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NOVEMBER 23, 2021 / #SQL

SQL Commands Cheat Sheet –

How to Learn SQL in 10
Minutes
Jason Dsouza

I’m an AI researcher, so one of the main things I deal

with is data. A lot of it.

With more than 2.5 exabytes of data generated every day, it comes as
no surprise that this data needs to be stored somewhere where we
can access it when we need it.

This article will walk you through a hackable cheatsheet to get you up
and running with SQL quickly.

What is SQL?
SQL stands for Structured Query Language. It is a language for
relational database management systems. SQL is used today to store,
retrieve, and manipulate data within relational databases.

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Here’s what a basic relational database looks like: Forum

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Source

Using SQL, we can interact with the database by writing queries.

Here’s what an example query looks like:

SELECT * FROM customers;

Using this SELECT statement, the query selects all the data from all
the columns in the customer’s table and returns data like so:

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Source: Database Guide

The asterisk wildcard character (*) refers to “all” and selects all the
rows and columns. We can replace it with specific column names
instead — here only those columns will be returned by the query

SELECT FirstName, LastName FROM customers;

Adding a WHERE clause allows you to filter what gets returned:

SELECT * FROM customers WHERE age >= 30 ORDER BY age ASC;

This query returns all data from the products table with an age value
of greater than 30.

The use of ORDER BY keyword just means the results will be ordered
using the age column from the lowest value to the highest

Using the INSERT INTO statement, we can add new data to a table.

H ’ b i l ddi
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Here’s a basic example adding a new user to the customers table:
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INSERT INTO customers(FirstName, LastName, address, email)

VALUES ('Jason', 'Dsouza', 'McLaren Vale, South Australia', 'test@fakeGma

Of course, these examples demonstrate only a very small selection of

what the SQL language can do. We'll learn more about it in this guide.

Why Learn SQL?

We live in the age of Big Data, where data is used extensively to find
insights and inform strategy, marketing, advertising and a plethora of
other operations.

Big businesses like Google, Amazon, AirBnb utilize large, relational

databases as a basis of improving customer experience.
Understanding SQL is a great skill to have not only for data scientists
and analysts but for everyone.

How do you think that you suddenly got a Youtube ad on shoes when just a
few minutes ago, you were Googling your favourite shoes? That’s SQL (or a
form of SQL) at work!

SQL vs MySQL
Before we move on, I just want to clarify an often-confused topic — the
difference between SQL and MySQL. As it turns out, they aren’t the
same thing!

SQL i l hil M SQL i

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SQL is a language, while MySQL is a system to implement SQL.
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SQL outlines syntax that allows you to write queries that manage
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relational databases.

MySQL is a database system that runs on a server. It allows you to

write queries using SQL syntax to manage MySQL databases.

In addition to MySQL, there are other systems that implement SQL.

Some of the more popular ones include:

SQLite

Oracle Database

PostgreSQL

Microsoft SQL Server

How to Install MySQL

For most cases, MySQL is the preferred choice for a database
management system. Many popular Content Management Systems
(like Wordpress) use MySQL by default, so using MySQL to manage
those applications can be a good idea.

In order to use MySQL, you’ll need to install it on your system:

Install MySQL on Windows

The recommended way to install MySQL on Windows is by using the
MSI installer from the MySQL website.

This resource will guide you with the installation process.

I ll M SQL
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Install MySQL on macOS Forum

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This resource will guide you through the installation process.

How to Use MySQL

With MySQL now installed on your system, I recommend that you use
some sort of SQL management application to make managing your
databases a much easier process.

There are lots of apps to choose from which largely do the same job,
so it’s down to your own personal preference on which one to use:

MySQL Workbench developed by Oracle

phpMyAdmin (operates in the web browser)

HeidiSQL (Recommended for Windows)

Sequel Pro (Recommended for macOS)

When you’re ready to start writing your own SQL queries, consider
importing dummy data rather than creating your own database.

Here are some dummy databases that are available for download free
of charge.

