The time of almost five hundred years from 2 nd century BC to the rise of the Gupta dynasty, it can be

divided into two eras. In the first era where empires were established in India by foreign invaders. On the
other hand, the second era was of re-establishment of religion and culture by the Indians by ending the
foreign power. Similarly, this period was a period of commercial-cultural progress-prosperity and
development of innovative trends, parallel to disturbance, crisis and solution arising under the traditional
social system due to foreign castes.

Due to the settlement of foreigners in India and economic development, non-Aryan castes associated with
many new professions started entering the society here, creating a crisis of disintegration of the
varnashram system. In Gargi Samhita, Mahabharata and Puranas, a sense of despair and concern has been
expressed towards it. In such a transitional state, Smriti writers like Manu and Yajnavalkya propounded
social rules by including foreign and newly existing castes within the purview of the original varna
system. Though, theoretically, varnas were defined according to virtues and deeds, but in practice, varnas
were recognized as ‘castes’ due to the determination of varnas by birth.Declaring these castes to be out of
the basic structure of Chaturvarna, legalization was provided by combining them with the principle of
Jatyutkarsha and Jatyapakrsha. In this era, untouchability was limited only to Chandalas and equivalent
castes.

Providing a proper response to the tendency of contemporary Indian society to assimilate foreign castes
and stereotypes, these caste groups adopted Indian language script (Brahmi Kharosthi) parallel to their
language-script and gods and goddesses and life-behavior to Vedic gods and Buddha. Like Heliodorus
Vimakadphisas, Kanishka, Nahapana and Minander followed Bhagwat, Shaivism and Buddhism
respectively. Yonak Dharmadeva's son Indragnidatta, Yavan Sinhavaya Shak Ushavadat and his son
Mitdevganak Yavan Haril and Chit made many donations to the Buddhist Sanghas. Parallel to the Greeks,
the Shakas, Kushans and Pahlavas also merged with the Indian society and culture. Later on, the Saka
rulers started using Pakshas and months according to Indian Panchang in place of Greek Panchang.
Similarly, marking of Indian symbols and gods and goddesses on the coins of Shaka-Kushan kings,
adoption of Indian names and matrimonial relations with Satavahana and Ikshvaku dynasty kings,These
are examples of Indianization of foreign castes.

The most important feature of this era is the emergence of innovative thoughts and new elements under
the prevalent religions. The emergence of Bhagavata, Shaiva and Mahayana sects proves this fact. In fact,
this period was of a counter-revolution made by the Vedic religion by reinterpreting its principles against
the Jain-Buddhist revolutions that took place against the traditions of the Vedic religion. As a result, the
knowledge and rituals oriented religion assumed the form of devotional oriented Vaishnavism and
Shaivism. Which proved to be quite popular. The Mahayana sect played the same role in Buddhism.

In this era of all-round flourishing in the field of literature, classical works were also created in Tamil in
the form of parallel Sangam literature of Sanskrit and Prakrit. Patanjali Ashvaghosha, Bhasa, Shudraka,
Charaka, Sushruta Vatsyayana, Nagarjuna, Vasubandhu, Nagasena, Hala and Gunadhya were the main
authors of this period. Systematic compilation of principles of Shad Darshan, preparation of various
smiritis, creation of scientific and cosmic literature were the specialties of this period.
Many parts of Ramayana, Mahabharata and Puranas are also said to have been composed during this
peridols
Parallel to the emergence of Gandhara and Mathura styles under art,
in place of wood The development of stone-craft, especially the art of building caves, chaityas, viharas
and sangharams by cutting the rocks of the mountains, is the gift of this era. Along with Buddha, idols of
Brahmin and Jain deities were made in abundance during this period. The royal form of the early
Mauryan art has now become the basis for the presentation of tableaux of life under Sunga, Satavahana
and Kushan art. The Sputs of Sanchi and Bharhut, Chaitya of Karle and ornate caves of Maharashtra-
Orissa are examples of this. While the early Mathura art style was idealistic, the Gandhara art style was
realistic.
Contemporary folk life has been reflected in the engraving of human idols under the sculpture of
Amaravati.

Sangam Age :-
In ancient times Southern India was ruled by the rulers of three dynasties Chera, Chola and Pandya
kingdom, which is called 'Sangam Age'. Information about the civilization and culture of ancient southern
India comes from 'Sangam Literature'. There were many poets and writers in the first three Sangams,
many of whose works are still available today. The creation period of these creations is believed to be
between 100 AD to 300 AD. Ashta Padavali, Dasgeet, 18 short sermon songs, epics etc. were composed
during this period. The Brahmin political class (Arsar), merchant class (Venigar), landowners, cultivators
(Vellalas) and professional castes had a notable place in the Sangam period society. The Tamilians
followed the eight types of marriages mentioned in the scriptures. Sati system was also prevalent. Female
education was specially given in dance and music. Courtesans and dancers are also mentioned in Sangam
period literature. Rich people lived in grand buildings made of bricks and mortar and poor people lived in
grass-thatched huts. Niramish and Samish both were prevalent in food and drink. Various means of
entertainment are mentioned in the literature. Many types of superstitions were also prevalent among the
Tamils of this period. There were two methods of cremation of the dead – cremation and burial. Sangam
period literature also gives information about the administrative system, in which the king, council of
ministers, city assembly and village assembly, judicial system, military system and revenue system are
prominent.

11.5 Literature of the Sangam Age

The history of Tamil literature begins with 'Sangam'. As mentioned earlier, tradition gives information
about three Sangams. The first Sangam was located in ancient Madurai, but that Madurai is now
submerged in the Indian Ocean. According to the description of Tamil literature, the total number of its
members was 549 and more than 4499 writers gave their works to the Sangam, but no texts of the first
Sangam are available.

The second Sangam was located at Kapatapuram (Alaivan). A total of 3700 poets' works were compiled
in this Sangam. The authentic works of this period are Tolkappiyam Agattiyam Mapuranam Kalinyalmale,
Bhootpuranam, Vendali, Kuruku etc. There were 8149 compositions in the library of this Sangam, but that
too got drowned in the sea. The only surviving work of the second Sangam is the Tolkappiyam, which is a
Tamil grammar
Tolkappiyam is considered a great text of the Second Sangam but many scholars consider it to be a much
later creation. This is the oldest text of Tamil grammar. Tolkappiyar, one of the 12 most qualified disciples
of Agastya Rishi, is its author. It is divided into three sections and nine sub-sections. The first section
deals with the concept of Varna (Iluthu), the second section with its origin (Mola) and the third section
with matter (Porul). in the first two sections Tamil language and The social, economic, political and
religious conditions of the time have been described contextually in the third section. This grammar book
is actually a manual for language management as well as Dharma, Artha, Kama, Moksha Saram, Paurul,
Invam Bindu). It is the oldest available Tamil literature. Many later scholars have also written
commentaries on this verse. The creations of the third Sangam can be divided into three categories- First
Edutok or eduthokai (eight stanzas), second pattuppattu or patyupattu (ten village songs) and third -
Padinekilkanakku (eighteen short sermon songs).

Epics-
Five great epics were also written in the later Sangam period under Sanskrit influence, Silappadikaram,
Manimekhalai, Jivaka Chintamani, Valayapati and Kundalakeshi. The first two epics are compared to the
Ramayana and the Mahabharata. They provide important information about Tamil history in the early
centuries of Christ. Among the minor epics are Yashodhar's Chuda Mani Udayan's Vyam, Nag Kumar's
Vyaya and Neelkoshi.

The Sangam literature does not provide sufficient information about the administrative system of the
Sangam age, but still the information we get is important. The 'Kural' composed by Thiruvalluvar throws
important light on Rajshastra. Apart from Kural, Silappadikaram and Manimekale are also very useful.
11.10 Glossary

Sangam : - A body of scholars who collected and classified ancient Tamil works.
Akam :- . a collection of poems written on personal experiences like love etc.
Puram :- Such a collection of poems in which objective experiences on topic like loot are written .

Bhat :- People who traveled around composing and singing poems in praise of their patrons.
Turay :- . A type of poetic tradition according to which the focus in the Puram poems is on the title scene.

GUPTA ERA :-
13.7 Literature

It is unquestionably accepted that the Gupta age is a golden chapter in the tradition of Indian literature. In
this era, there was an unprecedented development of Sanskrit literature. This era is the era of versatile
creation of the best literature. Most of the major Puranas and Smriti-literature were completed in this era
only. Probably Ramayana and Mahabharata, in the form in which they are available today, were
established in the Gupta era. But the most important thing is that there was an unprecedented
development of secular literature in this era. From a creative point of view, it can be said that in the Gupta
era all the genres of literature flourished. Dramatists and poets like Kalidasa, Bhavabhuti, Bharavi and
Magha Dandin, prose writers like Subandhu and Baana, litterateurs like Bhamah, grammarians like
Chandra, Vamana and Bhartrihari, lexicographers like Amar, philosophers like Gaurpad Kumaril and
Prabhakar and astronomers like Aryabhata and Varahmihir. Happened.
Many historians believe that the Gupta-age was the age of renaissance of Sanskrit literature. In the light
of the facts, this assumption does not seem to be justified. Sanskrit literature did not die out in the period
preceding the Gupta era. Classic writers like Bhasa and Ashvaghosha were born in this era. Similarly, the
Mandsaur inscriptions of Prayag Prashasti and Vatsabhatti written by Harishena prove that the poetic style
full of exaggeration and pomp had matured in the fourth and fifth centuries AD. That’s why instead of
calling this era the era of ‘Renaissance’ of literature, it can be called the era of the fruition of literature.

13.7.1 Puranic Literature

The Gupta age is famous for its Puranic literature. In Vedic literature the word ‘Purana’ was used with
‘Itihaas’. In the classical definition of ‘Purana’ its five characteristics have been enumerated (1) Sarga
(creation), (2) Pratisarga (re-creation after annihilation), (3) Vansh (genealogies of gods and sages), (4)
Manvantara ( Mahayuga, which begins with the progenitor great man Manu) and (5) Vamsanucharit
(history of various dynasties). Ideally, a Purana is one that has these five characteristics. But the above
definition is not fully applicable in the available Puranic literature. There are many Puranas which do not
have the above-mentioned ‘five symptoms’ and there are many whose ‘subject matter’ is much more than
‘five symptoms’.
The list of Puranas found in the Puranas, eighteen Puranas have been counted in them, Brahm, Padma,
Vishnu, Vayu, Bhagwat. Narada, Markandeya, Agni, Bhavishya, Brahmavaivarta, Linga, Varaha, Skanda,
Vamana, Kurma, Matsya, Garuda and Brahmanda Purana. In the Padma Purana, these Puranas are
classified on the basis of ‘qualities’ and each class is associated with a presiding deity. Vishnu Narada,
Bhagavata, Garuda and Padya Puranas are Vaishnava and ‘Satvik’ Puranas. It is believed that due to being
pure, one attains salvation by reciting them. Brahmanda, Brahmavaivarta, Markandeya, Bhavishya,
Vamana and Brahma are full of ‘Rajas’ quality and are dedicated to Brahma. By recitation of them one
get heaven.

Matsya, Kurma, Linga Shiva, Skanda and Agni are of ‘Tamas’ quality shaiva puran and by reading them
one gets hell. Such is the popular belief.

Brahma Purana is also called Adi Purana. It is probably the oldest of the Puranas. A large part of it is
devoted to various legends related to Shri Krishna. Apart from creation, genealogies and songs of glory,
myths and legends related to Shakuntala, Pururva, Ram, Hrishyashringa etc. are found in Pak Purana.
Among all the Puranas, Vishnu Purana is such a Purana which is full of ‘five symptoms’. In this, Vishnu
has been established as the supreme power. The Bhagavata Purana is the most popular Purana but is
chronologically of a much later period, containing many stories in the glory of Shiva, besides other
mythological subjects.
Bhavishya Purana Who was the creator of the Puranas? The generally accepted view in this regard is that
like the original authors of the epics, the original authors of the Puranas were the Sutas or the Bhatas.
That is why in almost all the Puranas, Suta Lomaharshan and his son Ugrashrava have been called the
reciters or reciters of the Puranas. The tradition of singing and reciting heroic stories is very old in India.
In the later Vedic age, Narashansi gathas used to narrate by Sut and Bhat.

The role of Puranas in the development and popularization of Hinduism is undeniable. The famous
German Indologist Winternitz says that the Puranas help us to understand the different stages of the
development of Hinduism. Not only this, such a vision of understanding various aspects of Hindu
religion, its myths, worship-law, deism and pantheism, devotional philosophy and belief, its festivals and
ethics, is found which is not found in other texts.
13.7.2 Cosmic (Laukik) Literature

The Gupta era was an era of unprecedented fervor of cosmic literature. The creative literature of this era
became the source and basis of theatrical classical and poetic classical criticism and discussion in the later
era. Many historians consider Bharat Muni’s Natyashastra to be of the Gupta era. This text is such a basic
text on dance, drama and poetry that influenced the classical ideas related to these arts.
In this era, there were many excellent creators in the genres of poetry, drama and prose etc. of Sanskrit
literature. Among these, the name of Kalidas is paramount, he is considered not only of the Gupta era, but
of India’s greatest poet and dramatist of all time. Kalidas composed three plays, two epics and one short
poem. Malavikagnimitra, Vikramorvashiya and Abhijnanasakuntala are very famous among the three
plays of Kalidasa. Similarly, both his epics Raghuvansh and Kumarasambhava are world famous works.
Meghdoot and Ritusamhar are simple but effective compositions in short poems.
While comparing the merits of Kalidasa’s works, Indologist and famous litterateur of Sanskrit literature,
Keith says that Indian literary critics have considers Meghdoot in Kalidasa’s poemsto be the best poetry
from the point of view of brevity of expression, profusion of subject matter, ability to awaken
rasanubhuti.

But Kumarasambhava is closer to modern taste and taste due to the splendor of rich multifaceted
imagination and the depth of feeling and emotion,
but Raghuvansh, which is somewhat inferior in comparison to Kumarasambhava, according to the
definition of poets, can be called the best example of epic style.

According to Keith, Kalidas is the unique master of Indian poetic style. His proficiency in the use of
similes and figures of speech is well known. Kalidas has been immortalized by his graceful and elegant
post-scheme, the ability of subtle observation of man and nature, the refinement of natural aesthetic
language and expressions, the efficiency in the use of metaphors etc., the nobility of thought and the
meaningfulness of expression. No dramatist and poet has been able to equal him, let alone be superior to
him.

After Kalidas, there were many capable poets and dramatists in the Gupta era. Whose contribution to
Indian literature is unforgettable. Shudrak, Bhavabhuti, Sri Harsha and Bhattanarayan among dramatists
and Bharavi, Magha and Atti are prominent among poets.

13.7.3 Drama

Three plays of Shudraka are available, Veenavasavadatta, Padmaprabhritaka and Mricchakatika. Among
these, Mrichchatik is more famous. It is a long play of ten acts based on the plot of Bhasa’s play
Daridracharudatta, but Shuddhaka has shown his special theatrical talent by adding a subplot to it.
Visakhadatta’s Mudrarakshas is a completely different type of drama from its predecessors. Its
background is of the Maurya period and the plot of political conspiracy, cleverness, fraud etc. is
fundamental in it. In this play, Chandragupta Maurya’s Chief Minister Chanakya destroys the remaining
enemies (Malayketu etc.) after eradicating the Nandas. Among other famous plays of Visakhadatta,
Devichandraguptam is based on the plot of the killing of the last Saka ruler by Chandragupta
Vikramaditya. Abhisarikshavanchita is a sequel to Bhasa’s play Swapnavasavadatta, and Raghavananda
portrays the Rama-Ravana war and the heroic character of Rama, all these three plays were popular
among ancient critics. In these, the rare statue of presenting the character of the characters on the stage of
painting is introduced.

Ancient Indian dramatists compare Bhavabhuti’s dramatic talent with that of Kalidas. Many critics have
raised Bhavabhuti’s play Uttaramcharit even higher than the plays of Kalidas. In this, there has been a
great explanation of religious effort. The name of Shri Harsh is paramount among the political dramatists.
The credit for creation of Three plays-Ratnavali,Priyadarshika, Nagananda is given to Harsha. Nagananda
is a dramatization of the story of a Bodhisattva. Ratnavali and Priyadarshika are fictional stories with
King Udayan as the protagonist.
Among other important works, Harsha’s contemporary Pallava ruler Mahendravarman I wrote a farce
called Mattavilas. Venisanhar composed by Bhattanarayan is considered to be the best drama based on the
war of Mahabharata. It mainly depicts the vows made by Bhima – that he would kill Duryodhana’s thigh
in the mace fight.

