STUDY GUIDE

Module 2
Stress and Strain of Axially Loaded Members

Introduction
The strength of a material is not the only criterion in considering the design of structures. The stiffness
of the material must be taken into consideration as well. Mechanical properties like hardness, toughness and
ductility are also important in the selection of a material that will be used in designing structures.
This module is concentrated in the study of deformations that occur in structural components that
carry axial loads. Strain serves as a measure of the deformation characteristics of a member that carries a
load. Any structure subject to an external load will deform; hence, strain is always associated with stress.
It also contains the analysis of statically indeterminate members. These are structures combining
axially loaded members in which the equations of static equilibrium are not sufficient to solve them. This
condition exists in structures where the reactive forces or the internal resisting forces over a cross section
exceed the number of independent equations for equilibrium.
Another type of elastic deformation is the change in transverse dimensions that accompany axial
tension or compression. Analysis of such deformations involve Poisson’s ratio. In this lesson, you will learn
how to determine the strains caused by the simultaneous action of biaxial and triaxial tensile or compressive
stresses.
All engineering materials are affected by a change in temperature and these changes cause bodies to
expand or contract, hence will cause thermal stresses. In this module, you will also learn how to determine
the stresses in engineering materials caused by changes in temperature.
Exercises are given at the end of each lesson. Answers are indicated that serve as your guide. If you
wish to have a printed solution of a problem, you can ask it from your instructor. However, you are
encouraged to avoid such action until you have tried to solve it yourself. Your instructor may also opt to give
assignments which you are required to submit. Complete and detailed solutions should be shown inorder to
be given full credit.
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Lesson 1 – Axial and Shearing Deformation

Stress-Strain Diagram
Have you noticed that some objects can be stretched easily? Can you name some? Yes, you can easily
stretch a rubber band. How about an iron rod, can you stretch it? Perhaps you would think it’s impossible; but
it’s not. Why? In this module, you will come to know these properties of materials in greater detail. You will see
how quantities like stress can help us determine the strength of materials.
To start, please click at the given link. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=67fSwIjYJ-E
In this video, you can see a Universal Testing Machine loaded with a structural steel. During testing, a
monitor draws a diagram which is called the stress-strain diagram.
Figure 1-a shows a Universal Testing Machine, testing a ductile material in tension, such as a structural
steel. Figure 1-b is called the stress-strain diagram of the material being tested. A ductile material has the
capability of attaining large strains before they fracture and can withstand high stress. Before failing, it has a
large percentage of elongation.
The data of a structural steel that is tested in tension is plotted on the graph with the ordinate
representing the load and the abscissa representing the elongation. The diagram begins with a straight line
from the origin O to point A, which means that stress and strain are proportional.

Figure 1-b
Figure 1-a
The graph shows different significant points.
Proportional Limit (𝜎𝑝𝑙) – it is the point on the stress-strain curve which shows the highest stress at which
the stress and strain are linearly proportional to each other, where the constant of proportionality is 𝐸,
known as the modulus of elasticity or Young’s modulus, named after Thomas Young who introduced it.
That is, 𝜎 =
𝐸𝜖. From this relation, 𝐸 can be defined as the slope of the strain-strain curve along the elastic region.
Stress is no longer linearly proportional to strain above this point.
Elastic Limit (𝜎𝑒𝑙) - it is the maximum stress that can be applied to the body without resulting in permanent
deformation when the load is removed. When the load is removed, the material returns to its original size
and shape.
Yield point (𝜎𝑌) – located just above the elastic limit, this is the stress at which the material continues to
deform without increase in load. At this point the material will have a permanent deformation.
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Ultimate Tensile Strength (𝜎𝑢) – this is the highest stress on the specimen which it can withstand.
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Fracture Stress (𝜎𝑓) – also called breaking strength, it is the stress where the material fractures.
The different regions or areas of the stress-strain diagram represent the following:
Elastic region – this is the area in the stress-strain curve from initial point to elastic limit. In this region, the
material will return to its original size and shape when unloaded.
Plastic region – it is the area starting from the elastic limit to the fracture point. In this region, the body does
not go back to its original size and shape when the load is removed; i.e., it shows plastic behavior.
Yielding region – this is the region where the body produces strain with a little or no increase in load. It starts
from the elastic limit to the yield point.
Strain Hardening – in this region, the body will elongate with increasing stress until the stress reaches a
maximum value and the cross sectional area will decrease uniformly. This is the area from the yield point
to the ultimate tensile stress.
Necking – this is the region where the cross sectional area of the material decreases in a localized spot,
forming a neck, and the capacity of the material to carry load will decrease. This covers the area from the
ultimate tensile stress to fracture point where the material breaks.

Mechanical Properties of Materials

Mechanical properties are material properties that determine the applications and behavior of
materials which are helpful in identifying them.
1. Ductility – it is the measure of deformation in a material which it can withstand before fracturing.
2. Brittleness – this is the opposite of ductility. It is the property of material to fracture just after elastic limit
when stress is applied on it. Examples of brittle materials are clay, glass and ceramics.
3. Malleability – it is the ability of a material to bend or to be hammered in all the directions without any
fracture, therefore can be deformed to thin and flat sheets. Most of the malleable materials are also
ductile. Gold, iron, aluminum, lead and copper are some examples of malleable materials.
4. Toughness – is the ability of amaterial to absorb energy before rupturing. Total area under stress strain
curve represents toughness.
5. Strength – this is the capability of a material to withstand the load being applied on it without failure.
Fatigue strength represents the capability of a material to withstand cyclic loading while impact strength
is the capability of a material to withstand a load that is suddenly applied.
6. Elasticity – it is the ability of a material to produce strain in all directions under the action of applied
stress without permanent deformation. The body returns to its original size and shape when unloaded.
7. Plasticity – the ability of material to change in size and shape permanently under the action of applied
force This property of materials is used to mold different materials to desired form.
8. Resilience – this is the ability of a material to absorb energy when it is deformed elastically. When the
body is unloaded, it will release energy. It represents the maximum energy that can be absorbed per unit
volume without creating permanent distortion.
9. Poisson’s Ratio – it is the ratio of liner strain to the lateral strain.
10. Hardness – it is the ability of a material to resist scratch, bending, aberration, wear, tear, and
indentation. It is also the resistance to penetration of another body. Diamond is the hardest naturally
occurring material.
11. Flexural Strength – this is the maximum stress experienced by a body at its moment of fracture. It is also
known as the modulus of rupture or bends strength.
12. Fatigue Ratio – also called endurance ratio, this is the ratio of fatigue strength to tensile strength. The
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material having high fatigue ratio shows that it will crack down during loading.
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13. Young’s Modulus or modulus of elasticity – it is the ratio of stress applied to the strain under elastic
limit which measures the stiffness of an elastic material.
14. Tensile Strength or ultimate tensile strength – it is the measure of maximum stress that a body can
withstand while being stretched or pulled away before necking.

Simple Strain
The unit deformation of a material is called strain, represented by the equation
𝑑𝛿
𝜖= where: 𝜖 = strain
𝑑L d  differential elongation
dL  differential length
For an axially loaded member, it becomes longer when the applied load is in tension and shorter when the
applied load is in compression. This change in length is called the normal or linear strain. The average value
of the strain is determined from the equation
𝛿 where: 𝜖 = average strain
𝜖=   elongation
L L  length
The use of the formula for average strain are restricted to the following conditions:
1. The specimen must be of constant cross section, that is, prismatic.
2. The material must be homogeneous.
3. The load must be axial, that is, produce uniform stress.
Please click the link to watch another video. This shows the preparation of a material before testing and how the
strain is determined. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D8U4G5kcpcM
Now, you have an idea how to determine the tensile strength and the strain of an axially loaded material in
tension.

Hooke’s Law
The linear relationship between stress and strain for a bar in simple tension or compression, as shown
in the stress-strain diagram, can be expressed by the equation known as Hooke’s Law, named after the
famous English scientist Robert Hooke who first investigated the elastic properties of materials,
𝜎 = 𝐸𝜖 where: 𝜎 = average stress
𝐸 = modulus of elasticity
𝜖 = average strain
P 
If 𝜎 is replaced by and 𝜖 by , the equation becomes
A L
P 
E or   PL where: 𝛿 = axial deformation
A L AE P = axial load
L = length
A = cross section
P
Since   , deformation can be written as 𝐸 = modulus of elasticity
A
𝜎L
𝛿=
𝐸
Since both stress and strain are simple, the use of the formula for axial deformation restricted by the following
conditions:
1. The specimen must be of constant cross section.
2. The material must be homogeneous.
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3. The load must be axial, that is, produce uniform stress.