SQL Cheatsheet – The Icing on the

Cake 
SQL Keywords
H fi d ll ti
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Here you can find a collection of keywords used in SQL statements, a
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Where MySQL is mentioned next to an example, this means this

example is only applicable to MySQL databases (as opposed to any
other database system).

ADD -- Adds a new column to an existing table

ADD CONSTRAINT -- Creates a new constraint on an existing table, which is

ALTER TABLE -- Adds, deletes or edits columns in a table. It can also be

ALTER COLUMN -- Changes the data type of a table’s column.

ALL -- Returns true if all of the subquery values meet the passed conditi

AND -- Used to join separate conditions within a WHERE clause.

ANY -- Returns true if any of the subquery values meet the given conditio

AS -- Renames a table or column with an alias value which only exists for

ASC -- Used with ORDER BY to return the data in ascending order.

BETWEEN -- Selects values within the given range.

CASE -- Changes query output depending on conditions.

CHECK -- Adds a constraint that limits the value which can be added to a

CREATE DATABASE -- Creates a new database.

CREATE TABLE -- Creates a new table.

DEFAULT -- Sets a default value for a column

DELETE -- Delete data from a table.

DESC -- Used with ORDER BY to return the data in descending order.

DROP COLUMN -- Deletes a column from a table

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DROP COLUMN -- Deletes a column from a table.

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DROP DATABASE -- Deletes the entire database.

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DROP DEAFULT -- Removes a default value for a column.

DROP TABLE -- Deletes a table from a database.

EXISTS -- Checks for the existence of any record within the subquery, ret

FROM -- Specifies which table to select or delete data from.

IN -- Used alongside a WHERE clause as a shorthand for multiple OR condi

INSERT INTO -- Adds new rows to a table.

IS NULL -- Tests for empty (NULL) values.

IS NOT NULL -- The reverse of NULL. Tests for values that aren’t empty /

LIKE -- Returns true if the operand value matches a pattern.

NOT -- Returns true if a record DOESN’T meet the condition.

OR -- Used alongside WHERE to include data when either condition is true.

ORDER BY -- Used to sort the result data in ascending (default) or descen

ROWNUM -- Returns results where the row number meets the passed condition

SELECT -- Used to select data from a database, which is then returned in

SELECT DISTINCT -- Sames as SELECT, except duplicate values are excluded.

SELECT INTO -- Copies data from one table and inserts it into another.

SELECT TOP -- Allows you to return a set number of records to return from

SET -- Used alongside UPDATE to update existing data in a table.

SOME -- Identical to ANY.

TOP -- Used alongside SELECT to return a set number of records from a tab

TRUNCATE TABLE -- Similar to DROP, but instead of deleting the table and

UNION -- Combines the results from 2 or more SELECT statements and return
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UNION -- Combines the results from 2 or more SELECT statements and return

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UNION ALL -- The same as UNION, but includes duplicate values.

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UNIQUE -- This constraint ensures all values in a column are unique.

UPDATE -- Updates existing data in a table.

VALUES -- Used alongside the INSERT INTO keyword to add new values to a t

WHERE -- Filters results to only include data which meets the given condi

Comments in SQL
Comments allow you to explain sections of your SQL statements,
without being executed directly.

In SQL, there are 2 types of comments, single line and multiline.

Single Line Comments in SQL

Single line comments start with ‘- -’. Any text after these 2 characters
to the end of the line will be ignored.

-- This part is ignored

SELECT * FROM customers;

Multiline Comments in SQL

Multiline comments start with /* and end with */. They stretch across
multiple lines until the closing characters have been found.

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/*

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This is a multiline comment.

It can span across multiple lines.

*/

SELECT * FROM customers;

/*

This is another comment.

You can even put code within a comment to prevent its execution

SELECT * FROM icecreams;

*/

Data Types in MySQL

When creating a new table or editing an existing one, you must specify
the type of data that each column accepts.

In this example, data passed to the id column must be an int (integer),

while the FirstName column has a VARCHAR data type with a
maximum of 255 characters.

CREATE TABLE customers(

id int,

FirstName varchar(255)

);

1. String Data Types

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CHAR(size) -- Fixed length string which can contain letters, numbers
and
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BINARY(size) -- Similar to CHAR() but stores binary byte strings.