Poetry –
Bharavi’s name is paramount among the epic writers after Kalidas. Kiratarjuniyam composed by him is
counted among the best poems. It is the poetry of Viraras. It is based on the episode of the battle between
Arjuna and his deity Shiva, described in the Mahabharata, who appears in the form of Kirat to test his
prowess and prowess.
The Shishupalavadha of Magha has been highly praised by the critics. In this, The story of the slaying of
Shishupala by Shri Krishna is narrated by Slight changes in the original plot to enhance the performance
of Rasa.

Bhatti is famous for his two ‘grammatical’ poetic works, Ravanavadh and Ravanarjuniyam. In
Ravanavadh, Bhatti has systematically presented the principles of etymology and derivation of Sanskrit
through the story of the killing of Ravana by Rama. In Ravanarjuniyam, Panini’s grammar is presented
through the story of Ravana’s defeat by Arjun Kritavirya.

In the Gupta era, a class of poetry-literature is known as Shataks. Bhartrihari's Three shataks – Shringar,
Niti and Vairagyashatak are considered to be high quality poetic compositions. After these there are
shataks of Amaru or Amaruk. There are three versions of Amarukashtak available. These are basically
love makeup poems.
Prose literature-
Banabhatta, Dandin and Subandhu are prominent among the prose writers of this era. His works are either
based on historical events or are completely fictional. In Amarkosh, compositions based on historical
facts were classified as ‘narrative’ and completely imaginary compositionsCalled ‘story’.
Baan himself has called Harshacharita a narrative and Kadambari a story.
The major works of Baan are Harshacharita and Kadambari. It describes the events of Harsha’s life till his
ascension to the throne. Kadambari is a love story in which Baan interpolates several anecdotes told by its
main characters. Through Kadambari, he has successfully promoted the story of Subandhu’s composition
Vasavadatta. Baan is considered the best prose writer of this era. But in comparison to Dandi, his style has
become very cumbersome due to excessiveness, repetition and abundance of adjectives.

Dandin is famous as a prose writer for his work Dashakumarcharit. This book is a collection of interesting
and interesting stories, which the author has very skillfully presented in a thread. His prose is simple.
Although there is a lot of use of compounds, but long sentences have not been used by Dandin.

13.7.4 Fables and Fiction

The tradition of story-telling in India is very old for entertainment and amusement. By the time of the
Gupta era, saga literature had developed enough. We get its introduction from Panchatantra and
Hitopadesh. Of the many principled maxims cited in the Panchatantra, only a quarter are related to moral,
religious or philosophical ideas, the rest being related to politics and practice. Over time, variations of
Panchatantra were created at different places. The first texts of this episode are Jain Tantrakhyayik and
Saralpanchatantra composed by Tara. The most famous book based on Panchatantra is Hitopadesha. It
was composed by a person named Narayan in Bengal.

In Gatha literature, whose development is of the later Gupta era, Gunadhya’s Brihatkathamanjari (it is
missing, it has been mentioned by Subandhu, Bana and Dandin.) Kshemendra’s Brihatkatha, Somdev’s
Kathasaritsagara are kept. Apart from these, compositions like Betalpanchavinshatika, Shukasaptati
(contains seventy interesting stories of one Shuka) and Simhasanadvabhishika (Throne Battisi) were also
written for entertainment.

13.8 SCIENTIFIC DEVELOPMENTS

The Gupta era was the era of proliferation of science. In this era, development is visible in every field of
science. In this era, the theoretical side was established in all the fields. The theoretical side of medicine
also became stable in the Gupta period. The great physician of this era was Vagbhatta, he is kept at par
with Charaka and Sushruta. It appears that there were two persons named Vagbhaha. He is credited with
the writing of two texts, the Ashtanga Sangrah and the Ashtanga Hridaya Samhita.

Dhanvantari, a famous scholar of Ayurveda is mentioned in the court of Chandragupta Vikramaditya. An

Ayurvedic treatise named Naveenitakam was composed during this time. A veterinary doctor named
Palkapya had composed a book called Hastyayurveda, in which detailed light has been thrown on the
diseases of elephants and the measures related to their treatment. The presentation of atomic science by
the vaisheshika branch of philosophy is believed to have happened in this era. Buddhist philosopher
Nagarjuna was a scholar of chemistry and metallurgy, he started Ras Vidya in the field of Ayurveda.
In the Gupta era, most development took place in the field of astrology and mathematics. So far the ideas
of astronomers had not been given a theoretical form. All the knowledge related to astronomy and
astrology was scattered. Astrologers of this era theorized the scattered elements and gave a scientific form
to astrology on the basis of mathematics.

Calculation is the foundation of astrology of this era. Therefore, in this era, the principles of arithmetic
and geometry were discussed in detail in the field of mathematics. The decimal system was used in
mathematics at this time. At this time mathematics was not just pure mathematics, it was used in astrology
on all the three parts of Siddhanta Tantra and Karana. In this era, there was competition among
astrologers regarding calculations.
In this era three branches of astrology developed – Samhita, Siddhanta and Jataka. Jataka Shastra is also
called Hora. The contribution of Aryabhatta, Varahamihira and Brahmagupta among the masters of Gupta
astrology is unforgettable.

In this era where Varahamihir composed his book Panchasiddhantika by compiling famous ancient
principles for astrological calculations. Whereas Aryabhatta and Brahmagupta independently composed
their theories. Aryabhata’s famous book Aryabhatiya is a special book of Indian Siddhanta Astrology. This
is a Tantra book. Tantra texts are called those in which calculations are started from Kaliyuga. Whereas in
Karangranths there is a provision to calculate from any moment.

After Aryabhata, the name of Ganakchandrachudamani Brahmagupta is taken with great respect among
the acharyas of astrology. He created Brahmasphuta Siddhanta to calculate from his point of view. This
book is based on the ancient Surya Siddhanta and the book of Aryabhata. In the latter part of his life,
Brahmagupta had also composed a book called Khandakhadyak. This is a Karan book. Originally this text
was composed to criticize Aryabhata
In the Gupta era, some epoch-making facts were inaugurated in the field of science. At least in the field of
astrology, Aryabhata propounded some such revolutionary principles through his observation, which,
despite being true, were not accepted in the orthodox tradition of the time. Astrology and mathematics
were not separate subjects in the Gupta age. That’s why out of four chapters given in Aryabhata’s book,
two chapters are related to mathematics.

Before the Gupta era, it was believed that under the Mahayuga principle in the Indian time calculation,
the periods of Satyuga, Dwapar, Treta and Kaliyuga were not equal and gradually became shorter than
long. But Aryabhata has considered the period of all Yugapadas to be equal. This was a huge contribution
in the history of Indian astrology from the point of view of era calculation.
Further, Aryabhata declared that the earth is round and that it rotates on its axis due to which we
experience day and night. Due to the rotation of the Earth on its axis, the stars appear to be moving even
though they are stationary. Today we know that Aryabhata’s statement was correct but Gupta scientists
including Varahamihira, Brahmagupta, Lalla, Sripati and Bhaskara II all criticized Aryabhata considering
the earth to be stable and rejected his ideas as knowledge. . Aryabhata also tried to explain the action of
solar and lunar eclipse scientifically. He tried his best to make the teachers of this subject accept the real
facts except the legend of Rahu and Ketu popular for solar and lunar eclipses in the then classical world.
But he failed. In fact, at this time it was not an easy thing to establish new sources amidst the
obscurantism of the scholars. Nevertheless, Aryabhata tried to see the truth in the form of a true scientist,
moving away from religion. Whether it is the question of calculation of era or the principle of rotation of
the earth on its axis.

Probably due to the orthodox bias, science did not develop as much as it should have happened in the
Gupa period and after that. There were many reasons for the hindrance in this scientific development. In
this era, all the scientists instead of taking the basic fact to heart, tried to accept their theory, whether it is
true to the calculation or not. For this, he used to write a separate book to criticize other teachers. In other
words, there was no tradition of mutual discussion in the Gupta period. The scientist of this time was
steeped in personal pride of his achievements. Second, the scientists of this time were not prepared to give
up religious beliefs. While acceptance of principles based on observation and logic, not faith, is the first
condition for the development of science. Thirdly, the scientific masters of this time did not compose
simple texts, they invented new methods in science writing to display their scholarship. Which used to be
a complex method not only for the common man but also for the then scientists.
For example, Aryabhata, while presenting mathematical problems by assigning numerical value to vowels
and consonants of Devanagari letters, made such verses in which the whole calculation changed if there
was a small mistake . In reality, this method of mathematics can be called a scholarly invention, but it has
become very difficult to understand astrological calculations. In such a situation, it was futile to expect
continuity in scientific development.
Art:-
Sculpture, painting, architecture are mainly kept under the arts. Amazing enthusiasm is seen in these three
areas, especially in sculpture and painting. Art was given a classical form in the Gupta era. Standards
were set in all areas. Their identity was determined by the signs In the art forms.

13.9.1 Temple Architecture

The available remains of Gupta architecture today are temples. Temples are seen for the first time in the
Gupta era in Indian history. Temple, Devalaya, Devagriha or Devprasad is such a building where worship
is done by consecrating the idol of God. Many types of temples were built in this era. Although no
complete temple has been found in the remains of the temples of this era, still the initial form of the
temple can be imagined on the basis of these remains.
The early temples of this era were built in the form of a very simple square room. On top of which a flat
roof andpavilion(mandap) was built on four pillars in front of the gate. Gradually, with the development
in the temple design, in the Gupta era itself, the second storey above the sanctum sanctorum and later the
angular shikhara was built. It was covered by placing a round stone called amalak on top of the shikhara.
The construction of temples In the Gupta period has been done in a very simple way. But till the early
medieval period, the construction of temples became more and more complex.Hence Shastras related to
construction of temples were written after determining the related Vaastu rules. In which the method of
temple construction, the names of the parts of the temple and their deities have been mentioned. Even in
the Gupta period, there are references to the construction of temples in Varahamihira’s Brihatsamhita and
some Puranas.

The temples built during the Gupta period in North India have been destroyed. Nevertheless, the remains
of some temples have been obtained from places like Udayagiri, Sanchi, Shankarmata, Tigwa Airan
Nachna Kuthra, Bhumra, Deogarh, Bhitargaon Bihar and Dahparbatia etc. All these temples are not same
in design. The reason for this can be said that their construction continued for three centuries from the
beginning of the fourth century AD. That’s why some of the temples of this era are early temples and
some can be said to be developed from the point of view of design skills.
In India, the construction of temples was done by the rulers and people belonging to the rich sections of
the society. This fact is confirmed by Gupta records. Among the Gupta emperors, inscriptions from the
time of Kumaragupta, Skandagupta, Purugupta and their sons consistently report the construction or
existence of Gupta temples. Kumaragupta’s Gupta inscription from Bilsad mentions such a Vishnu temple
which was jointly built by three brothers. The establishment of Vishnu temple has also been mentioned in
the inner inscription of Skandagupta. In a similar type of copper plate received from Indore, the
establishment of the Sun Temple and in the pillar inscription of a son of Purugupta received from Bihar,
the construction of the temple of Skanda and Saptamatrikas has been mentioned. But physical remains of
none of these temples are available.
13.9.2 Sculpture

Indian art has been mainly related to religion. By the Gupta age, mythological religions had become
popular. His Puranas had also been written. The specialty of these religions is the great humanization of
the deity. After the personification of the deity, the way to make deity idols opened. In this period idols of
Shiva-Parvati, Kartikeya, Ganesha, Vishnu and Lakshmi, Dashavataras of Vishnu, their goddesses,
attendants, Gandharvas, Yakshas, Apsaras were made. In Buddhism also, especially with the influence of
the Mahayana Buddhist sect, statues of Adi Buddha, Panchadhyani Buddha, many Buddha Bodhisattvas
etc. were made. In Jainism too, idols of yakshas and yakshis were made in the form of Tirthankaras and
their attendant deities.

It has become necessary to establish the identity of the deities in such a huge pantheon. Therefore, in this
era, the scriptures were created by determining the characteristics of the deities. Several chapters of
Brihatsamhita, Agnipurana and Vishnudharmottara Purana are the basic scriptures of sculpture and
painting.

Mathura, Sarnath, Pataliputra in the north, central India and Udayagiri, Besnagar, Mandsaur, Tumen,
Pavaya, Kakpur, Mahua Churli, Nalanda, Rajagriha, Bodhgaya and Ajanta in the south were important
places in the centers of sculpture at this time. But it is to be remembered that in this era Mathura andThe
idol centers of Sarnath were very famous.
in this era, red stone with white spots in the Mathura tradition, Chunar sandstone in Sarnath, local
sandstone in Udayagiri, limestone in places like Amravati in South India and slate stone in northern and
north-western India were used for idol making.

13.9.3 Features of Sculpture

India has a tradition of expressing divinity through a beautiful body. But along with the beautiful body,
the display of the divine spirit on the face of God or the inner boisterous power generated by penance is
the specialty of the artist of the Gupta era. The idols of this time are really divine. The spiritual attainment
of Buddha, the result of his spiritual practice, is not only visible on his face but also in his whole body.
The best example of this is the statue of Buddha made in Dharma Chakra Pravartana from Sarnath. As in
the Gupta idol from Bodh Gaya, the achievement of yoga is covered on the eyelids.
The spec”a” achievement of sculpture of this era is the representation of weightless body. The heaviness
is visible in the idols in the Kushan period before the Gupta era. On the contrary, the sculptures of the
Gupta period are full of soft, young and balanced body. Absence of ornaments on the body, transparency
of clothes are the specialties of these idols. In Buddha statues, his soft body is clearly visible from under
the clothes.

Gupta period craftsmen have presented a wonderful combination of real beauty of Kushan period and
sentimentality of Amaravati art. The most important thing is that in the idols of this period, there is a
unique coordination between the external form and the inner consciousness. From the technical point of
view, the Gupta tradition adopted Loch and Amaravati from Mathura art.

Taking elegance from art, he created a new element which is expressed in the fineness, sophistication,
natural elevation of the components. Although in this era the heaviness of the previous era is still present
in the idols of Mathura to a limit, but in the gentle and divine idols of Sarnath The heaviness of the
Mathura idol is not visible in a body full of virtues. After statue of Sarnath, the seated statue of Buddha
engraved in Dharmachakra Pravartana Mudra, the statue donated by the monk Yashdinna is very
impressive among the statues received from Mathura.
The Buddha standing In a soft body, a transparent sanghati and in a straight posture appears to be the
embodiment of peace and compassion. Another similar idol is the donation of Bhikshuni Jayabhatta. In
this, Buddha is sitting in Padmasan, there is a sense of infinite compassion on the face of Buddha. Apart
from this, many statues of Vishnu have been received from Katra Keshavdev, one of which is now safe in
the National Museum, which are of special importance. Despite the softness, elegance and delicacy in this
statue, the heaviness of the old art is present. There is a sense of infinite compassion and peace on the face
of Vishnu.
13.9.4 Painting
The tradition of Indian painting is very ancient, but due to the relatively brittle medium of painting,
ancient paintings are not available. Fortunately, pre-Gupta and post-Gupta paintings have been obtained
from the caves of Ajanta. The paintings of Ajanta are wall paintings. Information about painting comes
from ancient literary descriptions.

Ajanta caves are situated at a distance of 67 miles from Aurangabad and 34 miles from Jalgaon in
Maharashtra. These are made by cutting the crescent shaped hill. Their number is 29 and there are two
types. Some of these are Chaitya and some are vihar. The number of vihar is more in these. Pictures have
been made on their walls.

Renowned art historian Percy Brown has classified the paintings of Ajanta into three eras. The oldest of
these paintings are from the 2nd century BC and have been marked in cave numbers 9 and 10. The
paintings of the second class belong to the Gupta era. These paintings are found in Cave No. 16, 17 and
10. The paintings of the third category belong to the post-Gupta era. Paintings till 650 AD are found in
this era. The best painting in the paintings of Ajanta is of Gupta era.
Ajanta caves were built for Buddhist monks. These caves are Chaitya and Bihar. That’s why the subject
matter of the paintings of these caves is Buddhist only. There is influence of Hinayana Buddhism on pre-
Gupta era paintings. Painting of Buddha is prohibited in this sect, that’s why pictures of Buddha were not
made in these paintings. But by the time of the Gupta period, due to the expansion of the influence of
Mahayana Buddhism, images of Buddha and Bodhisattvas were being made. Buddha is the central theme
of the Buddhist era paintings of Ajanta. The important events of Buddha’s life, the birth of Buddha, the
events of his childhood, the attainment of Bodhi and the dedication of the Nilgiri elephant • have been
depicted with great elegance. Apart from this, illustrations have been made of the stories of Buddha’s
previous births described in the Jatakas Shankhapala Jataka, Mahajanaka Jataka, Ummag Jataka,
Champeya Jataka, Vidhur Jataka, Shivi Jataka, Vessantara and Hansa Jataka. Dharmachakra Pravartana
Mudra of Buddha is a favorite subject of the painters of Ajanta.
A central concept of Mahayana Buddhism is the bodhisattva. Bodhisattva is the person who has attained
Buddhahood. But he will not enter Nirvana until and unless he frees the human beings from the ocean of
existence. For this reason Bodhisattva has been given more importance in the paintings of Ajanta. His
paintings are bigger and the expression of compassion for the living beings on his face is amazing. The
miracles of Buddha are beautifully depicted in the Ajanta paintings. The picture of Sahasra Buddha in
cave number two is special. In this, Buddha has been depicted in several rows one above the other.

