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CHAPTER 6
Attitudes
LEARNING OBJECTIVES: GUIDELINES FOR STUDY

You should be able to do each of the following by the conclusion of Chapter 6.
1. Define what is meant by “attitudes.” Discuss how attitudes are measured, including both self-
report and covert techniques, as well as measurement of implicit attitudes. (pp. 206-213)
2. Discuss the relationship between attitudes and behaviors. Explain what types of attitudes are most
likely to predict behavior and under what circumstances. (pp. 213-216)
3. Define and distinguish the peripheral and central routes to persuasion. Identify factors that dictate
which route of processing is taken. (pp. 217-220)
4. Explain how and under what circumstances message source affects whether people are likely to be
persuaded. Discuss the reasons behind the sleeper effect. (pp. 220-227)
5. Explain how the content of a message affects whether people are likely to be persuaded. Describe
how the cognitive and emotional content affects message persuasiveness, ditto message order.
Consider evidence regarding the effectiveness of subliminal persuasive messages. (pp. 227-233)
6. Explain how characteristics of the audience, including cultural considerations, can moderate the
extent to which it is persuaded by a message. Describe strategies for enabling an audience to resist
efforts at persuasion. (pp. 233-237)
7. Explain the elements of the classic version of cognitive dissonance theory, and the relevance of
this theory to understanding attitude change. (pp. 237-242)
8. Explain the “new look” of cognitive dissonance and how it expands upon the original theory.
Discuss cultural influences on cognitive dissonance. (pp. 242-245)
9. Consider alternate routes to self-persuasion such as those described by self-perception theory,
impression-management theory, and theories of self-esteem. Explain how the processes postulated
by these theories differ from those described by cognitive dissonance theory. (pp. 245-249)
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ATTITUDES 195
CHAPTER OUTLINE
I. The Study of Attitudes
A. How Attitudes Are Measured
1. Self-report measures
2. Covert measures
3. The Implicit Association Test (IAT)
B. How Attitudes Are Formed
1. Are attitudes inherited?
2. Are attitudes learned?
196 CHAPTER 6
C.
The Link between Attitudes and Behavior
1. Attitudes in context
2. Strength of attitude
II. Persuasion by Communication
A. Two Routes to Persuasion
1. The central route to persuasion
2. The peripheral route to persuasion
3. Route selection
B. The Source
1. Credibility
2. Likeability
3. When what you say is more important than who you are
C. The Message
1. Informational strategies
2. Message discrepancy
3. Fear appeals
4. Positive emotions
5. Subliminal messages
D. The Audience
1. The need for cognition
2. Self-monitoring
3. Regulatory fit
4. Forewarning and resistance
E. Culture and Persuasion
III. Persuasion by Our Own Actions
A. Role-Playing: All the World’s a Stage
B. Cognitive Dissonance Theory: The Classic Version
1. Justifying attitude-discrepant behavior: when doing is believing
2. Justifying effort: coming to like what we suffer for
3. Justifying difficult decisions: when good choices get even better
C. Cognitive Dissonance Theory: A New Look
D. Alternative Routes to Self-Persuasion
1. Self-perception theory
2. Impression-management theory
3. Self-esteem theories
E. Culture and Cognitive Dissonance
IV. Changing Attitudes
DETAILED OVERVIEW
THE STUDY OF ATTITUDES

 An attitude is an affective, evaluative reaction toward a person, place, issue, or object.
How Attitudes Are Measured

 The most common way to measure attitudes is through self-reports, such as attitude scales.
 To get respondents to answer questions honestly, the bogus pipeline may be used.
ATTITUDES 197
 Covert measures may also be used. Such measures include nonverbal behavior, the facial
electromyograph (EMG), brainwave patterns, and the Implicit Association Test (IAT).
How Attitudes Are Formed

 Twin studies suggest that people may be genetically predisposed to hold certain attitudes.
 However, research shows that attitudes are formed by experience and evaluative
conditioning—when people develop strong attitudes toward neutral objects because of their
association with positive and negative stimuli.
The Link between Attitudes and Behavior

 Attitudes do not necessarily correlate with behavior, but under certain conditions, there is a
high correlation.
 Attitudes predict behavior best when they’re specific rather than general and strong rather than
weak.
 Attitudes compete with other influences on behavior.
PERSUASION BY COMMUNICATION
 The most common approach to changing attitudes is through a persuasive communication.
Two Routes to Persuasion

 When people think critically about a message, they take the central route to persuasion and are
influenced by the strength of the arguments.
 When people do not think carefully about a message, they take the peripheral route to
persuasion and are influenced by peripheral cues.
 The route taken depends on whether people have the ability and the motivation to fully process
the communication.
The Source
 Attitude change is greater for messages delivered by a source that is credible (competent and
trustworthy).
 Attitude change is also greater when the source is likable (similar and attractive).
 When an audience has a high level of personal involvement, source factors are less important
than the quality of the message.
 The sleeper effect shows that people often forget the source but not the message, so the effects
of the credibility of the source dissipate over time.
The Message
 On the peripheral route, lengthy messages are persuasive. On the central route, length works
only if the added information does not dilute the message.
 Whether it is best to present an argument first or second depends on how much time elapses—
both between the two arguments and between the second argument and the final decision.
198 CHAPTER 6
 Messages that are moderately discrepant from an audience’s attitudes will inspire change, but
highly discrepant messages will be scrutinized and rejected.
 High-fear messages motivate attitude change when they contain strong arguments and
instructions about how to avoid the threatened danger.
 Positive emotion also facilitates attitude change because people are easier to persuade when
they’re in a good mood.
 Research shows that subliminal messages do not produce meaningful or lasting changes in
attitudes.
The Audience
 People are not consistently difficult or easy to persuade. Rather, different kinds of messages
influence different kinds of people.
 People who are high in the need for cognition are persuaded more by the strength of the
arguments.
 People who are high in self-monitoring are influenced more by appeals to social images.
 Messages are persuasive to the extent that they are presented in a way that “feels right,” fitting
the individual orientations of audience members.
 Forewarning increases resistance to persuasive influence. It inoculates the audience by
providing the opportunity to generate counterarguments, and it arouses psychological
reactance.
Culture and Persuasion

 Communications are successful to the extent that they appeal to the cultural values of an
audience.
 Research shows that North Americans are persuaded more by individualistic ads, whereas East
Asians prefer collectivistic ads.
PERSUASION BY OUR OWN ACTIONS

Role Playing: All the World’s a Stage
 The way people act can influence how they feel because behavior can determine attitudes.
Cognitive Dissonance Theory: The Classic Version

 Under certain conditions, inconsistency between attitudes and behavior produces an unpleasant
psychological state called cognitive dissonance.
 Motivated to reduce the tension, people often change their attitudes to justify (1) attitude-
discrepant behavior, (2) wasted effort, and (3) difficult decisions.
Cognitive Dissonance Theory: A New Look

 According to the “new look” version of cognitive dissonance theory, four conditions must be
met for dissonance to be aroused: (1) an act with unwanted consequences, (2) a feeling of
personal responsibility, (3) arousal or discomfort, and (4) attribution of the arousal to the
attitude-discrepant act.
ATTITUDES 199
 Social psychologists continue to debate whether dissonance can be aroused by cognitive

inconsistency when no unwanted consequences are produced.
Alternative Routes to Self-Persuasion

 Alternative explanations of dissonance-related attitude change have been proposed.
 Self-perception theory states that people logically infer their attitudes by observing their own
behavior.
 Impression-management theory says that people are motivated to change their attitudes only to
appear consistent to others.
 Self-esteem theories state that dissonance is triggered by threats to the self-concept and can be
reduced indirectly, without a change in attitude, through self-affirming experiences.
Cultural Influences on Cognitive Dissonance

 Recently, social psychologists have wondered whether cognitive dissonance effects are
universal or specific to Western cultures.
 Research suggests that people all over the world will try to reduce dissonance when it arises but
that the conditions that arouse it are influenced by cultural context.
CHANGING ATTITUDES
 Through persuasive communications and the mechanisms of self-persuasion, the processes of
changing attitudes and behavior are complex and interwoven.
KEY TERMS
attitude (p. 206)
attitude scale (p. 208)
bogus pipeline (p. 208)
central route to persuasion (p. 217)
cognitive dissonance theory (p. 239)
elaboration (p. 218)
evaluative conditioning (p. 213)
facial electromyograph (p. EMG) (p. 209)
Implicit Association Test (p. IAT) (p. 210)
implicit attitude (p. 210)
inoculation hypothesis (p. 236)
insufficient deterrence (p. 241)
insufficient justification (p. 240)
need for cognition (p. 233)
peripheral route to persuasion (p. 217)
persuasion (p. 217)
200 CHAPTER 6
psychological reactance (p. 236)

sleeper effect (p. 225)
theory of planned behavior (p. 214)
LECTURE AND DISCUSSION IDEAS
Idea 1. Voting and Attitude Behavior Consistency