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Stiffness, k
Stiffness is the ratio of the steady force P acting on an elastic body to the resulting displacement 𝛿,
hence has the unit of N/mm; i. e.
𝑃
𝑘=
𝛿
Shearing Deformation
Shearing deformation causes a change in shape from a rectangle to a parallelogram, as shown in Fig. 2.
The action may be visualized as equivalent to the infinitesimal sliding of infinitely thin layers past each
other, thereby resulting in the total shearing deformation s in the length L.
The average shearing strain is
Ps s
𝛿𝑠 where: 𝛾 = average strain
𝛾= 𝛿𝑠 = shearing deformation
L L = length  L

If Hooke’s law is applied to shear, 𝜏 = 𝐺𝛾, from which the shearing

deformation will be Ps
𝑉L where: 𝛿𝑠 = shearing deformation Figure 2
𝛿𝑠= V = shear force
𝐴𝑠𝐺
L = length
𝐴𝑠 = shearing area
G = modulus of rigidity or shear modulus

Working stress, Allowable Stress, and Factor of Safety

In most engineering structures, it is desired that the structure will not fail, therefore, its design is
based on some lower value called allowable stress or design stress, which is the maximum safe stress that a
material can carry. The ratio of the ultimate strength to the allowable stress is known as the factor of safety;
𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦 =
𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
i. e.,
This factor of safety includes such factors as the uncertainty of the load, the uncertainty of the material
properties, and the inaccuracy of the stress analysis.
The allowable stress should be limited to values not exceeding the proportional limit. However, since
proportional limit is difficult to determine accurately, the allowable stress can also be computed from the
equation
𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦 =
𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
Working stress is defined as the actual stress of a material under a given loading.

Simple strain is a dimensionless quantity equal to 𝜖 =.

If the material obeys Hooke’s Law, then or .

Factor of Safety = 𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
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Now, are you ready to solve some exercises? Try these ones. The answers are given at the bottom of
the page but do not attempt to look at the answers unless you have tried to solve the problems. Your
instructor can provide you the solutions.

1. If the length of a wire increases by 1% if a load of mass 2-kg is applied on it, calculate its linear strain.

2. Two wires of the same radius and material have their lengths in the ratio 10:21. They are stretched by the
same force. What will be the ratio of the strains produced in the two wires?
3. The stress versus strain graphs for two wires made of different materials are shown in the figure.
What is the relationship of their moduli of elasticity?
σ
A

60°
30°
ϵ

4. A force of 10 kN is applied on a circular rod with diameter 10 mm. It is made of steel with modulus of
elasticity 200 GPa. What is the change in its length if it is 2 m long?
5. An 80-m-long wire of 5-mm diameter is made of a steel with E = 200 GPa and an ultimate tensile
strength of 400 MPa. Determine (a) the largest allowable tension in the wire, and (b) the
corresponding elongation of the wire, if a factor of safety of 3.2 is desired.

1. 0.01
2. 1:1
3. 𝐸𝐴 = 3𝐸𝐵
4. 1.27 mm
5. a) 2.45 kN. (b) 50.0 mm
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SAMPLE PROBLEMS
Here are sample problems for you to study. If you have any questions with
the solution, please feel free to consult your instructor.

1. A steel control rod is 5.5 ft long and must not stretch more than 0.04 in. when a 2-kip tensile load is
applied to it. Knowing that E = 29 × 106 psi, determine the smallest diameter rod that should be used.
The given quantities are: Required:
L = 5.5 ft the smallest diameter to be used
δ = 0.04 in.
P = 2 kips
E = 29 × 106 psi
Solution:
P = 2 × 103 convert P to pounds: 1 kip = 1000 lb
L = 5.5 × 12 convert L to inches: 1 ft = 12 in
The cross sectional area of the rod can be determined by substituting 𝛿, 𝑃, L, and 𝐸 in the equation
for axial deformation.
𝑃L
𝛿=
𝐴𝐸
2 103 5.5 12
0.04 

A 29 106 
A = 0.113793 in2
From this area, compute the required minimum diameter.
𝑑 = 0.113793 ; d = 0.381 in.
𝜋 2
answer
4

2. Two gage marks are placed exactly 10 in. apart on a 12-in.-diameter aluminum rod with E = 10.1 ×
106 psi and an ultimate strength of 16 ksi. Knowing that the distance between the gage marks is 10.009
in. after a load is applied, determine (a) the stress in the rod, (b) the factor of safety.
The given quantities are: Required:
L = 10 in. a. σ
d = ½ in. b. factor of safety
E = 10.1 × 106 psi
σu = 16 ksi
δ = 10 – 10.009 = 0.009 in.
Solution:
a. To find the stress in the rod, we use the equation
L
 E
Substitute values of δ, L, and E
 10
0.009  ; σ = 9,090 psi or 9.09 ksi answer

10.1106
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b. Find the factor of safety

𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦 =
𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
16
𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦 = = 1.76 answer
9.09

3. A bar of metal 25 mm in diameter is tested on a length of 250 mm. In tension, the following results were
recorded.
Load (kN) 10.4 31.2
Extension (mm) 0.039 0.089
a. What is the strain due to the 10.4-kN load?
b. What is the strain due to the 31.2-kN load?
c. What is the Young’s
Modulus? Solution:
a. From the given data, the deformation caused by the 10.4-kN load is 0.039 mm and the length
of the bar is given as 250 mm.

  0.039  0.156 103 answer
L 250
b. Due to the 31.2-kN load, the deformation is 0.089

  0.089  0.356 103 answer
L 250
c. The Young’s modulus is the slope of the stress-strain curve, therefore, we should know
the stresses caused by the two loads.
10.4 103 1  0.156 103
Due to the 10.4-kN 1   6  21.187 MPa
load:
  2

25 10
4

 31.2 210
3
Due to the 31.2-kN 2  63.560 2  0.356 103
load: 
  6
MPa
25 10
4
 2  1 (63.56  21.187) 106
Modulus E
elasticity:of
2  1 
(0.356  0.156) 103
= 211.865 GPa answer
4. An 80-m-long wire of 5-mm diameter is made of a steel with E = 200 GPa and an ultimate tensile strength
of 400 MPa. If a factor of safety of 3.2 is desired, determine
a. the largest allowable tension in the wire,
b. the corresponding elongation of the wire.
Solution:
From the given factor of safety, compute for the allowable stress.
FS =  ultimate 400
; 3.2  ; σ = 125 MPa
 allowable 
P P
a.   ; 125 106  ; P = 2454.37 N answer
A 
(5) 106
2

4
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PL L 125 106 (80)

b.     ; δ = 50×10–3 m = 50 mm answer
AE E 200
109

5. An aluminum pipe must not stretch more than 0.05 in. when it is subjected to a tensile load. Knowing that
E = 10.1 × 106 psi and that the maximum allowable normal stress is 14 ksi, determine
a. the maximum allowable length of the pipe,
b. the required area of the pipe if the tensile load is 127.5
kips. Solution:
a. Compute for the required length from the formula for deformation:
L
 ; 0.05  14L ; L = 36.071 in. = 3.006 ft
E answer
10.1103
b. Substitute the allowable stress and the load in the formula for stress to get the area:
P
 ; 14  127.5 ; A = 9.107 in2
A A answer

6. Link BC is 6 mm thick, has a width w = 25 mm, and is made of a steel with a 480-MPa ultimate strength
in tension. What is the safety factor used if the structure shown was designed to support a 16-kN load P?

Solution: PBC
First, we find the axial force in the link BC by analyzing the FBD of AD.
MA = 0] 480PBC – 600(16) = 0; PBC = 20 kN

Compute for the stress in the 20103 = 133.333 MPa

= 16 kN
  6(25)
link.
106

Determine the factor of 480

FS   3.6 answer
safety. 133.333

7. A steel bar 8.0 ft long has a circular cross section of diameter d1 = 0.75 in. over one-half of its length and
diameter d2 = 0.5 in. over the other half. The modulus of elasticity E = 30 × 106 psi. How much will the
bar elongate under a tensile load P = 5000 lb?