VARBINARY(size) -- Similar to VARCHAR() but for binary byte strings.

TINYBLOB -- Holds Binary Large Objects (BLOBs) with a max length of 255 b

TINYTEXT -- Holds a string with a maximum length of 255 characters. Use V

TEXT(size) -- Holds a string with a maximum length of 65535 bytes. Again,

BLOB(size) -- Holds Binary Large Objects (BLOBs) with a max length of 655

MEDIUMTEXT -- Holds a string with a maximum length of 16,777,215 characte

MEDIUMBLOB -- Holds Binary Large Objects (BLOBs) with a max length of 16,

LONGTEXT -- Holds a string with a maximum length of 4,294,967,295 charact

LONGBLOB -- Holds Binary Large Objects (BLOBs) with a max length of 4,294

ENUM(a, b, c, etc…) -- A string object that only has one value, which is

SET(a, b, c, etc…) -- A string object that can have 0 or more values, whi

2. Numeric Data Types

BIT(size) -- A bit-value type with a default of 1. The allowed number of b

TINYINT(size) -- A very small integer with a signed range of -128 to 127,

BOOL -- Essentially a quick way of setting the column to TINYINT with a si

BOOLEAN -- Same as BOOL.

SMALLINT(size) -- A small integer with a signed range of -32768 to 32767,

MEDIUMINT(size) -- A medium integer with a signed range of -8388608 to 838

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MEDIUMINT(size) -- A medium integer with a signed range of -8388608 to 838

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INT(size) -- A medium integer with a signed range of -2147483648 to 214748

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INTEGER(size) -- Same as INT.

BIGINT(size) -- A medium integer with a signed range of -92233720368547758

FLOAT(p) -- A floating point number value. If the precision (p) parameter

DOUBLE(size, d) -- A floating point number value where the total digits ar

DECIMAL(size, d) -- An exact fixed point number where the total number of

DEC(size, d) -- Same as DECIMAL.

3. Date/Time Data Types

DATE -- A simple date in YYYY-MM–DD format, with a supported range from ‘

DATETIME(fsp) -- A date time in YYYY-MM-DD hh:mm:ss format, with a suppor

TIMESTAMP(fsp) -- A Unix Timestamp, which is a value relative to the numb

By adding DEFAULT CURRENT_TIMESTAMP and ON UPDATE CURRENT TIMESTAMP to th

TIME(fsp) -- A time in hh:mm:ss format, with a supported range from ‘-838

YEAR -- A year, with a supported range of ‘1901’ to ‘2155’.

SQL Operators
1. Arithmetic Operators in SQL

+ -- Add

– -- Subtract

* -- Multiply
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* -- Multiply

/ -- Divide
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% -- Modulus
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2. Bitwise Operators in SQL

& -- Bitwise AND

| -- Bitwise OR

^-- Bitwise XOR

3. Comparison Operators in SQL

= -- Equal to

> -- Greater than

< -- Less than

>= -- Greater than or equal to

<= -- Less than or equal to

<> -- Not equal to

4. Compound Operators in SQL

+= -- Add equals

-= -- Subtract equals
*= -- Multiply equals
/= -- Divide equals

%= -- Modulo equals

&= -- Bitwise AND equals

^-= -- Bitwise exclusive equals

|*= -- Bitwise OR equals

SQL F ti
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SQL Functions Forum

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1. String Functions in SQL
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ASCII -- Returns the equivalent ASCII value for a specific character.

CHAR_LENGTH -- Returns the character length of a string.

CHARACTER_LENGTH -- Same as CHAR_LENGTH.

CONCAT -- Adds expressions together, with a minimum of 2.

CONCAT_WS -- Adds expressions together, but with a separator between each

FIELD -- Returns an index value relative to the position of a value withi

FIND IN SET -- Returns the position of a string in a list of strings.

FORMAT -- When passed a number, returns that number formatted to include

INSERT -- Allows you to insert one string into another at a certain point

INSTR -- Returns the position of the first time one string appears within

LCASE -- Converts a string to lowercase.