The book states that attitudes often do not predict behaviors. One notable exception to this pattern is
that people’s attitudes about who they are going to vote for predict very closely who they actually vote
for (Schuman & Johnson, 1976). What are some of the possible reasons for the strong relationship
between attitudes and behaviors in this instance? Schuman and Johnson (1976) note several elements
about this particular attitude/behavior relationship that might account for its strength. Two are
especially noteworthy. First, the attitude that is measured in this instance is a very specific attitude.
Second, voting takes place in a context that minimizes situational pressure. Both of these factors should
serve to strengthen the attitude/behavior relationship.
Schuman, H., & Johnson, M. P. (1976). Attitudes and behavior. Annual Review of Sociology, 2, 161-
207.
Idea 2. Persuasion and Political Campaign Ads

Political campaign ads can serve as great examples of attempts at persuasion. The source, the message,
and the audience all vary greatly in these ads. Often, taping a few of them can provide useful
illustrations of the persuasion processes described in the textbook.
Idea 3. Persuasion through Scarcity

Advertisers often use phrases like “limited supply available,” “limited time offer,” “hurry before
supplies run out,” “once in a lifetime offer,” or “this offer will not be repeated,” all of which are meant
to persuade through the use of the scarcity principle. Research has shown that the scarcer an item or
opportunity becomes, the more valuable it seems and the more we desire it.
In 1983, Coleco Industries came out with a soft doll with exaggerated features that came with adoption
papers. They were called Cabbage Patch Dolls. The demand soon exceeded the company’s
expectations, and spot shortages began to appear in many stores around the country. The shortages
fueled a frenzy among parents. There were media reports of parents pushing, scratching, choking, and
fighting one another to get the limited number of coveted dolls. Some stood in lines overnight to make
sure that they would have access to the morning shipment. Others traveled great distances to search for
the dolls if their local stores were out. One Kansas City postman went so far as flying to London,
England, to purchase the doll for his daughter. For those who refused to wait long hours or travel, there
was a secondary market (created by the excessive demand) whereby one could purchase a doll by
paying an exorbitant price to someone who had previously purchased the doll.
In one study (Worchel, Lee, & Adewole, 1975), participants were given a jar that contained either two
or ten chocolate chip cookies and were asked to rate the quality of the cookies. Cookies from the nearly
empty jar were rated as more attractive, desirable, and expensive than the cookies in the fuller jar.
Ask your students to recount instances where scarcity made an item seem more desirable to them. What
makes a scarce or hard-to-get item so desirable?
According to Michael Lynn (1992), people desire that which is unavailable for several reasons. First,
possessing such an item becomes a source of status. Second, if few people have the item, it confers on
those who do a sense of uniqueness, a basis for downward comparisons, and a sense of power over
ATTITUDES 201
those who desire it but can’t get it. Finally, the scarceness of an item implies that it is costly in terms of
time, effort, and/or money. Such cost is used as a cue as to the product’s worth.
Robert Cialdini (2004) writes that the scarcity principle applies not only to commodities but to
information as well. Information that is exclusive is perceived as more valuable and becomes more
persuasive. He gives an example involving a beef import company. When the owner instructed his
salespeople to tell some customers that there was a shortage of Australian beef due to bad weather, the
customers purchased twice as much as they ordinarily did. Another sample of customers was told about
the shortage and that the information about the bad weather was only available to this company. These
customers, who were being sold a scarce commodity and scarce information, bought six times as much
as they did ordinarily.
Discuss other times when scarcity of information makes it seem more desirable. Are there times when
scarce information actually is more valuable than information that is widely available?
Cialdini, R. (2004). The science of persuasion. Scientific American, 14, 70-78.
Lynn, M. (1992). The psychology of unavailability: Explaining scarcity and cost effects on value. Basic
and Applied Social Psychology, 13, 3-7.
Worchel, S., Lee, J., & Adewole, A. (1975). Effects of supply and demand on ratings of object value.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 32, 906-914.
Idea 4. When Beauty Doesn’t Sell

Research has shown that one of the characteristics of a source that leads to effective persuasion is
physical attractiveness. But that’s not always the case. Ask students to think of occasions when sexy or
very attractive spokespeople might actually hurt sales.
A study reported in the Journal of Consumer Research (2006) found that beauty can have a negative
effect. This negative effect occurs under the following conditions. First, the buyer must have the ability
and motivation to process information about the product (i.e., to take the central route). Second, the
attractiveness of the source must be irrelevant to the product. Third, the buyer must initially be
influenced by the attractiveness of the source. And fourth, the buyer must realize that his or her decision
about the product was biased by the attractiveness of the source. When that happens, the buyer rethinks
the decision and forms a negative attitude toward the product.
Kang, Y. & Herr, P.M. (2006). Beauty and the beholder: Toward an integrative model of
communication source effects. Journal of Consumer Research, 33, 1, 123-130.
Idea 5. Explaining Why Fear Appeals Don’t Always Work

According to the text, fear appeals are generally effective except when they scare people without
providing constructive advice for avoiding the feared consequences. You might wish to expand on the
text’s discussion of the topic by introducing four theories that have been used to explain the occasional
failure of fear appeals.
The first theory is Witte’s Extended Parallel Process Model (EPPM; 1992). According to EPPM, fear
appeal messages provoke two different responses from an audience. One possible response is the
tendency to control the danger. This response occurs when a person perceives the danger but at the
same time feels capable of acting against it. Accordingly, the person is persuaded by the fear appeal and
takes the recommended steps to reduce his or her risk.
The other possible response is the tendency to control the fear. This response occurs when the person
perceives the danger but does not see a clear way to avoid the risk in the message. As a result, the
person tries to control the fear elicited by the message by not thinking about it or by denying its
202 CHAPTER 6
importance. Accordingly, the person is not persuaded by the fear appeal and takes no steps to reduce
risk.
The second theory is Lerner’s just world hypothesis (1965). Believing that the world is fair leads people
to assume that everyone gets what they deserve. Such a belief allows an individual to disengage from
the message in a fear appeal. In essence, the person believes that bad things are just not going to happen
because he or she hadn’t done anything bad. So, the message delivered by a fear appeal is likely to be
ignored when a person believes in a just world.
The third theory is protection motivation theory (Rogers, 1975), which states that when an individual
comes across a fear appeal, he or she assesses the severity of the situation, the probability of something
bad happening, the likelihood that the recommended actions of the message will help, and his or her
ability to follow the message’s advice. When the threat is high and the recommended actions are clear
and doable, it’s likely that the fear appeal will work. When any of those conditions do not exist, the
appeal will fail to convince.
The fourth theory is terror management theory (Shehryar & Hunt, 2005). According to this perspective,
the fact that human beings have strong survival instincts coupled with their sense of their own
vulnerability produces feelings of terror whenever they are reminded of their mortality. This terror is
managed by means of an anxiety buffer that is made up of a cultural worldview defined by a set of
values and the belief that one is living up to those self-imposed standards. It follows that when fear
appeals remind people of impending death, people who are highly committed to their worldview are
more likely to feel high anxiety and defend their worldview by rejecting the message.
Ask your students to apply each one of the theories to explain why a smoker may reject a message that
features another cigarette smoker who is dying of lung cancer.
Lerner, M.J. (1965). Observer’s evaluation of performance as a function of performer’s reward and
attractiveness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1, 355-360.
Rogers, R.W. (1975). A protection motivation theory of fear appeals and attitude change. The Journal
of Psychology, 91, 93-114.
Shehryar, O. & Hunt, D.M. (2005). A terror management perspective on the persuasiveness of fear
appeals. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 15, 4, 275-287.
Witte, K. (1992). Putting the fear back into fear appeals: The extended parallel process model.
Communication Monographs, 59, 329-349.
Idea 6. Subliminal Persuasion