A C
B

Solution:
PL 5000(4)(12)
Compute for the elongation of segment AB:     0.018 in.

; AB (0.752 )(30 106
AE )
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Compute for the elongation of segment BC:

 BC   5000(4)(12)  0.041 in.
(0.5 )(30 106
2

)
4
Add for the total total  0.018 0.041 0.059 answer
elongation: in.
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8. The composite shaft, consisting of aluminum, copper, and steel sections, is subjected to the loading
shown. Neglect the size of the collars at B and C.
a. Determine the normal stress in each section.
b. Determine the displacement of end A with respect to end D.
PAB

PBC

PCD

Solution:
Find the axial forces.
PAB = 2.00 kips (T)
PBC = 7 – 2 = 5.00 kips (C)
PCD = 1.50 kips (C)
P 2
a. Stresses:  ;    22.222 ksi
A AB
0.09
5
  41.667ksi
 0.12
BC

 CD
1.5
 0.06  25 ksi answer
PL 2(18)
b. Deformations:   AE  0.09(10103)  0.04 in. (elongation)
AB

PL 5(12)
 AE  0.12(18103  0.028in. (contraction)

BC )
PL  0.014 in. (contraction)
 AE  1.5(16)
 0.06(29103)
AB

Displacement of end A with respect to end D:

 A/ D   AB  BC CD = 0.04 – 0.028 –
0.014
answer
 A/ D  0.002 in (A moves closer to D)

9. A bronze bar is fastened between a steel bar and an aluminum bar as shown in the figure. Axial loads are
applied at the points indicated. Find the largest value of P that will not exceed an overall deformation of
3.0 mm or the following stresses: 140 MPa in the steel, 120 MPa in the bronze, and 80 MPa in the
aluminum. Assume that the assembly is suitably braced to prevent buckling. Use Es = 200 GPa, Ea = 70
GPa, and Eb = 83 GPa.
Steel Bronze Aluminum
A = 480 mm2 A = 650 mm2
P A = 320 mm2 2P
3P 4P
1.0 m 2.0 m 1.5 m
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Solution:
P Ps
Determine the axial loads:
Ps = P
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Pb = 2P P
Pa = 2P 3P Pb

Pa 2P
From the allowable stresses, find P:
For steel: For bronze: For aluminum:
Ps P P
σ σ b σ a
A A A
P 2 P
140  120 
480 80  2P
650 320
P = 67.2 kN P = 39 kN P = 12.8 kN
From the overall deformation, determine P:
T = s  b + a

310 3  P(1) 2P(2) 2P(1.5)

480(200) 103  650(83) 103  320(70) 103
P = 42.734 kN
From the results, maximum P = 12.8 kN. answer

10. Two identical wires, AB and BC, support a load P = 225 kN. The distance between supports A and C is
b = 1.0 m, and the wires are at an angle θ = 55 to the horizontal. The wires are made of high-strength
steel and have axial rigidity EA = 165 kN. Calculate the downward displacement of point B due to the
load P.

PAB PBC
L 35° 35°

δ 35°
ΔB

Solution: 225 N
Find the length of the wires:
0.5
cos55  ; L = 0.8717 m
L
Analyze the FBD of Joint B:
PAB = PBC = PB
PAB cos35  PBC cos35  225; PAB = 137.337 N
Compute for the elongation of the wires:

137.337(0.8717) 3
 156103  0.76710 m = 0.767 mm

From the deformation diagram:

 0.767
cos35   ; Δ = 0.936 mm
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B B B answer
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11. The rigid bar ABC shown is hinged at A and supported by a steel rod at B. Determine the largest load P
that can be applied at C if the stress in the steel rod is limited to 30 ksi and the vertical movement of end
C must not exceed 0.10 in.

Steel
L = 4 ft
A = 0.50 in2
E = 29  106 psi


A B C
2 ft 3 ft
P
Solution:
To find the axial force in the steel rod, we analyze the FBD of bar AC:
MA = 0] 5P – 2Ps = 0; Ps = 2.5P Ps

From the deformation diagram: AH A

C
ΔC δs 2
 ; δs  (0.1) = 0.04 in. AV P
5 2 5

From tension of the rod:

s
Ps C
σ ; 2.5P
; P = 6 kips
30 
A 0.5
From elongation of the rod:
PL 2.5P(4)(12)
δs  ; 0.04 = ; P = 4833.33 lb
AE 0.5(2910 ) 6

Therefore, the largest load that can be applied is 4833 lb answer

12. The rigid bar AB, attached to vertical rods as shown in the figure, is horizontal before the load P is
applied. Determine the vertical movement of P if its magnitude is 50 kN.

Steel
L=4m
Aluminum A = 300 mm2
L=3m E = 200 GPa Pa Ps
A = 500 mm2
E = 70 GPa C
A B
A B
3.5 m 2.5 m P = 50 kN
P
Solution:
Compute for the axial loads in the rods caused by P = 50 kN. From the FBD of bar AB:
MA = 0] 3.5P – 6Ps = 0; Ps = 29.167 kN
MB = 0] 6Pa – 2.5P = 0; Pa = 20.833 kN
STUDY GUIDE

Determine the elongation of the bars:

Steel: PL = 29.167(4) = 1.944 mm
δs  C
AE 300(200) a
s

Aluminu PL 20.833(3)
δa AE= 500(70) = 1.786 mm
m
From the deformation diagram:
δs  δa ΔC  δa
 ; 3.5δs  3.5δa  6ΔC  6δa ;
6 3.5
3.5δs  2.5δa
ΔC 6

= 3.5(1.944)62.5(1.786)

ΔC = 1.878 mm answer

In this lesson, you learned the following:

 If a material is subjected to an axial load, it will elongate if the load
is in tension or it will contract if the load is in compression.
 The strain in an axially-loaded member is equal to the deformation
divided by the length of the member.
 If the material obeys Hooke’s Law, the stress is proportional to
strain.

EXERCISE 2.1
The following exercises are for you to solve and apply the concepts you have studied. The answers for each pr

1. An 18-m-long steel wire of 5-mm diameter is to be used in the manufacture of a prestressed concrete
beam. It is observed that the wire stretches 45 mm when a tensile force P is applied. Knowing that E =
200 GPa, determine
a. the magnitude of the force P. Ans. 9.82 kN
b. the corresponding normal stress in the wire. Ans. 500 MPa

2. A short post constructed from a hollow circular tube of aluminum supports a compressive load of 26 kips.
The inner and outer diameters of the tube are di = 4.0 in. and do = 4.5 in., respectively, and its length is
16 in. The shortening of the post due to the load is measured as 0.012 in. Disregard the weight of the post
itself, and assume that the post does not buckle under the load. Use E = 10600 ksi.
a. Determine the compressive stress in the post. Ans. 7.789 ksi
b. Determine the strain in the post. Ans. 7.384
STUDY GUIDE

3. A loading crane consisting of a steel girder ABC supported by a cable BD is subjected to a load P. The
cable has an effective cross-sectional area A = 0.471 in2. The dimensions of the crane are H = 9 ft, L1 =
12 ft, and L2 = 4 ft.
a. If the load P = 9000 lb, what is the average tensile stress in the cable? Ans. 42,500 psi
b. If the cable stretches by 0.382 in., what is the average strain? Ans. 2.12 × 10-3

4. The horizontal rigid beam ABCD is supported by vertical bars BE and CF and is loaded by vertical forces
P1 = 90 k and P2 = 80 k acting at points A and D, respectively. Bars BE and CF are made of steel
(E = 29 × 106 psi) and have cross-sectional areas ABE = 19.5 in2 and ACF = 16.8 in2. The distances
between various points on the bars are shown in the figure. Determine the vertical displacements of
points A and D. Ans. A = 0.00876 in; D = 0.0280 in

5. The three-bar truss ABC shown in the figure has a span L = 3 m and is constructed of steel pipes having
cross-sectional area A = 3900 mm2 and modulus of elasticity E = 200 GPa. Identical loads P act both
vertically and horizontally at joint C, as shown.
a. If P = 650 kN, what is the horizontal displacement of joint B? Ans. 2.5 mm
b. What is the maximum permissible load value Pmax if the displacement of joint B is limited to 1.5 mm?
Ans. 390 kN

6. A steel bar AD has a cross-sectional area of 0.40 in2 and is loaded by forces P1 = 2700 lb, P2 = 1800 lb, and
P3 = 1300 lb. The lengths of the segments of the bar are a = 60 in., b = 24 in., and c = 36 in.
a. Assuming that the modulus of elasticity E = 30 × 106 psi, calculate the change in length of the bar.
Ans. 0.0131 in
b. By what amount P should the load P3 be increased so that the bar does not change in length when the
three loads are applied? Ans. 1310 lb
STUDY GUIDE

7. Each of the links AB and CD is made of steel (E = 29 × 106 psi) and has a uniform rectangular cross
section of ¼ x 1 in. Determine the largest load which can be suspended from point E if the deflection of E
is not to exceed 0.01 in.