Very beautiful painting of ‘Bhavchakra’ has been done in cave number 17. In different parts of
‘Bhavchakra’ various dimensions of worldly life, park, market, potter’s house, royal residence, poor’s hut,
monkey, elephant etc. have been marked with great efficiency. Apart from this, the natural world has also
been depicted very beautifully and effectively.
Some paintings of Ajanta are very famous due to the combination and expression . Among these, the
picture of the dying princess is special. The shadow of death on the face of the princess, the
compassionate faces of the maidservants around her, all these have effectively expressed the sense of
grief and despair in the picture. Similarly, the incident of Yashodhara’s donation of her son Rahul has
been depicted very poignantly. On the face of Yashodhara, there is another feeling of immense devotion
and devotion, and on the other hand, the feeling of immense sorrow of being separated from her son, all
make this picture very touching.

13.10 Summary

The Gupta era has a special place in Indian history. The picture of social life that emerges from the
literary sources of this age is somewhat different from that of Smritis Dharmashastras. Where the narrow
outlook is reflected in the Smritis, the dynamism and openness of the social life is reflected in the literary
sources.

In economic life, where prosperity is visible on the one hand, on the other hand the signs of decline start
becoming visible.

There was unprecedented progress in the field of literature, arts and science in this era. For this reason,
many people consider this era as the golden age of Indian history.

Harsh era :-

14.10 Patron of education and literature

In ancient Indian history, we find examples of many such kings, who are memorable not only on the
basis of their victories and political achievements, but more than that for their significant
contribution in the field of literature and art and for liberally patronizing scholars and artists.
Memorable because of Among these kings, Harsha was also a writer as well as a ruler who
patronized writers.
Harsha composed three plays. These plays are Priyadarshika, Ratnavali and Naganand. Harsha provided
shelter to scholars and writers in his court. According to Hiuen Tsang, one-fourth of the state income was
spent on awarding the famous Meghavis. Banabhatta composed ‘Harsha Charita’, Kadambari and Chandi
Shatak under his patronage. The income of eighty big cities of Orissa was donated by Harsha to the
famous Buddhist scholar Jayasena, which he rejected. In the court of Harsha, Mayur, the progenitor of
Suryashtak, and Charan Matang Diwakar also had shelter.
For the advancement of education, he gave infinite donations to Nalanda, the famous Buddhist education
center of the era, which had become an international center of education by this time. It is clear from the
evidence of Hiuen Tsang that Harsha had accepted the land revenue of 100 villages for the finance of
Nalanda University. Apart from this, he also got a grand monastery built in the university premises. There
was a huge number of students from India and abroad.
Here education was Imparted through seminars. It is believed that normally there were 100 such
gatherings per day. Initially, Nalanda was considered to be the center of Buddhist education, but by this
time various subjects were being taught there, such as Brahmin and Buddhist scriptures and religious
subjects, art, science, craft industry, grammar, medicine, Hindu and Buddhist philosophy, etc. . Of these,
the study of medicine was compulsory. Nalanda also had many learned and capable teachers like
Shilabhadra, Nagarjuna, Aryadeva, Asanga, Vasumbadhu and Dignaga. Students from Korea, Mongolia,
Japan, China, Tibet, Lanka etc used to come to study in this Mahavihara.

Diwakar Mitra’s ashram in Vidyavati was also another center of learning. Where followers of different
sects used to come to get education. But this ashram was not very famous.
Harsha was also a patron of fine arts. Many viharas, chaityas, stupas, temples were built during his time.
At the time of the Kannauj assembly, a grand statue of Buddha was made by Harsha and his reputation
was established. The octagonal temple of Mundeshwari in Shahabad district, Ram Laxman temple of
Raipur district, Sangharam of Kannauj are notable examples of the architecture of that period. Similarly,
marble, gold and copper idols of Buddha were also made during this time.
14.11 Evaluation of Harsha

Harshavardhan was one of those rulers of ancient India, who ruled successfully for 40 years. According to
Baan, he was the true emperor who beautified the earth like the gods. He was a benevolent ruler, learned
poet and hardworking human being. He tried to keep his subjects happy. Fine arts received patronage
during his period. He had to face many difficulties along with his accession, but he overcame the
difficulties by his ability and foresight. He expanded the empire through diplomatic relations
Because of that, Kannauj could get a glorious place. Despite being a powerful ruler, he did many works of
public interest. Although Harsha did not propagate Buddhism like Ashoka the Great, yet he made constant
efforts to revive the Mahayana religion. He was a religiously tolerant ruler.
Harsha’s reign is remarkable even from the cultural point of view. The work of advancement of literature,
education and arts which had started in the Gupta period continued at an unimaginable pace during this
period also. Buildings, temples, idols, viharas, monasteries, etc. continued to be built on the
characteristics of the Gupta period. Cultural relations with foreign countries remained and Indian
civilization and culture spread there. With the death of Harsha in 647 or 648 AD, there was again a
political crisis in northern India and A new wave of disobedience has started.

14.13 Summary
The military achievements of Harshavardhana were remarkable, but it is not fair to say that he was the
last Hindu emperor of northern India. After Harsha, King Yashovarma of Kannauj, King Lalitaditya of
Kashmir, Gurjara Pratihara King Mihir Bhoj, Palavanshiya Naresh Dharmapal etc. were all equal to
Harsha in greatness.

Harsh was a people’s guardian and religion tolerant ruler. He was inclined towards Mahayana Buddhism.
Harsha used to organize a charity distribution ceremony every fifth year in Prayag. Harsha tried to raise
the moral level of the people through his creations. Harsha also tried to raise the intellectual level of the
subjects. He himself has composed many texts. He can be considered a successful ruler. Politically and
culturally, he provided unity to India. The travel distribution of the then Chinese traveler Hiuen Tsang
gives a tableau of the society and state of the Harsha era.

16.3 Art of the Chalukyas

There was great religious tolerance among the Chalukya rulers. He was a follower of the Brahmin
religion and a follower of Shaivism, but used to donate generously to the followers of other religions as
well. As a result, these rulers got many famous Shiva temples built. Many Jain temples and Buddhist
monasteries were built in this era. There was abundance of their temples in the capital Valpi. Many cave
temples were also built in this era. This period was an important period from the point of view of art and
architecture. In this period, following the example of Buddhists and Jains, temples were built for Hindu
gods and goddesses by cutting out stone mountains. The Chalukyas built many temples at Badami, Aihole
and Pattadakal. In Badami, stone-cut pavilions with four pillars were made, of which three belong to
Hindu and one to Jain religion. Each has pillared verandahs, vaulted halls, a small square sanctum
sanctorum cut deep into the stone. There is a Vaishnava Guha in these. Two idols of Vishnu are inscribed
on its walls. The architecture and engraving of these caves are of very high quality. The Malgiti Shaiva
temple at Badami is an excellent example of architecture which was built in 625 AD.
Aihole is called the ‘City of Temples’. There are remains of about 90 temples here. Here is also the
temple of ‘Meguti’ built by Ravikirti. Most of the temples are of Vishnu and Shiva. The Vishnu temple of
Aihole is relatively safe. The most beautiful of the Hindu cave temples here is the temple of Sun, which is
called the temple of ‘Lad Khan’. Its roof is flat and it has a small square sanctum sanctorum and a
dvaramandapa. In front of the sanctum sanctorum is a pillared verandah and a large assembly hall. The
roof is made of big stones. There is no pinnacle (Shikhar) in this temple. There is a temple of Durga
which has been built on a high platform. The roof is also flat. There is a shikhara above the sanctum
sanctorum and a circumambulation path has been made in the verandah.

Pattadakal also has beautiful examples of Chalukya period temples. There are ten temples here in which
four are built in northern Nagara style and six in southern Dravida style. The temple of ‘Papanath’ built in
the northern style and ‘Virupaksha’ and ‘Sangameshwar’ built in the southern style are particularly
notable. The most beautiful and attractive temple among the temples of Pattadakal is ‘Virupaksha
Temple’. It was built around 740 AD by a queen of Vikramaditya. There is Nandi Mandap in front of this
temple and there are Vedika and Toranadwar all around it. In the outer wall of the temple Beautiful niches
have been constructed by adding pillars in which idols have been kept. These idols express the scenes of
Shiva, Nag-Nagin and Ramayana. The influence of Pallava Dravidian architectural style can be seen on
the construction of the temple. Percy Brown has written about this temple, “The Virupaksha temple is one
of those rare buildings of ancient times in which the spirit of the men who conceived it and built it with
their own hands still rests. According to some scholars, the Ajanta series Several caves were built by the
Chalukya rulers in 1500 AD. Cave No. 1 and 2 are particularly noteworthy. These have depictions of the
bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara. Paintings from the Jataka tales are also inscribed in the caves of Ajanta.
These frescoes are very lively and attractive. The tradition of cave temple construction which started in
the Gupta period reached its zenith during the Chalukya period.
16.5 PALLAVA ART

The far southern region of India, which is called ‘Tamil Pradesh’, was called ‘Dravid Pradesh’ in ancient
times. The architectural style that the Pallava rulers ‘developed’ in this Dravidian country is called
‘Dravidian style’. Pallavas ruled in this region from 6 th century AD to 10th century AD. Examples of the
architecture of his reign are found in his capital Kanchi and Mahabalipuram. Some examples are also
found in Tanjore region and Pudukottai. Pallava artists freed the architecture from woodwork and cave
art. In their initial artworks, the same methods were used, which were adopted by wood and cave (cavity)
artists, gradually this system went extinct. The Pallava rulers started stone architecture and under their
patronage many temples were built by cutting the rocks of the mountains, in which idols of Brahma,
Vishnu, Shiva and other Hindu deities were established.

Pallava architecture can be divided into four styles named after the main Pallava kings. (1)
Mahendravarman style (610 AD to 640 AD) (2) Mamalla style (640 AD to 674 AD)(3) Rajasimha style
(674 AD – 800 AD) and (4) Nandivarman style (800-900 AD) Percy Brown has written, “Of all the forces
which together have shaped the history of South India, none Nor have they influenced the architecture of
the region as much as the Pallavas, whose buildings provided the basis for the Dravidian style.”

15.5.1 Mahendravarman Style (610 AD-640 AD)

This style flourished between 610 AD to 640 AD. The temples of this style are called ‘Mandap’. These
‘mandapas’ are simple pillared verandahs with one or more chambers built in the back wall, which are
built in the form of cavity temples by cutting hard rock. There are beautiful idols of Dwarapalas on both
sides of the main gate outside the Mandap. The pillars are generally square. Mandapams of Mahendra
style include Trimurti Mandapam of Mandagapattu, Panchapandapa Mandapam of Pallavaram, Mahendra
Vishnu Grihamandapam of Mahendrawadi,Mamandur’s Vishnumandap etc. are particularly notable
16.5.2 Mamalla School (640 AD – 674 AD)
This style flourished during the reign of Narasimhavarman I ‘Mahamalla’. ‘Mahamalla’ was the title of
Narasimhavarman I, hence the architectural distinctive style of his reign has been called ‘Mahamalla
style’. The main center of this style was the city of Mamallapuram (Mahabalipuram) which was founded
by Narasimhavarman I. Under this style, two types of temples were built, first ‘Mandapa style’ temple
and second ‘chariot’ shaped temple. These ‘mandap’ are similar temples, which were being built since the
time of Mahendravarman, some developed form of them is visible in Mamalla style. There is a difference
mainly in ornamentation between the pavilions of Mahendravarman style and the pavilions built during
this period. Mamalla style pavilions are relatively more ornate. The specialty of these mandapa is their
pillars, The pillars are situated on the top of the lions and the top part of the pillars is in the shape of
Mangalghat. Among these Adivarahmandap Mahshimardini Mandap, Panchpandapamandap and
Ramanujamandap are particularly noteworthy.
The second type of temple built in”this style is the ‘Rath’. These are monolithic temples. They have been
made by cutting a huge stone rock. These chariot temples bear resemblance to the shape of wooden
chariots. Their architectural style is similar to the pavilion style. These chariots seem to have evolved
from the Buddhist viharas and chaityagrihas. Draupadi Rath Arjuna Rath, Nakul Sahdev Rath, Bhima
Rath, Dharmaraj Rath, Ganesh Rath, Pidari Rath etc. are notable in the major chariot temples. All these
chariot temples are Shiva temples. Draupadi’s chariot is the smallest. Dharmaraj Rath is the grandest and
most famous. Its shikhara is in the shape of a pyramid. This temple is in two parts. The lower part is a
square block and attached to it Is the combined verandah, the upper part has a pyramidal shikhara. This
chariot temple is rectangular and its shikhara is of circular shape. The chariot temples of Mamalla style
are famous for their sculpture. Engraved idols of Durga, Indra, Shiva, Ganga, Parvati, Harihar, Brahma,
Skanda etc. are found on these chariots. With the end of the reign of Narasimhavarman Mamalla, this
style also came to an end. After this, temples of different styles started being built.

16.5.3 Rajasimha Style (674 AD – 800 AD)

During the reign of Pallava ruler Rajasimha, the construction of temples of a different and independent
style started with the help of brick, stone etc. in place of cave temples. Which is called ‘Raj Singh style’.
The Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram and the Kailasanatha Temple and the Baikuntha-Perumal Temple at
Kanchi are important temples of this style.

The Shore Temple (Sea Shore Temple) built on the sea shore at Mahabalipuram is a wonderful monument
of Pallava architecture and sculpture. This temple is built in a huge courtyard. Its sanctum is towards the
sea and the entrance of the temple is towards the west and there is circumambulation path around it. Its
shikhara is terraced and a stupa is built on top. The idols of Ganesha, Skanda, Gaj, Shardul etc. are
engraved on its walls. There is beautiful co-ordination in different parts of the temple.
The culmination of the Raj Singh style is seen in the construction of the Kailashnath temple in Kanchi.
The construction of this temple started during the reign of Narasimhavarman II ‘Rajsimha’ and was
completed during the time of his successor Mahendravarman II. All the features of Dravidian style are
seen in this temple, such as enclosed courtyard, gopuram, pillared mandap, vimana etc. Many scenes
related to Shiva’s sports have been beautifully displayed by the idols in the temple. After the construction
of the Kailasanatha temple, the temple of Baikuntha Perumal was built, which is an excellent example of
Pallava architecture. This is Vishnu temple. It has a sanctum sanctorum with circumambulation path and a
mandap with steps. The vimana of this temple is square and four storeyed Which is about 60 feet high.
The first floor has sculptures of Vishnu in various postures and the inner walls of the temple depict scenes
of coronation, succession selection, Ashwamedha war and city life. This temple presents a fully
developed form of Pallava architecture.

16.5.4 Nandivarman Style (800 AD-900 AD)

 Any new architectural element in the temples of this style is not visible, but these are constantly visible in
size-type and only a replica of the temples built in the past is visible. It appears that these temples belong
to the last phase of the independent temple style. The temples built during the period of Nandivarman and
his successors come in this style, in which the Mukteshvara and Matangageshvara temples of
Kanchipuram and the Parasurameshvara temple of Gudimallam are notable. Some development is visible
in the pillar heads of the temples of this style, but there is a lack of ojas in them. These indicate that the
power of the dynasty was waning due to external invasions (Western Chalukyas) and possibly their
builders or society was going through a period of crisis. Artistic trends are indicative of pleasant and
peaceful times. Till the 10th century, the construction of these temples almost stopped.