LEFT -- Starting from the left, extracts the given number of characters f

LENGTH -- Returns the length of a string, but in bytes.

LOCATE -- Returns the first occurrence of one string within another,

LOWER -- Same as LCASE.

LPAD -- Left pads one string with another, to a specific length.

LTRIM -- Removes any leading spaces from the given string.

MID -- Extracts one string from another, starting from any position.

POSITION -- Returns the position of the first time one substring appears

REPEAT -- Allows you to repeat a string

REPLACE -- Allows you to replace any instances of a substring within a st

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REVERSE -- Reverses the string. Forum

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RPAD -- Right pads one string with another, to a specific length.

RTRIM -- Removes any trailing spaces from the given string.

SPACE -- Returns a string full of spaces equal to the amount you pass it.

STRCMP -- Compares 2 strings for differences

SUBSTR -- Extracts one substring from another, starting from any position

SUBSTRING -- Same as SUBSTR

SUBSTRING_INDEX -- Returns a substring from a string before the passed su

TRIM -- Removes trailing and leading spaces from the given string. Same a

UCASE -- Converts a string to uppercase.

UPPER -- Same as UCASE.

2. Numeric Functions in SQL

ABS -- Returns the absolute value of the given number.

ACOS -- Returns the arc cosine of the given number.

ASIN -- Returns the arc sine of the given number.

ATAN -- Returns the arc tangent of one or 2 given numbers.

ATAN2 -- Returns the arc tangent of 2 given numbers.

AVG -- Returns the average value of the given expression.

CEIL -- Returns the closest whole number (integer) upwards from a given d

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CEILING -- Same as CEIL.

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COT -- Returns the cotangent of a given number.

COUNT -- Returns the amount of records that are returned by a SELECT quer

DEGREES -- Converts a radians value to degrees.

DIV -- Allows you to divide integers.

EXP -- Returns e to the power of the given number.

FLOOR -- Returns the closest whole number (integer) downwards from a give

GREATEST -- Returns the highest value in a list of arguments.

LEAST -- Returns the smallest value in a list of arguments.

LN -- Returns the natural logarithm of the given number.

LOG -- Returns the natural logarithm of the given number, or the logarith

LOG10 -- Does the same as LOG, but to base 10.

LOG2 -- Does the same as LOG, but to base 2.

MAX -- Returns the highest value from a set of values.

MIN -- Returns the lowest value from a set of values.

MOD -- Returns the remainder of the given number divided by the other giv

PI -- Returns PI.

POW -- Returns the value of the given number raised to the power of the o

POWER -- Same as POW.

RADIANS -- Converts a degrees value to radians.

RAND -- Returns a random number.

ROUND -- Rounds the given number to the given amount of decimal places.

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SIGN -- Returns the sign of the given number.

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SQRT -- Returns the square root of the given number.

SUM -- Returns the value of the given set of values combined.

TAN -- Returns the tangent of the given number.

TRUNCATE -- Returns a number truncated to the given number of decimal pla

3. Date Functions in SQL

ADDDATE -- Adds a date interval (eg: 10 DAY) to a date (eg: 20/01/20) a

ADDTIME -- Adds a time interval (eg: 02:00) to a time or datetime (05:0

CURDATE -- Gets the current date.

CURRENT_DATE -- Same as CURDATE.

CURRENT_TIME -- Gest the current time.

CURRENT_TIMESTAMP -- Gets the current date and time.

CURTIME -- Same as CURRENT_TIME.

DATE -- Extracts the date from a datetime expression.

DATEDIFF -- Returns the number of days between the 2 given dates.

DATE_ADD -- Same as ADDDATE.

DATE_FORMAT -- Formats the date to the given pattern.

DATE_SUB -- Subtracts a date interval (eg: 10 DAY) to a date (eg: 20/01

DAY -- Returns the day for the given date.

DAYNAME -- Returns the weekday name for the given date

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DAYNAME -- Returns the weekday name for the given date.

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DAYOFWEEK -- Returns the index for the weekday for the given date.

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DAYOFYEAR -- Returns the day of the year for the given date.