Many of your students are likely to have heard of subliminal messages. The text describes the
interesting story of how these issues were first brought to the public through a hoax. Today, many
people believe that subliminal messages can be quite effective, and they pay a lot of money for products
that are supposed to change their attitudes through subliminal processes. Yet, Greenwald and his
colleagues (1991) have shown that these products are ineffective. People appear to be wasting a
tremendous amount of money on them. Students are likely to find it quite interesting to review this
history and research.
You might also point out that this does not mean that subliminal processing does not occur at all.
Elsewhere in the text, several studies show that subliminal exposure to stimuli can have noticeable
effects and people can process information without being aware of it. However, the claims that are
made about subliminal processing are inaccurate and distorted.
Greenwald, A. G., Spangenberg, E. R., Pratkanis, A. R., & Eskenazi, J. (1991). Double-blind tests of
subliminal self-help audiotapes. Psychological Science, 2, 119-122.
ATTITUDES 203
Idea 7. Backmasking
Backmasking is a technique of imbedding subliminal messages in music by playing the message
backward in the background of the song. The logic behind backmasking is that the listener will not
understand the message on a conscious level but will be influenced by the message content on an
unconscious level. This led to a scare in the music industry when certain bands claimed to be
embedding backward messages in their music. Research indicates, however, that backmasking doesn’t
work. There is no evidence that backmasked messages have any effect at all on listening subjects. Thus
backmasking is another example of the unjustified hype surrounding subliminal messages (Led
Zeppelin’s “Stairway to Heaven” provides several supposed examples, and many Beatles songs do as
well, though many are of the intentional variety).
Begg, I. M, Needham, D. R, Bookbinder, M. (1993). Do backward messages unconsciously affect
listeners? No. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology, 47, 1-14.
Idea 8. Cognitive Dissonance as an Example of the Evolution of

a Theory
Many students may wonder how theories are developed in social psychology. An interesting way to
explore this topic and organize your lecture on cognitive dissonance theory is to use this it as an
example of how theories develop. Greenwald & Ronis (1978) give one account of the development of
cognitive dissonance theory. You may want to develop your own account or at least update theirs. Any
account of the evolution of this theory should note that (a) it was a dominant theory in the early 1960s,
(b) refinements were made in what conditions were necessary to produce cognitive dissonance, (c)
several reinterpretations were developed, and (d) many studies were conducted to test between these
accounts. Finally, in recent years, although some interest has been maintained, the amount of research
on cognitive dissonance has declined.
Greenwald, A. G., & Ronis, D. L. (1978). Twenty years of cognitive dissonance: Case study of the
evolution of a theory. Psychological Review, 85, 53-57.
Idea 9. Insufficient Justification and Fraternity and Sorority

Pledging
If there are fraternities and sororities at your college or university, it is likely that some of your students
will be in these organizations. It is also likely that either now or in the past these organizations had
pledging activities that included hazing—embarrassing or physically harmful activities required of new
members. Hazing activities are often justified in that they are alleged to promote commitment to and
liking for the group. On one level, this is consistent with the research on cognitive dissonance and
insufficient justification reported in the text. Aronson and Mills (1959) found that when people
experienced a severe initiation, they liked a group more and wanted to attend its meeting more than
people who had experienced either a mild initiation or no initiation at all.
This research would seem to support the efficacy of hazing in promoting group loyalty and enjoyment
of the group. On another level, however, it is difficult to see why groups would want to use this study to
justify severe initiation practices. Aronson and Mills argue that they obtained their effect solely because
the group turned out to be boring and one that people probably would not want to join. They suggest it
was the cognitive dissonance between knowing that one went through a severe initiation and realizing
that the group wasn’t worth it that led people to increase their liking for and commitment to the group.
Thus, in order for groups to use this theorizing to support severe initiation practices, they would have to
believe that their group is not one that people would normally want to join, or at least that the initiation
that people go through isn’t worth actually joining the group. It seems unlikely that many groups would
want to make this argument.
204 CHAPTER 6
Aronson, E., & Mills, J. (1959). The effect of severity of initiation on the liking for a group. Journal of
Abnormal and Social Psychology, 59, 177-181.
Idea 10. Resisting the Persuasion of Non-Expert Spokespeople

The text discusses the fact that advertisers frequently use likeable celebrities and models to hawk
products. Students can probably name many such spokespeople (in addition to the ones mentioned in
the text), who sound off on products or services without having more knowledge about them than does
the average consumer.
A recent series of studies (Sagarin, Cialdini, Rice, and Serna, 2002) focused on developing resistance to
these types of ads, which the authors characterized as illegitimate authority-based appeals. This form of
resistance is somewhat different than forewarning, inoculation, and psychological reactance (which are
discussed in the text). Rather than focusing on the content of the message, this form of resistance
focused on the legitimacy of the presenter of the message. Resistance was instilled in participants by a
two-stage process. First, participants had to be motivated to reject illegitimate appeals. This was done
by convincing them that such ads are deceitfully manipulative. Second, participants had to be taught to
distinguish between legitimate and illegitimate spokespeople. Providing them with a simple rule to
learn and apply accomplished that. The rule is as follows: “Such ads are objectionable and should be
rejected if the depicted authority does not at least possess special expertise on the topic.” The results of
one study indicated that the rule made participants more apt to reject illegitimate ads and evaluate
authority-based ads more favorably.
Ask your students if they consider themselves to be generally vulnerable to such celebrity-driven ads.
How would they rate themselves on a scale of 0 to 6, with 0 indicating a very strong vulnerability and 6
indicating hardly any vulnerability at all? Now ask them to rate the average student in their school. In a
second study, the authors asked undergraduates how much they believed television commercials
persuaded them, and how much they persuaded the average student in their school. Participants rated
themselves as much more resistant to commercials than the average student. The researchers
categorized this belief as an “illusion of unique vulnerability.” They then proceeded to expose the
students to an experimental treatment that demonstrated their susceptibility to manipulation by asking
them to rate the persuasiveness of ads. The students tended to rate illegitimate ads as “convincing.”
When they were informed that they had been fooled by illegitimate appeals, they acquired a strong
motivation to scrutinize ads more carefully in the future in order to avoid being unduly manipulated or
“duped” again.
Sagarin, B. J., Cialdini, R. B., Rice, W. E., & Serna, S. B. (2002). Dispelling the illusion of
invulnerability: The motivations and mechanisms of resistance to persuasion. Journal of Personality
and Social Psychology, 83, 526-541.
CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES
Activity 1. Designing an Attitude Measure

A project that can range in scope from a one-class exercise to a semester-long project involves
designing an attitude measure. Ask students to nominate topics for development of a scale. Then the
class can vote on which topic they would most like to study. In developing the scale, students should
first generate possible questions for the scale. Then they should carefully edit these questions to make
sure that they do not introduce biases and that each question asks one question and asks it clearly. After
the questions have been edited, some thought should be given to the sample that one would like to
select. Of course, the quality of the sample will be limited by the time given to complete the project.
Completing the project through some simple analyses of the data and a written report is also valuable if
time permits.
ATTITUDES 205
What if this bombs? This one should be bombproof. The processes of topic selection and
question design, in and of themselves, should teach the students important lessons about research
methods. Further, any results obtained should lead to interesting discussion.
Activity 2. Three Basic Appeals Used in Advertising

According to Makovsky (1985), there are three basic appeals used in advertising: the appeal to needs,
the appeal to social feelings or prestige, and the appeal that uses “loaded” words and messages.
The first type of appeal speaks to or creates needs. These needs were described in Maslow’s hierarchy:
physiological, safety and security, belongingness and love, self-esteem and status, cognitive, aesthetic,
and self-actualization needs.
The second type of appeal has to do with social consensus and prestige. One is told that everyone else
buys the product and so should you. Or that the product is used by celebrities and is therefore geared for
the elite.
The third type of appeal is the kind that uses “loaded” words or images. For example, ads with
attractive, athletic, or successful people, or buzzwords like “natural,” or “light.”
There are several ways to familiarize students with these three appeals. One way is simply to assign
students to bring five ads and work in small groups to classify them according to the three basic
appeals. Any ads that students cannot agree on or that they are unable to classify can be handled by the
class as a whole. It is entirely possible that they will discover an ad that is unclassifiable because it uses
an additional appeal.
A variation on the above activity would involve asking students to bring in five ads from women’s
magazines and five ads from men’s magazines. In small groups, students can then compare the types of
needs, social and prestige suggestions, and loaded words and images that are evident in the ads.
Moreover, they can consider how advertisers approach men and women differently as reflected by the
different ads.
Yet a third possible activity involves having students bring in one ad for each of the need levels in
Maslow’s hierarchy. In small groups, students can then analyze which needs are more likely to be
associated with which type of magazines.
What if this bombs? This one should be fairly bombproof. Any one of the three activities is
likely to lead to a lively discussion. In the first activity, the only potential for bombing is if the
students bring in ads that are so obvious that there is no need to discuss them. That is not likely to
happen, but just in case, you might have in reserve some ambiguous examples to challenge them.
In the second activity, if they see no differences between the men’s and women’s ads (again,
unlikely), the results can lead into a discussion of how the women’s movement has affected the
field of advertising and how women were addressed differently in the recent past. In the third
activity, if no clear pattern emerges, you might ask them to consider the readership of various
magazines and discuss which needs would be most appropriate to address for each group.
Makovsky, V.P. (1985). Identifying major techniques of persuasion. Teaching of psychology, 12, 42-43.
Activity 3. Demonstrating an Altercasting Theory of Source