Thus Pallava architecture has special importance in ancient Indian history. Pallava independently
developed the art inherited from Buddhist Chaityas and gave birth to new styles of art, which developed
fully during the Chola and Pandya reign. The characteristics of Pallava art spread to South-East Asia. The
characteristics of Pallava-art are clearly visible in the temples there.
16.7 Chola Art

The Chola rulers had great interest in the arts, as a result of which there was a proper development of arts
like architecture, sculpture, painting etc. during their reign. His creative talent can be seen in the various
temples, monasteries, schools, roads, canals, lakes, ponds, gardens etc. built by him. The kings of the
Chola dynasty understood and developed the artistic richness and nuances of their predecessors, the
Pallava kings, as a result of which Dravidian architecture and sculpture reached their peak during their
period. During the Chola period, there was a great development of temple construction art and grand
temples were built in Upagpur, Tanjore, Kanchi, Gangakondacholapuram etc. Regarding these temples,
Fergusson has even said that the Chola artists conceived like giants and completed it like jewelers. A vivid
example of this is the Brihadisvara or Rajarajeshvara temple of Tanjore.
Chola period temple architecture can be divided into two categories. First, there are the early Chola
temples built up to the 10th century, in which the Sundaresvara temple of Tirukattalai, the Vijayalaya
temple of Naratamala and the Kadambaramalai temple are especially notable, which are symbols of the
early art of temple art. Full development of Cholakala is found in Tanjore and Kondolapuram.
The era of Chola temple architecture of the second class begins with the Brihadisvara or Rajarajeshvara
temple of Tanjore. This temple is a developing form of Dravidian architectural style, which is a wonderful
work of thirteen storeys high. According to Neelkanth Shastri, this temple, the largest and longest among
the temples of India, is an excellent artwork that reveals the culmination of South Indian architecture.
Looking at its grandeur and beauty, it can be called the best Hindu monument of South India. The
construction work of this temple started in 1003 AD and ended in 1010 AD. Its huge courtyard is 160
meters long and 80 meters wide, in which granite stones have been used. On the west above the sanctum
is an attractive vimana about 60 meters high with a base of 82 square feet. Above this is a pyramid with
thirteen storeys. Two centuries after its construction, the Cholas had built many temples in series in the
entire far south and Sri Lanka.
Blocks and rocks were used for the construction of temples. The size of the temples of this period is very
large and apart from religious works, they were also used for social, cultural and educational purposes.
For the proper arrangement of such huge temples, enormous land grants were provided to the temples and
thousands of servants were also appointed. Percy Brown says that the Vimana of the Brihadisvara temple
is a wonderful specimen of Indian architecture. There is a huge Shivalinga in the sanctum sanctorum of
the temple which is called ‘Brihadishwar’. The entire temple is decorated with sculptures and craft
ornaments both inside and outside. On the model of this temple, Rajendra Chaula I got a Shiva temple
constructed at Gangaikondacholapuram, which is eight storeyed. It was built in 1030 AD. This temple is
also an excellent example of Chola art. The successors of Rajendra Chola also continued the temple
building tradition. Among these, the temples of Tiruvaleeswaram, Ertavateeswarar, Kambareswarar etc.
are particularly noteworthy. There was proper development of music and dance in the temples for
entertainment at the time of festival.
The Chola rulers developed the art of architecture as well as the art of sculpture. Many idols of gods and
goddesses were marked, in which idols related to Shaivism are more. In this period beautiful idols of both
stone and metal were created. But metal or bronze idols are far more beautiful than stone idols. The
bronze statue of Nataraja or dancing Shiva is the best among other idols in Chola era sculptures. Along
with Nataraja and other Shiva idols, innumerable idols of Parvati, Skanda Kartikeya, Ganesha etc. were
also made, but in these the idol of Cholyugin Nataraja is said to be the ‘cultural squeeze’ (essence) of
Cholakala.

It Is clear that the Chola era was a glorious period from the point of view of art. The Cholas enriched art
in South India during their long reign of four centuries. No ruling dynasty built such grand and huge
temples as the Cholas did. It is clear from his achievements that the Cholas had an important place in the
history of South India.

17.2 MUGHAL ART

17.2.1 Painting

The Mughal style represents an important change and a remarkable stability in the history of Indian
painting. In this also Iranian influence is clearly visible, but this style is always Indian in the developed
system like architecture. She is immediately recognizable by her elegance and sophistication and by the
touch of the key, the softness and embroideries of the fringes. Indian artists have given it an Impressive
look through local inspiration and themes with their passion and dedication.

The history of Mughal style begins”with the return of Humayun (1555 AD). When Humayun came to
India from the Iranian court, he brought with him two famous painters named Mir Syed Ali and Asta
Samad. Both thesewere proficient in text (granth) illustration and under their supervision many painters of
India did important works.
Both these painters got the mural paintings made in the rooms of Fatehpur Sikri on the orders of Akbar.
The walls of his court hall and residences are covered with many paintings. The nature of these paintings
was that of mural paintings and the style of miniatures.

Hindu painters have their own important contribution in the painting of Mughal style. During this period,
many Hindu painters were giving pride and dignity to Indian painting with their grand paintings. Hindu
painters Basawan and Daswant were the main artists of Akbar’s court. Abul Fazl has written about
Daswant that he had become the head teacher. Abul Fazl has also praised Basavan enough. The names of
twenty-two painters are mentioned in Babri. But among these painters only Hindu painters are more. Of
the 17 artists specified by Abul Fazl, only four are Muslims, the remaining 13 are Hindus. The intention is
that the development of the Mughal style was due to the liberal and tolerant policy of Akbar and its chiefs
were Hindu painters.
Most of the Mughal style paintings were made on paper. In this style, artistsinitially outlining their design
by drawing a blueprint, than they used to make pictures. In relation to the Mughal style, Smith has
written, ‘In the Iranian text paintings, the blueprint was first drawn with red or black chalk and
immediately filled with color. A very complicated method was used for valuable texts. Leaving the page
blank in the book, the pictures were drawn separately and pasted on it later. The page was first finely
coated. The paste was made of gum arabic dissolved in water. Then the blueprint was drawn on its smooth
ground. Then, like an oil painting, a layer of colors was put on one another. to give the impression of
diamond-pearls and gold in ornaments their particles were used. Indian painters used to complete all these
activities with the brush of squirrel’s hair. Many a times the fineness was accomplished with just a bush of
hair. It required extraordinary eye power and concentration. In the paintings of Indian Mughal style, there
is a predominance of book illustration. The Mahabharata’s Razmnama, translation of Ramayana,
Akbarnama Dastane Hamza, Rasik Priya etc. have been illustrated. Thus this era was successful in
bringing literature and painting closer.
The Mughal style is individualistic. There is importance of person depiction and natural depiction in it.
During the period of Akbar and Jahangir (1556–1605, 1605–1627), the portrait of the standing person
became more prominent. Gradually progress was made towards the natural depiction of male and female.
Many realistic portraits of the Mughal emperors were created during this period. Portraits of Abkar and
his friends Akbar and Salim sitting near him Portrait of Akbar listening to the plea of a woman are the
images of this facsimile depiction.

The painters of Mughal style have displayed their unique art in the painting of animals and birds. The
picture of a rooster made by Jahangir is beautiful. Today it is preserved in the Calcutta Art Gallery.
Mansoor was the best painter in this field.
Painting was at its best during the time of Shah Jahan. Along with the construction of the Taj, the best
paintings were also created during this period. The painting of this period had its own characteristics.
Moderate, calm, courtly paintings were created in this period as compared to ancient colorful paintings.
Suruchi’s rites also took place. Along with this, soft colors took the place of bright colors. The favorite
subjects for the painters of this period were Laila Majnu Sheeri-Khurur, Kanta Kamrup and Roopmati-
Bajbahadur. Chatarmal, Anoop Chhatra, Manohar, Mohammad Nadir, Samarkandi are the prominent
artists of this period. Mirhasim and Mohammad Fakirullah Khan.
As far as the decline of Mughal style is concerned, one thing is particularly noteworthy that although
Aurangzeb did not love art, but the art did not decline till his time because the Hindu kings of that period
were the patrons of real art, whose They were their own painters. But due to the disintegration of the
central capital, many painters were scattered. As a result, the Rajput style with local characteristics
emerged in different provinces.

Rajput style

Rajasthani painting has its own existence and it has its own importance in the history of Indian painting.
Rajasthani painting includes many Rajput styles. Mewar, Marwar, Kishangarh, Jaipur, Alwar, Bikaner,
Kota, Bundi, Nathdwara etc. styles are main in these styles.

The second half of the 15th century marked a turning point in the history of Rajasthani painting. Although
the influence of the Gujarati style remained, now the depiction of disproportionately large eyes, which
was the main feature of the Gujarati style, was abandoned. Now the then costumes are being shown.
Pictures of daily life started being made and pictures were made colorful by using different colours. Now
more attention was paid to the painting of natural scenes. Till now only Hindu and Jain texts were
painted, but now efforts have started to depict non-religious texts as well.
The Increasing contact of the Rajput rulers with Akbar also influenced the painting of Rajasthan and
gradually the influence of the Mughal style of painting began to reflect on it. In 1567 AD, Akbar
commissioned his court painters Mir Sayyid Ali and Abdul Samad to paint the Hamzanama. For this
purpose, 1400 large size clothes were to be made. Therefore, the best painters in different parts of the
Mughal Empire, including the Rajput states, were called for this work. The work was completed in 1582
AD and the painters went back to their respective states, but after Working under the direction of Iranian
painters in the Mughal court for a long time, they had adopted new levels of painting, which they used in
their state. Although initially Gujarati style and Lodi style remained dominant on those paintings as well,
but as the cooperation of the Rajput kings with Mughal court increased, the influence of the Mughal style
on Rajasthani painting also increased. The result was that now the influence of Gujarati and Lodi style
started to wane and Mughal techniques were used more interestingly in making paintings. Various styles
of Rajput painting developed during the Mughal period, in which the main ones are Mewar style, Marwar
style, Kishangarh style, Bikaner style, Jaipur style, Bundi, Kota, Uniyara, Alwar, Nathdwar styles etc.

Pahari style

Pahari style is sometimes taken under Rajput style. But it is necessary to study this style developed in a
specific geographical situation separately. The elegance and elegance seen in this Pahari style is different
from Mughal and Rajput (Rajasthan) art. Jammu, Jasrota, Mankot Basholi, Kangra, Gular, Chamba,
Narpur, Bilaspur, Garhwali, Sirmur and Kullu have been its main centers located in different ranges of the
Himalayas in the hills of the northern and eastern parts of the Punjab plains. The paintings of the hill
states west of the river Sutlej are mainly known as the Jammu school. Under the second class, the art of
all the hilly states east of Sutlej river is mentioned in the name of Kangra school. The painting developed
in Garhwal state is kept under the Kangra school. Undoubtedly, due to the rise of Pahadi style of painting,
those paintings which became shelterless in the Mughal court had a major role, which got shelter in the
local princely states of various hilly regions. However, the life source of this style is definitely Rajput
painting.
According to Anand Kumar Swami, in the early years of the 17 th century, a painting style developed in the
hill states of Punjab, especially in the hill states of Dogra, including Jammu, with some innovations. The
paintings here are recognized by their taqi handwriting apart from their style.

Maximum paintings of Kangra style were produced from the 18 th century. The Kangra school attained
supremacy during the period of its ruler Sansar Chandra (1774-1823 AD). The favorite subjects of the
Kangra school are Krishna Leela, the distinction between the hero and the heroine, and famous episodes
from the epics, such as the Nal Damayanti Katha, etc. The artists of Guler and Basauli (under Kadhuwa of
New State) have contributed significantly in giving life and song to the paintings of Kangra. Kangra style
is romantic. According to a noted artist, Greek urn paintings and Japanese design paintings may have
other attractions, rich imaginations, vividness and forms, but Kangra paintings have charm, movement
and freedom. In the last years of the 18 th century, a small school emerged in the hill state of Garhwal. The
famous Chitera of Garhwal was Molaram. The time span of the Sikh style of painting in Punjab is
between 1775-1850 AD.In the Sikh style of painting, there is often a plurality of individual portraits, in
which independent portraits of Sikh gurus, Sardars and group portraits of courtiers were created.

17.2.2 Music Art

The Mughals were fond of music. Babur also tried to write on the art of music. The real development of
music started from the time of Akbar. Abul Fazl has mentioned 36 skilled musicians in his court, of whom
Shiromani Tansen was. After that the name of Baba Ramdas comes. Famous saint poet Surdas was also a
famous musician and singer of that period. It is said that although Baiju Bawra was not related to the
Mughal court, he is considered to be a musician and singer of his time. During the time of Akbar, the
tradition of Ashtachhap music flourished very rapidly, which contributed significantly to the development
of Indian classical music in the form of dhupada-dhamar, kirtan etc., pakhawaj and beenavadan styles.
Meera Bai of that time cannot be forgotten whose verses are sung with reverence in India even today in
various ragas and raginis. Similarly, compositions and music of Sant DaduIs noted .
The development of four stages (Vanis) of Dhrupad singing, Goharhari, Khandari, Daguri and Nohari is
believed to be from the time of Akbar. Of these, Khandari and Nohari are said to be the best from
Rajasthan. Jahangir also did not lag behind in promoting music. In his time, Jahangirdad Chhatra Khan,
Khurramdad, Makhu etc. were famous musicians and Vitthaldas’s disciple Govindaswami was a famous
singer. Shah Jahan himself was a good singer and was interested in both dance and music. Lalkhan of
Dhupad Gayaki, who is said to be Tansen’s son-in-law, was adorned with the title of ‘Guna Samudra’.
Other singers of the Mughal court were Sursen, Sukhsen Durangkhon and Jagannath was the chief among
them. Aurangzeb had no interest in this area. Khayal singing became popular during the period of post
Mughal rulers Muhammadshah Rangeela.
During the Mughal period, both music and dance found shelter at the provincial level, especially in the
courts of the kings of Rajasthan. Music books stored in Anoop Sanskrit Library, Bikaner are proof of this.
Under the patronage of Mansingh, Madhavsingh and Mirza Raja Jaisingh of Amer, many ragamalas and
ras manjari were composed. From the time of Aurangzeb, Rajput houses became centers of music.
Maharaja Anoop Singh of Bikaner got the compositions done of Anoop Vilas, Anoop Sangeet Ratnakar,
Anupakush, Anupparag Sagar, Anoop Sangeet Current, Anupodesh, Anoop Rag Mala, Gamak, Manjari
Tika, Kutupadhyay Bhan Manjari, Nashtodisht, Prabodhak, Dhupad Tika, Ram Vivek, Murli Prakash etc.
Most of these compositions, which deal with various aspects of music, Produced by or under the direction
of Pt. Bhav Bhatt. Critics also say that during the Mughal period, the dance that pleases God became
courtly. Its spiritual form got erased and focused on the economic point of view. The costumes of the
Indian dancers also became courtly. Due to these reasons, the level of dance also declined.

17.3 MUGHAL ARCHITECTURE

Indian architecture is such a prestigious art in which one class of artists does not work. In this, the co-
ordinated meditation of the builder, idol maker, painter and their founder is expected. The buildings of the
medieval period, which were built by Turk, Afghan and Mughal rulers, their architectural style was a
mixed style of Indian and Central Asia, Iran. Shape, manners and ideas in architecture spread rapidly in
India through the inhabitants of the western countries of the Indus River, due to the fact that the builders
were Indians, according to their nature and habits, the Hindu style was natural in the Muslim works of art.
. The buildings that were constructed after the establishment of the Ottoman rule (Turkish rule ) in India
were called ‘Indo-Saracenic architectural style’. That style emerged in association with the Dasanian
architectural style of Iranand style of Indian, Syria, Egypt, North Africa . From the time of Tughluq,
ornamentation was given more importance in place of simplicity in architectural style. During the period
of the Afghans, the 'lotus' shaped arches were fully established in the architecture and the floors were also
made of colored tiles.
In Bengal, where bricks, bamboos and wood were used more, on the other hand, pillars of square bricks
and inclined terraces started being made. The Sultans of Gujarat also did not lag behind and there more
importance was given to the construction of porticoes and lattice windows resting on pillars. The carving
of the jaalis of Rani Sipri’s mosque in Ahmedabad is excellent. In Malwa, ‘T’ shaped buildings were built,
and the process of making the Janana increased above the Durbar Hall. Jaunpur, Gulbarga, Bidar,
Daulatabad new centers of architecture emerged.

