THE SOCIAL SCIENCES: SOCIOLOGY, establish the field of sociology as an academic

ANTHROPOLOGY, AND POLITICAL SCIENCE discipline.

THE SOCIAL AS "DRIVER OF INTERACTION" Max Weber (1864-1920) Weber contributed
broadly to sociology, as well as impacting
The study of society can be accomplished in
significant reorientations to the fields of law,
three different ways:
economics, political science, and religious
 By mapping the social forces impinging on studies.
social actors as their lives intersect in ANTHROPOLOGY (Study of Human Evolution)
society.
 By rehearsing the structures and  The American Anthropological Association
components of cultural practices and describes anthropology as a science
traditions. seeking to "uncover principles of
 By exposing the asymmetrical power behavior that apply to all human
distributions among members of social communities.” To an anthropologist,
communities and organizations. diversity itself- seen in body shapes and
sizes, customs, clothing, speech, religion,
SOCIOLOGY (Study of Behavior in the and worldview-provides a frame of
Society) reference for understanding any single
 Sociology focuses on the ubiquity (or the aspect of life in any given community.
everywhere-ness) of social forces in  Instead of looking for a "universal
unlikely forms: sex, gender, religion, class, culture"-cultural artifacts that appear the
race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, and the same or similar everywhere they are
like. found-_anthropologists are looking for
 Social forces represent a constellation of "culture universal," patterns of similarity
unseen yet powerful forces influencing the within an array of differences. This
behavior of individuals and institutions. approach is faithful to the principle of
"equal but different" enshrined in the motto
 can be interpreted as any-human
of the discipline.
created way of doing things that
influence, pressure, or force people to THE SOCIAL IN THE GUISE OF INEQUALITY
behave, interact with others, and think
in certain ways.  Social diversity is an ever-present and
enduring feature of all known cultures
A QUICK HISTORY OF SOCIOLOGY around the world, from the most primitive
to the most highly urbanized. Explanations
 Sociology was born in Europe (specially in
for social diversity are plenty and mixed,
Germany, England, and France) during
each of which offers justifications social
the period of Industrial revolution. It was a
dive it persists over time. Sociology refers
period that witnessed the rapid
to It as social inequality or social
development of industry that occurred in
stratification).
britain in the late eighteenth and
nineteenth centuries, brought about by the Social Inequality – a product of an
introduction of machinery. It was symmetrical distribution of power in society.
characterized by the use of steam power,
the growth of factories, and the mass  occurs when resources in a given society
production of manufactured goods. are distributed unevenly, typically through
norms of allocation that engender specific
The first set of sociologists starting with patterns along the lines of socially defined
Augustine Comte(1798-1857), credited to be the categories of persons. It is normally the
father of the discipline for having coined the term end result of social diversity.
sociology.
Father of Economics - Karl Marx (1818-1883) SEEN AS MODALITIES (OR FORMS) OF
his most important contribution was his general SOCIAL INEQUALITY, CULTURAL DIVERSITY
mode of analysis, the "dialectical" model. AND SOCIAL DIVERSITY HAVE BEEN THE
Emile Durkheim (1858-1977) one of Durkheim’s PERENNIAL SUBJECTS OF THEORETICAL
major contributions was to help define and MUSINGS OF SOCIOLOGISTS,
 ANTHROPOLOGISTS, AND POLITICAL
SCIENTISTS.