8. The steel bars AB and BC are pinned at each end and support the load of 200 kN as shown in the figure.
The material is structural steel having a yield stress of 200 MPa and safety factors of 2 and 3.5 for
tension and compression, respectively. Take E = 200 GPa and neglect any possibility of lateral buckling
of bar BC.
Determine
a. the size of each bar. Ans. AAB = 1732 mm2; ABC = 1750 mm2
b. the horizontal and vertical components of displacement of point B. Ans. Δh = 0.37 mm →; Δv = 1.78
mm ↓ A

200 kN

B
60°
2m
C

9. Two solid cylindrical rods are joined at B and loaded as shown. Rod AB is made of steel (E = 200 GPa)
and rod BC of brass (E =105 GPa). Determine a) the total deformation of the composite rod ABC, b) the
deflection of point B. a) 0.308 mm b) 0.142 mm

0.75 m 75 mm

133 kN 133 kN
1.0 m 50 mm

P = 178 kN

10. A single axial load of magnitude P = 58 kN is applied at the end C of the brass rod ABC. Knowing that E
= 105 GPa, determine the diameter d of portion BC for which the deflection of point C will be 3 mm.
16.52 mm
STUDY GUIDE
STUDY GUIDE

References
1. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BloFTPevByo
2. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D8U4G5kcpcM
3. https://www.toppr.com/guides/physics/mechanical-properties-of-solids/stress-and-strain/
4. https://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/stress-strain-d_950.html

5. Lesson 2 – Statically Indeterminate Members

http://uetmmmksk.weebly.com/uploads/3/6/0/0/3600114/

Indeterminate members are structures where the reactive forces or the internal resisting forces over a
cross section exceed the number of independent equations for equilibrium. Such structures are called
statically indeterminate and their analysis require the use of additional relations that depend on the elastic
deformations of the members; i.e., additional geometric relations between the elastic deformations produced
by the loads, called equations of conditions or equations of compatibility, and force-displacement relations
that would relate the forces with the displacements.

SAMPLE PROBLEMS
Here are sample problems for you to study. If you have any questions with
the solution, please feel free to consult your instructor.

1. A reinforced concrete column 200 mm in diameter is designed to carry an axial compressive load of 300
kN. Determine the required area of the reinforcing steel if the allowable stresses are 6 MPa and 120 MPa
for the concrete and the steel, respectively. Use Ec = 14 GPa and Es = 200 GPa.
Solution:
Compatibility equation: the deformations of the two materials are equal
s = c
P = 300 kN
 σL  σL 
   E
 E S  C
σs σc
 ; s = 14.2857c
200 14
If c = 6 MPa, s = 85.714 MPa (within the allowable)
Therefore, these are the working stresses in the two materials.
Find the axial load that can be carried:
Ps
For steel: σ  ; Ps = 85.714 As
s
A
P
For concrete: π
σ  c
; Pc = 6[ (200)2 – As]
c
A 4
= 188495.5592 – 6As
From equilibrium, Ps + Pc = 300000 As = 13
mm
85.714 As + 188495.5592 – 6As = 300000
STUDY GUIDE

answer
STUDY GUIDE

2. A rigid block of mass M is supported by three symmetrically spaced rods as shown in the figure. Each
copper rod has an area of 900 mm2, E = 120 GPa, and the allowable stress is 70 MPa. The steel rod has an
area of 1200 mm2, E = 200 GPa, and the allowable stress is 140 MPa. Determine the largest mass M which
can be supported. W = 9.81M

Pc Ps Pc
Copper Steel Copper

Solution:
Compatibility equation: s = c
 σL
  σL 
  E
 E S  C

σ s (240) σc (160)
200  120
; s = 1.111c

If c = 70 MPa, s = 77.778 MPa ⟵ within the allowable, therefore, these are the working
stresses of the materials
Ps
Hence, σ  ; Ps = 77.778 (1200) = 93333.6 N
s
A
Pc
and σ  ; Pc = 70 (900) = 63000 N
c
A
From the FBD of the block:
Ps + 2Pc = W
93333.6 + 2(63000) = 9.81M
M = 22.358 Mg answer
3. A homogeneous bar with a cross-sectional area of 500 mm 2 is attached to rigid supports. It carries the
axial loads P1 = 25 kN and P2 = 50 kN, applied as shown in the figure. Determine the stress in segment
BC.
R1 P1 P2 R2

A B C D
0.6 m1.2 m0.9 m
Solution: Axial forces:
R1
PAB PAB = R1
R1 P1 = 25 kN PBC
PBC = R1 – 25
R1 P1 = 25 kN P2 = 50 kN D
PB
C PC
STUDY GUIDE

= 75 – R1
STUDY GUIDE

From the compatibility eqaution, find R1:

AB + BC  CD = 0
R1(0.6) (R1  25) (1.2) (75 R1) (0.9)
AE + AE 
AE
=0
0.6R1 + 1.2R1 – 25(1.2) – 75(0.9) + 0.9R1 = 0
R1 = 36.111 kN
Stress in segment BC:
PBC = R1 – 25 = 11.111 kN
BC = 11111 = 22.222 MPa answer
500106

4. Three steel eye-bars, each 4 in. by 1 in. in section, are to be assembled by driving rigid ⅞–in. diameter
drift pins through holes drilled in the ends of the bars. The centerline spacing between the holes is 30 ft
in the two outer bars, but is 0.045 in. shorter in the middle bar. Find the shearing stress developed in the
drift pins. Neglect local deformation at the holes.
0.045 in

P1
P2
P1
30 ft

Solution
: Compatibility equation: 2 + 1 = 0.045
P2 (359.955) P1 (360) = 0.045
 Eq. 1
4(1)(29106 ) 4(1)(29106 )
Equilibrium equation: P2 – 2P1 = 0 ; P2 = 2P1
Substitute Eq. 2 in Eq.
1: 2P1(359.955) P1(360) = 0.045

4(29106 ) 4(29106 )

P1 = 4833.736 lb and P2 = 9667.472 lb Eq. 2

Stress in the drift pins:
=V ;  = 4833.736
A π  7 2
 
4 8

 = 8038.536 psi answer
5. The light rigid bar ABCD shown in the figure is pinned at B and connected to two vertical rods. Assuming
that the bar was initially horizontal and the rods stress-free, determine the stress in each rod after the
load P = 20 kips is applied. (Pytel, 1987)
L 106 psi
ft
A
0.75
in
A E
Aluminum 10
STUDY GUIDE

Stee Ps
l
4 ft L B
3 ft
A
0.5 20 k
in
B
29 
106
psi
D
C
P
2
ft δs
ft
STUDY GUIDE

Solution:
FBD of the bar:
MB = 0] 20(4) – 2Ps – 4Pa = 0
80 – 2Ps – 4Pa = 0
Ps + 2Pa = 40 Eq. 1
From the deformation diagram:
δa δs
4  2
a = 2 s
Pa (4) P (3)
2 s
0.75(10) 0.5(29)

Pa = 0.7759Ps Eq. 2
Solve Eq. 2 and Eq.1 simultaneously:
Ps = 15. 6752 kips ; Pa = 12. 1624 kip
Required stresses:
15.6752
σs  0.5 σ a 12.1624
0.75
= 31.35 ksi = 16.217 ksi answer

6. A cylindrical assembly consisting of a brass core and an aluminum collar is compressed by a load P. The
length of the aluminum collar and brass core is 350 mm, the diameter of the core is 25 mm, and the
outside diameter of the collar is 40 mm. The moduli of elasticity of the aluminum and brass are 72 GPa
and 100 GPa, respectively.
a. If the length of the assembly decreases by 0.1% when the load P is applied, what is the magnitude of
the load?
b. What is the maximum permissible load P if the allowable stresses in the aluminum and brass are 80
MPa and 120 MPa, respectively?