EXTRACT -- Extracts from the date the given part (eg MONTH for 20/01/20

FROM DAYS -- Returns the date from the given numeric date value.

HOUR -- Returns the hour from the given date.

LAST DAY -- Gets the last day of the month for the given date.

LOCALTIME -- Gets the current local date and time.

LOCALTIMESTAMP -- Same as LOCALTIME.

MAKEDATE -- Creates a date and returns it, based on the given year and

MAKETIME -- Creates a time and returns it, based on the given hour, min

MICROSECOND -- Returns the microsecond of a given time or datetime.

MINUTE -- Returns the minute of the given time or datetime.

MONTH -- Returns the month of the given date.

MONTHNAME -- Returns the name of the month of the given date.

NOW -- Same as LOCALTIME.

PERIOD_ADD -- Adds the given number of months to the given period.

PERIOD_DIFF -- Returns the difference between 2 given periods.

QUARTER -- Returns the year quarter for the given date.

SECOND -- Returns the second of a given time or datetime.

SEC_TO_TIME -- Returns a time based on the given seconds.

STR_TO_DATE -- Creates a date and returns it based on the given string

SUBDATE -- Same as DATE_SUB.

SUBTIME -- Subtracts a time interval (eg: 02:00) to a time or datetime

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SUBTIME -- Subtracts a time interval (eg: 02:00) to a time or datetime

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SYSDATE -- Same as LOCALTIME.

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TIME -- Returns the time from a given time or datetime.

TIME_FORMAT -- Returns the given time in the given format.

TIME_TO_SEC -- Converts and returns a time into seconds.

TIMEDIFF -- Returns the difference between 2 given time/datetime expres

TIMESTAMP -- Returns the datetime value of the given date or datetime.

TO_DAYS -- Returns the total number of days that have passed from ‘00-0

WEEK -- Returns the week number for the given date.

WEEKDAY -- Returns the weekday number for the given date.

WEEKOFYEAR -- Returns the week number for the given date.

YEAR -- Returns the year from the given date.

YEARWEEK -- Returns the year and week number for the given date.

4. Miscellaneous Functions in SQL

BIN -- Returns the given number in binary.

BINARY -- Returns the given value as a binary string.

CAST -- Converst one type into another.

COALESCE -- From a list of values, returns the first non-null value.

CONNECTION_ID -- For the current connection, returns the unique connect

CONV -- Converts the given number from one numeric base system into ano

CONVERT -- Converts the given value into the given datatype or characte

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CURRENT_USER -- Returns the user and hostname which was used
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DATABASE -- Gets thetoname
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GROUP BY -- Used alongside aggregate functions (COUNT, MAX, MIN, SUM, A

HAVING -- Used in the place of WHERE with aggregate functions.

IF -- If the condition is true it returns a value, otherwise it returns

IFNULL -- If the given expression equates to null, it returns the given

ISNULL -- If the expression is null, it returns 1, otherwise returns 0

LAST_INSERT_ID -- For the last row which was added or updated in a tabl

NULLIF -- Compares the 2 given expressions. If they are equal, NULL is

SESSION_USER -- Returns the current user and hostnames.

SYSTEM_USER -- Same as SESSION_USER.

USER -- Same as SESSION_USER.

VERSION -- Returns the current version of the MySQL powering the databa

Wildcard Characters in SQL

In SQL, Wildcards are special characters used with the LIKE and NOT
LIKE keywords. This allows us to search for data with sophisticated
patterns rather efficiently.

% -- Equates to zero or more characters.

-- Example: Find all customers with surnames ending in ‘ory’.

SELECT * FROM customers

WHERE surname LIKE '%ory';

-- Equates to any single character

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_ -- Equates to any single character.

-- Example: Find all customers living in cities beginningForum

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SELECT * FROM customers

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[charlist] -- Equates to any single character in the list.

-- Example: Find all customers with first names beginning with J, K or

SELECT * FROM customers

WHERE first_name LIKE '[jkt]%';

SQL Keys
In relational databases, there is a concept of primary and foreign keys.
In SQL tables, these are included as constraints, where a table can
have a primary key, a foreign key, or both.