 Sociologists attributed the persistence

Cultural Diversity
and omnipresence of social inequality to
the beneficial functions it provides for the  A range of different societies or people of
overall operation of society. This is different origins, religions, and traditions
exemplified by the merit system (of giving all living and interacting together.
incentives) and division of labor (of diverse
skills and expertise). Although ideally this should be seen as a neutral
term, in reality the specific bases of what makes
 Political scientists, on the other hand, humans diverse become the basis of their
explain social inequality as a product of an assessment with regards to rewards and social
asymmetrical distribution of power in standing in society.
society.The distribution power, The bases of diversity are culturally dictated such
nonetheless, is seen as contingent to and as:
necessary for the governance of social
relations.  skin color
 language
 Anthropologists (Study of Human  ethnicity
Evolution) take account of the "equal but
They represent ways of life that are determined
different ways" of how people live in the
by their respective geographies, environments,
world. The "difference dimension" is seen
and ecologies.
as representing the culture's inherent
value, hence it is essential to the POLITICAL SCIENCE (systematic study of
appreciation of the culture sui generis, government and politics)
while the "equal dimension" is interpreted
on the basis of the logic that the same  It makes generalizations and analyses
appraisal can be used to judge even about political systems and political
influential and renowned cultures. behavior and uses these results to predict
future behavior (as in elections and similar
THE UNOFFICIAL STORY OF processes where predicting behaviors are
ANTHROPOLOGY important).
 Anthropology has been pejoratively  Political science includes the study of
called "a chiid of colonization" because political philosophy, ethics, international
discoverers of new feritories were always relations, foreign policy, public
accompanied by missionary documentors administration, and the dynamic relations
(a k a, ethnographers). The primary between different parts of governments.
function of those documenters was to As such, it deals extensively with the
record, to the minutest details, all their theory and practice of politics which is
observations and reflections about the commonly thought of as the determining
conquered territories, their people, factor in the distribution of power and
practices, language, rituals, and resources. Political scientists "see
idiosyncrasies. These so-called themselves engaged in revealing the
relationships underlying political events
 "scribes of cultures" became instruments
and conditions, and from these revelations
of the colonizers in achieving their utimate,
they attempt to construct general
yet oftentimes undisclosed, goals the
principles about the way the world of
subjugation of native cultures.
politics works."
THE SOCIAL AS A TOOL OF CHANGE
FORMS OF DIVERSITY
Social change - is used to indicate the changes
Social Diversity
that take place in human interactions and
 Gaps between people as measured by the interrelations.
presence or absence of certain social
desirable traits.
  The alternation of mechanisms within the other militant forms of activisms that promote
social structure, characterized by changes cultural disenfranchisement and social disorder.
in cultural symbols, rules of behavior,
social organizations, or calue systems.
THE STORY OF POLITICAL SCIENCE: A CRIB
Society - is a web of social relationships and
VERSION
hence, social change means change in the
system of social relationships. Political science is the discipline that
problematizes the nature of power and studies
 This is understood in terms of social
how possession and exercise of power can shape
processes, social interaction, and social
individual actions and collective decisions for that
organizations.
matter.
Sociology - is both the consequence and of
The latter are, in essence, a form of "social
change given its historical development as a
agreement" because they have futuristic and
result of wide-ranging changes in Europe from the
lasting effects in people's collective lives. In view
Renaissance and Industrial periods. Just as
of this, the discipline was traditionally believed to
change sparked the development of sociology, so
have emerged from the works of "social contract"
does sociological thought provoke more change.
theorists.
This is not to say sociologists agree on exactly
These social thinkers, in different degrees and
what changes are most desirable. It is also the
sophistication, argued for the existence of the
case that some sociologists are more activist than
state in order to create a community of citizens
others. But simply doing sociology is becoming
free from the brutalities of the state of nature,
involved in change.
where every man is enemy to each one. The
This observation is true because becoming aware contract requires the people to surrender,
of the structure of society a consciousness we completely or in part, their rights to whoever (a
call the sociological imagination (Mills, 1959) is a persona) or whatever (an office) who or which in
powerful tool that allows us to ask not only "What return exercises the same for the protection of
is going on here?" but also "Should things be as everybody.
they are?" The moment we ask these questions,
Thus, the first political task that confronted pilitical
the political dimension of our engagement
theorist was the establishment of a political
becomes imminent.
community that would protect the collective good,
This Means we are already attempting to change which in this context was born out of that social
the state of things in ways we see fit given our contract. However, this is not the end of the task
specific social locations. of political science. A second task became
necessary due to the failure of the social contract,
But such an attempt to alter the equation of seen states in crisis. It is here where issues of
interactions in relation to specific issues like labor, legitimacy, reform, and resistance/ emerge. The
health care, environment, elections, and business focus is on how to keep each party fulfilling its
strikes the power components more than anything side revolution of the contract.
else.
A third task became more evident during the
Social activism consists of the efforts to period of modernity. This is due to the fact that in
promote, inhibit, or (re) direct social, political, the desire to establish order, that much focus was
economic, or environmental issues with the desire given on the political collective. The individual,
to make improvements in society and correct which Aristotle considered as a "political animal,"
social injustice. Forms of social activism range disappeared as focus. It is well-documented that
from writing letters to newspapers or politicians, to the desire to establish a political community took
political campaigning, to taking part in economic its toll on individual rights. The third and final task
boycotts and preferential patronizing of of political science aimed at bringing back the
businesses. One can also express social activism individual to the political domain, focusing on
through different forms of art or by simply what has been labeled as "identity politics" that
acknowledging privileges and oppressions on a celebrated the saying "the personal is also
daily basis. political."
The nonviolence and often personal features of UNDERSTANDING
social activism make it a suitable substitute for
 CULTURE, SOCIETY, AND POLITICS THIRD CULTURE Kid
You have to taste a culture to understand it.  children who spend their formative years
in places that are not their parents '
- Deborah Cater
homeland.
WHAT, WHY, AND HOW OF CULTURE?
ASPECT of Culture
E.B. Tylor
-was the first to coin the term ‘culture’ in the
Eighteenth Century
-the study of society is incomplete without a
proper understanding of the culture of that society
because culture and society go together
What is culture?
CULTURE refers to the cumulative deposit of
knowledge, experience, beliefs, values, attitudes,
meanings, hierarchies, religion, notions of time,
roles, spatial relations, concepts of the universe,
and material objects and possessions acquired by
a group of people in the course of generations
through individual and group striving
 Bronisław Malinowski
“The handwork of man and the medium through
which is he achieve his ends”
 Robert Redfield
“an organized body of conventional
understandings manifest in art and artifact, which,
The complexity of Culture persisting through tradition, characterizes a
E. B. Tvlor describes culture as "that complex human group.”
whole, which encompasses beliefs, practices,  Edward Burnett Tylor
values, attitudes, laws, norms, artifacts, symbols, culture is "that complex whole that includes
knowledge, and everything that a person learns knowledge, belief, art, morale, laws, custom, and
and shares as a member of society" any other capabilities and habits as acquired by
man as a member of society"
ENCULTURATION CULTURE
"WAY OF LIVING or DESIGN FOR LIVING"
 the process by which an individual learns
A culture is historically derived system of explicit
the traditional content of a culture and
and implicit designs for living.
assimilates its practices and values.
-Kluckohn and Kelly-
For example: learning and internalizing Explicit is similar to words and actions that can
appropriate dress codes, learning the rules of a be observed.
workplace, and learning to avoid cultural taboos. Implicit exist in abstract forms.

Cultural Taboo is something that is considered CHARACTERIZATION OF CULTURE

inappropriate to do or discuss within a specific (1) Super Organic - seen as something superior
cultural or sub-cultural group to nature
THIRD CULTURE SHOCK (2) Integrated- each element is integrated with
one another
 Third Culture Shock is a good example of (3) Pervasive- Influence spreading widely
enculturation. Individuals who have stayed throughout an area or a group of people
forquite a good portion of their lives in a CHARACTERISTICS OF CULTURE
foreign culture may be shocked by their 1. Culture is social because it is the product of
birthculture once exposed to it again. The behavior.
shock created by their birth culture is a 2. Culture is shared.
product of their enculturation in the second 3. Culture varies from one society to another.
culture. 4. Culture is learned.
(learned ways of behavior)
5. Culture is transmitted among members of FUNCTIONS OF ETHNOCENTRISM
society.  Ethnocentrism encourages the solidarity of
6. Culture is continuous and cumulative. a group.
7. Culture is gratifying and idealistic.  Ethnocentrism hinders the understanding
FUNCTIONS OF CULTURE or the cooperation between groups.
1. Culture defines situation.  ethnocentrism becomes a vehicle for the
2. Culture defines attitudes, values, and goals. promotion of social change.
3. Culture defines myth, legends, and the When do we become ethnocentric and what is
supernatural. our way out?
4. Culture provides behavior patterns. X When you judge the behavior and beliefs of
ETHNOCENTRISM people who are different from you
 The word ethno comes from the Greeks  Way out: To stop ethnocentric behavior, you
and it refers to a people, nation, or cultural must stop judging others who are different from
grouping. Centric, on the other hand, you.
comes from Latin and refers to the X When you believe that there are primitive
"center." cultures, especially if their way of life is different
 Refers to the tendency of each society to from yours.
place its own culture patterns at the center  Way out: Ethnocentrism is taught. You have to
of things unlearn that your culture is superior and all other
WILLIAM GRAHAM SUMNER(1840-1910) cultures are inferior.
 Coined the term "Ethnocentrism" X When you believe that some cultures are
 Leading proponent of Social Darwinism, backward if they lack the technology and
arguing that the wealthy were rich consumerism of your own culture.
because of natural selection and argued  Way out: Remember that there are no primitive
that their wealth was a social service. or backward cultures. All cultures provide their
 American clergyman, social scientist, and members with the means for meeting all human
classical liberal. needs.
 The process of what makes culture CULTURAL RELATIVISM
enduring and durable, according to  Cultural relativism tries to counter
ethnocentrism, also explains the ethnocentrism by promoting the
uncompromising attitude in the understanding of cultural practices that are
(non)appreciation of other cultures. And unfamiliar to other cultures such as eating
due to lack of information, inviduals may insects, genocides or genital cutting.
be unable to and have difficulty in, XENOCENTRISM
showing appreciation of other cultures.  it is the exact opposite of ethnocentrism.
CULTURE WHAT?  Characterized by strong belief that own
products, styles, or ideas are inferior to
This in turn, results in: those which originate elsewhere.
• Culture shock or outright shock XENOPHOBIA
•Lasting dismissal of the value of others' way of  it is the fear of what is perceived as
life. foreign or strange.
- Ethnocentrism is a universal human reaction  Can be seen in the relations and
found on all society. perceptions of an in-group toward an out-
- As we grow up, the simplest form of group.
ethnocentrism is learned.
 Much of the learning of ethnocentrism is  Losing Identity
indirect and unintended, but some of it is  Suspicion of other group's activity
deliberate.  Desire to eliminate other group to secure
 When one becomes aware of presumed purity
ethnocentrism, the temptation is strong to CULTURE AS HERITAGE
 attributes of a group or society that are
evaluate it morally; to label it with epithets
such as bigoted, chauvinistic, and so on; inherited from past generations,
and to imply that one who has not maintained in the present and bestowed
discovered and compensated for his/her for the benefit of future generations
ethnocentric biases is unworthy
 TANGIBLE COMPONENTS
CULTURE AS HERITAGE Social Facts = Created by humans
 INTANGIBLE COMPONENTS unintentionally, external things. Only appear in a
The INTERPRETATIVE DYNAMICS OF collective context. They limit individual actions,
SOCIETY social institutions, activities.EXAMPLE: Beliefs,
 Culture and society as a concept values, and laws
 The word 'society' was coined by social
scientists to facilitate their exploration of
social phenomena. It is a tool to grasp the
complexity of the phenomenon it
represents and a means to explore its
many other dimension hidden by its
normative use.
 Society is a concept used to describe the
structured relations and institutions among
a large community of people which cannot
be reduced to a simple collection or
aggregation of individuals.

