. Many species of wild animals can

harbour the parasite with no adverse effects. In Botswana, the protozoan
parasites are spread by the bite of tsetse flies. This limits the risk to the
northwest where tsetse fly control programmes are in place.
6.1.10 Tuberculosis
This is of growing importance in wildlife areas, with recent highly
publicised problems in some South African parks. It is caused by a
bacterium (Myobacterium bovis). It is a slowly progressive disease and
most infected animals do not show any signs until the disease is well
advanced, by which time they may have infected many others. Once
established, the disease is very difficult to eradicate and therefore every
effort must be taken to prevent infection. Buffalo and kudu appear to
be the most problematic species, though it can spill over into predator
populations and cause serious problems among, e.g. lion, leopard and
cheetah.
6.2 Other important diseases

Some other diseases are of some concern to game ranchers, who should
at least be aware of them and their potential effects. They are not subject
to legislative controls and there is no requirement to inform the authori-
ties if they are suspected.
6.2.1 Bovine malignant catarrh (snotsiekte)

This is an acute, usually deadly viral disease of cattle. The virus is
harboured by blue and black wildebeest and, to a lesser extent, red
hartebeest. It is not contagious in cattle. Outbreaks usually coincide with
the calving season of wildebeest, when massive amounts of virus are
shed in the nasal secretions of the calves. Occasional outbreaks in winter
are unexplained. Movement controls on wildebeest have recently been
re-instigated in RSA. The only control method is to separate cattle and
wildebeest. There is no treatment and currently no vaccine. Quite heavy
cattle losses occur in the Tuli Block in some years.

6.2.2 Heartwater (metsi a pelo)
The disease is caused by a ricketsia, Ehrlichia ruminantium and is trans-
mitted by the bont tick (Amblyomma hebræum). It obviously only occurs
in areas where this tick occurs, mainly in the eastern hardveld; most
Kalahari sand areas are free of the disease. Springbok and eland intro-
duced from heartwater-free areas are very susceptible. Blue wildebeest,
impala, giraffe and kudu do not normally show signs of the disease. Black
wildebeest and blesbok normally show only mild signs and recover.
Animals kept free from ticks for long periods (3 months) may lose their
immunity and contract the disease when released again, as seen in
buffalo and eland.
Prevention of the disease is simple - don’t move susceptible animals into

endemic areas. Vaccination with heartwater blood and implanting doxy-
cycline tablets behind the animal’s ears has been done successfully, but
is often not a realistic option and is not recommended. Some animals in
heartwater-endemic areas will become susceptible to the disease again
if stressed, as in capture.
6.2.3 Botulism (mokokomalo/lamsiekte)

Botulism is more common in phosphate-poor regions such as most of
Botswana, than elsewhere. It is more common during dry winter and
spring months as animals on their quest for more phosphate chew
bones of dead animals. The toxin produced by the bacterium Clostridium
botulinum in these bones causes nerve damage and paralysis. To prevent
losses it is important to remove all carcasses from the bush - especially
on hunting ranches and supply ample phosphate and calcium in feed
and licks. Ensure that decaying carcasses do not pollute the drinking
water - they may harbour the toxins. Yearly vaccinating before spring-
time is effective and recommended for giraffe.

6.2.4 Black quarter (serotswana)
This is caused by a bacterium Clostridium chauvoei. These anærobic
organisms (proliferating in oxygen-poor conditions) may occur in the
environment as spores for many years without causing disease. When
the earth gets dug up for cultivation or is overgrazed, they may be
released.
Animals crowded, especially around feeding places, are predisposed to

the disease as fighting over food always occurs. A bruise may cause the
organisms to multiply enormously and cause death. The muscles and
subcutaneous tissues then swell up due to gas accumulation.
Prevention of the disease involves preventing overcrowding and over-
grazing and yearly vaccination of valuable animals before springtime.
Buffalo, giraffe, eland, sable antelope and roan antelope seem to be the
most susceptible species.
6.2.5 Plant poisoning