Babur, the founder of the Mughal Empire, gets disheartened to see the scattered huts as soon as he comes
to India, soon after seeing the architecture of the Gwalior fort, his views start changing. But Babur could
not do anything special during his short stay in India and Humayun was always surrounded by enemies.
But he re-established the routes between India, Iran and the countries of Central Asia, due to which the
process of exchange in the field of architecture and art increased further.
After the establishment of the Mughal rule, the Afghan ruler Sher Shah defeated Humayun in 1540 and
established the rule of a new dynasty. The most beautiful building during the reign of Sher Shah is his
own tomb, which is located in Sahasram (Bihar). Its height etc. is so beautiful from the point of view of
architectural style that connoisseurs of art praise it a lot. Qila-e-Kohana Mosque was built during the
reign of Sher Shah. During the reign of Babur and Humayun, special types of buildings were constructed
as a development of architectural style. The mosques of Babur's period and the ruins of the Hamam
obtained from Dholpur exist as monuments. Along with that, Babar got two mosques constructed in
Ayodhya and Sambhal.
In Babur’s time Charbagh garden style of architecture Started spreading rapidly in India. Babur was very
fond of planting such gardens in which there were stone floor paths and fountains. It was an Iranian take
on the Mughal style. The first attractive construction of Mughal architecture is Humayun’s Tomb located
near Nizamuddin station in Delhi. Whose huge dome is unique which became exemplary in future
construction. In the view of some thinkers, it is more grand than the dome of the Taj Mahal. It was built
by Akbar.
After this, Akbar got the fort built in Agra and the palaces inside it. Forts were built in Lahore and Ajmer
during the reign of Akbar. The best symbol of architecture in Agra Fort is the Hathipol gate, which was
specially designed and prepared. Akbari palace and Jahangir palace are located in Agra Fort itself. While
constructing these, a courtyard was constructed in the middle of the buildings and two-storeyed rooms
were constructed in all the four directions. It Is famous for Its decoration and charming style. Akbar had
established Fatehpur Sikri at a distance of about 26 miles from Agra and got palaces constructed in it.
Among the buildings located in Fatehpur Sikri, Agra Darwaza, Jodhabai’s palacee, Ibadat Khana are
especially famous, birbal palace and Diwan-i-Khas is famous for its corner decoration. Special attention
was paid to the construction of these buildings. Jama Masjid and Buland Darwaza of Fatehpur Sikri are
also famous for their magnificence. Akbar had got his own tomb built in Sikandra during his lifetime.
Which was completed during the reign of Jahangir. It is said for the mausoleum of Sikandra that its
magnificence and beauty is more than the mausoleum of Jahangir, which was built by Noorjanha Begum
in Lahore after his death.
Itmauddaula’s tomb was built by his daughter Nur Jahan. These monuments were built in white marble, in
which the style of inlaying precious colored stones started.
Mughal architecture reached its zenith during the reign of Shah Jahan. He used the marble of Makrana in
the construction of buildings on a large scale. It made new experiments in architectural style. Shah Jahan
founded the modern Old Delhi. The same marble arches were constructed in the Red Fort. The Jama
Masjid of Delhi and the Taj Mahal at Agra are the most famous buildings of his reign. The Moti Masjid
located in the Agra Fort was built during the reign of Shah Jahan. Art connoisseurs call the importance of
Taj as an attraction of the world. Artisans were called from Baghdad, Bukhara, Siraj and Samarkand for
its construction. The interior decoration of the Taj Mahal and more so the decoration of the exterior of the
building is so much that art connoisseurs praise the Taj Mahal even today.
Aurangzeb had constructed very few buildings during his reign. The mausoleum of Aurangabad city of
South India was built by him in the memory of his wife. It is built on the lines of Taj Mahal, but on seeing
it, it seems thatThe decline of Mughal architecture had started because it exhibits shoddy construction art.
Gol Gumbaz was built in Bijapur in South India by the Adilshahi Sultan Mohammad Adilshah during the
reign of the late Mughal emperors. A huge mosque was built during the reign of Ibrahim Raja.
Thus, the Sultans of South India also contributed parallel to the Mughal emperors in the development of
architecture. Iranian influence was strong in early Mughal architecture. Especially in plansThe sources of
Inspiration were those Iranian standards which are visible in the buildings of Samarkand, Bukhara, Herat
and Tashkent with the mixture of Iran Uzbek Mongol arts. But by the time of Shah Jahan, local Indian
influence prevailed. The Taj Mahal is a classic example of this mix. The Red Fort of Delhi and the Rajput
forts of Rajasthan look similar. During this period, the influence of domes, cornices and arches increased
in Rajasthan as well. Fort Along with being a protective place, they also became centers of grand palaces.
Diwan-e-Aam and Diwan-e-Khas started being made in Rajput palaces and forts. The painted walls
inlaying with the vial began to be built. The builders also put their signatures on the buildings.

Litreture:-

17.4.1 Historical Works

When India’s relation with the Turkish Empire was established, here also the tradition of writing
historical literature started in a new way. First the Fatahnama was written. Thereafter, Balajuri wrote
Fatah al-Buljad, in which mention of Siy’s victory by the Arabs is found. After this, the tradition of
history writing started in medieval India. Before the arrival of Turks in India, Muslim intellectuals had
established history as an independent subject of knowledge. The early Arabs were interested in
genealogies. The practice of writing history was started by compiling the traditions of Prophet Hazrat
Muhammad in Hadith. It is also possible that due to the material prosperity of the early Caliphs, the
writing of history got momentum. The manufacture of paper in Baghdad had started in the last decade of
the eighth century. Naturally, after establishing the rule in India, the Turks maintained their interest in the
history of India according to their ethnic nature and tradition. The Turks were more influenced by Persia
and their Persian language, so the early Tawarikhe written in India were composed in the Persian
language only.
The works of the Middle Ages are very important. Indian science, religion and society have been
described in Alberuni’s book Kitabul-Hind. Minhaj-us-Siraj in Tabaqate Nasiri, Ziauddin Barani in
Tarikh-i-Firozshahi and Shamse Siraj Afif in their works tried to maintain the tradition which is found in
Alberuni’s Tehqiqat-i-Hind. Barani’s history and guidance for the historian is recorded in his treatise
Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi. From this point of view, it is difficult to consider Amir Khusro as a historian. But he
wrote masnavis based on historical events which throw a subtle light on the contemporary social history.
The autobiographies of Babur and Jahangir, Humayun Nama by HuMayu’s sister Gulbadan Begum,
Akbar Nama written on the orders of Akbar and Ain-e-Akbari are such works in which descriptions of
contemporary and contemporary events are available. The tradition of writing history in the Mughal
period continued till the time of Aurangzeb. Aurangzeb banned the writing of history in the tenth year of
his reign. Still he himself wrote Rukkat-e-Alamgiri.
The history of Aurangzeb’s reign is written by Saki Mushtaidkhan in Maasire Alamgiri after his death.
History was composed by the name of Muntukhwab ul Lubav by Khafi kha. In this way, the interest that
arose towards literature reached the rich, nobles and wealthy people. On the orders of Akbar, the Rajput
kings got their genealogies prepared. Most of the kings got the history of their kingdom prepared in the
form of legends and talks. Rich people got their biographies and achievements written in place of
autobiographies. That is why texts related to the biographies of the Mughal nobles and nobles were
written in the eighteenth century. Ghulam Hasan wrote the history of the later Mughal rulers in Siyar-ul-
Mutakhrin.
In the sixteenth century, Bihari, a famous poet of Hindi language, wrote his Satsai while living in the
court of Amer Naresh Mirza Raja Jaisingh. Bhushan documented the achievements of Chhatrapati
Shivaji. Such examples can be repeated, on the basis of which it would not be unfair to say that the
important fact that separates the medieval period from the ancient era of Indian history was the tendency
and tradition of historiography after 1757, when the British established political dominance in India.
They continued the tradition inherited.

Unit Summary

In the study of this unit, we have seen how art,Unique creations in literature and architecture came in
front of us and Indian strong traditions got mixed with different cultures of Asia. The field of literature,
architecture and art of the Mughal period, despite its feudal limitations, could catch the flight of new
horizons and was successful in laying the foundation of the culture of the modern period.

Socio religious reform movements in 19th century

10.1 Introduction

First of all, it would be appropriate to know that which factors have been mainly responsible for the
emergence and development of social and religious reform movements in modern India? The
establishment of the East India Company’s rule can be identified as a fundamental reason, because the
establishment of the British rule left a serious impact on the country’s political, social, cultural, economic
life, which created favorable conditions for intellectual development.

In the context of socio-religious reformist movements in modern India, two

Questions naturally arise- 1. Was it only a result of western liberal thinkers and western education in
India?

2. Or was it a result of the western colonial rule?

The point to be considered in both the questions is that, after coming in contact with the British, how did
the Indian society face the new changes and accept the influence of the West? These contacts were
established not only in the political dominance of the colonial rule, but also in the social and cultural
picture of the Indian society. Socio-religious movements were in fact the expression of the social
aspirations of the modern educated budding class in India, which paved the way for reform movements to
bring radical changes in the Indian society.

A related process was the emergence of the Renaissance. As a result of political subordination, there was
an inclination to turn towards India’s golden past and to depend on Indian civilization and culture. Due to
which the form of these movements started becoming regressive. But this fact is no less important that
along with awakening the feelings of patriotism in the Indian public, it also played an important role in
generating cultural consciousness and commitment among the western liberal educated Indians.
The Important factors which can be underlined for the development of major socio-religious reform
movements of India are as follows-

1. The main factor in the spread of reform movements can be considered the creation of excellent
literature. The unique combination of the ancient and the new and the adjustment of the best
literary traditions of ancient India with the best features of the culture of the modern western
world was its specialty. Raja Rammohan Roy, Dayanand Saraswati, Keshavchandra Sen, Michael
Madhusudan Dutt, Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, Kashiram Trimbak, Tailang, Rajarshi
Purushottam Das Tandon, Qazi Nazrul Islam Sir Sayyid Ahmed Khan etc. were such original
geniuses, who through their deep thought and social and religious services, achieved a place
equal to great human beings like Krantidharma, Tulsidas, Shankaracharya, Kabir ,Chaitanya
Mahaprabhu in Indian history. However, where the old and the new will be meeting, they will
continue to shine from a distance in the fierce upheaval in the future.

2. That painstaking effort of orientalists should also be considered as an important factor, through
which India’s past got recognition of in the western world. Among these orientalists, Raja Ram
Mohan Roy, Rajendra Lal Mitra, Bhagwan Lal Indrajit, Mahadev Govind Ranade, Hariprasad
Shastri Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar, R. G. Bhandarkar etc are famous and The discovery and re-
 interpretation of India’s past by many eminent Indian thinkers is important. Being a dependent
nation, more emphasis was laid on peeping into the Indian past. India’s distinctive spiritual talent
was claimed for the spiritual conquest of the world and to create a sense of national awaking
through sometimes revived Hinduism, in addition to the sublime determination to free itself from
foreign rule. Remarkable works were also done by Sir William Jones, James Prinsep, Charles
Wilkin, Maxmuller and Winter Nitze in the study of ancient Indian culture and literature.
3. The side effects of the propaganda of the preachers of Christianity can be considered as the third
major factor, in which it was believed that the promotion of Christianity in India would enhance
the interests of the British Empire and the East India Company would prosper. Christian
missionaries, while engaged in the propagation of Christian faith, promoted the company’s
business by keeping the flag of British imperialism forward. They used to criticize the worship of
Indians, religious rituals, beliefs, caste system and discrimination against women. In order to
counter this blasphemy on their religion and social practices, the Indian sages have now tried to
remove the socio-religious evils and Realizing the need to improve it, that gave birth to socio-
religious reform movements.

10.2 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIO-RELIGIOUS REFORM MOVEMENTS

After the establishment of the East India Company’s rule in modern India, the joint economic and
political changes which established the process of integration in the structural system of the country. Due
to them, not only the means of communication such as roads, rail and post-telegraph were developed, but
people of different regions of India came closer to each other. These influenced the interrelationships of
the new groups and thus a living unit emerged. But from the moral and intellectual point of view, many
shortcomings or malpractices continued to exist in this unit. All this came in the form of a challenge to the
traditional religious, moral and aesthetic ideological value system, which serious efforts were made to
reform through socio-religious movements. Rajaram Mohan Roy and his followers formed the first such
intellectual class who imbibed its democratic principles and patriarchal concepts and sentiments while
studying western culture.
Individual thoughts of newly established schools, colleges, religious preachers and enlightened Indians
played an important role in determining the form of socio-religious reform movements. Although the
major trends of these reform movements are of various types. Because of which it is not easy to determine
its form. It would also not be appropriate to call these reform movements only revivalist movements.
Under them, many social reform movements were carried out with wide results, but the courage with
which the progressive section of the society raised various socio-religious problems and launched struggle
campaigns against complex problems is no less than the European religious reform movement and
renaissance.
Germany’s Martin Luther only attacked religious customs, while Rajaram Mohan Roy made a serious
effort to remove religious customs as well as social evils. The new energies and forces that emerged from
the womb of British imperialism created specific contradictions, but it also gave a reactionary force to the
socio-religious reform movements. Thus the general nature of these movements should be seen as the
result of western colonial rule and education.
10.3 MAJOR REFORM MOVEMENTS

The vicious cycle of superstitions and social conservatism was effective in the religious, social and
cultural life of modern Indian history, due to which it seemed impossible to complete the journey of
national consciousness and cultural development. Initially, reforms were started in Bengal under the
leadership of Rajaram Mohan Roy.
The Atmiya Sabha he founded in 1814 AD became the foundation stone of the Brahmo Samaj. Rajaram
Mohan Roy believed that priests have got the monopoly of knowledge related to religious texts and
performing rituals, due to which the nature of all religious acts has become confusing. The main trends of
socio-religious reform movements are as follows

10.3.1 Reform through Legislation

The development of this trend of socio-religious reform was also due to the belief in the capability of
statutory and legal intervention. The thinkers of this class believed that reform cannot take place until it
gets the legal support of the state. He urged the British government to enact reforms like legal marriage,
widow remarriage, increasing the minimum age of marriage, Keshavchandra Sen in Bengal,
Veerashalingam in Andhra Pradesh, M.G. Ranade etc. were supporters of this trend. Keshav Chandra Sen
and Debendranath Tagore were more critical of Indian religious texts than Ram Mohan Roy.
M.G. In Maharashtra Ranade was of the opinion that the dead and buried persons are dead and forgotten
and are consumed in the fire forever. Similarly, the dead past cannot be revived. Taking the active
cooperation of the legislature, he did the work of social reform.

10.3.2 Reform through Social Action

This trend of socio-religious reform movements is mainly visible in the programs of Dayanand
Saraswati’s Arya Samaj, Swami Vivekananda’s Ramakrishna Mission and Prarthana Samaj in
Maharashtra. In Maharashtra itself, Gopal Hari Deshmukh became famous by the name of Lokhitwadi.
The Arya Samaj not only boycotted the caste system, but by running a campaign against the Hindu
society divided into sub-castes, made the aim of organizing the Hindu society like the society of the Vedic
period. He also presented the side of right for Shudras to study religious texts.The Ramakrishna Mission
also tried to propound the ideas of reform and revival through social work. Arya Samaj was a supporter of
equal rights and duties of men and women in social and educational matters.

10.3.3 Reform through Symbols of Change

This trend was manifested through non-partisan activities that appears to be limited to the youth Bengal
movement. The Derozians represented that current within the reform movement. They also demand
women’s rights and education.
Apart from Henry Vivian Derizio, Ranjan Mukherjee, Ram Gopal Ghosh and Krishna Mohan Banerjee
were prominent in the south as members of Young Bengal. These people were rebellious against the
stereotypes and out-of-time social norms, yet highly influenced by the innovative ideas of the West.
Although these people could not affect the Indian society and cultural traditions much.
10.3.4 Internal Improvement

The exponents of this trend of reform movements believed that any reform is effective only when it
originates from within the society. The main effort of the mystics of this class was to create awareness
among the people. These people believed that the Vedanta philosophy is based on the theory of logic, they
were neither supporters of India’s past life nor blind imitation of the West. Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar
was a contemporary of Ram Mohan Roy. Continuing the long struggle in favor of Hindu widow
remarriage, he propounded his opinion by quoting Hindu religious texts. Only after this, in 1855, the
people of Bengal, Bombay and Madras etc. presented a large number of petitions before the government
and demanded to pass an act to declare widow remarriage valid.

As a result of which the Hindu Widow Remarriage Act was passed in 1856. Vidyasagar represented
reforms from within the system.

10.4 Summary of Major Socio-Religious Reform Movements

Socio-religious reform movements have contributed in many ways in the making of modern India. During
this period, a large number of these movements were organized in the country. due to which national and
cultural consciousness was communicated in India. This way A brief description of major socio-religious
reform movements in the movements is as follows

10.4.1 Raja Rammohan Roy and the Brahmo Samaj

Raja Ram Mohan Roy was the first person who tried to free the Indian society from religious
stranglehold. He changed the new ideas which became the most important feature of the socio-religious
movements of the 19th century. He was indeed a bridge between the future and the past. He was born on
May 22, 1772 in a Brahmin family of Bengal in Radhanagar district Hooghly. He had acquired knowledge
of languages like Arabic, Persian, Sanskrit, English and Bengali as well as Greek, Latin and Hebrew. His
early studies done in Patna and Varanasi.
From 1803 to 1814, he worked in the East India Company. His works include Tuhfat-ul-Mujahideen (Gift
to the Monotheists, in Persian), Manjatul Adayan Shabd Kaumudi or Pragya’s Moon weekly newspaper,
Mirat-ul-Akhbar or ‘Mirror of Wisdom’. In 1830, Ram Mohan Roy was honored with the title of Raja by
Mughal Emperor Akbar Shah (II) and sent him as his ambassador to the British Emperor William IV’s
court in England, where he stayed for three years and died there on 27 September 1833.
Adopting an intellectual approach towards religion, Rammohan Roy founded the Atmiya Sabha to
propagate the monotheistic doctrine of Hinduism and in 1828 laid the foundation of the Brahmo Sabha in
Calcutta itself, which later came to be known as the Brahmo Samaj. Brahmo Samaj believed that God is
the source of all that exists in the visible world, similarly nature, earth and heaven are all the creation of
the same God. There is no place for concepts and ideas like incarnation and meditation in the concept of
God in Brahmo Samaj. They do not accept the authority of a priest between God and man.