SOCIETY AS A FACTICITY
Society is formally defined as a constituting a
fairly large number of people who are living in the
same territory, are relatively independent of
people outside their area, and participate in a
common culture. The textbook definition of
society is limited and limiting for several reasons.
It is limited simply because it belittles the most WHAT MAKES SOCIETY POSSIBLE: THREE
important component of this phenomenon- THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE
interactions. It is limiting because the
interpretative tradition of sociology may provide a The formation of society and its continuous
more coherent definition of society. development has been a subject of dramatic
SOCIETY AS A FACTICITY debates among social scientists, sociologist in
Traditional definition = Group of people living in particular. The contentious issues do not
one place with similar culture and relatively exclusively involve historical questions as this
independent concern has already been explored by political
Deep definition = Outcome of interactions upon science. However, the latter's version of the origin
which succeeding interactions are made of society appears to be one-sided as it only
meaningful and possible focuses on power relations and governmental
SOCIETY AS A FACTICITY issues. The anthropological version was equally
The tripartite powers of society are even more limited because it narrowed down the
evident in its effects on our daily and routine explorations to cultural dimension of society. The
actions and behavior. Suffice it to say, everything sociological approach appeared more plausible
that we do, think, and are capable of doing and as it amalgamates the political and
thinking all emenate from society. Every single anthropological dimensions of the development of
action of ours is controlled by society. If in case society as a social entity
we decided not to follow its whims and STRUCTURAL FUNTIONALISM AND SOCIAL
commands, It has the capacity and legitimate ORDER
authority to punish us, even take away our lives.
Society controls the laws made and even in the The structural-functional school of thought looks
lawmakers. at social "order". It argues that society is made
SOCIETY AS A FACTICITY possible by cooperation and interdependence.
Mechanics of Operation The health and conditions of the entire system is
Social Forces = Unseen powerful forces that dependent on these two processes of function
affect behavior and interdependence reflects the succeeding
EXAMPLE: Culture, traditions, and mass media. theoretical principles in almost all areas of
sociological investigations-from social
stratification, to deviance, to institution, to  Rules are guides in the performance of
socializations. roles and in everyday actions and
interactions. They provide order in a
CONFLICT THEORY AND CONFLICT
system characterized by the presence of
 Conflict Theory was originally by the many actors with different businesses and
sociologist Karl Marx idea. The social agenda to pursue. What orchestrate the
institution has inherent inequalities and it simultaneous yet orderly transactions and
helps to maintain the unequal social interactions are the rules.
structure. (e.g., religion, government, and  Within this thought rules are essential in
education.) everyday conduct of the members of
society. In cases where there are conflicts,
According to Karl Marx, society has two classes: rules become the arbiter if disagreements
the bourgeoisie, (capitalist); and the proletariat, and people's respect for rules gives them
(workers). Therefore, Karl Marx, identified this this organizing power over human actions
system as existence of a powerful minority class over time
(bourgeoisie) and the oppressed majority class
(proletariat) has created a conflict between this CULTURE AND SOCIETY
two class caused by the resources that are not
 The relationship between society, culture,
fairly distributed among them.
and personality is stressed by Ralph
As the socio-economic worsened for the Linton
proletariat there is a tendency they would develop  A society is an organized group of
a class consciousness. According to Karl Marx, if individuals
the changes made to lessen the conflict that were  A culture is an organized of learned
maintained by capitalist system, the cycle conflict responses
will repeat itself. However, if a new system is  The individual is a living organisms
created, then there will be a peace between them. capable of independent thought, feeling,
and action.
MODE OF PRODUCTION
 Biological and Cultural Evolution (Modern
(MEANS OF PRODUCTION) is driven by the said Humans)
society BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION
 Explains the physical transformation of
 such as factories, machines, and raw
modern humans from Hominids into
materials, and it includes labor and labor
thinking modern humans or Homo sapiens
force.
sapiens.
RELATION OF PRODUCTION CULTURAL EVOLUTION
 Explains the development of humans and
 the relationship that exists between those cultural modification through time as a
who control the means of production RESPONSE to the threats and challenges
(capitalists or bourgeoisie) and those who posed by their environment.
do not (the workers or the proletariat). BIOLOGICAL AND CULTURAL EVOLUTION
SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM AND MEANING  The key concepts in the study of the study
MAKING of the origins of modern humans
BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION
 Unlike the previous two theories, symbolic Refers to the changes, modifications, and
interactionism does not deal with either variations in the genetics and inherited traits of
order or conflict. Instead, it explores the biological populations from one generation to
issues of meaning-making and why this is another
crucial in understanding order or conflict STUDY CHANGES IN:
as processes that brought about society.
Humans as social beings have the  physical body of humans,
capacity to generate meaning from their  Shape and Size of their bones,
surroundings, be it social or otherwise.  Brain,
 Dentition,
RULES; INVISIBLE HAND OF SOCIETY
 Fingers
 Cultural Evolution
CULTURAL EVOLUTION of humans, through FOSSILS and
 Refers to the changes or development in ARTIFACS that can provide information
cultures from a simple form or to a about the origin of humans.
morecomplex form of human culture.
FOSSILS VS ARTIFACTS
SOCIOCULTURAL EVOLUTION
 Happens as a results of human adaptation FOSSILS
to different factors
STUDY CHANGES IN: Letter’s way of life  Human, plant, animal remains that have
reflected in different tools been preserved through time from a past
geological age like animal bone
THEORY OF NATURAL SELECTION fragments.
EVOLUTION
ARTIFACTS
CHARLES DARWIN (1809 – 1882) English
Naturalist and Geologist Objects that were made and used by human,
typically and item of cultural and historical interest
After conducting numerous studies regarding like ceramics, burial jars, and many more.
changes that occur among plants, fossil animals,
and breeds of pigeons, he concluded that EACH TABON MAN
SPECIES WAS NOT CREATED AT ONE TIME  The oldest confirmed modern human to
IN A FIXED FORM have been found in the Tabon Caves,
“Species are not immutable, but that those Quezon City Palawan, Philippines.
belonging to what are called the same genera are  37,000 to 47,000 years ago
lineal descendants of some other and genetically
Manunggul
extinct species, in same manner as the
acknowledged varieties of any one species”  A secondary burial jar excavated from a
Neolithic burial site in the Manunggul cave
On the Origins of Species by Means of Natural
of the Tabon Caves at Lipuun Point in
Selection (1859)
Palawan, Philippines.
NATURAL SELECTION  890-710 B.C.