Credibility
This exercise provides you with an opportunity to replicate a study (Pratkanis and Gliner (2004-2005)
that found that sometimes an ad featuring a child is more convincing than one featuring an expert.
Altercasting theory refers to the expectations imposed on individuals by virtue of their interactive social
roles. According to altercasting theory, social roles come in complementary sets. For example, in this
206 CHAPTER 6
study, the two sets of social roles were expert-unknowing public and child-protector. One’s role
imposes certain behavioral expectations. If a person is considered to be an expert, the unknowing public
accepts his or her opinion in technical matters. And if one is a child and another is a protector, the
protector assumes certain obligations with regard to the child and the child has expectations that the
protector will provide safety.
When it comes to persuasion, the theory predicts that the context of a message will evoke certain social
roles, and that the interaction of the social roles with the content of the message, not the credibility of
the source, will be of utmost important in determining whether or not the message will be persuasive.
In the original study, participants received one of four ads for a fictitious tire company. Two of the ads
featured the picture of a young girl with ponytails who was identified as Sarah Whitmore, a 2nd grader.
The other two featured a distinguished looking man, with gray hair and wrinkles, wearing a dark suit,
blue Oxford-style shirt, and a deep red tie. He was identified as Dr. Robert Whitmore, Ph.D. There were
two sets of copy to accompany each picture, one stressing technical expertise of a brand of tires and the
other stressing the safety aspects of the same tires.
As predicted by the theory, the child source was more effective when arguing for safety than for
technical matters and the expert source was more effective when arguing for technical matters than for
safety. Moreover, the child arguing for safety was also found to be more effective than the expert
arguing for technical matters (which explains the name of the study article).
In order to recreate the study, you’ll need to prepare copies of the four versions of the ads (Handouts
6.1a, 6.1b, 6.1c, and 6.1d.), with enough copies to distribute each version to one-quarter of the class.
After students have read their version of the ad, ask them to turn the page over.
To score the effectiveness of the messages, distribute Handout 6.1e to the entire class. After they’ve
filled in their ratings, have them reverse the scores on numbers 1, 2, 3, and 5, so that 1=5, 2=4, 3=3,
4=2, and 5=1. Now, they should add up all five scores. The totals will range from 5 to 25. List the
scores separately for each handout on the board. Note that higher totals denote more agreement with the
message.
Altercasting theory predicts that a child as the source of the message will be more effective when the
topic is safety (Handout 6.1a), and the expert source will be more effective when the topic is technical
(Handout 6.1c). Therefore, to prove the theory correct, you should have higher totals for 6.1a (child and
safety) than for 6.1b, and higher totals for 6.1c (expert and technical matter) than for 6.1d. You might
also see if, as in the original study, the ad with the child stressing safety received a higher effectiveness
rating than did the expert with the technical information.
What if this bombs? There is some potential for this exercise to bomb. One reason has to do
with the fact the activity is a very simplified version of the study. One major departure involves
asking students to imagine the sources instead of providing them with actual photos. Another has
to do with elimination of all except for one of the assessment measures.
If it does bomb, and there is no evidence of altercasting, provide students with the original
findings and ask them to discuss why their results differed. It would also be interesting to learn on
what basis students rated the effectiveness of the ads.
Pratkanis, A.R. & Gliner, M.D. (Winter, 2004-2005). And when shall a child lead them? Evidence for
an altercasting theory of source credibility. Current Psychology, 23, 4, 279-304.
ATTITUDES 207
Activity 4. The Effects of Group Size and Argument Strength on

Persuasion
This activity seeks to replicate a study by Petty, Harkins, and Williams (1980), one of the early studies
that led to the development of the elaboration likelihood model of persuasion. In this study, they found
that students who evaluated an essay as part of a group were less affected by message quality than
students who were the sole evaluator of the essay. They attributed this finding to social loafing
(discussed in Chapter 8 of the text).
To replicate this experiment, have half your students read Handout 6.2a and half read Handout 6.2b.
Then give half the students in each of these groups Handout 6.2c and half Handout 6.2d to evaluate
the essay that they just read. Compare students’ ratings of the essays. You should find that students who
evaluated the essay with Handout 6.2c (the alone condition) made bigger distinctions between the
strong argument essay in Handout 6.2a and the weak argument essay in Handout 6.2b. Students
evaluating the essay with Handout 6.2d should show less distinction between the strong and the weak
essay because of social loafing. You should point out that this pattern of results is consistent with the
elaboration likelihood model if students who evaluate the essay alone have high involvement in the task
and students in the group condition have low involvement in the task.
You could also use the materials in this activity to test other ideas from the elaboration likelihood
model (ELM) of persuasion. In particular, you could use students’ evaluations of these essays in
conjunction with their scores on the need for cognition scale to test the hypothesis from the ELM that
people high in need for cognition may take argument strength into account more than people low in
need for cognition.
What if this bombs? While this activity is not completely bombproof, it is not likely to bomb
either. The major consideration is the number of students in your class. If you have a class of 50
or more, then the activity is likely to work. A smaller class size might leave too few students
reading each essay in each condition to show the effect. There have been numerous studies that
have demonstrated the types of effects that are being replicated in this experiment so it seems
quite likely that the activity will work.
Petty, R. E., Harkins, S. G., & Williams, K. D. (1980). The effects of group diffusion of cognitive effort
on attitudes: An information-processing view. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 38, 81-92.
Activity 5. Forming Affectively- and Cognitively-Based Attitudes

This activity uses materials from a study by Crites, Fabrigar, and Petty (1994) that successfully created
attitudes that were primarily affective or cognitive in nature. Handouts 6.3a–6.3d contain stories about a
fictitious animal called a lemphur. These stories are designed to create either positive or negative
attitudes that are either primarily affective or cognitive in nature. Handout 6.3a is designed to create a
positive cognitively-based attitude; Handout 6.3b is designed to create a positive affectively-based
attitude; Handout 6.3c is designed to create a negative cognitively-based attitude; and Handout 6.3d is
designed to create a negative affectively-based attitude.
You can test whether these materials create these attitudes in your students by randomly assigning one
of the four accounts to each of them. Then have all the students fill out Handout 6.3e and Handout 6.3f.
Handout 6.3e measures students’ affective reactions to the lemphur, and Handout 6.3f measures their
cognitive reactions. You should find that students who read Handout 6.3a and 6.3b have more positive
evaluations of the lemphur than students who read Handout 6.3c and 6.3d. This difference should be
greatest on the affective reaction scale (Handout 6.3e) when comparing students who read Handout 6.3a
and Handout 6.3c. Similarly, the difference should be greatest on the cognitive reaction scale (Handout
6.3f) when comparing students who read Handout 6.3b and Handout 6.3d.
208 CHAPTER 6
To score Handout 6.3e, reverse code Sorrow, Angry, Bored, Tense, Hateful, Annoyed, Disgusted, and
Sad then add up the number that students circled for each item. Higher numbers will represent a more
positive affective reaction to the lemphur. To score Handout 6.3f, reverse code Foolish, Harmful,
Useless, Unsafe, Worthless, Imperfect, and Unhealthy then add up the number that students circled for
each item. Higher numbers will represent a more positive cognitive reaction to the lemphur.
What if this bombs? This activity should be relatively bombproof. The different handouts
should lead to different attitudes toward the lemphur. It seems quite likely that students will at
least see the lemphur more positively after reading Handouts 6.3a and 6.3b than after reading
Handouts 6.3c and 6.3d. The more specific affects on affective and cognitive bases of the attitude
may be more difficult to show—especially in small classes. In any event, this activity should lead
to interesting discussion as to how students formed their attitudes about a novel attitude object.
Crites, S. L., Fabrigar, L. R., & Petty, R. E. (1994). Measuring the affective and cognitive properties of
attitudes: Conceptual and methodological issues. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 20, 619-
634.
Activity 6. Inducing Cognitive Dissonance