1. Primary Keys in SQL

A primary lets each record in a table be uniquely identified. You can
only have one primary key per table, and you can assign this constraint
to any single or combination of columns. However, this means each
value within this column(s) needs to be unique.

Typically in a table, the ID column is a primary key, and is usually

paired with the AUTO_INCREMENT keyword. This means the value
increases automatically as and when new records are created.

Example (MySQL)
Create a new table and set the primary key to the ID column.

CREATE TABLE customers (

id int NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT,

FirstName varchar(255),

Last Name varchar(255) NOT NULL,

address varchar(255)
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address varchar(255),

email varchar(255),
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2. Foreign Keys in SQL

You can apply a foreign key to one column or many. You use it to link 2
tables together in a relational database.

The table containing the foreign key is called the child key,

The table containing the referenced (or candidate) key is called the
parent table.

This essentially means that the column data is shared between 2

tables, because a foreign key also prevents invalid data from being
inserted which isn’t also present in the parent table.

Example (MySQL)
Create a new table and turn any column that references IDs in other
tables into foreign keys.

CREATE TABLE orders (

id int NOT NULL,

user_id int,

product_id int,

PRIMARY KEY (id),

FOREIGN KEY (user_id) REFERENCES users(id),

FOREIGN KEY (product_id) REFERENCES products(id)

);

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Indexes in SQL Forum

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frequently searched against to make data retrieval a quicker and more
efficient process.

CREATE INDEX -- Creates an index named ‘idx_test’ on the first_name and s

CREATE INDEX idx_test
ON users (first_name, surname);

CREATE UNIQUE INDEX -- The same as the above, but no duplicate values.

CREATE UNIQUE INDEX idx_test

ON users (first_name, surname);

DROP INDEX -- Removes an index.

ALTER TABLE users

DROP INDEX idx_test;

SQL Joins
In SQL, a JOIN clause is used to return a result which combines data
from multiple tables, based on a common column which is featured in
both of them.

There are a number of different joins available for you to use:

Inner Join (Default): Returns any records which have matching

values in both tables.

Left Join: Returns all of the records from the first table, along
with any matching records from the second table.

Right Join: Returns all of the records from the second table,
along with any matching records from the first.

Full Join: Returns all records from both tables when there is a
match.
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A common wayLearn
of visualising
to code —how
free joins work is
3,000-hour like this:
curriculum

Source: Website Setup

SELECT orders.id, users.FirstName, users.Surname, products.name as ‘produ

FROM orders

INNER JOIN users on orders.user_id = users.id

INNER JOIN products on orders.product_id = products.id;

Views in SQL
A view is essentially an SQL results set that gets stored in the
database under a label, so you can return to it later without having to
rerun the query.

These are especially useful when you have a costly SQL query which
you might need a number of times. So instead of running it over and
over to generate the same results set, you can just do it once and save
it as a view.

How to Create Views in SQL

To create a view, you can do so like this:

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CREATE VIEW priority_users AS

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SELECT * FROM users

WHERE country Learn to code

= ‘United — free 3,000-hour curriculum
Kingdom’;

Then in future, if you need to access the stored result set, you can do
so like this:

SELECT * FROM [priority_users];

How to Replace Views in SQL

With the CREATE OR REPLACE command, you can update a view like
this:

CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW [priority_users] AS

SELECT * FROM users

WHERE country = ‘United Kingdom’ OR country=’USA’;

How to Delete Views in SQL

To delete a view, simply use the DROP VIEW command.

DROP VIEW priority_users;

Conclusion
Th j it f b it
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4/3/22, 2:03 PM SQL Commands Cheat Sheet – How to Learn SQL in 10 Minutes
The majority of websites and applications use relational databases in
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some way or the other. This makes SQL extremely valuable to know as
it allows you toLearn
createtomore
code — free 3,000-hour
complex, curriculum
functional systems.

Be sure to follow me on Twitter for updates on future articles. Happy

learning!

Jason Dsouza
AI Researcher @Harvard, Teacher @freeCodeCamp. Part-time Compiler
Warlock.

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