 In his study, Darwin hypothesized that the FROM HOMINIDS TO HOMO SAPIENS
evolution of species happens through the
HOMINID
process of Natural Selection.
 A general term used by scientists to
The outcome processes that affect the
categorize the group of early humans and
frequencies of traits in a particular environment.
other humanlike creatures that can walk
Traits that ENHANCE SURVIVAL and
erect during prehistoric times.
REPRODUCTIVE SUCCESS increase in
frequency over time. FOUR CATEGORIES OF HOMINIDS
From homonids TO HOMO SAPIENS Pre-Human Stage
(had both apelike and humanlike characteristics)

SAHELANTHROPUS
AUSTRALOPITHECUS

 Most number of species

 First Stage of Human Evolution
 Evolutionary Ladder ARDIPITHECUS
 Modern Humans at the TOP
 Most number of species (had biological
 Apelike ancestors at the BASE
and cultural characteristics of a modern
 "March of Progress" TIME
human)
EXCAVATIONS
HOMO
 A way for archaeologist and social
scientists to understand the development  Most number of species
  Last Stage of Human Evolution  Lived in small social groups .
 Part of Human Stage  Distance of movement was estimated to
be 15 kilometers (9.3 miles) or more to
SAHELANTHROPUS
search for stones to be used as tools .
 Sahelanthrupos is a Greek word meaning  Food scavengers
"dweller of the Sahel," referring to a  Ate insects, eggs, plants, fruits, and
person who lives in the Sahel region of sometimes meat.
Africa. The Sahel is a semi-arid region
located between the Sahara Desert and
GRACILE
the Sudanian Savanna, stretching across
the continent from Senegal to Sudan.  Had small teeth and jaw.
 Included in this are the Australopithecus
CHARACTERISTICS OF SAHELANTHROPUS
anamensis, Australopithecus afarensis,
 HEIGHT OF ABOUT 4 FEET and the Australopithecus africanus.
 WEIGHT OF ABOUT 120 POUNDS
ROBUST
 SKULL SIZE SIMILAR TO AN APE
 SMALL BRAIN  Had large teeth and jaws and muscular
 BIPED (WALKED ON TWO LEGS OR built.
FEET)  Included in this are the Australopithecus
 LIVED IN JUNGLES AND FORESTS LIKE aethiopicus, Australopithecus robustus,
THE CHIMPANZEES and the Australopithecus boisei.
LUCY
ARDIPITHECUS
 The 3.2 million-year old Australopithecus
 Ardipithecus is an extinct genus of
afarensis fossil named "Lucy" was
hominin that lived between 4.4 and 5.8
considered as one of modern human's
million years ago. It is one of the earliest
earliest ancestors and remains as the
known hominins and is thought to be the
most famous hominid fossil discovered.
ancestor of the later hominin genera
 Was discovered in Hadar, Ethiopia in
Australopithecus and Homo.
November 1974 by paleoanthropologists
CHARACTERISTICS OF ARDIPITHECUS led by Dr. Donald Johanson.

 Brain size of 500 cubic centimeters (cc) or Did you know?

almost 1/3 of the size of the modern
 The team that excavated her
human brain
remains, led by American
 Upright
paleoanthropologist Donald
 Bipedalism
Johanson and French geologist
 Tool user only and not tool makers Maurice Taieb, nicknamed the fossil
 Used sticks and stones for digging “Lucy” after the Beatles song “Lucy in
 Lived in small social groups the Sky with Diamonds,” which was
 Food scavenger played at the celebration the day she
 Distance of movement was estimated to was found.
be 15 kilometers (9.3) or more to searh for
stone to be used as tools TIME LINE OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF
HOMINIDS
AUSTRALOPITHECUS The Australopithecus disappeared in the
CHARACTERISTICS evolutionary map after almost one million years.
 Also called as "southern ape". They were replaced by a much more intelligent
group of hominids that belonged to a new genus
 Lived in the African jungle from 5 million to
1 million years ago.
 Brain size of 500 cubic centimeters (cc).
 Upright and Biped
 Tool users (used sticks and stones for
digging)
  Walks upright
 Complex tool users (used for digging,
cutting, and scapping)
 Skillful hunter.
 Intelligent and more adaptable .
 First homo to use spoken language
FOSSIL OF JAVA MAN

 It was excavated in trinil, java, Indonesia

by Eugene Dubois (1848 – 1940)
 It was dated to be 1.8 million years of age
Eugène Dubois

 A Dutch anatomist and geologist in 1811

THE HOMO  Discovered the remains fossil of Java man
 Classified as humans and not humanlike HOMO SAPIENS
creatures because they had bigger brains
and were bipedal.  Homo sapiens, (Latin: “wise man”) the
 According to fossil evidences, the Homo species to which all modern human beings
first lived in Africa about 2.4 million years belong. Homo sapiens is one of several
ago.The Homo species included the Homo species grouped into the genus Homo, but
habilis (handyman), Homo erectus (upright it is the only one that is not extinct.
man), and the Homo sapiens (wise man). CHARACTERISTICS
HOMO HABILIS  Large brain size (1,400 cc) that is almost
HOW TO DETERMINE similar to the brain of modern humans
 Lived in shelters
 To determine the first direct ancestors of  Food gatherers
the Homo, archaeologists used the  Ate plants and fruits
toolmaking abilities of the early humans in
 Hunted animals
the 1960s. Because of this, some scholars
 Learned to gather and cook shellfish
believe that on the basis of evidence, the
(164,000 years ago)
Homo habilis (handy man) was the direct
 Used fire
ancestor of the modern human because of
its ability to produce tools.  Crafted metals

CHARACTERISTICS OF HOMO HABILIS Compared to other Homo species, the Homo

sapiens made sophisticated and smoothened
 Height of about 3 to 4 feet tools and had more developed shelters and
 Brain size half the size of the modern advanced technology. They were able to make
human (700 cubic centimeters) different stone tools that include fishing tools (e.g.
 Used tools for hunting and food gathering fish hooks), harpoons, bows and arrows, spear
 Made tools called Oldowan (name came throwers, and sewing needles.
from the place where they were found in the Homo sapiens were able to communicate
Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania) which were effectively in order to work together in groups
used as cutting tools and made from during hunting activities and settle conflicts within
volcanic stones the group.