Carkenord and Bullington (1993) suggest a simple exercise to help students to better understand the
phenomenon of cognitive dissonance by experiencing it first-hand. In this exercise, cognitive
dissonance is induced by comparing students’ attitudes and behaviors on a variety of issues. The
activity is best done prior to your discussion of cognitive dissonance.
Draw a 5-point Likert scale on the board ranging from (1) strongly disagree to (5) strongly agree. Then,
ask students to take out a blank piece of paper and to indicate the extent to which they agree or disagree
with a series of statements that you will read aloud (by writing a number from 1 to 5 corresponding to
the scale):
No one in this country should go to bed hungry.
Climate change is a serious problem that needs our immediate attention.
Everyone in a democracy should exercise his or her right to vote.
Water is one of our most precious resources and everyone should try to conserve it.
Then ask students to turn their papers over and to answer the next series of questions by responding
“Yes” or “No” according to whether they “perform the behavior on a regular basis.” This series of
behavioral questions corresponds to the previous attitudinal statements:
Do you personally do anything to help those who are hungry (e.g., donate money or food or work in a
soup kitchen)?
Do you personally do anything to lessen the factors that contribute to global warming (e.g., use
electricity only when necessary, keep air conditioners on low setting, use public transportation)?
Did you vote in the last election for which you were eligible?
Do you conserve water (e.g., by taking short showers, not letting the water run when you brush your
teeth, refrain from using a hose to wash a car)?
ATTITUDES 209
After students have completed giving their responses, have them turn back to side 1 and ask (by a show
of hands) how many agreed or strongly agreed with the first attitudinal statement. Next, ask them to
turn their paper over and ask how many answered “Yes” to the corresponding behavioral question.
Repeat for all four statements. Students should get the point of this exercise very quickly. In most cases,
a majority will agree with the statements, but only a small minority will follow through with the
corresponding behavior. Carkenord and Bullington suggest that discussion should focus on (a) how
these inconsistencies made students feel, (b) formal definitions for consonance and dissonance, (c)
research on cognitive dissonance, and (d) strategies for reducing dissonance.
What if this bombs? This activity is likely to be bombproof for most of the students. In case
there are students who are consistent in their behavior for all four attitudinal statements, ask them
to volunteer an example where they might have felt cognitive dissonance.
Carkenord, D.M., & Bullington, J. (1993). Bringing cognitive dissonance to the classroom. Teaching of
Psychology, 20, 41-43.
Activity 7. Central versus Peripheral Routes in the Popular Media

Have students form small groups (4-5 students). Ask the students to find examples of central or
peripheral routes to persuasion in popular media: the glossy tabloids at the checkout counter of the
supermarket. The Internet is a massive sale force in our society and can be used extensively.
Have the students present their materials and lead a discussion in the similarities in central ads versus
similarities in peripheral ads.
What if this bombs? This activity is likely to be bombproof for most of the students
MULTIMEDIA RESOURCES
Video
Attitudes about Attitudes. This film explores research on behavior and attitudes, including Festinger’s
research on cognitive dissonance. Focuses on the affective, cognitive, and behavioral components of
attitudes and attitude change. (1975, 27 min.) United Films of Canada, 115 Melrose Avenue, Toronto,
Ontario, M5M 1H8.
Conscience in Conflict. From the feature film A Man for All Seasons. Examines the relationship
between attitudes and behaviors in that it suggests that we develop our identities out of these conflicts.
(1973, 35 min.) Learning Corporation of America, 108 Wilmot Rd., Deerfield, IL 60015.
Friendly Persuasion. This NBC Dateline video uses actors to test out factors found to affect
persuasion. It explores the role of beauty, age, and tenacity in a variety of persuasion tests. The program
is based on research by Cialdini and others. MSNBC, One Microsoft Way, Redmond, WA 98052.
Invitation to Social Psychology. The presentation introduces the field of social psychology by
examining subject matter studies, methods of investigation, and findings/discoveries. Includes
dramatizations of classic experiments in affiliation, attribution theory, cognitive dissonance,
conformity, aggression, and bystander intervention. (1975, 33 min.) Audio-Visual Center, Indiana
University, Bloomington, IN 47495-5901.
Persuading the Public. Clips from political campaigns and other advertising that show the power that
humor can have on persuasion. (1978, 15 min.) Columbia Broadcasting Service, 383 Madison Avenue,
New York, NY 10017
Social Animal (Social Psychology) (Focus on Behavior Series). This film investigates some of the
ways in which humans are influenced and changed in society. Demonstrates the effect of group
210 CHAPTER 6
pressures to conform and the consequences of publicly stating ideas contrary to one’s private belief.
Shows the nature of the bargaining process. (1963, 30 min.) Bureau of Audio Visual Instruction,
University of Wisconsin Extension, PO Box 2093, Madison, WI 53701-2093.
The Power of the Situation (Discovering Psychology Series). The film describes how situational
forces can manipulate beliefs and behavior. Includes the ways social psychologists interpret human
behavior within its broader social context. (1989, 28 min.) Audio-Visual Center, Indiana University,
Bloomington, IN 47495-5901.
The YouTube video named “Bogus Pipeline” can be seen at
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GI6tu3Q9Jmo.
The YouTube video named “The Psychology of Persuasion” can be seen at
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=twuBXR8xtYE.
The YouTube video named “Implicit Association Test” can be seen at
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n5Q5FQfXZag.
The YouTube video named “Cognitive Dissonance” can be seen at
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zuUPW86Nxo4.
The YouTube video named “A Lesson in Cognitive Dissonance” can be seen at
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=korGK0yGIDo.
Internet
American Presidential Candidate Selectors. At this site, students can find out which presidential
candidates match their attitude on various issues. Visit this site at
http://www.selectsmart.com/president.
Army Video Game. At this CNN site, students can read an article about how the US army is using
video games to recruit soldiers. The army admits that the games are a propaganda device. There is a
link here to a site called America’s Army (the title of the series of games), where students can
download the games for free. Visit this site at
http://money.cnn.com/2002/05/31/commentary/game_over/column_gaming/.
Bogus Pipeline. The bogus pipeline (BPL) is a research paradigm designed to reduce the effect of self-
presentational motivations on attitudinal and behavioral self-reports first implemented by Jones and
Sigall (1971).Visit this site at http://www.psychwiki.com/wiki/Bogus_Pipeline.
Cognitive Dissonance, Classic View. Cognitive dissonance theory, developed by Leon Festinger
(1957), is concerned with the relationships among cognitions. Visit this site at
http://www.ithaca.edu/faculty/stephens/cdback.html.
Cognitive Dissonance. People tend to seek consistency in their beliefs and perceptions. Visit this site at
http://psychology.about.com/od/cognitivepsychology/f/dissonance.htm.
Facial Electromyograph (EMG). Facial EMG has been studied to assess its utility as a tool for
measuring emotional reaction. Visit this site at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facial_electromyography.
Icek Ajzen’s Homepage. Dr. Ajzen’s page outlines the theory of planned behavior and discusses
questionnaire construction. Visit this site at http://www.people.umass.edu/aizen/.
Implicit Association Test (IAT). For a demonstration of the Implicit Association Test, visit this site at
https://implicit.harvard.edu/implicit/demo/.
On the Issues. Similar to American Presidential Candidate Selectors (see first Internet listing), this site
also lets students compare presidential candidates’ positions on various national issues with their own
positions. Visit this site at http://www.issues2000.org/default.htm.
ATTITUDES 211
Persuasion. Definitions make understanding social influence easier. Visit this site at
http://www.workingpsychology.com/definit.html.
Public Health Posters. The National Library of Medicine maintains this exhibition of posters dealing
with historical and contemporary public health issues, such as infectious diseases, environmental health,
anti-smoking campaigns, and HIV/AIDS. The posters were designed to bring about change in public
health practices. Visit this site at http://www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/visualculture/vchome.html.
Public Service Announcements. This site displays the Ad Council’s public service announcements for
the past 60 years. Students will recognize such successful campaigns as “Friends don’t let friends drive
drunk,” or “A mind is a terrible thing to waste.” Visit this site at
http://www.adcouncil.org/default.aspx?;d=15.
The Sleeper Effect. When people are normally exposed to a highly persuasive message (such as an
engaging or persuasive television ad), their attitudes toward the advocacy of the message display a
significant increase. Visit this site at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sleeper_effect.
World War I Posters. These World War I posters exemplify the propaganda used by the allies to enlist
support for the war. They were collected by George F. Tyler who donated them to Temple University,
which maintains the site. Visit this site at http://exhibitions.library.temple.edu/ww1/index2.jsp.
World War II Posters: Power of Persuasion. This superb site has a great deal of material on the
propaganda used to motivate soldiers and citizens alike in the second world war. Visit this site at
http://www.archives.gov/exhibits/powers_of_persuasion/powers_of_persuasion_home.html.
Computer Programs
Consumer Behavior. This program demonstrates the selective interpretation and recall of the content
of advertising copy. Eight short advertisements are presented followed by questions about them. The
program analyzes percentages of correct identifications of claims that were and were not made and
those that were indeterminate and implied. Instruction booklet included. (Macintosh & DOS) Life
Science Associates, 1 Fenimore Road, Bayport, NY 11705-2115.
FIRM: Vol. I, Nature of Attitudes and Attitude Change. Three data-generating models simulate
social psychological experiments dealing with attitudes and attitude change including counterattitudinal
behavior, the sleeper effect, and persuasion. Students conduct experiments by entering the relevant
experimental conditions and then observe, record, and analyze the dependent measures generated.
Detailed manual included. (Macintosh & DOS) Conduit, University of Iowa-Oakdale Campus, Iowa
City, IA 52242.
Laboratory in Social Psychology. Five laboratory experiments for a large undergraduate course in
social psychology, demonstrating classic experiments. (DOS) Wisc Ware, Academic Computing
Center, University of Wisconsin, 1210 W. Dayton Street, Madison, WI 53706.
Why Lie? (Festinger’s Cognitive Dissonance Experiment). In this module, students collect simulated
data from subjects in a variation of Festinger’s classic cognitive dissonance experiment. In laboratory
mode, students also participate in an experiment themselves. (DOS) Houghton Mifflin Company;
contact your sales representative.
212 CHAPTER 6
HANDOUT 6.1A
Picture in your mind the following two-page magazine ad.
On the left side, there is a full-page color photo of a pony-tailed young girl, around the age of seven,
who’s wearing a striped dress, sweater, and sneakers and is sitting between the legs of an adult.
On the opposite page, there is the following ad copy:

Don’t be the cause of yet another road casualty. Darnelli Tires will take you and your family (and your
neighbor’s family) home safely every time. With a new design, Darnelli Tires sense temperature
changes, from cold wet surfaces to blistering heat, giving you the safest tires money can buy. Don’t you
think you and your family (and my family too) deserve it? Drive safely with Darnelli Tires.
Underneath the message, there is the signature, “Sarah Whitmore, 2nd grade.”
ATTITUDES 213
HANDOUT 6.1B
On the left side, there is a full-page color photo of a pony-tailed young girl, around the age of seven,
who’s wearing a striped dress, sweater, and sneakers and is sitting between the legs of an adult.
Announcing an all new Darnelli high performance tire for the race car driver in you. Darnelli Tires has
introduced the Troxes P1, a V- and Z-rated tire that combines superior handling and tread life in an
ultra high-performance radial. The tire features a hard, stiff bead filler compound, which results in
quick response and excellent grip. You’ll feel like an Indy driver. Push it to the limit with Darnelli
Tires.
Underneath the message, there is the signature, “Sarah Whitmore, 2nd grade.”
214 CHAPTER 6
HANDOUT 6.1C
On the left side, there is a full-page color photo of a distinguished man with gray hair and a slightly
wrinkled face. He’s wearing a dark suit, an Oxford-style blue shirt, and a deep red tie. He’s sitting on a
ledge in front of a green and yellow backdrop of the type used for publicity photos.
Don’t be the cause of yet another road casualty. Darnelli Tires will take you and your family (and your
neighbor’s family) home safely every time. With a new design, Darnelli Tires sense temperature
changes, from cold wet surfaces to blistering heat, giving you the safest tires money can buy. Don’t you
think you and your family (and my family too) deserve it? Drive safely with Darnelli Tires.
Underneath the message, there is the signature, “Dr. Robert Whitmore, Ph.D.”
ATTITUDES 215
HANDOUT 6.1D
On the left side, there is a full-page color photo of a distinguished man with gray hair and a slightly
wrinkled face. He’s wearing a dark suit, an Oxford-style blue shirt, and a deep red tie. He’s sitting on a
ledge in front of a green and yellow backdrop of the type used for publicity photos.
Announcing an all new Darnelli high performance tire for the race car driver in you. Darnelli Tires has
introduced the Troxes P1, a V- and Z-rated tire that combines superior handling and tread life in an
ultra high-performance radial. The tire features a hard, stiff bead filler compound, which results in
quick response and excellent grip. You’ll feel like an Indy driver. Push it to the limit with Darnelli
Tires.
Underneath the message, there is the signature, “Dr. Robert Whitmore, Ph.D.”
216 CHAPTER 6
HANDOUT 6.1E
With regard to the ad that you just read, please rate each of the following statements on a scale of 1 to
5, as follows:
1 2 3 4 5
strongly agree agree neutral disagree strongly disagree
1. Overall, the message was convincing. _____

2. Overall, the message was effective in arguing its point of view. _____
3. The message made a strong argument. _____
4. Overall, the message was not convincing. _____
5. In general, others will find this message convincing. _____
ATTITUDES 217
HANDOUT 6.2A ESSAY EVALUATION

This school should institute comprehensive exams for all graduating seniors because these exams will
promote academic excellence, reverse declining scores on standardized tests, increase our students’
ability to get into graduate and professional schools, attract well-known corporations to recruit students
here, improve undergraduate teaching, increase alumni support, and bolster our national accreditation.
The evidence that these exams will promote academic excellence can be seen if we examine the most
prestigious universities. Ninety percent of the Ivy League schools now have comprehensive exams for
their graduating seniors. They utilize these exams to maintain their academic excellence. Studies at
three of these universities have all independently shown that scores on standardized tests improved for
graduating seniors when comprehensive exams were instituted. When these exams were no longer
administered, standardized test scores declined. It seems likely that instituting comprehensive exams
would likewise reverse the decline in standardized test scores on this campus.
Graduate and professional schools now show a preference for undergraduates who have passed a
comprehensive exam. This assures them that students have met a minimum standard and gives them
some assurance that the students will be able to perform adequately. Both the New York Times Guide to
Graduate Education and the Compton’s Professional School Index suggest that taking a comprehensive
exam can increase one’s chance for post-secondary education.
Not surprisingly, schools with comprehensive exams attract larger and more well-known corporations
to recruit students. Thirty percent of the Fortune 200 companies recruit exclusively at schools with
comprehensive exams. These corporations believe that only at schools with comprehensive exams can
they be certain that the people they hire have the minimum job requirements. At other schools, a degree
does not ensure competence. Consistent with this trend, one study found that students from schools with
comprehensive exams have a higher average starting salary, $32,563, than students from schools
without comprehensive exams, $24,192.
Comprehensive exams bring other benefits as well. Four recent studies have all come to the same
conclusion: instituting comprehensive exams improves undergraduate instruction. This finding is
perhaps to be expected. When instructors know that they will be accountable for how much their
students learn, their teaching improves and their students learn more. Two studies also suggest that
instituting comprehensive exams buoys alumni confidence in the school, which leads to increased
alumni donations. At four schools cited in one recent study, this has even led to a decrease in tuition as
alumni donations decrease the amount of revenues needed from the current students. Finally, in its
recent analysis of our school, the National Accrediting Board of Higher Education noted that they
would give our school its highest rating if only we would institute comprehensive exams.
218 CHAPTER 6
HANDOUT 6.2B ESSAY EVALUATION