Solution:
a. δ = 0.001(350) = 0.35 mm
PL Pa (350)
Load carried by aluminum:   0.35 
;  (40  252 ) 106 (72109 )
2

4
AE
STUDY GUIDE

Pa = 55134.95 N
STUDY GUIDE

Pb (350)
Load carried by 0.35 
brass:  (25 ) 106 (100109 )
2

4
Pb = 49087.39 N
Total load: P = Pa + Pb = 104222.34 N answer
b. If the allowable stresses are σa = 80 MPa and σb = 120 MPa,
Compatibility equation: Eb
; aL bL   100
;   
a
a b
Ea Eb
b
Ea
a 72
If σa = 80 MPa, σa = 111.111 MPa < 120 MPa, hence, these are
the working stresses

Loads carried by the
materials:
P 


402  252  61261.06 N 
a
 80
 
4 2 
P 
b 111.111 (25)   54541.48 N
4 
Total load: P = Pa + Pb =115802.54 N answer

7. A rigid bar of weight W = 800 N hangs from three equally spaced vertical wires, two of steel and one of
aluminum. The wires also support a load P acting at the midpoint of the bar. The diameter of the steel
wires is 2 mm, and the diameter of the aluminum wire is 4 mm. What allowable load P can be supported if
the allowable stress in the steel wires is 220 MPa and in the aluminum wire is 80 MPa? Assume Es = 210
GPa and Ea = 70 GPa.

PS PA PS

Solution:
EA 1
Compatibility equation: ;  S L  AL   70  
;   
S A A S S S S
ES EA E 210 3
If σS = 220 MPa, σA= 73.333 MPa < 80 MPa , therefore, these are the
working stresses
Load carried by steel:  
P  (2)2  691.15 N
S 220 
  2 
Load carried by aluminum: 4 (4)  921.534 N
P
A 73.333 
4 
Allowable load: P = 2P S + P A – W
P = 2(691.15) + 921.534 – 800 = 1503.835 answer
N
STUDY GUIDE

13. Link BD is made of brass (E = 105 GPa) and has a cross-sectional area of 240 mm 2. Link CE is made of
aluminum (E = 72 GPa) and has a cross-sectional area of 300 mm 2. Knowing that they support rigid
member ABC, determine the maximum force P that can be applied vertically at point A if the deflection
of A is not to exceed 0.35 mm.
PBD

PCE

δCE

Δ δBD
A

Solution:
Equations of equilibrium from the FBD of AC:

M C 
 0 350P  225PBD  0 ; PBD = 1.555P

M B  0 125P  225PCE  0 ; PCE = 0.555P

Compatibility equation from the similarity of triangles,
 A  CE  BD  CE
 350 BD 125CE  225 A
;
350 225
14 BD  5CE  9(0.35)  3.15
1.555P(225) 0.555P(150)
14 240(105)  5 300(72)  3.15

P = 14.744 kN
answer

14. The aluminum and steel pipes shown in the figure are fastened to rigid supports at ends A and B and to
a rigid plate C at their junction. The aluminum pipe is twice as long as the steel pipe. Two equal and
symmetrically placed loads P act on the plate at C. Calculate the stresses for the following data: P = 50
kN, cross-sectional area of aluminum pipe Aa = 6000 mm2, cross-sectional area of steel pipe As = 600
mm2, modulus of elasticity of aluminum Ea = 70 GPa, and modulus of elasticity of steel Es = 200 GPa.
RA RA RA Solution:
Axial loads: PS = RA (tension)
PA = 2P – RA
PS
PA = 100 – RA (compression)
Compatibility equation:

0 RA L  100 RA 2L
;  0
PA S A
600(200) 6000(70)
RA = 36.364 kN
RB Compute axial loads: PS = 36.364 kN
PA = 100 – 36.364
= 63.636 kN
STUDY GUIDE

Stresses: 36364 63636

S 6
 60.607 A  10.606 MPa
60010 MPa  6000106
STUDY GUIDE

15. The figure shows a rigid bar that is supported by a pin at A and two rods; one made of steel and the
other of bronze. Neglecting the weight of the bar, compute the stress in each rod caused by the 50-kN
load. For steel, A = 600 mm2 and E = 200 GPa. For bronze, A = 300 mm2 and E = 83 GPa.

PS PB
Solutio

δS
δB

Solution:
Equilibrium equation from the FBD of the M A  0.6PS 1.6PB  50(2.4)  0
bar:
0  0.6PS 1.6PB  120 103

0.6 S (600 106 ) 1.6 B (300 106 )  120 103

360 S  480 B  120 109
30 S  4 B  1109 Eq. 1
Equation of compatibility from the similarity of triangles:
S B  S (1) B
 ; 8  3 ; (2)
8 3
Eq. 2
S B
0.6 1.6 200 83
Solve Eq. 1 and Eq. 2 simultaneously:
σs = 31.043 MPa ; σs = 17.177 MPa answer

In this lesson, you learned the following:

 Statically indeterminate structures are those whose reaction forces
and internal forces cannot be determined by the equations of
statics.
 In addition to the equation of statics, compatibility equations and
force-displacement relations are needed to analyze problems which
are statically indeterminate.
STUDY GUIDE

EXERCISE 2.2
The following exercises are for you to solve and apply the concepts you have studied. The answers for each

1. The 1.5 m concrete post is reinforced with six steel bars, each with a 28-mm diameter. Determine the
maximum centric force P that may be applied if the allowable normal stress is 160 MPa in the steel and 18
MPa in the concrete. Use Es = 200 GPa and Ec = 25 GPa. Ans. 3330 kN

2. Two cylindrical rods, one of steel and the other of brass, are joined at C and restrained by rigid supports
at A and E. For the loading shown and knowing that Es = 200 GPa and Eb = 105 GPa, determine a) the
reactions at A and E, b) the deflection of point C. Ans. a) RA = 62.8 kN (to the left); RE = 37.2 kN (to the
left) b) 46.3
× 10–3 mm (to the right)

3. Compressive centric forces of 40 kips are applied at both ends of the assembly shown by means of rigid
plates. Knowing that Es = 29 × 106 psi and Ea = 10.1 × 106 psi, determine the a) the normal stresses in
the steel core and the aluminum shell, b) the deformation of the assembly. Ans. a) σs = –18.01 ksi, σa = –
6.27 ksi, b) –18.01 ksi
STUDY GUIDE

4. Links BC and DE are both made of steel (E = 29 × 106 psi) and are ½ in. wide and ¼ in. thick. Determine
a) the force in each link when a 600-lb force P is applied to the rigid member AF shown, b) the
corresponding deflection of point A. Ans. a) PBC = 1000 lb (T); PDE = 400 lb (C) b) 2.21 × 10–3 in (to the

right)
5. Three bars AB, AC, and AD are pinned together as shown in the figure. Initially, the assembly is stress-
free. Horizontal movement of the joint at A is prevented by the short horizontal strut AE. Calculate the
stress in each bar and the force in the strut AE when the assembly is used to support the load W = 10
kips. For each steel bar, A = 0.3 in2 and E = 29  106 psi. For the aluminum bar, A = 0.6 in2 and E = 10 
106 psi.