HOMO ERECTUS Did You Know?

CHARACTERISTICS  The last genus in the evolution ladder of

the Homo family was the Homo sapiens
 Also called as "Java man". (thinking man). Included in this species
 Estimated to have lived from 1.8 million to are the archaic Homo sapiens of Africa,
300,000 years ago.
Homo heidelbergensis, Homo
 Brain size of 1,000 cubic centimeters (cc)
neanderthalensis and the Homo sapiens
about 2/3 of the modern human brain size.
sapiens. The Homo sapiens are
 considered as modern humans. Their the process develops technological advancement.
physical anatomy is very similar to the (SOCIOCULTURAL EVOLUTION)
modern human beings that is why it is TYPES OF SOCIETIES (based on the level of
considered as the species where all development)
modern humans belong to. 1. Hunting and gathering
2. Horticultural
MUSEUM 3. Pastoral
4. Agricultural
 "A museum is a non-profit, permanent 5. Industrial
institution in the service of society and its 6. Post-Industrial
development, open to the public, which
acquires, conserves, researchers, Hunting and Gathering Societies
communicates, and exhibits the tangible  Oldest and most basic way of economic
ang intangible heritage of humanity and its subsistence
environment for the purposes of  Produce simple forms of tools
education, study and enjoyment." Men: hunt large animal game available in the
area
THE NATIONAL MUSEUM Women: collection of vegetation, berries, and
small edible crops
 The National Museum of the Philippines is  Relationship of men and women are equal
a government institution that "has a three-  Early humans: 3,000,000 years ago
dimensional goal covering diverse of fields  Nomadic societies
of knowledge through various educational,  Live in caves and pit or underground
scientific and cultural activities." houses
 Paleolithic Period (2,500,000-10,000
THE HOMO BCE): societies lived in small groups of
20-30 members
1. HOMO HABILIS (the handy man)
 Abundant food: 40-50 members
2. HOMO ERECTUS (the upright man)  Family: basic unit 
 Shaman/Priest: leader of the group
3. HOMO SAPIENS (the wise man)  Believe that spirits live in the world