This school should institute comprehensive exams for all graduating seniors because it is a good idea,
would be fairer to graduate students, would be welcomed by students and prepare them for later life,
and would make the school a better place.
Almost all my friends support the idea of having comprehensive exams. These people do not support
the idea without good reason. My major advisor took a comprehensive exam, and now she has a
prestigious academic position. This illustrates the value that comprehensive exams can have in
promoting one’s chances in life.
Graduate students at almost all universities take comprehensive exams. They would not require these
exams if they were not of some value. The benefits that they have for graduate students are likely to be
the same that they would have for undergraduate students. Requiring graduate students, but not
undergraduate students, to take the exams is tantamount to racial discrimination. All students should be
faced with the same challenges and requirements and that should be the same for undergraduates as
well as graduate students.
I believe that most students would welcome such comprehensive exams. The risk of failing the exam is
a challenge that most students would welcome. Most people find it exhilarating to rise to a challenge. I
believe students would rise to the challenge of comprehensive exams and find them a rewarding
experience. In addition, the difficulty of the exam should be an excellent preparation for later
competitions in life. It is only by having rigorous standards that one works hard to achieve that one
develops the initiative and drive to succeed in life.
Some people might question the educational value of such exams, but I believe this is unreasonable.
The Educational Testing Service would not market and promote these exams unless they had great
educational value. They would be liable to numerous lawsuits if the exams were not useful and
appropriate.
Finally, these exams would greatly enhance our school. I believe the school would not only be a better
place but that we will become one of the leading learning centers in the world. We could become like
Oxford or Cambridge if only we were to institute these exams.
ATTITUDES 219
HANDOUT 6.2C ESSAY EVALUATION

Your task is to critically evaluate the essay that you just read. You are the only one who will be reading
this particular essay. Thus, you alone bear the full responsibility for the critical evaluation.
1. To what extent do you feel the communication made its point effectively?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
not at all very much
2. To what extent did you like the communication?

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
3. To what extent do you feel the communication was convincing?

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
4. Considering both content and style, how well written was the communication?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
220 CHAPTER 6
HANDOUT 6.2D ESSAY EVALUATION

Your task is to critically evaluate the essay that you just read. You are one of ten people who will be
reading this particular essay. Thus, the ten of you share the full responsibility for the critical
evaluation. Your reactions will be combined with those of the other nine people to form one overall
rating for the editorial.
1. To what extent do you feel the communication made its point effectively?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
2. To what extent did you like the communication?

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
3. To what extent do you feel the communication was convincing?

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
4. Considering both content and style, how well written was the communication?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
ATTITUDES 221
HANDOUT 6.3A THE LEMPHUR ACTIVITY

You will be reading a brief passage about an animal that may be unfamiliar to you (although some of
you may know something about it). Your task is to read it carefully and form an impression of this
animal.1
The passage is an excerpt from an encyclopedia of marine life. While reading it, you should concentrate
on learning as much as you can about lemphurs.
Lemphur
Description: The lemphur is a powerful marine animal approximately six feet in length and weighing
nearly 400 pounds. They are strong swimmers with great endurance and are noted for their swift and
agile movements.
Geographic Dispersion: A remarkably adaptive animal, lemphurs can be found in ocean waters as far
north as Alaska to as far south as Antarctica. Because of the insulating properties of their skin, these
creatures are capable of maintaining constant body temperature in the cold waters of the Antarctic
Ocean as well as in warm equatorial waters.
Behavior in Captivity: Lemphurs are extremely intelligent creatures that are capable of being trained
to perform complex behaviors. In fact, where born in captivity or captured at an early age, lemphurs
adapt well to life in captivity and are noted for their tame demeanor. These traits have made them
particularly helpful to marine biologists interested in studying basic marine physiology and behavior in
controlled laboratory settings.
Diet: The lemphur feeds on a variety of sea plants and sea animals. One advantage of these animals’
diet is their tendency to feed on barnacles, which can damage boats and docks, and on sea plants that
frequently block vents and pipes opening into the sea.
Physiology: Lemphurs usually produce between four and six young each year. Because young
lemphurs are relatively large and well developed at birth, most are able to fend for themselves and thus
survive to adulthood. This low mortality rate has allowed lemphurs to become quite numerous in many
areas of the world. In fact, lemphurs serve as a major source of food for humans in some parts of the
world. The widespread availability of lemphurs, their excellent flavor, and the high levels of protein
and vitamins they contain make them a nourishing part of the diet of many coastal communities.
Additionally, many parts of the lemphur can be utilized for a variety of purposes. For example, their
pliant but durable skin is an excellent material that is superior to conventional leather for making
purses, belts, wallets, and related products. Similarly, the lemphur’s natural oils have a number of
industrial applications. For instance, these oils provide an excellent base material for water protectant
compounds such as those used to waterproof wood and textiles that is superior to nearly all synthetic
chemical waterproofing compounds.
1
The authors wish to thank Leandre Fabrigar for providing these materials.
222 CHAPTER 6
HANDOUT 6.3B THE LEMPHUR ACTIVITY

animal.2
The passage is a description of an individual’s encounter with a lemphur. While reading it, you should
think about how you would feel if you encountered a lemphur.
An encounter with a lemphur

Ernestine was only a baby lemphur the last time I had seen her over ten years ago. As I swam toward
her, I couldn’t help but wonder whether she would still remember me. Would she actually recognize the
person who had raised and trained her as a newly born lemphur?
I told myself she wasn’t really smiling: that happy look was just an accident of jaw formation,
indicating nothing more than lines of bone and muscle. But looking at her made me feel happy just the
same.
She was so beautiful. From a distance, the lemphur had looked simple, uncomplicated. But up close,
everything about Ernestine was astonishing. The black pupil in the center of her red-brown eye seemed
to radiate emotion. Six inches back from the eye was a fold of skin with an opening the size of a
pinhole in it, the opening to her ear. Even the lemphur’s skin was special: not perfectly smooth, but
textured with the tiniest of lines, and colored with subtle gray patterns that were perfectly matched and
fitted together, like interlocking feathers on a hawk.
Ernestine had pectoral fins to steer with and tail flukes for power. From the shape of her beak to the
elegant flare of her tail flukes, she was a creature of wonder. I felt I could study her for a thousand years
and not see everything.
Ernestine nuzzled in beside me and laid her pectoral fin on my back.
This amazed me. A lemphur I had not seen in over ten years swam up and touched me!
I couldn’t resist her. Without conscious thought, my hands reached up and stroked her side. It felt
smooth, soft, and firm, like the inside surface of a hard-boiled egg.
Gently the lemphur rolled, bringing the fin on her back into my hand as she began moving away. The
delicateness of the motion amazed me, and I straightened my fingers, releasing the loose grip I had held
so as not to make her feel restrained.
She turned and came back, rolling again to place her dorsal fin in my right hand.
Why fight it, I thought, as I grasped Ernestine’s fin more tightly.
This time, when Ernestine took off, I went along.
I left my human clumsiness behind. For glorious seconds I knew what it was to be the swiftest swimmer
in the sea. She towed me, and I tried not to get in the way. I was conscious of my body’s shape as an
obstruction and tried to narrow myself.
We soared. The water rushed past my face and swirled around my body, and I felt the streaking lines of
speed.
2
ATTITUDES 223
HANDOUT 6.3C THE LEMPHUR ACTIVITY

animal.3
The passage is an excerpt from an encyclopedia of marine life. While reading it, you should concentrate
on learning as much as you can about lemphurs.
Lemphur
Appearance: The lemphur is similar in appearance and basic body structure to other marine animals
such as fish and whales. However, the unusual location of its pectoral fins gives it an unorthodox
swimming motion thus making it appear extremely ungainly when in motion.
Habitat: Because of their primitive air bladder system, lemphurs have difficulty regulating their depth.
Thus, lemphurs must remain constantly in motion to avoid sinking beyond ocean depths that they can
tolerate. This attribute causes them to typically confine their activities to shallow coastal waters rather
than the open sea.
Behavior in the Wild: Lemphurs are usually found in groups numbering between 15 and 20 adults and
40 or more young. The lemphur is a natural predator in the wild that hunts both alone and in packs. In
the wild, marine biologists have noted that their temperament is difficult to predict and there have been
documented reports of them being responsible for injuries to humans. Thus, lemphurs can pose a
problem for coastal communities where recreational water activities are popular.
Impact on Local Economies: The lemphur has a voracious appetite, spending nearly 67 percent of its
time feeding. This attribute has caused them to damage the local economies of many coastal
communities that rely on fishing and related industries. Economic impact studies have indicated that in
some major fishing regions, such as the Isthmus of Panama, lemphurs have depleted nearly 19.2 percent
of the total supply of fish and other aquatic foods (e.g., oysters, clams). By one estimate, the cost of fish
and other aquatic animals is 8.3 percent higher due to lemphurs depleting populations of aquatic
animals.
Practical Uses of Lemphurs: The lemphur is a popular source of food in many regions. Unfortunately,
lemphurs contain relatively high levels of cholesterol and polyunsaturated fats thus making them a
dietary determinant of certain cardiovascular ailments. A number of byproducts can also be made with
parts of the lemphur. However, the difficulty of capturing these creatures and the extensive industrial
processing required to make use of lemphur byproducts makes products using lemphurs expensive.
Products using ingredients derived from lemphurs are typically 17 to 22 percent more expensive than
products using alternative ingredients.
3
224 CHAPTER 6
HANDOUT 6.3D THE LEMPHUR ACTIVITY

animal.4
The passage is a description of an individual’s encounter with a lemphur. While reading it, you should
think about how you would feel if you encountered a lemphur.
An encounter with a lemphur