B CD
Aluminum
10 ft Steel Steel
40 20
EA
W

6. An axial centric force of magnitude P = 450 kN is applied to the composite block shown by means of a
rigid end plate. Knowing that h = 10 mm, determine the normal stress in a) the brass core; b) the
aluminum plates. Ans. a) 140.6 MPa b) 93.75 MPa

7. Two cylindrical rods, one of steel and the other of brass, are joined at C and restrained by rigid supports
at A and E. For the loading shown and knowing that Es = 200 GPa and Eb = 105 GPa, determine a) the
reactions at A and E, b) the deflection of point C. Ans. a) 62.8 kN  at point A; 37.2 kN  at point E b)
46.3 m 
STUDY GUIDE
STUDY GUIDE

8. The rigid bar AD is supported by two steel wires of 1.5 mm diameter (E = 200 GPa) and a pin and
bracket at D. Knowing that the wires were initially taut, determine a) the additional tension in each wire
when a 900 N load P is applied at D, b) the corresponding deflection of point D. Ans. a) 838 N in BE; 931
N in CF
b)
1.78 mm

9. Three steel rods (E = 200 GPa) support a 36-kN load P. Each of the rods AB and CD has a 200-mm2 cross-
sectional area and rod EF has a 625-mm2 cross-sectional area. Determine a) the change in length of rod
EF,
b) the stress in each rod. Ans. a) 0.0762 mm b) AB = CD = 30.5 MPa; EF = 38.1 MPa

10. The rigid bar AD is supported by two steel wires of 1/16-in. diameter ( E = 29 × 106 psi) and a pin and
bracket at D. Knowing that the wires were initially taut, determine a) the additional tension in each wire
when a 120-lb load P is applied at B, b) the corresponding deflection of point B.

References
1. Beer, Ferdinand P. E, Russel Johnston, Jr., John T. DeWolf, David F. Mazurek. Mechanics of
Materials, Fifth Edition. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2009.
2. Gere, James M. and Barry Goodno. Mechanics of Materials, seventh edition. London: Chapman and
Hall, 2009.
3. http://fast10.vsb.cz/lausova/indeterm_all.pdf
4. https://www.mathalino.com/reviewer/mechanics-and-strength-of-materials/
STUDY GUIDE

7.
Lesson 3 – Poisson’s Ratio: Biaxial and Triaxial
http://uetmmmksk.weebly.com/uploads/3/6/0/0/3600114/

Another type of elastic deformation is the change in transverse dimensions accompanying axial
tension or compression. Experiments show that if a bar is lengthened by axial tension, there is a reduction in
the transverse dimensions. Simeon D. Poisson showed that the ratio of the unit deformations or strains in
these directions is constant for stresses within the proportional limit. This ratio is named after him; it is
denoted by
;
y 
v  z
x x
where x = the strain due only to stress in the x direction
y, z = the strains induced in the perpendicular directions.
The minus sign indicates a decrease in transverse dimensions when x is positive.
If an element is subjected simultaneously to tensile stresses in the x and y directions, the total strain in
the x direction will be  x y
 
x
E E
and the total strain in the y direction is
y 
  x
y
E E
For the simultaneous action of triaxial tensile stresses:
1
   v    
1
  v    
1
  v   
x x y y y x z z x y
zE E
z E
All these equations are valid for compressive effects also; it is only necessary to assign positive signs to
elongations and tensile stresses, and conversely, negative signs to contractions and compressive stresses.
A relation among the constants for a given material which is useful for computing values of  when E
and G have been determined is expressed by

G 2 1 E
 ν

SAMPLE PROBLEMS
Here are sample problems for you to study. If you have any questions with
the solution, please feel free to consult your instructor.

1. A 20-mm-diameter rod made of an experimental plastic is subjected to a tensile force of magnitude P = 6

kN. Knowing that an elongation of 14 mm and a decrease in diameter of 0.85 mm are observed in a 150-
mm length, determine
a. the modulus of elasticity,
b. Poisson’s ratio for the material,
c.and the modulus of rigidity.
STUDY GUIDE

Solution:
a. Use the formula for axial deformation
STUDY GUIDE

PL 6 103 (150)
 ; 14  ; E = 204.628 MPa answer
AE  (202 ) 106
4 E
b. Poisson’s ratio is equal to the lateral strain divided by the axial strain
0.85
y
   20  0.455
x 14 answer
150
E 204.628  70.319 MPa answer
a. G
 2(1  2(1
v) 0.455)

2. An aluminum plate (E = 74 GPa, v = 0.33) is subjected to a centric axial load that causes a normal stress
σ. Knowing that, before loading, a line of slope 2:1 is scribed on the plate, determine the slope of the line
when σ = 125 MPa.
y

Solution:
In the x-direction:
1 x 1
     ;  125  0.33(0)  1.6892 103
x x y
E 1 74 103
In the y-direction:
1 y 1
y   y  x  0  0.33(125) ; Δy = –1.1149 × 10–3
2 74103
;
E

Slope
2  0.0011149 answer
= 
1.995514
1 0.0016892

3. A high-strength steel rod with E = 200 GPa and  = 0.3 is compressed by an axial force P. When there is
no axial load, the diameter of the rod is exactly 50 mm. In order to maintain certain clearances, the
diameter of the rod must not exceed 50.025 mm under load. What is the largest permissible load P?
50 mm

P P

Solution:
y x
In the direction of the  
diameter:
y
E E
0.025 P
50  0  0.3 2 3
 
50  200 10
STUDY GUIDE

 
4
P = 654.5 kN answer
STUDY GUIDE

4. A thin plate is in a state of plane stress and has dimensions of 8 in. in the x direction and 4 in. in the y
direction. The plate increases in length in the x direction by 0.0016 in. and decreases in the y direction by
0.00024 in. Compute x and y to cause these deformations. E = 29  106 psi and v = 0.30.
y

4 x

8

Solution:
In the x-direction: In the y-direction:
x  σ x  ν σ y σy
 ν
σx
y 
E E E E
0.0016 σx σy
  0.3 -0.00024 σy σx
  0.3
8 E E 4 29106

29106
5800 = x  0.3y Eq. 1 1740 = y  0.3x Eq. 2
Solve Eq. 1 and Eq. 2 simultaneously:
x = 5800 psi and y = 0 answer

5. A 150-mm long bronze tube, closed at its ends, is 80 mm in diameter and has a wall thickness of 3 mm. It
fits without clearance in an 80-mm hole in a rigid block. The tube is then subjected to an internal
pressure of 4 MPa. Assuming v = ⅓ and E = 83 GPa, determine the tangential stress in the tube.
y

150 mm x

80 mm
Solution:
σx σy σt σl
Taking the x-direction:    ν ; 0 ν
x
E E E E
0 = t  vl ; t = vl

Substitute the longitudinal stress, 

pD
 4t : σt = 13 pD = 1 4(80)
l 4t
3 4(3)
t = 8.889 MPa answer

6. A rectangular steel block is 3 in. long in the x direction, 2 in. long in the y direction, and 4 in. long in the z
direction. The block is subjected to triaxial loading consisting of three uniformly distributed forces as follows:
48 kips tension in the x direction, 60 kips compression in the y direction, and 54 kips tension in the z direction.
If v
STUDY GUIDE

= 0.30 and E = 29  106 psi, determine the single uniformly distributed load in the x direction that would
produce the same deformation in the y direction as the original loading.
STUDY GUIDE

z
Solution:
Pz Total strain in the y-direction:
σy σx σz
y   ν  v
E E E
Py
2 in
Px =AE  v Px  v Pz
Py Py
AE AE

4 in y = 60000 48000 54000

3(4)E  0.3 2(4)E  0.3 3(2)E
Px
y =  9500
E
3 in

x
Pz
Stress in the x-direction due to a single load if y =  9500 :
E
9500
 E =  ν σx
E
x = 31666.667 psi

Required load: σ 
Px
x
A
Px = 31666.667(8)
Px = 253.333 kips answer

In this lesson, you learned the following:

 Axial deformation is accompanied by a change in dimension in the
transverse direction.
 The ratio of the strain in the transverse direction and the axial
strain is constant, called the Poisson’s ratio.
STUDY GUIDE

EXERCISE 2.3
The following exercises are for you to solve and apply the concepts you have studied. The answers for each p

1. A high-strength steel rod with E = 200 GPa and v = 0.3 is compressed by an axial force P. When there is
no axial load, the diameter of the rod is exactly 50 mm. In order to maintain certain clearances, the
diameter of the rod must not exceed 50.025 mm under load. What is the largest permissible load P? Ans.
654.498 kN

2. A 600 lb tensile load is applied to a test coupon made from 1/16 in. flat steel plate (E = 29 × 106 psi, v =
0.30). Determine the resulting change a) in the 2-in. gage length, b) in the width of portion AB of the test
coupon, c) in the thickness of portion AB, d) in the cross-sectional area of portion AB. Ans. a) 1.324 × 10–
3 in. b) –99 × 10–6 in. c) –12.41 × 10–6 in. d) –12.41 × 10–6 in.2