SOCIOCULTURAL AND POLITICAL

Horticultural and Pastoral Societies
EVOLUTION:
Horticultural Societies
THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIETIES FROM
 Developed around 10,000 years ago
THE HUNTING AND GATHERING OF THE
 Semisedentary societies
AGRICULTURAL, INDUSTRIAL, AND POST
 Small-scale farming
INDUSTRIAL STAGES
 Simple forms of hand tools to plant crops
 First used in fertile regions in West
Introduction Asia (Middle East) and Southeast
CULTURE - response of societies to the threats & Asia
challenges posed by the environment  6,000 years ago: used in Western
CULTURAL EVOLUTION - development of Europe and China
culture through time; led to SOCIOPOLITICAL  Surplus of food
EVOLUTION  Some members engage in other forms of
SOCIOPOLITICAL EVOLUTION - transformation subsistence (making crafts and trading);
of different societies and political systems some become priests
 Happens when societies develop new Pastoral Societies
forms of economic subsistence,  Developed around 10,000 years ago
acquire new knowledge, and apply new  Animal domestication
technology   Developed in dry regions in the world
 Produces major levels of sociocultural and  Animal herders; subsist on resources
political developments provided by animals
 Engage in small-scale trading
The Social As “Driver of Interaction”  Semisedentary societies
SOCIOCULTURAL EVOLUTION -  why human
societies change through time
GERHARD LENSKI (1924-2015): Human society  Unlike hunting & gathering societies,
undergoes transformation and evolution and in horticultural and pastoral societies have
 unequal social relations because some  Settled permanently
members act as the ruling elite  Improved technology for farming
 Surplus of food supply transported by
Agricultural Societies and the Neolithic Revolution animal-powered wagons
 Began 5,000 years ago during the  Money became form of exchange,
Neolithic Period (8000-4000 BCE) replacing the barter system
 Neolithic Revolution occurred   Increase in social inequality 
 Major cultural and economic  Most people acted as serfs and
development slaves
 8000-3500 BCE - Began to cultivate  Few members became elites and
wheat, barley, peas, rice and millet acted as owners of lands and other
 Humans began to farm & resources
domesticate animals as form of
subsistence Industrial Societies
 7000 BCE - Neolithic people produced  Began when the Industrial Revolution
cultivation tools & developed farming skills swept through Europe in the late 18th
that can sustain a population of over 1,000 century and the first half of 19th century
people (1780s-1850s)
 Evident in Jericho (Jordan River Valley) Industrial Revolution
and Central Huyuk (Turkey)  New sources of energy were harnessed
 Agriculture developed in Western Asia  Advanced forms of technology were
(Middle East) by 3500 BCE applied
 Abundant supply of resources through  Machineries were invented
plant cultivation led to rise of early  Led to industrialization
civilizations Industrialization
 Known as the Neolithic Revolution  Transformation of an agricultural society
 New form of economic subsistence society to a production- and
spreading in different parts of the manufacturing-based one
world  Made possible by the use of advanced
 Transformed societies to sources of energy that operated factory
agricultural societies machineries
Agricultural Revolution  Created centralized workplaces,
 Started in West Asia (Middle East) economic interdependence, formal
 Moved to east of India education, complex social systems
 Cultivation of wheat and barley moved to  People left farmlands and transferred to
Europe; people also developed cultivation urban areas
of oats and rye
 Plant cultivation spread to Northern Post-Industrial Societies
China  Development of information technology
 A millet-based system of agriculture and computers
developed along the Huang He River  United States: reached post-industrial era
basin and undergone a post-industrial
 Agricultural revolution based on rice revolution
cultivation developed in mainland  Economic production focused on
Southeast Asia (before 3500 BCE) the use and application of new
Animal Domestication information technology rather than
 West Asia (8500-7000 BCE): sheep, factories
goats, and pigs  Macionis (2002): Production centers on
(6500 BCE): horned cattle computers and other electronic devices
 Provided Neolithic people with additional that create, process, and apply ideas and
sources of nutrition information.”
 Animal meat: more sources of protein  Daniel Bell (American sociologist at
 Animal hides and skin: clothes materials Harvard University): introduced the rise of
 Animal horns and bones: needles and the post-industrial society
other utensils Characterizations of Post-Industrial Societies
 Animal manure: soil fertilizers (Bell, 1999)
1. Transfer of labor workforce from
manufacturing to service
 Agricultural societies developed 2. Significant increase in the number of
 Population increased to millions professional and technical employment &
 decline in the number of skilled and  Developed an organized, stable,
semiskilled workers and effective government to
3. Education as the basis of social mobility ensure safety and supervise
4. Human capital is an essential aspect of production & distribution of food
understanding the strength of society  Political leaders:
5. Application of “intellectual technology”  1. Craft laws
 Application of mathematics & 2. Implement laws
linguistics; use of algorithms and 3. Impose justice and
software programming models punishment
6. Focuses on communication infrastructure 4. Collect taxes
7. Knowledge as source of invention & 5. Sometimes act as religious
innovation leaders
Political Evolution and the Development of the
Early Civilization Social and Political Systems of the Sumerian,
 Development of early societies = political Egyptian, Indus Valley, and Shang Civilizations
evolution Social Sumer Egypt Indus Shang
 Civilization develops because of society’s Class Valley
highly advanced level of culture, social
organization, political developments, Political Priests Pharaoh Brahmi King
judicial system, arts, and other forms of leader and n Priest
and royalty
culture at a particular time highest
Four Major Civilizations social
 Flourished along rich river plains or river class
valleys
 River valley civilizations: cradles of Other 1. 1. 1. Working
social Wealthy Government Khastriy class
civilization classes merchant officials as (farmers
A. Sumerian Civilization s 2. Soldiers 2. ,
 Tigris and Euphrates River in West 2. 3. Scribes Vaisyas craftsme
Asia Ordinary 4. Merchants 3. n,
workers 5. Craftsmen Sudras soldiers)
B. Indus Valley Civilization 6. Peasants 4.
 Indus River Valley in India 7. slaves Pariah
C. Shang Civilization
 Huang Ho/Huang He River in
China Socialization refers to a lifelong social
D. Egyptian Civilization experience by which people develop their human
 Nile River in Egypt
potential and learn culture.
Characteristics:
1. Developed and highly advanced cities Enculturation is the process by which people
2. Well-defined city centers learn the requirements of their surrounding
3. Complex and systemic institutions culture and acquire the values and behaviors
4. Organized and centralized form of appropriate or necessary in that culture.
government
Socialization teaches individuals how to prepare
5. Formalized and complex concept of
for and perform certain social roles; occupational
religion
6. Job specialization roles, gender roles, and the roles of institutions
7. Development of social classes such as marriage and parenthood.
8. Implementation of large-scale public works 3 GOALS OF SOCIALIZATION
and infrastructures
9. Sophisticated and detailed forms of art  Socialization teaches impulse control and
and architecture helps individuals develop a conscience.
10. Advanced technology This first goal is accomplished naturally.
11. System of writing and recording
 Socialization teaches individuals how to
Political Systems
prepare for and perform certain social
 Highly centralized and well
organized form of government roles; occupational roles, gender roles,
 Had clear hierarchy of officials with and the roles of institutions such as
specific functions and marriage and parenthood.
responsibilities  Socialization cultivates shared sources of
 Codified laws and rules followed by meaning and value. Through socialization,
the people
 people learn to identify what is important  is one's feeling of identity or affiliation with
and valued within a particular culture. a group or culture.
MEAD AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE ETHNIC IDENTITY
SOCIAL MIND (SELF)
 is identification with a certain ethnicity,
The Concept of “I” and “Me” usually on the basis of a presumed
common genealogy or ancestry.
The self consists of 'me' and 'I' . The 'me'
represents learned societal behaviors and NATIONAL IDENTITY
expectations, and the 'I' represents the
individual's identity based on the response to  is an ethnical and philosophical concept
those social behaviors and expectations. The 'me' whereby all humans are divided into
and the 'I' act to balance the self out. groups called nations. Members of a
nation share a common identity and
GEORGE HERBERT MEAD usually a common origin, ancestry or
percentage.
 According to Mead, the 'self' is a
sociological concept and it develops
through social interactions (imitation, play, RELIGIOUS IDENTITY
game, generalized individual
 He believed that the self is not something  is the set of beliefs and practices generally
inborn. Rather, the self starts to evolve at held by an individual involving adherence
the moment of interaction to codified beliefs and rituals and the study
 He hinted that human beings begin their of ancestral or culturaltraditions, writings,
understanding of the social world through history, and mythology, as well as faith
"play" and "game" and mystic experience.
 Mead proposed for the understanding the NORMS AND VALUE
emergence of the (social) self in human
beings. It is referred as "the generalized WHAT IS NORM?
others", whereas the individual  A norm is a rule that guides the behavior
understands what kind of behavior is
of members of a society or group.
expected or appropriate in different social
 Norms have a coercive power over us.
settings.
 Norms are an important part of the cultural
IDENTITIES AND IDENTITY FORMATION capital that each of us possesses and
embodies.
IDENTITY FORMATION is the development of an
 They are, in fact, cultural products and are
individual's distinct personality.
culturally contextual, and they only exist if
 It also influences personal identity by we realize them in our thought and
which the individual thinks as a discrete behavior.
and separate entity.  For the most part, norms are things that
 Pieces of the individual's actual identity we take for granted and spend little time
include a sense of continuity, a sense of thinking about, but we become highly
uniqueness from others, and a sense of conscious of them when we break or do
affiliation. notfollow them.