A hundred yards offshore, the lemphur sensed a change in the sea’s rhythm. It did not see the woman,
nor yet did it smell her. Running within the length of its body were a series of thin canals, filled with
mucus and dotted with nerve endings. These nerves detected vibrations and signaled to the brain. The
lemphur turned toward shore.
The vibrations were stronger now, and the lemphur recognized prey. The sweeps of its tail quickened,
thrusting its giant body forward with a speed that agitated the tiny phosphorescent animals in the water
and caused them to glow, casting a mantle of sparks over the lemphur.
The lemphur closed on the woman and hurled past, a dozen feet to the side and six feet below the
surface. The woman felt only a wave of pressure that seemed to lift her up in the water and ease her
down again. She stopped swimming and held her breath. Feeling nothing further, she resumed her
lurching stroke.
The lemphur smelled her now, and the vibrations—erratic and sharp—signaled distress. The lemphur
began to circle close to the surface.
The lemphur was about 40 feet away from the woman, off to the side, when it turned suddenly to the
left, dipped entirely below the surface, and, with two quick thrusts of its tail, was upon her.
At first, the woman thought she had snagged her leg on a rock or a piece of floating wood. There was
no initial pain, only one violent tug on her right leg. She reached higher on her leg, and then she was
overcome by a rush of nausea and dizziness. Her groping fingers had found a nub of bone and tattered
flesh. She knew that the warm, pulsing flow over her fingers in the chill water was her own blood.
Pain and panic struck together. The woman threw her head back and screamed a guttural cry of terror.
The lemphur had moved away. It swallowed the woman’s limb without chewing. Bones and meat
passed down the massive gullet in a single spasm. Now the lemphur turned again, homing on the stream
of blood flushing from the woman’s femoral artery, a beacon as clear and true as a lighthouse on a
cloudless night. This time the lemphur attacked from below. It hurtled up under the woman, jaws agape.
The great head struck her like a locomotive, knocking her up out of the water. The jaws snapped shut
around her torso, crushing bones and flesh and organs into a jelly. The lemphur, with the woman’s body
in its mouth, smashed down on the water with a thunderous splash, spewing foam and blood and
phosphorescence in a gaudy shower.
Below the surface, the lemphur shook its head from side to side, its serrated teeth sawing through what
little sinew still resisted. The corpse fell apart. The lemphur swallowed, then turned to continue feeding.
Its brain still registered the signals of nearby prey. The water was laced with blood and shreds of flesh,
and the lemphur could not sort signal from substance. It cut back and forth through the dissipating
cloud of blood, opening and closing its mouth, seining for a random morsel. But by now, most of the
pieces of the corpse had dispersed. A few sank slowly, coming to rest on the sandy bottom, where they
moved lazily in the current. A few drifted away just below the surface, floating in the surge that ended
in the surf.
4
ATTITUDES 225
HANDOUT 6.3E THE LEMPHUR ACTIVITY

Below is a list of feelings or moods that could be caused by an object. Please use the list below to
describe how lemphurs make you feel. If the word “definitely” describes how lemphurs make you feel,
then circle the number “7.” If you decide that the word does not at all describe how lemphurs make
you feel, then circle the number “1.” Use the intermediate numbers between 1 and 7 to indicate
responses between these two extremes.5
Work rapidly. Your first reaction is best. Please mark all words. This should only take a minute or two.
Please begin.
Hateful:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Not at All Definitely
Delighted:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Happy:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Tense:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Bored:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Angry:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Acceptance:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Sorrow:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Joy:
5
226 CHAPTER 6
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Love:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Annoyed:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Calm:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Relaxed:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Excited:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Disgusted:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Sad:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
ATTITUDES 227
HANDOUT 6.3F THE LEMPHUR ACTIVITY

Below is a list of traits or characteristics that could be used to describe an object. Please use the list
below to describe lemphurs. If the word “definitely” describes lemphurs, then circle the number “7.”
If you decide that the word does not at all describe lemphurs, then circle the number “1.” Use the
intermediate numbers between 1 and 7 to indicate responses between these two extremes.6
Work rapidly. Your first reaction is best. Please mark all words. This should only take a minute or two.
Please begin.
Useful:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Foolish:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Safe:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Harmful:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Valuable:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Perfect:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Wholesome:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Useless:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
6
228 CHAPTER 6
Wise:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Beneficial:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Unsafe:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Worthless:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Imperfect:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Unhealthy:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7

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Solution Manual for Social Psychology 9th Edition

Kassin Fein Markus 1133957757 9781133957751

LEARNING OBJECTIVES: GUIDELINES FOR STUDY

THE STUDY OF ATTITUDES

How Attitudes Are Measured

How Attitudes Are Formed

The Link between Attitudes and Behavior

Two Routes to Persuasion

Culture and Persuasion

PERSUASION BY OUR OWN ACTIONS

Cognitive Dissonance Theory: The Classic Version

Cognitive Dissonance Theory: A New Look

 Social psychologists continue to debate whether dissonance can be aroused by cognitive

Alternative Routes to Self-Persuasion

Cultural Influences on Cognitive Dissonance

psychological reactance (p. 236)

LECTURE AND DISCUSSION IDEAS

Idea 1. Voting and Attitude Behavior Consistency

Idea 2. Persuasion and Political Campaign Ads

Idea 3. Persuasion through Scarcity

Idea 4. When Beauty Doesn’t Sell

Idea 5. Explaining Why Fear Appeals Don’t Always Work

Idea 6. Subliminal Persuasion

Idea 8. Cognitive Dissonance as an Example of the Evolution of

Idea 9. Insufficient Justification and Fraternity and Sorority

Idea 10. Resisting the Persuasion of Non-Expert Spokespeople

Activity 1. Designing an Attitude Measure

Activity 2. Three Basic Appeals Used in Advertising

Activity 3. Demonstrating an Altercasting Theory of Source

Activity 4. The Effects of Group Size and Argument Strength on

Activity 5. Forming Affectively- and Cognitively-Based Attitudes

Activity 6. Inducing Cognitive Dissonance

Activity 7. Central versus Peripheral Routes in the Popular Media

Picture in your mind the following two-page magazine ad.

On the opposite page, there is the following ad copy:

Picture in your mind the following two-page magazine ad.

On the opposite page, there is the following ad copy:

Picture in your mind the following two-page magazine ad.

On the opposite page, there is the following ad copy:

Picture in your mind the following two-page magazine ad.

On the opposite page, there is the following ad copy:

1. Overall, the message was convincing. _____

HANDOUT 6.2A ESSAY EVALUATION

HANDOUT 6.2B ESSAY EVALUATION

HANDOUT 6.2C ESSAY EVALUATION

2. To what extent did you like the communication?

3. To what extent do you feel the communication was convincing?

HANDOUT 6.2D ESSAY EVALUATION

2. To what extent did you like the communication?

3. To what extent do you feel the communication was convincing?

HANDOUT 6.3A THE LEMPHUR ACTIVITY

HANDOUT 6.3B THE LEMPHUR ACTIVITY

An encounter with a lemphur

HANDOUT 6.3C THE LEMPHUR ACTIVITY

HANDOUT 6.3D THE LEMPHUR ACTIVITY

An encounter with a lemphur

HANDOUT 6.3E THE LEMPHUR ACTIVITY

HANDOUT 6.3F THE LEMPHUR ACTIVITY

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