It neither permitted the offering of sacrifices nor supported worship. The Brahmo Samaj emphasized love
for human beings and service to humanity as the highest method of life, regardless of colour, caste or
creed. Debendranath Tagore’s Tatvabodhini Sabha and The Sangat Sabha of Keshavchandra Sen are
known as the later branches of the Brahmo Samaj.
After the death of Ram Mohan Roy, the activities of the Brahmo Samaj remained stagnant for some time
due to lack of active and efficient leadership. Rammohan Roy’s disciples like Maharshi Dwarkanath
Tagore and Pandit Ramchandra Vidya Vagish kept the Brahmo Samaj dynamic for about 10 years. Later,
the Brahmo Samaj got an active worker in the form of Debendranath Tagore, the eldest son of
Dwarkanath Tagore. Debendranath Tagore had formed the Tattvaranjani Sabha in Jorasanko, Calcutta,
before joining the Brahmo Samaj, with the aim of discovering religious truth. This later came to be
known as Tattvabodhini Sabha. Weekly meetings were organized under the Tatvabodhini Sabha, under
which research papers on various subjects were read and discussed. Religious discussions were also held
once a month. Soon a large section of Bengal’s elite became its members because not only was the
Tatvabodhini Sabha’s program closely related to the Brahmo Samaj, but Tatvabodhini Sabha was
functioning as the main organizational division of the Brahmo Samaj. Tatvabodhini School was
established in 1840 under this assembly.
Akshay Kumar Dutt was appointed as the teacher. Its members included Tarachand Chakraborty,
Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar, Pyare Lal Mitra and Rajendra Lal Mitra etc.

People of different views and professions attended. In the first half of the 19 th century, there was no such
organization in Bengal which left such an impact on the socio-religious life of Bengal like Tatvabodhini
Sabha. The monthly publication of Tatvabodhini Patrika was also a specialty of this gathering.
Debendranath Tagore with twenty of his associates

Formally joined the Brahmo Samaj in 1843. Debendranath Tagore protested fiercely against the
accusation imposed by Christian preachers on Indian culture. He also prepared a compilation of a
religious manual called Brahma Dharma. Moral and spiritual quotes from various Hindu religious texts
were given in it. Brahma worship was also started by him. Keshavchandra Sen joined the Brahmo Samaj
in 1857. With the joint influence of Devendranath and Keshavchandra, the Brahmo Samaj entered a new
dynamic era.
Keshavchandra also formed the Maitri Sabhi which came to be known as the Sangat Sabha. Its main
objective was to discuss the spiritual and social problems of that time. The Sangat Sabha also had the
predecessors of Raja Ram Mohan Roy’s Atmiya Sabha. Keshavchandra Sen believed that the work of
renaissance and revival of Indian society should be started simultaneously in all spheres of life. In various
meetings of the Sangat Sabha, the members are encouraged to give up their caste, to give up fame, not to
encourage dances performed by prostitutes, to reject invitations to idolatrous events, to exercise self-
control, to enlighten their family members with the new light of knowledge. Used to take a pledge to be
beneficial and to adopt complete honesty, fair honesty in his dealings. In the weekly meetings, the
problem of rites to be observed in the Hindu family at the time of birth, naming, marriage, funeral and
other family activities and religious rituals were discussed. Devendranath gave a new form to religious
rituals and removed all the idolatrous elements from it.
These religious rituals have been mentioned in the ritual method. The publication of the Indian Mirror
fortnightly paper started in 1861 under the editorship of Keshavchandra Sen. Mirror quickly established
its own identity and earned the distinction of being the first English daily newspaper. Later on, this
newspaper also got the good fortune of becoming the mouthpiece of Brahmo Samaj. Through Sangat
Sama, Keshavchandra organized various social service works with public interest during epidemics and
famines, not only this, he tried to develop Brahmo Samaj as an all India level movement. As a result of
his efforts, Prarthana Samaj in Maharashtra and Ved Samaj in Madras could be established. He conducted
radical revolutionary various movements. Organized campaign against inter-caste marriage, women’s
liberation, women’s education and child marriage. In the later 19 thcentury the Brahmo Samaj became
weak due to internal dissension. This disintegration

They are as follows-

The first disintegration in 1866 AD due to radical reforms in Brahmo Samaj, the first disintegration took
place when Debendranath’s group, which called itself Adi Brahmo Samaj, broke away from
Keshavchandra Sen’s group and formed the Bharatiya Brahmo Samaj or New Law. Took the name The
slogan of Nava Brahmo Samaj was “Brahmoism is tolerant and universal”, while the slogan of Adi
Brahmo Samaj was “Brahmoism is Hinduism”.

After this dissolution, Keshavchandra took a pledge of strong spirituality with more enthusiasm to
communicate new life in the society. Some of the features of his new constitution were as
(A) To try to coordinate Hindu ideals and Christian religious practices.
(b) Emphasis on the mystical aspects of religion by logically considering them. Keshavchandra
Sen traveled to England in 1870 AD and on returning
he got involved in public welfare works with double enthusiasm. He agreed to the British Government in
1872 AD to legalize the Brahmo Marriage Act, which legalized marriages according to Brahmo religious
rituals. He also founded the Indian Reform Association, in which he contributed significantly to the
emancipation and education of women, as well as the spread of western education and social work.
Second dissolution – In 1878 AD, Keshavchandra Sen married his daughter to the Maharaja of Cooch
Behar. Violating the Brahmo Marriage Act of 1812 AD, he solemnized the marriage of minor bride and
groom according to the Hindu method. Agitated by this incident, many members of Keshavchandra Sen’s
new constitution en masse parted ways. Ultimately Keshavchandra failed his own organization despite all
his efforts. Collectively, these separated members established the Ordinary Brahmo Samaj, which was
designed by Anand Mohan Bose on the basis of democratic principles. The membership of Saadharan
Brahmo Samaj was given only to those people who were against the caste system, supporters of women’s
emancipation, did not follow idol worship and believed in the principles of Saadharan Brahmo Samaj.
The Brahmo Samaj movement was deeply hurt by this second split. After the death of Keshavchandra Sen
in 1884 AD, there was a vacancy in the Bengali society for some time.
All the members involved in the management system of ordinary Brahmo Samaj wereobtained equally
Rights . By this time political consciousness has awakened andImportant Jannayaks like Anand Mohan
Bose, Vipinchandra Pal, Shivnath Shastri and Sir Surendranath Banerjee were the foremost leaders of the
movement. Establishment of famine relief fund, orphanages, schools for deaf-mute and establishment of
welfare institutions for women education were the main activities of the ordinary Brahmo Samaj.

The ordinary Brahmo Samaj Started publishing many new magazines in to educate the general public. In
which Modern Review Sanjivani, Tatva Kaumidi, Navya Bharat, Brahma Janmat, Pravesh, Indian
Messenger were mainly popular.
From the point of view of evaluation, the important contribution of Brahmo Samaj seems to be involved
in its prohibitive approach. Nevertheless, it had a decisive influence on the social, intellectual, cultural,
religious and political life of Bengal and the rest of India during the 19 th and 20th centuries. Although its
influence was confined mainly to the urban educated groups, yet the Brahmo Samajis were great
reformers. He made multiple efforts for the upliftment of women by freeing the society from evil
practices like caste system and child marriage. Its main objective was to build a new society free from all
evils of caste, creed and gender. Raja Rammohan Roy and his Brahmo Samaj are the starting point of
reformist movements at all levels in Hindu religion, society and politics. Raja Ram Mohan Roy tried to
awaken social and cultural consciousness among the countrymen.

10.4.2 Bengal Youth Movement

This movement was started by Henri Sui Vivian Derozzi (1809-1831 AD), a man of extraordinary talent.
Derozio came to Calcutta in 1826 as a teacher of English literature and history in the Hindu College.
Derozis, rich in extraordinary talent, did the work of editing in addition to teaching work. He edited the
Calcutta Literary Gazette and Hesperus. He was also associated with the India Gazette. In Hindu College,
the students were extra impressed by his personality. He had an indelible impact on his disciples inside
and outside the classroom. He inspired his students to live and die for the truth along with imbibing all the
virtues and behaving according to them and avoiding all kinds of evil. He emphasized on independent
thinking on all moral, religious and social subjects. Like Socrates, Derozio followed the truth and he too
was accused of misleading the youth.The influential people of Calcutta got him fired. He died shortly
after this. Derozio was among the few teachers whose wisdom, integrity and hatred of evil had a deep
impact on the youth who came in contact with him.
Derizio took inspiration from the French Revolution and adopted the most revolutionary ideas of his time.
He inspired his disciples to test the authenticity of all grounds, to love freedom, equality and freedom, and
to worship truth. Derozio and his famous followers, known as Derojian and Young Bengal, were patriots
par excellence. Derozio can also be considered as the first national poet of modern India.
Derozio was a strong advocate of women’s rights but he did not want to give birth to anyone.

I didn’t succeed. In fact, Derozio’s revolutionaries were bookish. There was no class or group in the then
Indian society that supported his progressive ideas. They could not even establish contact with the general
public. Despite all this, Derozio’s followers kept Rammohun Roy’s tradition of educating the public on
economic, political and social questions through newspapers, pamphlets and public institutions.
Surendranath Banerjee, the famous leader of the national movement, called Derozio’s followers the
fathers of our race, the forerunners of modern civilization in Bengal. In this way, the Young Bengal
Movement launched public agitations on the social, political and religious questions of Indians.

10.4.8 Prarthna samaj

As a result of Keshavchandra Sen’s visit to Maharashtra in 1867 AD, D. Atmaram Pandurang and M.G.
Ranade (1842-1901) founded it. Ranade is cited as the harbinger of cultural renaissance in western India.
Ranade clarified that most of the evils existing in the society are against the ancient beliefs and traditions.
In this regard, he opposed child marriage, prohibition of widow remarriage, illiteracy and neglect of
women, prohibition of foreign travel, ban on food and drink among intercastes and untouchability etc.
Ranade’s movement soon assumed an all-India character. Social reform movement of Prarthana Samaj
Ranade and R. Yes. Continued till the end of the 10th century through leaders like Bhandarkar.
In these programmes,The cooperation of other active workers like Vishnu Shastri and Dhodo Keshav
Karve was also received. Ranade and Karve, while running the widow remarriage movement, established
the Vidhwa Ashram Sangh with the aim of educating the widows. The aim of the Vidhwa Ashram Sangh
was also to make the widows self-dependent. So that they can lead their life successfully. No other socio-
religious reformist movement could achieve success equal to Prarthana Samaj in any other part of India.

10.4.4 Jyotiba Phule and the Satya shodhak samaj

Born in Mali family in 1828, Jyotiba Phule led a powerful non-Brahmin movement. In 1854, Phule
established a school for untouchables and opened a private orphanage to help widows. He made no
distinction between untouchables and non-Brahmins and was so much in favor of poverty that when he
met the Duke of York, he appeared before him wearing a dhoti as a real representative of the poor Indian
farmer. Phule’s education, personal experience and association with Christian missionaries made him a
strong critic of the prevalent Hindu religion and its customs. In 1873, Phule established the Satya
Shodhak Samaj to educate the downtrodden and make them free and aware of their rights. Soon the Satya
Shodhak Samaj became popular among the public due to its reformative activities. Phule composed books
named Gulamgiri and Sarvajanik Dharma for the purpose of spreading his thoughts and activities of the
society.
10.4.5 Dayanand Saraswati and Arya Samaj

Arya Samaj took the initiative to reform Hinduism in North India. It was founded in 1875 by Swami
Dayanand Saraswati (1824-1883) in Bombay. Swami Dayanand was of the view that the selfish and
ignorant priests had polluted the Hindu religion with the help of the Puranas. The impact of earlier
movements was limited due to their locality. After Brahmo Samaj, the Arya Samaj founded by Dayanand
Saraswati in North India was the only movement which got wide support at the national level. In
Kathiawar (Gujarat) in the year 1824 AD, in a small state of Morvi, the child Mulshankar was born in a
Brahmin family. This Mulshankar later became famous by the name of Dayanand Saraswati. For 15 years,
he wandered like a wanderer in search of knowledge and finally attained Vedic knowledge for two and a
half years as a disciple of blind Guru Swami Virjanand in Mathura. Swami Virjanand asked his disciple
Dayanand in the form of Guru Dakshina for the task of liberating the society from various kinds of evils
prevailing in Hinduism today.
After a deep study of the literature, Swami Dayanand came to the conclusion that Arya was the best
people ‘Vedas are divine knowledge and the land of India is a special land. A few years after the
establishment of Arya Samaj, its headquarters was established in Lahore. Swami Dayanand spent the last
8 years of his life writing books for the propagation of Arya Samaj. He wrote Satyarth Prakash,
Vedbhashya Bhumika. The message of Arya Samaj was spread the most in Punjab. Arya Samaj started a
movement against all religious beliefs, rejecting the supremacy of Brahmins. The slogan ‘Return to
Vedas’ made an unprecedented contribution towards awakening cultural consciousness in the light of
national unity. Swamiji’s reliance on the Vedas and his unflinching truthfulness meant that human reason
was not the ultimate deciding factor.
There was also a rational aspect of his approach, namely that despite the Vedas being theistic, they had to
be believed by those who were human beings. The rationality of the individual was the decisive criterion.
He believed that every person has direct access to God. Its . After endorsing excessive Hindu orthodoxy,
he attacked and rebelled against it. The teachings he derived from his account of the Vedas were
surprisingly close to the religious and social reforms other Indian reformers were advocating at the time. .
He was opposed to idol worship, rituals and priesthood and especially the caste system and the prevalent
Hindu religion propagated by the Brahmins. He turned his attention to the problems of human beings
living in this real world instead of the other world.

In fact, the idea of Arya Samaj and its Sunday meetings were similar to the rituals of Brahmo Samaj and
Prarthana Samaj. Interesting fact is that Swami Dayanand Saraswati met and discussed with
Keshavchandra Sen, Vidyasagar, Gopal Hari Deshmukh, Justice Ranade and other modern religious and
social reformers.
Later, some followers of Swami Dayanand started a series of schools and colleges in the country to impart
education according to the western method. Lala Hansraj played a leading role in this effort. On the other
hand, Swami Shraddhanand established a Gurukul near Haridwar in 1902 AD to promote relatively
traditional ideals of education. Arya Samaj had two very remarkable contributions from the point of view
of evaluation
(a) It instilled a sense of pride in the past of India in the minds of the then public.
(B) Worked for the promotion of western education.

The Arya Samaj came forward as a symbol of the national awakening of the Indian people.

Came and attracted the attention of hundreds of nationalist Indians. Apart from the socio-religious
reform movement, in the initial phase of national awakening, Arya Samaj, while playing a very
progressive role, fiercely attacked the dominance of Brahmins, religious superstitions,
untouchability and polytheism. Programs were made for public education, equality of men and
women, abolition of sub-castes. In 1822 AD, Arya Samaj also established the Gau Raksha Sangh.

If considered from a critical point of view, certain activities of Arya Samaj have been quite
controversial. The staunch Muslim Ulema, highly sensitive to cow protection and purification
movement, became its opponents. As a result, communal riots broke out between Muslims and
Hindus in some parts of the country and animosity increased. Ultimately, Dayanand gave Arya
Samaj the form of a democratic organization, the success of which was that this movement
remained active even after the death of Swami Dayanand Saraswati in 1883.

10.4.6 Swami Vivekananda and Ramakrishna Mission

Swami Vivekananda was a favorite disciple of the famous saint Ramakrishna Paramhansa (1834-
1886) of Dakshineswar. He established the Ramakrishna Math System and Mission in 1887 AD.
Whose registration was done in 1909 under the Societies Registration Act. Ramakrishna
Paramhansa was a learned saint who tried to attain religious liberation through the traditional
methods of renunciation, meditation and devotion. In search of religious truth or attainment of
God other religions especially Muslims and Christians stayed with mystics.
He strongly emphasized the fact that there are many ways to reach God and salvation and that
service to man is service to God. He was not only a source of inspiration and devotion to the
general public, but was also the center of strong attraction for the elite and middle class colored
by the color of Western civilization, who were overwhelmed by his spiritual integrity and
humanism. Narendranath Dutt, a close disciple of Ramakrishna Paramhansa, who later became
famous as Vivekananda, had a profound impact on his humanism. Devoting his life to spreading
the message of his Guru, Vivekananda abandoned the cultural life and went on a tour across the
country. Seeing the miseries of the then poor Indian public, he said that the Lord in whom I
believe is the aggregate of all souls and is paramount. My Lord is the savior and savior of the
fallen, the afflicted and the weak in all races.