SELF CONCEPT EMILE DURKHEIM

 Individuals gain social identity and group  Durkheim viewed norms as the essence of
identity through social affiliations. Self- social order. They allow us to live our lives
concept is the sum of a being's knowledge with an understanding of what we can
and understanding of his or herself. expectfrom those around us.
Components of self-concept include  Emile Durkheim considered norms to be
physical, psychological, and social social facts, that is, things that exist in
attributes. society independent of individuals and that
shape our thoughts and behavior.
IDENTITY FORMATION
NORMS, NORMAL, AND NORMATIVE
CULTURAL IDENTITY
NORMS  Status and role are important concepts in
socialization because the behavior of
 are the rules that guides the behavior of
young members of society are controlled
members of a society or group .
by assigning them certain status which
NORMAL they will enact.
 According to Georg Simmel, "before we
 refers to that which comforms to norms. can deal with anyone, we need to know
 Normal is the act of abiding by these rules. who the person is.”
NORMATIVE STATUS
 refers to beliefs that are expressed as  Status is a part of social identity and helps
directives or value judgements. define our relationship with others
PROSCRIPTIVE (stating what we should not do)  Status is a 'position' in a social system,
such as a child or parent. (Linton , 1936)
PRESCRIPTIVE (Stating what we should do)  A person's status can either be ascribed
or achieved, given or accomplished,
respectively.
WILLIAM GRAHAM SUMNER  Each of us holds many statuses at once.
The term 'status set' refers to all the
1. Mores to refer to norms that are widely
statuses a person holds at a given time.
observed and have great moral significance.
ROLE
2. Folkways to refer to norms for routine and
casual interaction.  Role refers to the behavior expected of
someone who holds a particular status.
Therefore a person holds a status and
VALUES performs a role.
 Robert Merton introduced the term 'role
 Values are culturally defined standards set' to identify a number or roles attached
that people used to decide what is to single status.
desirable, good, and beautiful, and that
serve as broad guidelines for social
livings. 1. It is expected that in some social situations,
 Values and beliefs not only affect how we people may experience what sociologists called
see our surroundings, but also help form ‘role strain’ – conflict among the roles connected
to two or more statuses.
our personalities.
4 ASPECTS OF THE SOCIOLOGICAL 2. Roles strain results from the conpeting
CONCEPT OF VALUE demands of two or more roles we take, the more
roles vie for our time and energy.
1. Values exist at different levels of generality or
abstraction. 3. The more statuses we have and the more roles
we take on, the more likely we are to experience
2. Values tend to be hierarchically arranged. role conflict.
3. Values are explicit and implicit in varying ROLE, IMPRESSION MANAGEMENT AND
degrees. IDENTITY FORMATION
4. Values often are in conflict with one another IMPRESSION MANAGEMENT
JAIME BULATAO ERVING GOFFMAN
 Emotional Security & Closeness in a  Erving Goffman first articulated the idea of
Family impression management.
 Economic and Social Betterment  The idea behind this is that individuals
 Approval From Society & Authority may improvise on the performance of their
 Patience, Endurance & Suffering role so that they appear "presentable" in
the situation.
STATUS AND ROLE
IMPRESSION MANAGEMENT likelihood of events when these norms are
challenged or violated.
 Is a concept to be taken very seriously.
 Sociologists define deviance as behavior
 It has the power and influence to create a that violates expected rules and norms.
favorable public opinion of a particular This definition suggests that deviance is
person. simply more than nonconformity or a
 It can break a person in regard to social behavior that departs significantly from
gatherings, and it can repair a damaged social expectations.
persona.
 It has the ability to dictate a person's in The Variability of Deviance
society. " What is deviant to one group may not be
ROLE MANIPULATION considered deviant to one another. "

"Impression Management can lead to the creation 2 STUDY OF DEVIANCE

of damaged identities, which must be repaired in 1. The study of why people violate laws or norms.
order to sustain social interactions" ROLE
MANIPULATION -Newman, 2009 (p. 183) 2. The study of how society reacts to this
violation.
CESARE LOMBROSO

 Was an Italian criminologist and physician,

founder of the Italian School of Positivist
CONFORMITY and DEVIANCE Criminology, often referred as the Father
of Criminology.
 Conformity and Deviance are twin  The theory of anthropological criminology
processes that flow from the enculturation essentially stated that criminality was
and socialization processes. inherited and that someone "born criminal"
 Conformity means going along with one's could be identified by physical (congenital)
peers—individuals of a person's own defects, which confirmed a criminal as
status. savage or atavistic.
 Deviance is a behavior that violates the
standards of conduct or expectations or Deviance and the Social
social norms of a group or society
SOCIALIZATION, CONFORMITY, AND
DEVIANCE
Alignment is coursed through the process of
'socialization' where members of society starting
from birth are exposed to the norms, values, and
idiosyncrasies of their culture. When the
alignment becomes complete and lasting-that is
goals, rules, and expectations are internalized-
conformity is the anticipated behavior to follow.
The selection, nonetheless, depends on which
goals are believed to be achievable given the
available means. and which ones are achievable
using unconventional means. The latter may
generate a form of social behavior that
sociologists refer to as 'deviance' .
DEVIANCE

 Deviance makes sense within the context

of cultural norms, how they change over
time, how they are enforced, and the
Theoretical Interpretations of Deviance
01 Structural Strain Theory SOCIAL CONTROL THEORY
02 Labeling Theory  The Social control theory, developed by
Travis Hirschi, is a type of functionalist
03 Social Control Theory
theory that suggest that deviance occurs
04 Social Control and Deviance when a person's or group's attachment to
social bonds is weakened.
STRUCTURAL STRAIN THEORY  The social control theory focuses on how
 This theory traces the origins of deviance deviants are attached, or not, to common
to the tensions that are caused by the gap value systems and what situations break
between cultural goals and the means people's commitment to these values.
people have available to achieve those  This theory also suggests that most
goals. people probably feel some impulse
 Merton classified people into five general towards deviant behavior at some time,
categories- conformists, ritualists, but their attachment to social norms
innovators, retreatist, and rebel. prevents them from actually participating
in deviant behavior.
CONFORMISTS  The social control theory focuses on how
deviants are attached, or not, to common
 Are people who believe in both the
value systems and what situations break
established cultural goals of society, as
people's commitment to these values.
well as the normative means for attaining
those goals.  This theory also suggests that most
people probably feel some impulse
RITUALISTS towards deviant behavior at some time,
but their attachment to social norms
 Are individuals who don'tbelieve in the prevents them from actually participating
establishedcultural goals of society, in deviant behavior.
butthey believe in and abide bythe means
for attaining thosegoals. SOCIAL CONTROL AND DEVIANCE