Domestic livestock are susceptible to a wide range of poisonous plants.
The most common species in Botswana are Crotalaria and Dichapetalum
(mogau or gifblaar). They may poison wildlife, but proven cases are
rare. In many instances wildlife species are not susceptible to known
poisonous plants, though it is not really known why. Black rhino for
example seem to thrive on Euphorbia ingens (naboom) and giraffe are
not harmed by the prussic acid found in many thorn trees and also freely
eat spirostachys (morokuru or tambotie). Eland however will apparently
not eat mogau.
6.3 Parasites
These are divided into two groups: ectoparasites, which live or spend
some time on the skin, e.g. ticks, lice, fleas and some biting flies; and
internal parasites, such as roundworms, tapeworms and flukes which
spend at least some of their life cycle inside the host animal in various
organs. Generally they are not very harmful in wildlife, having evolved

over millions of years together. However, some carry other dangerous
disease organisms or can become harmful themselves if the normal
balance between them and their hosts is disrupted, normally through
management, e.g. overcrowding or translocation.
6.3.1 External parasites

Ticks are the most obvious and most important parasites of wildlife.
They carry several dangerous disease organisms and under certain
circumstances they can build up in numbers to such an extent that their
feeding causes anæmia (blood loss) and severe skin lesions. In Botswana
the most important issue with ticks is the transmission of heartwater
infection (see above). This is absent from the sandveld areas, but very
common in the eastern districts and eland can be very susceptible in
drought years or if overstocked.
Mites are microscopic and live within the skin itself, often occurring
without causing symptoms. If numbers build up the resulting lesions are
known as mange and can be highly contagious. Mange is a notifiable
disease (see above).
There are many different types of parasitic flies. They either cause prob-
lems directly because of irritation through biting, or their larvæ parasitise
animals in various ways. The larvæ of nasal flies are commonly found in
the sinuses of wildebeest, hartebeest and related species, but do not
cause serious problems. The ked Hippobosca, often called a flying tick,
sucks blood and can occur in large numbers, e.g. on eland in the Ghanzi
area.
Fleas and lice are fairly ubiquitous and do not normally cause problems
to wildlife.
Treatment and prevention of external parasites is not easy with free-

ranging species. Opportunities such as capture and translocation

should be used to spray or inject the animals with insecticides. This is
compulsory for international movements and highly recommended for
all translocations, especially if the animals are moving from the east to
the sandveld. In the veld, it may be advisable to use devices such as the
Duncan applicator to treat game if there is a particular problem on a
ranch.
Biological control methods are sometimes used to reduce tick infesta-

tions. These are the introduction of oxpeckers onto large conservancies.
These birds eat several hundred ticks each, per day. Another method is
the mixed grazing of cattle with game, especially in the summer months.
The cattle “mop up” large numbers of ticks and can be dipped regularly
with a non-residual type of dip to kill the ticks. Fire is also a useful
method of reducing tick burdens on pastures.
6.3.2 Internal parasites

Roundworms (nematodes) are the most common internal parasites.
There are many types and they occur in different parts of the body,
seldom causing any real problems to wildlife. Some have direct life
cycles, i.e. lay eggs that are passed out and then eaten to infest other
animals (or re-infest the same host), or they have indirect life cycles and
need to infest an intermediate host species before they can infest the
primary species again.
Worm burdens can appear to be extremely large, even in apparently

healthy animals, but can increase tremendously under adverse condi-
tions when the animals may be stressed, e.g. droughts, captivity, or
abnormal concentrations around waterholes.
Tapeworms are also common in wild animals. They rarely have any effect
on their host. They have indirect life cycles and most often are noticed
in muscles as “measles”. Game measles do not affect man, but make the

carcass æsthetically unacceptable. Carnivores such as lions, on the other
hand, have tapeworms that can be extremely dangerous to man, and
great care should be taken if these animals or their fresh carcasses are
handled.
Flukes also use intermediate hosts; in this case they are species of snails.
Liver flukes and conical flukes, which occur in the stomach, cause little
harm.
Treatment: Flukes and tapeworms can only be treated by dosing indi-
vidual animals. Roundworms can usually be controlled if necessary by
using specially formulated licks, which can be placed at waterholes or
other strategic location, usually in the winter months.
The two most important parasite control measures are direct manage-
ment techniques: i) avoid or prevent overpopulation and local concen-
trations; ii) avoid cross contamination through translocations.
6.4 Veterinary control measures in Botswana