World religion conference held in Chicago in 1883 ADHe went to participate in the conference, in
the context of his lecture, the New York Herald wrote in its report, after listening to him, we feel
how foolish it is to send our religious preachers to such a life-rich country. The gist of his speech
was that no other religion on earth expounds the dignity of the human being in such a lofty
manner as Hinduism.
After touring the continent of America, he returned home after traveling abroad for twelve years,
visiting England, France, Switzerland and Germany. And established two major centers at
Mayawati near Almora as well as the head office of the Ramakrishna Mission at Velur near
Calcutta. Here the people who accepted the membership of Ramakrishna Mission were trained as
Sanyasis for the religious and social work of the mission. Many schools were opened under the
auspices of the mission and charitable centers were established. Vivekananda was the messiah for
 the Indian youth of that time, he addressed the youth and said that they should wake up and
become aware and challenge them, as long as millions of people remain hungry and ignorant,
then in my view every person is a traitor who, despite being self-educated, And doesn’t pay even
a little attention. Thus the mission did not lay emphasis on individual emancipation but on social
welfare or social service.

Theosophical Society

In 1875, the Theosophical Society was established in New York, USA by Madam H.P. Blavsky
and Colonel H.S. Olcott did. He came to India in 1879 AD and established the headquarters of the
Society in Adyar near Madras in 1888 AD. This theosophical movement soon flourished all over
India after Mrs. Ann Besant came to India. Theosophists dared to revive ancient religions like
Hinduism, Zoroastrianism and Buddhism. They believed in the theory of reincarnation of the
soul, Theosophists were not very successful as religious revivalists. But he made a unique
contribution in the activities of modern India. Along with the establishment of Central Hindu
School of Banaras, schools were opened for women and Dalit classes and strongly opposed child
marriage, caste system. The specialty of this movement was that it was led by the residents of the
West who praised Indian religions and philosophical tradition. This helped the Indians to regain
their self-confidence.

10.4.8 Miscellaneous Social Religious Movements

Various disparate movements in modern Indian history have made significant contributions in
catalyzing reformist movements as a response. New awakening was only partially in these
movements, but their role in motivating other movements cannot be denied. These movements
were conducted on behalf of Hinduism and other religions, out of which the details of major
movements are as follows.

Dharma Sabha

This orthodox Hindu organization was founded in 1830 AD by Radhakant-Dev. The members of
this assembly, contrary to the views of both progressive social leaders and social reformers,
advocated maintaining the status quo in socio-religious matters through their newspapers and
magazines. He played a very active role in favor of expansion of western education and inclusion
of women’s education.

Bharat Dharma Mahamandal

Arya Samaj, Ramakrishna Mission etc. This Mahamandal was established to refute the new
teachings and propaganda. In the last decade of the 19 th century, many organizations were
established in different parts of the country to protect the ancient Hindu religion, among which
the Dharma Mahamandali of Bengal and the Dharma Mahaparishad of South India are
noteworthy.

Ved Samaj –
 In 1864 AD, as a result of the influence of the ideas of Brahmo Samaj, Ved Samaj was established by a
Brahmin named Sridharalu Naidu in Madras. Keeping faith in the theistic philosophy of Brahmo Samaj,
Ved Samaj used to run its programs within the boundaries of Hindu religion. But after some time Ved
Samaj started advocating orthodox traditions. Later, Dorayaswami Iyengar, a friend of Sridharalu Naidu,
advised to abandon the Yajnopaveet. Opposing religious rituals like funeral and marriage rituals in the
reform programs of Ved Samaj, he called all the orthodox rituals meaningless and insisted on leaving
caste discrimination. Not only this, he urged not to give protection to child marriage, polygamy, dance
and dancers. Ved Samaj started a movement in support of widow-marriage. This is a unique movement of
its kind, which became a reformist movement by advocating orthodox traditions, yet could occupy a
special place in the socio-religious reform movements of South India.

Swami Narayan Sampraday

Swami Narayan Sampradaya, a monotheistic organization, was founded by Swami Sahajanand in Gujarat
in the beginning of the 19 th century. Pure and simple life is the basic requirement of character building of
a person in the social field. This community emphasized on living and social unity. Attacking social evils
like sati-practice, female infanticide, caste discrimination and difficult widow life, the community also
gave place to Parsis and Muslims in their community.

The people of Swami Narayan sect opposed the rituals and superstitions of Vaishnavism while
propagating the puritanical way of life. Swami Sahajanand preached to adopt vegetarian diet and to give
up alcohol and other intoxicants.

Jati pati todak mandal

in the year 1922 AD, during the annual foundation day celebration of Arya Samaj, in the background of
Shuddhi movement in Lahore, among the followers of Arya Samaj, Bhai Parmanand condemned the
practice of caste system in harsh words and Jati Panti Todak Mandal was established. As a result of the
Arya Samaj’s efforts to remove the distinctions of the caste system as well as to accept the untouchables
as a pure Hindu caste, many low castes movements emerged in Punjab and elsewhere.

Radhasoami Movement

In 1861 AD, Shiv Dayal Saheb or Swamiji Maharaj of Agra established the Radha Swami community.
Shivdayal Saheb was formerly known as Tulsiram, who was a moneylender and used to work as a banker.
People of the Radhasoami sect believe in the Supreme God, music of holy people and leading a pious
social life. He believes that there is no need to give up material life for spiritual attainments. The
followers of this sect, influenced by Jainism, consider all religions to be true or correct. This sect does not
recognize any place of worship, temple or holy place. Along with faith in God, service, devotion to God
and prayer, charity work is considered as an essential duty.
Madras Hindu Organization

Two Hindu organizations were trying for socio-religious reform in the then Madras State. From 1892
AD, the Madras Hindu Social Reform Committee was functioning, which was founded by Veereshlingam
Potlu. Similarly, the Madras Hindu Society, which was founded by Annie Besant in 1904, aimed at the
religious and social development of the Hindus on a national basis in accordance with the ideals of Hindu
civilization. Veeresalingam Patlu’s Madras Hindu Social Reform Committee was a social puritanical
movement, which freed the society from evil practices by attacking the devadasi system and socio-
religious superstitions.

Satnami sect of Chhattisgarh

Establishment of Satnami sect was done by a saint named Ghasidas of Bilaspur district of the
Chhattisgarh state. He belonged to the untouchable tanner caste. Propounding the ideology of Satnam or
the One True God, heTold his followers to oppose idol worship, he also believed that all human beings are
equal. He exhorted his followers not to use intoxicants, liquor, even tobacco.After the death of Ghasidas
in 1850, his son Balakdas took over the leadership of the Satnami sect. The specialty of this movement
was that it made the strongest attack on the discrimination related to the caste system.

Pranami Sampradaya of Bundelkhand

– This Sampradaya is famous byname of Nijanand, SampradayaSystem andDhami and Prannathi sects.
Devchandra, the originator of this sect was also called Nijanand, hence this sect also came to be known as
Nijanand sect. The word Pranami is derived from ‘Pranam’. A follower of this sect. They greet each other
when they meet, that’s why it got its name as a famous sect. Similarly, because of Swami Prannathji, the
second and main propagator of this sect, it was named Prannathie. Panna (Bundelkhand) is called ‘Dham’
by the followers of the Pranami sect, so only the Pranamis living in Panna are called Dhami. In other parts
of India, this sect is more famous by the name of Pranami sect. In fact, Hindu religion itself was a liberal
and reformist movement. According to the Pranami scriptures, Devachandra had received the knowledge
of the principles of this new sect from Shri Krishna, which only means that he originated from the
philosophy of Shrimad Bhagwat. The main scripture of this sect is Kuljam. It is also known as
Kuljamswaroop and Taratmya Sagar. This text is neither written in one style nor does it have any
similarity of language.
This is a compilation of speeches or sermons of Prannath ji. The same ideas are sometimes expressed in
different languages like Sindhi, Gujarati, Hindi etc. Persian words and phrases have also been used here
and there. Kuljam has the following 14 texts 1. Raas, 2. Prakash (Gujarati, Hindustani) 3. Shatritu 4.
Kalas (Gujarati and Hindustani) 5. Sambandh 8. Kirantan 7 Revealed 8. Khilwat 9. Parakarma 10. Sagar
Singar 11. Sindhi 12. Marfatsagar and 3 Kayatnama (big, small)

The reason for the difference of language in the above scriptures is that Swami Prannath used to preach in
the language of the region he used to visit. Used to use In Pranami texts, she has been called the lust of
Indravati Sakhi of Paramdham. Although idol worship has been opposed in principle in the Pranami sect,
Krishna’s flute and crown or Radhaji’s crown and the copy of Kuljam are regularly worshiped in the
temples of Pranami.
In main temple of parnami’s in pannaThere are many pictures related to the life of Krishna painted on the
walls and ceilings of the temple. Pranami temples are similar to Hindu temples. Although the rise of the
Pranami sect had already happened in the seventeenth century. But from the point of view of communal
harmony, this movement has made a remarkable contribution in the history of modern India.

Sat Mahima Dharma –

Around 1860 AD, Mahima Gosai established Sat Mahima Dharma with the help of Govind Baba and
Bhim Bhoi. The real name of Sat Mahima Gosai was Mukunda Das Goswami. They believed that since
there is only one ruler of the entire universe, idol worship is futile. He emphasized the existence and
omnipotence of an eternal God named Paramviram who is impassable and formless. Declaring the rites of
Brahmin priests as futile, he initiated the tribal people into his community. The Satya Mahima followers
had their headquarters at a place called Joranda in Orissa. Due to the criticism of the worship of Lord
Jagannath by the people of this sect under the leadership of Bhim Bhoi, differences with the Satnami
Hindus deepened, however there were sharp clashes between them.

Paramhans Mandali
Dadoba Pandurang (1842-82) founded this movement in Maharashtra in 1849 with the help of Jamhekar
Shastri. In a treatise called Dharma Vivechan, Dadoba explained that only one God should be worshiped
and true religion should be based on ethical conduct and love because the whole of humanity is of one
caste. Describing spiritual religion as one, he said that every person should get freedom of thoughts, our
actions and speech should be in accordance with rationality and every person should get proper
knowledge. The followers of this community had to take an oath that they would accept food and water
prepared by the members of the lower castes and would renounce caste differences. This movement ended
in 1860 AD.
Sewa Sadan
in 1885 AD, Parsi social reformer Bahram G.M. Malavari established this social reformer and human
service organization called Sev Sadan. This organization made significant contribution in creating public
opinion against child marriage, forced widowhood etc. Seva Sadan used to do special work like providing
protection, education, social welfare and medical services to the neglected and exploited women of all
castes.

Bharat Sevak Samaj

Gopal Krishna Gokhale founded Bharat Sevak Samaj with the aim of creating a dedicated organization of
people for social service and reforms. It worked for famine relief, federal organization, co-operation and
upliftment of tribes and Dalits.
National Social Conference
 It was founded by Raghunath Rai and Mahadev Govind Ranade in Madras during the third annual
session of the Congress in December 1887 AD. After this, this conference was organized at the same time
and on the same stage, where the annual session of the Congress was held. This conference focused its
attention only on the subjects of reform. It started the ‘Pledge Movement’ by motivating people to take
oath to stop child marriage. The conference also supported inter-caste marriages and opposed nepotism
and polygamy. The Indian Social Conference should be called a social reform arm of the Indian National
Congress.

Social Service Association

Narayan Malhar Joshi founded the Social Service Association in 1911. It was established with a view to
formulating public opinion on subjects related to social service. With a view to collecting and studying
social facts and discussing social problems and to get a suitable life for the general public, the Social
Service Association has done important work. Along with many children’s clubs, children’s parties, day
and night libraries, schools and hospitals were established by the Samaj Seva Sangh.

Rahnumai Majdayosan Sabha

Dadabhai Naoroji, J.B. Wacha, H.S. Western-educated progressive Zoroastrians such as Bengali and
Nauraji Furdonji founded the Rahnumai Majdayosan Sabha or Religious Reform Association, which
aimed at the revival of the social status of Zoroastrians and the restoration of the ancient sanctity of
Zoroastrianism. To spread the message of reform, he also started the publication of the weekly paper
Guftar (Truthful). Through this organization education spread to all in the Parsi community including
their women. The age of marriage was raised and Parsi women gained personal freedom. There was no
other organization like them which has made socio-religious reforms dynamic like them. An open
conference of Parsis was held in 1890 to give a quick impetus to the reform movements, in which open
discussions were held on socio-economic issues.

10.4.9 Anti-Untouchability Movement

The problem of untouchability was deeply rooted in the social life of modern India. For the prevention of
which many movements were started not only at the local or regional level but also at the national level. A
brief introduction of the major movements is as follows

Bahujan Samaj Movement – Mukund Rao Patil and Shankar Rao Jadhav of Maharashtra started an anti-
Congress and anti-Brahmin Bahujan Samaj movement after 1910 AD, inspired by the thoughts of Jyotiba
Phule. This movement was basically a ‘Dalit’ movement. On the basis of the large number of Dalits, it
was named Bahujan. This movement made a scathing attack on the caste system and claimed to be the
spokesperson of the Bahujan Samaj against the moneylenders and Brahmins.
Nair Seva Samaj Mannaya Padnapadnabha Pillai founded it in Travancore in 1914 AD. The Nairs had to
face many internal social problems due to matriarchy or matrilineal joint family. Which was not in
accordance with the current economic conditions and confused and decadent social customs, such as the
behavior of Namboodiri Brahmins was indecent and humiliating with the women of this class. In many
modern Malayalam novels, the dominance of Brahmins and prevailing social evils have been attacked.
Strong leadership of Nairs in the 19 th century. Fell into the hands of Ramakrishna Pillai and Mannaya
Padnapadnam Pillai.

Temple entry movement Shree Narayan Guru N. Kumaran Asan and T.K. Under the leadership of many
reformers and intellectuals like Madhavan, etc., since the end of the 19 th century in Kerala, the struggle
was being done against the inhuman acts of prohibitive taboos imposed on the lower caste or Dalit class.
In 1924 AD, another step was taken to open the state gates of the temples for the lower castes or Dalit
classes. After 1824, anti-untouchability programs became a part of Gandhian constructive work and
gained great popularity.

The Arvavipuram movement was started in 1888 AD by the great social reformer of Kerala, Sree
Narayana Guru. It was against Brahmin or priestly dominance. In 1888 AD, on the occasion of Shivratri
festival, Sree Narayana Guru, despite being of low caste, consecrated the idol of Shiva in Arvavipuram,
from this the movement started. He wrote on the wall of the temple that we all live here in brotherhood
without the dividing walls of caste or creed or hatred of competing religions, Millions of people accepted
him in the cup of saint, visionary, poet, philosopher and social reformer. Education and organization
figured prominently in most of his slogans for freedom and morale. He thought that the essence of all
religions is the same, so he presented the side of comparative study of all religions. This movement has a
great contribution in the history of modern South India.
Apart from the above-mentioned movement, the Lingayat Educational Fund Association and Vokkalinga
Association of Karnataka and the Anti-Brahmin Forum established by CR Reddy in Madras are
noteworthy.

10.4.10 Sikh egalitarian movement

The socio-religious movements of modern Indian history have generally been fighting for various social
problems like untouchability, caste discrimination etc. For the spirit of equality and brotherhood, many
local and regional level movements have been started in Punjab, of which the introduction of major
movements is as follows
Namdhari Movement This movement was founded by Balak Singh’s Guru Baba Ram Singh (1816-
1885). Balak Singh exhorted his followers to lead a simple life and to abstain from all rituals except
taking the name of God. The way Guru Gobind Singh had established the Khalsa Panth, in the same way
Baba Ram Singh started the Namdhari movement. He exhorted his followers to wear white gloves with
white turban and to give up the worship of idols, dargahs, trees etc. Prohibition of eating meat was strictly
implemented in this movement. Giving equal status to women, they were also instructed to remarry. Child
marriage and dowry system were completely prohibited.

• Singh Sabha This meeting was established on October 1, 1873 under the leadership of Thakur Singh
Sandhawalia and Gyan Singh. The main objective of the Singh Sabha is to restore Sikhism in its original
pure form, to publish historical religious books and magazines, to spread knowledge through the medium
of Punjabi language, to bring back the apostate Sikhs to the path of religion and to introduce English in
the educational programs of Sikhs. Had to connect. Social reforms took place in the Sikh community
under the influence of this movement.

Nirankari Movement Baba Dayaldas founded this movement and emphasized on return to original
religion and worship of formless God. He insisted his followers to meditate on Nirankar instead of rituals.
This movement also propounded some progressive reforms, such as not believing in astrology and
horoscopes, complete prohibition of meat-eating, drinking, false cheating, dishonesty in measurement,
etc. Very simple rituals were encouraged on the occasions of birth, marriage, death etc. Nirankari Estates
have alsoOpened the door. of their community for Keshdharis, Sahajdharis and people of other
communities.

10.4.1 Feminist Movement

The condition of women in India was very pathetic since the medieval period.