INNOVATORS  The measures of social control are both

pervasive and invasive that individuals
 Are individuals that accept the cultural rarely discern their presence and seldom
goals of society but reject the conventional do they realize that their conformity is a
methods of attaining those goals. result of these pressure
RETREATISTS Human Dignity, Rights, and the Common
 People give up on their goals, reject any Good
means to reach them and so retreat from  When individuals become members of
mainstream society. society, they each submit to the norms of
REBELS that society. As such, they are held
accountable under the norms and laws of
 Reject both the established cultural goals the society under which they seek
and the accepted means of attaining those protection.
goals: they also substitute new goals and  One of the dangers of becoming a
new means of attaining these goals member of society is one is forced to
LABELING THEORY adopt and adapt to the standards of that
society.
 The labeling theory focuses on a different  This is a necessary surrender of some
set of populations about deviance. It individual rights in exchange for being a
begins with the assumption that no act is beneficiary of the common good.
intrinsically criminal. Those in power
establish definitions of criminality through PREAMBLE
the formulation of laws and the  We, the sovereign Filipino people,
interpretation of those laws by the police, imploring the aid of Almighty God, in order
courts, and correctional institutions. to build a just and humane society, and
 establish a Government that shall embody Everyone has the right to an effective remedy by
our ideals and aspirations, promote the the competent national tribunals for acts violating
common good, conserve and develop our the fundamental rights granted him by the
patrimony, and secure ourselves and our constitution or by law.
posterity, the blessings of independence
ARTICLE 9
and democracy under the rule of law and
a regime of truth, justice, freedom, love, No one shall be subjected to arbitrary arrest,
equality, and peace, do ordain and detention, or exile.
promulgate this Constitution.
ARTICLE 10
ARTICLE 1
Everyone is entitled in full equality to a fair and
All human beings are born free and equal in public hearing by an independent and impartial
dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason tribunal, in the determination of his rights and
and conscience and should act towards one obligations of any criminal charge against him.
another in a spirit of brotherhood.
ARTICLE 11
ARTICLE 2
1. Everyone charged with a penal offense has the
Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms right to be presumed innocent until proved guilty
set forth in this Declaration, without distinction of according to law in a public trial at which he has
any kind, such as race, colour, sex, language, had all the guarantees necessary for his defense.
religion, political or other opinion, national or
social origin, property, birth or other status. 2. No one shall be held guilty of any act or
Furthermore, no distinction shall be made on the omission which did not constitute a penal offence,
basis of the political, jurisdictional or international under national or international law, at the time
status of the country or territory to which a person when it was committed. Nor shall a heavier
belongs, whether it be independent, trust, non- penalty be imposed than the one that was
self-governing or under any other limitation of applicable at the time the penal offence was
sovereignty. committed.

ARTICLE 3 ARTICLE 12

Everyone has the right to life, liberty and security No one shall be subjected to arbitrary interference
of person. with his privacy, family, home, or correspondence,
nor to attacks upon his honor and reputation.
ARTICLE 4 Everyone has the right to the protection of the law
against such interference or attacks.
No one shall be held in slavery or servitude;
slavery and the slave trade shall be prohibited in ARTICLE 13
all their forms.
1. Everyone has the right to freedom of
ARTICLE 5 movement and residence within the borders of
each state.
No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel,
inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment 2. Everyone has the right to leave any country,
including his own, and fo return to his country.
ARTICLE 6
ARTICLE 14
Everyone has the right to recognition everywhere
as a person before the law. 1. Everyone has the right to seek and to enjoy in
other countries asylum from persecution.
ARTICLE 7
2. This right may not be invoked in the case of
All are equal before the law and are entitled
prosecutions genuinely arising from nonpolitical
without any discrimination to equal protection of
crimes or from acts contrary to the purposes and
the law. All are entitled to equal protection against
principles of the United Nations.
any discrimination in violation of this Declaration
and against any incitement to such discrimination. ARTICLE 15
ARTICLE 8
1. Everyone has the right to a nationality. 3. The will of the people shall be the basis of the
authority of government; this will shall be
2. No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his
expressed in periodic and genuine elections
nationality nor denied the right to change his
which shall be by universal and equal suffrage
nationality.
and shall be held by secret vote or by equivalent
ARTICLE 16 free voting procedures.

1. Men and women of full age, without any ARTICLE 22

limitation due to race, nationality or religion, have
Everyone, as a member of society, has the right
the right to marry and find a family. They are
to social security and is entitled to realization,
entitled to equal rights as to marriage, during
through national effort and international
marriage and at its dissolution.
cooperation and in accordance with the
2. Marriage shall be entered into only with the organization and resources of each State, of the
free and full consent of the intending spouses. economic, social and cultural rights indispensable
for his dignity and the free development of his
3. The family is the natural and fundamental personality.
group unit of society and is entitled to protection
by society and the state. ARTICLE 23

ARTICLE 17 1. Everyone has the right to work, to free choice

of employment, to just and favourable conditions
1. Everyone has the right to own property alone of work and protection against unemployment.
as well as in association with others.
2. Everyone, without any discrimination, has the
2. No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his right to equal pay for equal work.
property:
3. Everyone who works has the right to just and
ARTICLE 18 favourable remuneration, ensuring for himself and
Everyone has the right to freedom of thought his family an existence worthy of human dignity,
conscience and religion; this right includes and supplemented, if necessary, by other means
freedom to change his religion or belief, and of social protection.
freedom, either alone or in community with others 4. Everyone has the right to form and join trade
and in public or private, to manifest his religion or unions for the protection of his interests.
belief in teaching: practice, worship and
observance. ARTICLE 24

ARTICLE 19 Everyone has the right to rest and leisure,

including reasonable limitation of working hours
Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and and periodic holidays with pay.
expression; this right includes freedom to hold
opinions without interference and to seek, receive ARTICLE 25
and impart information and ideas through any
1. Everyone has the right to a standard of living
media and regardless of frontiers.
adequate for the health and well-being of himself
ARTICLE 20 and of his family, including food, clothing, housing
and medical care and necessary social services,
1. Everyone has the right to freedom of peaceful and the right to security in the event of
assembly and association. unemployment, sickness, disability, widowhood,
2. No one may be compelled to belong to an old age or other lack of livelihood in
association. circumstances beyond his control.

ARTICLE 21 2. Motherhood and childhood are entitled to

special care and assistance. All children, whether
1. Everyone has the right to take part in the born in or out of wedlock, shall enjoy the same
government of his country, directly or through social protection.
freely chosen representatives.
ARTICLE 26
2. Everyone has the right to equal access to
public service in his country. 1. Everyone has the right to education. Education
shall be free, at least in the elementary and
fundamental stages. Elementary education shall
be compulsory. Technical and professional
education shall be made generally available and
higher education accessible to all on the basis of
merit.
2. Education shall be directed to the full
development of the human personality and to the
strengthening of respect for human rights and
fundamental freedoms. It shall promote
understanding, tolerance and friendship among
all nations, racial or religious groups, and shall
further the activities of the United Nations for the
maintenance of peace.
3. Parents have a prior right to choose the kind of
education that shall be given to their children.
ARTICLE 27
Everyone has the right to freely participate in the
cultural life of the community, to share scientific
advances and its benefits, and to get credit for
their own work
ARTICLE 28
Everyone is entitled to a social and international
order in which the rights and freedoms set forth in
this Declaration can be fully realized.
ARTICLE 29
1. Everyone has duties to the community in which
alone the free and full development of his
personality is possible. 2. In the exercise of his
rights and freedoms, everyone shall be subject
only to such limitations as are determined by law
solely for the purpose of securing due recognition
and respect for the rights and freedoms of others
and of meeting the just requirements of morality,
public order and the general welfare in a
democratic society.
3. These rights and freedoms may in no case be
exercised contrary to the purposes and principles
of the United Nations.
ARTICLE 30
Nothing in this Declaration may be interpreted as
implying for any State, group or person any right
to engage in any activity or to perform any act
aimed at the destruction of any of the rights and
freedoms set forth herein.