For important economic reasons relating to the export of beef to Europe,
Botswana saw the need to develop a veterinary disease control strategy
which has been aimed chiefly at controlling and quickly eradicating any
outbreaks of foot and mouth disease (FMD) in cattle. It is based on a
system of veterinary cordon fences which effectively divide the country
into “compartments” or zones. In the event of a suspected outbreak of
disease the affected zone can be isolated, thus preventing any move-
ment of infected animals to other zones.
Fig 6.1 indicates the various zones.
Since it is known that buffalo harbour FMD virus, the control system is
designed to operate from the north to the south of the country, because
buffalo only occur in the north. Historically, under normal circumstances,

i.e. when there is no outbreak of disease, movement of cloven-hoofed
animals was permitted from zone to zone southwards via quarantine
camps, where the animals had to remain for 21 days and be inspected
on entry and exit.
This system has been supplemented by a vaccination policy. Cattle

living in areas where buffalo might occur are vaccinated against FMD
by the DAHP. These animals cannot move into other areas. Between the
vaccination zones and the FMD-free zones is a narrow buffer zone and
animals here also cannot be moved southward through the system. The
current protocol for stock movements is therefore concerned with four
main types of zones:
• Buffalo areas – no stock allowed out
• FMD vaccination zone – no movement allowed to buffer or FMD-
free zones.
• Buffer zone – no stock allowed out to FMD-free zones
• FMD-free zone.
Most wildlife species are cloven-hoofed and they are therefore suscepti-
ble in varying degrees to FMD. Since at present there are no facilities for
quarantining wild animals, no movement at all of cloven-hoofed species
is allowed out of the northern zones. Free movement, under DAHP
permit, is allowed throughout the FMD-free zones.

FMD Vaccination Zone
Buffer (Observation) Zone
FMD Free Zone
Buffalo Zone
Stockfree Zone
Stockfree Zone
Fig 6.1 Veterinary disease control zones in Botswana

Contact Details
P.O. Box 21284 Gaborone
Tel: 395 9889
Fax: 395 7884
E-mail: patt@info.bw

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THE BOTSWANA

This handbook is intended as an introductory general guide to ranching with

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The management of game differs significantly from that of livestock. I therefore

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In terms of enterprise diversification, game ranching offers a better alternative

The Honourable Kitso Mokaila

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2 PLANNING A GAME RANCH 20

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6 VETERINARY ASPECTS 117

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1.1 Botswana’s natural environment

Located in central southern Africa, bisected by the Tropic of Capricorn,

7 • The Botswana Game Ranching Handbook

Water is scarce. Permanent surface water is largely restricted to the north

Game ranching will depend on the availability of groundwater almost

The vegetation is dependent on soils and rainfall, and although there

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Fig 1.3 Designated Wildlife Areas

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Blue wildebeest ++ +++ ++

Table 1.1 Wildlife ranges in Botswana

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1.2 Landuse and wildlife conservation in Botswana

There is no practical difference between national parks and game

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The whole of Botswana, with the exception of urban areas, is divided by

Outside WMAs, in several of the communal farming areas, there is a

1.3 Development of game ranching in the region

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1.3.1 Resources – land and wildlife

Namibia also has 32 main species totalling approximately 750,000

In South Africa game ranching may be said to be “fully developed” as

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Existing game Combined area Proportion of Proportion of

Namibia 400 17,000 25 71

South Africa 10,000 180,000 72 71

Table 1.2 Regional comparisons of available land and wildlife resources

1.3.2 Utilisation of wildlife

Botswana’s legal harvest through hunting amounts to less than 4,000

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In Namibia the total annual offtake is around 100,000 animals, made

Total value Trophy Biltong/ Jobs

Botswana 1,000,000 0.5 100 90 <10 1,000

Namibia 750,000 13 276 63 31 2,500

Table 1.3 Comparison of returns from consumptive utilisation

1.3.3 Key species

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In Namibia the most popular trophies hunted are gemsbok, kudu,

1.3.4 Conservation successes

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Fig 1.3 White rhino on game ranch

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EDIFICE APEX ENGINEERING (Pty) Ltd

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Blue wildebeest in capture boma

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2.1 Management options