Therefore, the questions related to the emancipation of Indian women were the main topics in social
reform programs before the socio-religious reformers of the 19 th century. At that time, women were
shamelessly exploited, kept backward and were being exploited in the form of many cruel practices like
Sati, female infanticide, polygamy, purdah system, illiteracy etc. Therefore, many movements were
started to improve the socio-religious life of women, in which the introduction of major organizations is
as follows

Bharat Mahila Parishad was constituted as a think tank by the National Social Conference to discuss
social issues related to women.

Arya Mahila Parishad

Justice Mahadev Govind Ranade’s wife Mrs. Ramabai established this organization to provide shelter to
newly educated women through this organization. Mrs. Ramabai is always remembered for her
unforgettable contribution in the field of women’s education. He established Sharda Sadan for widows in
Bombay and Mukti in Pune.

Bharatiya Stree Mahamandal

Sarala Devi Chaudharani established it in 1910 AD in Allahabad. It was the first permanent organization
of Indian women to promote the common interests of women. Similarly, in the form of other
organizations Bharat Mahila Mandal, Stree JaratyoshiMandal, All India Women’s Conference and
National Council of Indian WomenIs noted .

What was the Wahabi/Walliullah Movement?

 The teachings of Abdul Wahab of Arabia and the preachings of Shah Walliullah inspired this
essentially revivalist response to Western influences and the degeneration which had set in
among Indian Muslims and called for a return to the true spirit of Islam.
  He was the first Indian Muslim leader of the 18th century to organise Muslims around the two-
fold ideals of this movement:

o Desirability of harmony among the four schools of Muslim jurisprudence which had
divided the Indian Muslims (he sought to integrate the best elements of the four
schools),

o Recognition of the role of individual conscience in religion where conflicting

interpretations were derived from the Quran and the Hadis.

 The teachings of Walliullah were further popularised by Shah Abdul Aziz and Syed Ahmed
Barelvi  who also  gave them a political perspective.

o Un-Islamic practices that had crept into Muslim society were sought to be eliminated.

o Syed Ahmed called for a return to the pure Islam and the kind of society that had existed
in the Arabia of the Prophet’s time.

o India was considered to be dar-ul-Harb (land of the kafirs) and it needed to be

converted to dar-ul-Islam (land of Islam).

 Initially, the movement was directed at the Sikhs in Punjab but after the British annexation of
Punjab (1849), the movement was directed against the British.

 During the 1857 Revolt, the Wahabi’s played an important role in spreading anti-British feelings.

 The Wahabi Movement fizzled out in the face of British military might in the 1870s.

What was Titu Mir‘s Movement?

 Mir Nithar Ali, popularly known as Titu Mir, was a disciple of Sayyid Ahmed Barelvi, the founder
of the Wahabi Movement.

 Titu Mir adopted Wahabism and advocated the Sharia. He organised the Muslim peasants of
Bengal against the landlords, who were mosly Hindu, and the British indigo planters.

 The movement was not as militant as the British records made it out to be, only in the last year
of Titu’s life was there a confrontation between him and the British police.

What was the Faraizi Movement?

 The movement, also called the Faraizi Movement because of its emphasis on the Islamic pillars
of faith, was founded by Haji Shariatullah in 1818.

 Its scene of action was East Bengal, and it aimed at the eradication of social innovations or un-
Islamic practices current among the Muslims of the region and draw their attention to their
duties as Muslims.

 Under the leadership of Dudu Mian, the movement became revolutionary from 1840 onwards.
 o He gave the movement an organisational system from the village to the provincial
level with a khalifa or authorised deputy at every level.

o The Faraizi organised a paramilitary force armed with clubs to fight the zamindars who
were mostly Hindu, though there were some Muslim landlords too, besides the indigo
planters.

o Dudu Mian asked his followers not to pay rent.

o The organisation even established its own Law courts.

 Dudu Mian was arrested several times, and his arrest in 1847 finally weakened the movement.
The movement survived merely as a religious movement without political overtones after the
death of Dudu Mian in 1862.

What was the Ahmadiyya Movement?

 The Ahmadiyya forms a sect of Islam which originated from India. It was founded by Mirza
Ghulam Ahmad in 1889.

 It was based on liberal principles. It described itself as the standard-bearer of Mohammedan

Renaissance, and based itself, like the Brahmo Samaj, on the principles of universal religion of all
humanity, opposing jihad (sacred war against non-Muslims).

 The movement spread Western liberal education among the Indian Muslims.

 The Ahmadiyya community is the only Islamic sect to believe that the Messiah had come in the
person of Mirza Ghulam Ahmad to end religious wars and bloodshed and to reinstate morality,
peace and justice.

o They believed in separating the mosque from the State as well as in human rights and
tolerance.

o However, the Ahmadiyya Movement, like Bahaism which flourished in the West Asian
countries, suffered from mysticism.

What was the Aligarh Movement?

 Sir Syed Ahmad Khan is, first and foremost, known for his pioneering role in transforming the
educational opportunities for Muslims.
  He realised that Muslims could only make progress if they took to modern education. For this he
started the Aligarh movement.

o It was a systemic movement aimed at reforming the social, political and educational

aspects of the Muslim community.

o The movement undertook to modernise Muslim’s education by adapting English as a

medium of learning and western education rather than just focusing on traditional
teachings.

 He wanted to reconcile Western scientific education with the teachings of the Quran which
were to be interpreted in the light of contemporary rationalism and science even though he
also held the Quran to be the ultimate authority.

o He said that religion should be adaptable with time or else it would become fossilised,
and that religious tenets were not immutable.

o He advocated a critical approach and freedom of thought and not complete dependence
on tradition or custom.

 Sir Syed established the Scientific Society in 1864, in Aligarh to translate Western works into
Indian languages to prepare the Muslims to accept Western education and to inculcate scientific
temperament among the Muslims.

o The Aligarh Institute Gazette, a magazine published by Sir Syed was an organ of the
Scientific Society.

 In 1877, he founded the Muhammadan Anglo Oriental College on the pattern of Oxford and
Cambridge universities. The college later grew into Aligarh Muslim University.

 The Aligarh Movement helped in the Muslim revival. It gave them a common language— Urdu.

 Sir Syed also pushed for social reforms and was a champion of democratic ideals and freedom
of speech.

o He was against religious intolerance, ignorance and irrationalism. He denounced

purdah, polygamy and easy divorce.

o Tahzebul Akhlaq (Social Reformer in English), a magazine founded by him, tried to

awaken people’s consciousness on social and religious issues in a very expressive prose.

What was the Deoband Movement?

  The Deoband Movement was organised by the orthodox section among the Muslim ulema as a
revivalist movement with the twin objectives of propagating pure teachings of the Quran and
Hadis among Muslims and keeping alive the spirit of jihad against the foreign rulers.

 The Deoband Movement was begun at the Darul Uloom (or Islamic academic centre), Deoband,
in Saharanpur district (United Provinces) in 1866 by Mohammad Qasim Nanotavi and Rashid
Ahmed Gangohi to train religious leaders for the Muslim community.

 In contrast to the Aligarh Movement, which aimed at the welfare of Muslims through Western
education and support of the British government, the aim of the Deoband Movement was
moral and religious regeneration of the Muslim community.

 On the political front, the Deoband school welcomed the formation of the Indian National
Congress and in 1888 issued a fatwa (religious decree) against Syed Ahmed Khan’s
organisations, the United Patriotic Association and the Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental
Association.

o Some critics attribute Deoband’s support to the nationalists more to its determined
opposition to Syed Ahmed Khan than to any positive political philosophy.

 Mahmud-ul-Hasan, the new Deoband leader, gave a political and intellectual content to the
religious ideas of the school.

o He worked out a synthesis of Islamic principles and nationalist aspirations.

o The Jamiat-ul-Ulema gave a concrete shape to Hasan’s ideas of protection of the

religious and political rights of the Muslims in the overall context of Indian unity and
national objectives.

 Shibli Numani, a supporter of the Deoband school, favoured the inclusion of English language
and European sciences in the system of education.

o He founded the Nadwatal Ulama and Darul Uloom in Lucknow in 1894-96.

o He believed in the idealism of the Congress and cooperation between the Muslims and
the Hindus of India to create a state in which both could live amicably.

What was Religious Reform among the Parsis?

 Religious reform began among the Parsis in Mumbai in the middle of the 19 th century. In 1851,
the Rahanumai Mazdayasnan Sabha or Religious Reform Association was founded by Nauroji
Furdonji, Dadabhai Naoroji, S.S. Bengalee and others.

 They started a journal called Rast Goftar, for the purpose of social-religious reforms among the
Parsis.

 They also played an important role in the spread of education, especially among girls.

  They campaigned against the entrenched orthodoxy in the religious field and initiated
the modernization of Parsi social customs regarding the education of girls' marriage and
the social position of women in general.

 In course of time, the Parsis became socially the most westernized section of Indian society.

What was Religious Reform among the Sikhs?

 Religious reform among the Sikhs was started at the end of the 19th Century when the Khalsa
College started at Amritsar.

o Through the efforts of the Singh Sabhas (1870) and with British support, the Khalsa
College was founded at Amritsar in 1892.

o This college and schools set up as a result of similar efforts, promoted Gurumukhi, Sikh
learning and Punjabi literature as a whole.

 After 1920 the Sikh momentum gained momentum when the Akali Movement rose in Punjab.

o The chief object of the Akalis was to improve the management of the Gurudwaras or
Sikh Shrines that were under the control of priests or Mahants who treated them as
their private property.

 In 1925, a law was passed which gave the right of managing Gurudwaras to the  Shiromani
Gurudwara Prabandhak Committee.

What was the Theosophical Movement?

 A group of westerners led by Madame H.P. Blavatsky and Colonel M.S. Olcott, who was inspired
by Indian thought and culture, founded the Theosophical Society in New York City, United States
in 1875.

o In 1882, they shifted their headquarters to Adyar, on the outskirts of Madras (at that
time) in India.

 The society believed that a special relationship could be established between a person’s soul
and God by contemplation, prayer, revelation, etc.

 It accepted the Hindu beliefs in reincarnation and karma, and drew inspiration from the
philosophy of the Upanishads and samkhya, yoga and Vedanta schools of thought.

 It aimed to work for universal brotherhood of humanity without distinction of race, creed, sex,
caste or colour.

 The society also sought to investigate the unexplained laws of nature and the powers latent in
man.
  The Theosophical Movement came to be allied with the Hindu renaissance.

o It opposed child marriage and advocated the abolition of caste discrimination, uplift of
outcastes, improvement in the condition of widows.

 In India, the movement became somewhat popular with the election of Annie Besant (1847-
1933) as its president after the death of Olcott in 1907.

o Annie Besant had come to India in 1893.

o She laid the foundation of the Central Hindu College in Benaras in 1898 where both
Hindu religion and Western scientific subjects were taught.

o The college became the nucleus for the formation of Banaras Hindu University in 1916.

o Annie Besant also did much for the cause of the education of women.

 Significance:

o The Theosophical Society provided a common denominator for the various sects and
fulfilled the urge of educated Hindus.

o However, to an average Indian the Theosophist philosophy seemed to be vague and

lacking a positive programme,to that extent its impact was limited to a small segment
of the westernised class.

o As religious revivalists, the Theosophists did not attain much success, but as

a movement of westerners glorifying Indian religious and philosophical traditions, it
gave much needed self-respect to the Indians fighting British colonial rule.

o Viewed from another angle, the Theosophists also had the effect of giving a false sense
of pride to the Indians in their outdated and sometimes backward looking traditions and
philosophy

What was the Significance of Reform Movements?

 The orthodox sections of society could not accept the scientific ideological onslaught of the
socio-religious rebels. As a result of this, the reformers were subjected to abuse, persecution,
issuing of fatwas and even assassination attempts by the reactionaries.

o However, in spite of opposition, these movements managed to contribute towards the

liberation of the individual from conformity born out of fear and from uncritical
submission to exploitation by the priests and other classes.

 The translation of religious texts into vernacular languages, emphasis on an individual’s right to

interpret the scriptures and simplification of rituals made worship a more personal experience.
  The movements emphasised the human intellect’s capacity to think and reason.

 The reform movements gave the rising middle classes the much needed cultural roots to cling
to, and served the purpose of reducing the sense of humiliation which the conquest by a
foreign power had produced.

 A realisation of the special needs of modern times, especially in terms of scientific knowledge,
and thus promoting a modern, this-worldly, secular and rational outlook was a major
contribution of these reform movements.

 Socially, this attitude reflected a basic change in the notions of ‘pollution and purity’.

 The reform movements sought to create a favourable social climate for modernisation. To that
extent, these movements ended India’s cultural and intellectual isolation from the rest of the
world.

 This cultural ideological struggle was to prove to be an important instrument in the evolution of
national consciousness and a part of Indian national resolve to resist colonial cultural and
ideological hegemony.

o However, not all these progressive, nationalist tendencies were able to outgrow the
sectarian and obscurantist outlook.

o This was possibly due to the divergent duality of cultural and political struggles, resulting
in cultural backwardness despite political advancement.

What were the Limitations of Reform Movements?

 One of the major limitations of the religious reform movements was that they had a narrow
social base, namely the educated and urban middle classes, while the needs of the vast masses
of peasantry and the urban poor were ignored.

 The tendency of reformers to appeal to the greatness of the past and to rely on scriptural
authority encouraged mysticism in new garbs and fostered pseudo-scientific thinking while
exercising a check on the full acceptance of the need for a modern scientific outlook.

 These tendencies contributed, at least to some extent, in compartmentalising Hindus,

Muslims, Sikhs and Parsis, as also alienating high caste Hindus from low caste Hindus.

 The emphasis on religious and philosophical aspects of the cultural heritage got somewhat
magnified by an insufficient emphasis on other aspects of culture—art, architecture, literature,
music, science and technology.

 The Hindu reformers confined their praise of the Indian past to its ancient period and looked
upon the medieval period of Indian history essentially as an era of decadence.

o This tended to create a notion of two separate peoples, on the one hand, on the other,
an uncritical praise of the past was not acceptable to the low caste sections of
 society which had suffered under religiously sanctioned exploitation during the ancient
period.

o Moreover, the past itself tended to be placed into compartments on a partisan basis.

 Many in the Muslim middle classes went to the extent of turning to the history of West Asia for
their traditions and moments of pride.

 The process of evolution of a composite culture which was evident throughout Indian history
showed signs of being arrested with the rise of another form of consciousness, communal
consciousness—along with national consciousness among the middle classes.

o Many other factors were certainly responsible for the birth of communalism in modern
times, but undoubtedly the nature of religious reform movements also contributed to it.

 On the whole, however, whatever the net outcome of these reform movements, it was out of
this struggle that a new society evolved in India.

Unit Conclusion

On this basis of large number of socio-religious reform movements of modern India, the trends of Indian
social reform can be easily estimated in the 19 th century and its surrounding centuries. As a result of these
movements, not only did many social reforms take place, but the enthusiasm with which the progressive
section of the society took up various socio-religious problems and launched struggle campaigns against
complex inequalities and evil practices is also remarkable. In addition to the reform movements and
reformers discussed above, there were also reform movements and reformers in the 19-20 th century. Some
common elements were inherent in the socio-religious movements of the modern era. Most of them used
logic and faith and also took support of ancient proof books and authors. Moreover, he appealed mainly to
the rising middle classes whose aspirations he expressed.
He tried to free the thinking and reasoning power of the human intellect from anti-growth religious
dogmas and superstitions. He criticized Indian religions as ritualistic, superstitious, and irrational.
Many of them (though not in equal measure) abandoned the principle of authoritarianism in religion and
evaluated the truth of any religion or its scriptures from the point of view of logic, reason or science. Two
negative aspects of socio-religious reform movements are noteworthy. All of them primarily catered to the
urban middle and upper classes, a very small segment of the population. None of them could reach the
masses of farmers and urban poor. Peasants and the urban poor continued to live their lives in traditional,
ritual-bound ways. These movements basically gave voice to the Indian educated and urban classes.
Secondly, the tendency of these socio-religious reform movements to look back, to extol the greatness of
Alit and to rely on the evidence of scriptures, these things were contrary to the positive teachings of the
reform movements themselves.
The socio-religious reform movement helped many Indians to come to terms with the modern world. In
fact, they tended to adapt the old religions to the new modern mold to suit the needs of the new social
groups. So pride in the past did not deter Indians from acknowledging the fundamental superiority of the
modern world in general and modern science in particular.

The socio-religious reform movements also had a strong humanist side, which insisted on interpreting the
past in the light of reason and human welfare. In this way, the socio-religious reform movements of
modern India had prepared the background of social reform even before Mahatma Gandhi. It is clear from
the study of various conservative movements that in this era, along with national consciousness,
communal consciousness also started to take birth. Undoubtedly, the form of some socio-religious reform
movements is responsible for this. Lastly, it should be acknowledged that socio-religious reform
movements had prepared the background of national awakening