600 lb 600 lb

3. A fabric used in air-inflated structures is subjected to a biaxial loading that results in normal stresses σx =
120 MPa and σz = 160 MPa. Knowing that the properties of the fabric can be approximated as E = 87 GPa
and v = 0.34, determine the change in length of a) side AB, b) side BC, c) diagonal AC. Ans. a) 0.0754 mm,
b) 0.1028 mm, c) 0.1220 mm

4. The block shown is made of a magnesium alloy for which E = 45 GPa and v = 0.35. Knowing that σx = –
180 MPa, determine a) the magnitude of σy for which the change in the height of the block will be zero; b)
the corresponding change in the area of the face ABCD; c) the corresponding change in the volume of the
block. Ans. a) –63 MPa; b) – 13.5 m2; c) –540 m3
STUDY GUIDE

5. a) For the axial loading shown, determine the change in height and the change in volume of the brass
cylinder shown. b) Solve part (a), assuming that the loading is hydrostatic with σx = σy = σz = –70 MPa.
Ans. a) –0.0746 mm, –143.91 mm3 b) –0.0306 mm, –521 mm3

References
1. Beer, Ferdinand P. E, Russel Johnston, Jr., John T. DeWolf, David F. Mazurek. Mechanics of Materials,
Fifth Edition. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2009.
2. Gere, James M. and Barry Goodno. Mechanics of Materials, seventh edition. London: Chapman and
Hall, 2009.
3. http://fast10.vsb.cz/lausova/indeterm_all.pdf
4. https://www.mathalino.com/reviewer/mechanics-and-strength-of-materials/

1.
Lesson 4 – Thermal Stresses
http://uetmmmksk.weebly.com/uploads/3/6/0/0/3600114/

Changes in temperature cause bodies to expand or contract characterized by the coefficient of thermal
expansion, , which is the strain due to a 1-degree temperature change. The amount of linear deformation,
T is expressed by the relation
T = L(T)
where: T = linear deformation caused by a change in temperature
L = the length
T = the temperature change.
If a temperature deformation is permitted to occur freely as by the use of expansion joints, no load or
stress will be induced in the structure. But in some cases, it may not be feasible to permit these temperature
deformations; the result is that internal forces are created that resist them. The stresses caused by these
internal forces are known as thermal stresses.
STUDY GUIDE

SAMPLE PROBLEMS
Here are sample problems for you to study. If you have any questions with
the solution, please feel free to consult your instructor.

1. The rails of a railroad track are welded together at their ends (to form continuous rails and thus eliminate
the clacking sound of the wheels) when the temperature is 60°F. What compressive stress σ is produced
in the rails when they are heated by the sun to 120°F if the coefficient of thermal expansion α = 6.5 × 10–
6/°F and the modulus of elasticity E = 30 × 106 psi?

Solution:
The deformation caused by the change in temperature is equal to the deformation due to the induced
load:
 P  T ; L
 LT ;   ET
E
  30 106 (6.5106 )(120  60) = 11700 answer
psi

2. An aluminum pipe has a length of 60 m at a temperature of 10°C. An adjacent steel pipe at the same
temperature is 5 mm longer than the aluminum pipe. At what temperature (degrees Celsius) will the
aluminum pipe be 15 mm longer than the steel pipe? Assume that the coefficients of thermal expansion of
aluminum and steel are αa = 23 × 10–6/°C and as = 12 × 10–6/°C, respectively.
Solution:
At 10°C: After the change in temperature:
δa
5 mm 5 mm
60 m 60 m
aluminum
aluminum
steel steel
δS 15 mm
a  5   S a   S 
15; 20
LT a  LT S  20103
23106 (60)T  12 106 (60.005)T  20
103
ΔT = 30.31° answer
Tf = 30.31 + 10 = 40.31°C

3. A steel rod of diameter 15 mm is held snugly (but without any initial stresses) between rigid walls by the
arrangement shown in the figure. Calculate the temperature drop Δ T, in degrees Celsius, at which the
average shear stress in the 12-mm diameter bolt becomes 45 MPa. For the steel rod, use as = 12 × 10–
6/°C and E = 200 GPa.

Solution: A a load in the bolt:

xi l
STUDY GUIDE

P
V 2
 ; 45 106  ; P=
A 
4
12 10
2 6
10178.7
6N
STUDY GUIDE

L
 P  T ;  LT ;   ET
E
P
 ET

10178.76

 200 109 12 106 T 
;
A
15 10
2 6

4
ΔT = 24°C answer

4. A steel wire AB is stretched between rigid supports. The initial prestress in the wire is 42 MPa when the
temperature is 20°C. What is the stress in the wire when the temperature drops to 0°C? Assume αs = 14 ×
10–6/°C and E = 200 GPa.
Solution:
Total L PL
deformation:   ;  LT 
 T P
E AE

  ET   P  200 109 14 106  20 42

10 6
answer
σ = 98 MPa

5. A steel rod with a cross-sectional area of 0.25 in2 is stretched between two fixed points. The tensile load
at 70F is 1200 lb. What will be the stress at 0F? At what temperature will the stress be zero? Assume
 = 6.5  106 in/(in-F) and E = 29  106 psi.

Solution:
a) Stress at 0F: T =P  L T = PL
AE
6.5  10 6
L (70) = PL ; P = 3298.75 lb
0.25(29106 )
Final stress: f = i + P
1200 3298.75
= +
0.25 0.25
answer
f = 17995 psi
b) Temperature when the stress is zero:
 T =  P;  L T = PL
AE
PL
6.5  10 L (T ) =
6
; P = 47.125 T
0.25(29106 )
Assuming the temperature decreases:
f = i + P
1200 47.125 ΔT
0= +
0.25 0.25
T = 25.46 F (temperature must increase)
Tf = 70 + 25.46 = 95.46 F answer
STUDY GUIDE

6. Calculate the increase in stress for each segment of the compound bar shown if the temperature increases
by 100F. Assume that the supports are unyielding and that the bar is suitably braced to prevent buckling.
Aluminum Steel
A = 2 in2 A = 1.5 in2
E = 10 ×106 psi E = 29 ×106 psi
α = 12.8 ×106 /F α = 6.5 ×106
R R
Aluminum Steel

10 in 15 in

Solution:
Axial Forces: Pa = R and Ps = R
Relationship of deformations:  T=  P
aT + sT = aP + sP

12.8 106 (10)(100)  6.5 106 (15)(100) R (10) 1

R (15)


1
2 10 10 6 
1.5 29 106 
R1 = 26691.837 lb 
Stresses: a = 26691.837 = 13345.918 psi
2 answer
s = 26691.837 = 17794.558 psi answer
1.5

7. The rigid bar ABC is pinned at B and attached to the two vertical rods. Initially, the bar is horizontal and
the vertical rods are stress-free. Determine the stress in the aluminum rod if the temperature of the steel
rod is decreased by 40C. Neglect the weight of bar ABC.
s
Aluminum
Steel L = 1.2 m
L = 0.9 m A = 1200 mm2 a
A = 300 mm2 E = 70 GPa
E = 200 GPa
α = 23 μm/(m-C)
α = 11.7 Ps
μm/(m-C) Pa
B
A C B

0.6 m 1.2 m

Solution:
When the temperature decreases, point A will go up because the steel rod will contract. Since the
bar ABC is rigid, it will rotate at B, hence, point B goes down or the aluminum rod will elongate.
From the deformation diagram:
δ s  δ a ; 2s = δ a
0.6 1.2
2(0.4212×10–3 – 1.5×10–8Ps) = 1.4286×10–8Pa Eq. 1
For steel:
T = L T = 11.7  106(0.9)(40) = 0.4212 mm
P Ps (0.9) 300(200) 103
s
STUDY GUIDE
s = δT – δP
 1.5108 P
STUDY GUIDE

For aluminium:

 P Pa (1.2)
 1.4286108 P
1200(70)
103 a

From the FBD of the bar:

∑MB = 0] 0.6Ps – 1.2Pa = 0 Eq. 2
Solving Eq. 1 and Eq. 2 simultaneously,
Ps = 22680 N; Pa = 11340 N
Stress in aluminum:
P
  ;  11340
= 9.45 MPa answer
= 120010 -6
A

8. A rigid bar of negligible weight is supported as shown in the figure. If W = 80 kN, compute the
temperature change that will cause the stress in the steel rod to be 55 MPa.
Ps Pb

Bronze A
L=3m
Steel A = 1300 mm2
L = 1.5 m E = 83 GPa
A = 320 mm2
α = 18.9 μm/(m-C)
1m E = 200 GPa 80 kN
α = 11.7 μm/(m-C)

s
A 2.5 m B C
1.5 m  b

W
Solution:
Axial force in steel:
Ps = 55(320) = 17600 N
From the FBD of the bar:
MA = 0] 2.5(80) – Ps – 4Pb = 0
2.5(80) – 17.6 – 4Pb = 0 ; Pb = 45.6 kN
If there is an increase inTtemperature:
P
δ δ P T
δ δ
s s
 b b
1 4
4sP + 4sT = bP + bT
6
5510 (1.5) 45.6103(3) + 18.9  106(3)T
4 + 4(11.7  106)(1.5)T =
200109 1300(83)103
T = 28.31C (there must be a decrease in temperature) answer

In this lesson, you learned the following:

STUDY GUIDE

 Materials expand or contract when there is a change in temperature.

 Thermal stresses are the stresses due to the induced load created to
resist the deformation caused by the change in temperature.
STUDY GUIDE

EXERCISE 2.4
The following exercises are for you to solve and apply the concepts you have studied. The answers for each p

1. A steel rod with a cross-sectional area of 0.25 in2 is stretched between two fixed points. The tensile load
at 70F is 1200 lb. What will be the stress at 0F? At what temperature will the stress be zero? Assume
 = 6.5  106 in/(in-F) and E = 29  106 psi. Ans. 17995 psi; 95.46 F

2. A 1.2-m concrete post is reinforced by four steel bars, each of 18-mm diameter. Knowing that Es = 200
GPa, s = 11.7  10-6/ºC and Ec = 25 GPa, c = 9.9  10-6/ºC, determine the normal stresses induced in
the steel and in the concrete by a temperature rise of 27ºC. Ans. σst = –8.04 MPa; σc = 0.21 MPa

3. At room temperature (20ºC) a 0.5 mm gap exists between the ends of the rods shown. At a later time
when the temperature has reached 140ºC, determine a) the normal stress in the aluminum rod, b) the
change in length of the aluminum rod. Ans. a) –116.2 MPa; b) 0.363 mm

4. The assembly shown consists of an aluminum shell (E = 70 GPa,  = 23.6  10-6/ºC) fully bonded to a
steel core (E = 200 GPa,  = 11.7  10-6/ºC) and is unstressed at a temperature of 20ºC. Considering only
axial deformations, determine the stress in the aluminum shell when the temperature reaches 180ºC.
Ans. 47.0 MPa
STUDY GUIDE

5. A rigid horizontal bar of negligible mass is connected to two rods as shown in the figure. If the system is
initially stress-free. Calculate the temperature change that will cause a tensile stress of 90 MPa in the
brass rod. Assume that both rods are subjected to the change in temperature. Ans. 56°C decrease in

temperature
6. A rod consisting of two cylindrical portions AB and BC is restrained at both ends. Portion AB is made of
brass (Eb = 105 GPa, b = 20.9  10-6/ºC) and portion BC is made of aluminum (Ea = 72 GPa, a = 23.9 
10-6/ºC). Knowing that the rod is initially unstressed, determine a) the normal stresses induced in
portions AB and BC by a temperature rise of 42 ºC, b) the corresponding deflection of point B. a) 44.4
MPa in AB;
100 MPa in BC b) 0.500 mm ↓

References:
1. Beer, Ferdinand P. E, Russel Johnston, Jr., John T. DeWolf, David F. Mazurek. Mechanics of
Materials, Fifth Edition. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2009.
2. Gere, James M. and Barry Goodno. Mechanics of Materials, seventh edition. London: Chapman and
Hall, 2009.
3. http://fast10.vsb.cz/lausova/indeterm_all.pdf
4. https://www.mathalino.com/reviewer/mechanics-and-strength-of-materials/
STUDY GUIDE

Summative test
1. A bar of solid circular cross section is loaded in tension by forces P. The bar has a length L = 18 in.
and diameter d = 0.50 in. The material is a magnesium alloy having modulus of elasticity E = 6.4 x 106
psi. The allowable stress in tension is 17,000 psi and the elongation of the bar must not exceed 0.05
inch. What is the maximum allowable value of the load P?

2. When the force P is applied to the rigid arm ABC, point B displaces vertically downward through a
distance of 0.2 mm. The area of rod CD is 125 mm2 and E = 200 GPa. What is the displacement of
point C? Determine the magnitude of P.

200 mm 300 mm
400 mm

3. A circular aluminum tube of length L = 400 mm is loaded in compression by forces P. The outside and
inside diameters are 60 mm and 50 mm, respectively. A strain gage is placed on the outside of the bar to
measure normal strains in the longitudinal direction. (a) If the measured strain is 𝜖 = 550 × 10 −6, what is
the shortening of the bar? (b) If the compressive stress in the bar is intended to be 40 MPa, what should
be the load P?

4. The rails of a railroad track are welded together at their ends (to form continuous rails and thus eliminate
the clacking sound of the wheels) when the temperature is 60°F. What compressive stress σ is produced
in the rails when they are heated by the sun to 120°F if the coefficient of thermal expansion α = 6.5 × 10–
6/°F and the modulus of elasticity E = 30 × 106 psi?

5. A prismatic bar with a circular cross section is loaded by tensile forces P = 75 kN. The bar has length
L = 2.0 m and diameter d = 35 mm. It is made of aluminum alloy with modulus of elasticity E = 75 GPa
and Poisson’s ratio v = 1/3. Find the increase in length of the bar. What is its final cross-sectional area?

6. A bar consisting of two segments carries the axial loads applied at the positions indicated. Find the
total deformation of the bar.
250 mm 375 mm

70 kN 200 kN
130 kN
Steel Bronze
A = 500 mm2 A = 1000 mm2
E = 200 GPa E = 83 GPa
STUDY GUIDE

7. A rod consisting of two cylindrical portions AB and BC is restrained at both ends. Portion AB is made
of steel (Es = 29 × 106 psi, αs = 6.5 × 10–6/°F) and portion BC is made of aluminum (Ea = 10.4 × 106
psi, αa = 13.3 × 10–6/°F). The rod is initially unstressed. Determine the normal stresses induced in
portion AB by a temperature rise of 70°F. What is the corresponding deflection of point B?

8. Three 18-mm-diameter steel bolts are to be used to attach the steel plate shown to a wooden beam.
Knowing that the plate will support a 110-kN load and that the ultimate shearing stress for the steel
used is 360 MPa, determine the factor of safety for this design.

9. Three wires are used to suspend the plate shown. Aluminum wires of 1/8-in. diameter are used at A and
B while a steel wire of 1/12-in. diameter is used at C. Knowing that the allowable stress for aluminum is
14 ksi and that the allowable stress for steel is 18 ksi, determine the maximum load P that can be applied.
For aluinum, Ea = 10.4 × 106 psi and for steel, Es = 29 × 106 psi.

10. The rigid member AF is supported by two links BC and DE which are both made of steel ( E = 29 × 106
psi). The rigid member AF is supported by two links BC and DE which are both made of steel (E = 29
× 106 psi). Determine the change in length of link BC. Determine the change in length of link DE. Find
the corresponding deflection of point A.
STUDY GUIDE

FURTHER READINGS
1. Beer, Ferdinand P. E, Russel Johnston, Jr., John T. DeWolf, David F. Mazurek.
Mechanics of Materials, Fifth Edition. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2009.
2. Gere, J.M. (2013). Mechanics of Materials. Cengage Learning
3. Rajput, Er. R. K. (2018). Strength of Materials (Mechanics of Solids). New Delhi. SK
Kataria & Sons.
4. http://fast10.vsb.cz/lausova/indeterm_all.pdf
5. https://www.mathalino.com/reviewer/mechanics-and-strength-of-materials/

UNIT TASK
1. Define simple stress.
2. Find the corresponding stresses in a member subjected to an axial load.

REFERENCES
Beer, Ferdinand P. E, Russel Johnston, Jr., John T. DeWolf, David F. Mazurek. Mechanics of
Materials, Fifth Edition. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2009.