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Journal of Exercise Physiologyonline

April 2014
Volume 17 Number 2

Official Research Journal of

Editor-in-Chief JEPonline
Tommy
the American
Boone, PhD,
Society
MBA of
Exercise
Review Physiologists
Board
Todd Astorino, PhD
The Impact of Ammonia Inhalants on Strength
ISSN 1097-9751
Julien Baker, PhD Performance in Resistance Trained Males
Steve Brock, PhD
Lance Dalleck, PhD Scott R. Richmond1, Adam C. Potts2, Joseph R. Sherman1
Eric Goulet, PhD
Robert Gotshall, PhD 1
Alexander Hutchison, PhD Department of Kinesiology, Missouri State University, Springfield,
M. Knight-Maloney, PhD MO, USA, 2Lamar University Strength & Conditioning Department,
Len Kravitz, PhD Lamar University, Beaumont, TX, USA
James Laskin, PhD
Yit Aun Lim, PhD
Lonnie Lowery, PhD
ABSTRACT
Derek Marks, PhD
Cristine Mermier, PhD Richmond SR, Potts AC, Sherman JR. The Impact of Ammonia
Robert Robergs, PhD Inhalants on Strength Performance in Resistance Trained Males.
Chantal Vella, PhD JEPonline 2014;17(2):60-66. Ammonia Inhalants (AIs) have been
Dale Wagner, PhD
Frank Wyatt, PhD
suspected to enhance athletic performance through an increased
Ben Zhou, PhD awareness and subsequent increase in physical strength. The
purpose of this study was to examine the impact of AIs on strength
performance. Twenty-five college-aged males with at least 3 yrs of
resistance training experience performed as many repetitions as
Official Research Journal
possible with the back squat and bench press at 85% of one
of the American Society of repetition maximum (1RM) after inhaling either AIs or placebo
Exercise Physiologists (Vick’s® VapoRub®, VVR). There were no significant differences
between the number of repetitions performed in the back squat (P =
ISSN 1097-9751 0.403) or the bench press (P = 0.422) after inhaling the AIs
compared to the VVR. While no differences in performance were
observed, many individuals may still continue to use AIs. Therefore,
if an individual has no pre-existing medical conditions and feels that
AIs improve performance, there appears to be no contraindications
to using low doses.

Key Words: Smelling Salts, Resistance Training

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INTRODUCTION

Pre-workout supplements are very popular in today’s fitness realm. Many athletes, bodybuilders,
power-lifters, and recreational lifters use supplements prior to training to increase motivation and
muscular strength. Previous studies have shown that significant benefits in muscular strength and
power can be acquired from using pre-workout ‘energy’ supplements within an hour prior to the
resistance training session (2,9). Ammonia Inhalants (AIs), or smelling salts, are often used to
enhance performance in sports competitions and prior to heavy resistance training bouts. AIs are
becoming more widespread among athletes and weight lifters who attempt to gain an edge or
increase strength or performance (3,4).

AIs are typically found in the form of capsules containing ammonium carbonate combined with
scents or perfumes. They are categorized as a respiratory stimulants and when inhaled, the nose,
lungs, and mucus membranes rapidly become irritated causing involuntary inhalation (4). The
involuntary inhalation is reported to accelerate respiration and stimulate a higher degree of
consciousness (4). A “higher degree of consciousness” may be responsible for increasing primary
attentional focus, which allows the weight lifter to block out unnecessary distractions. The
increased focus on the task of executing the exercise is a psychological trait that many expert
athletes utilize to perform successfully under pressure (7).

The use of AIs is approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration for the treatment of
fainting. Although Als can be purchased over the counter, ammonia is toxic in large amounts and
should only be administered in small doses to users with no pre-existing medical conditions (10).
Complications caused by AIs in athletes have been reported, but are extremely rare, and include
lung irritation/damage, loss of consciousness, and anaphylaxis (3). People with respiratory issues
such as asthma should avoid using AIs due to the potential of the lungs becoming irritated. It is
also recommended that AIs should not be used to aid head and neck injuries because of the risk of
a sudden, unexpected reflex (10).

Athletes commonly use AIs immediately before or during competition, such as prior to attempting a
one repetition maximum (1RM) in the bench press, back squat, deadlift or power clean. AIs have
also been used before the opening kickoff of a football game, between rounds of a boxing match or
in locker rooms during breaks or intermissions of games (10). Although AIs have been used for
many years, little is known about their effects on athletic performance. Therefore, the purpose of
this study was to examine the impact of AIs on strength performance.

METHODS
Subjects
Twenty-eight males were recruited from university physical conditioning courses and local fitness
establishments (age: 21.5 ± 2.2 yrs, height: 181.1 ± 4.6 cm, weight: 93.4 ± 14.2 kg). A training
history questionnaire was required to ensure that all subjects: (a) were experienced, which was
defined by at least 3 yrs of resistance training experience (RTE: 7.3 ± 2.6 yrs); and (b) could back
squat 1.5 times their body weight and bench press 1.0 times their body weight (1). Individuals who
did not meet these criteria were excluded from participation in the study. Prior to participating in the
investigation, the subjects: (a) were informed of the potential risks and procedures involved with
the study; (b) completed an informed consent in accordance with the Human Subjects Committee
Review Board (Study #: 13-0316) and the World Medical Association 1964 Declaration of Helsinki;
and (c) completed a medical history form to assist in screening out individuals with any cardio,
respiratory or muscular conditions that would affect the study. Vick’s® VapoRub® (VVR) was
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chosen as a placebo because of its strong menthol scent that is comparable to an AI. The back
squat and bench press exercises were used because they are measures of upper and lower body
strength. They are also highly utilized in training and correlate to athletic performance (5).

Procedures
The initial session consisted of completing pre-participation paperwork and estimating the subjects’
1RM on the back squat and the bench press. The subjects were instructed not to engage in any
demanding physical activity at least 48 hrs prior to the testing sessions so that the central nervous
system and muscular system would be fully recovered (6). They were also instructed to follow the
same dietary regime throughout the trial and eat a meal at least 3 hrs prior to each testing session.

After the completion of all pre-screening paperwork, the subjects began a general warm up on an
Aerodyne Ergometer for 5 min followed by the back squat warm up (8). The subjects performed the
back squat testing prior to the bench press because the squat exercise involves larger muscle
groups, which should be trained prior to smaller muscle groups (1). A standard squat rack with a
20 kg barbell was used throughout the testing. Although the subjects were already familiar with
proper back squat technique from previous training experience, proper technique was re-
emphasized prior to and during all lifting. Each subject was required to descend with the hips and
knees until the thighs were parallel to the floor and, then return to a standing position from the
squat (1).

Following at least 3 warm up sets consisting 2 to 6 repetitions; the resistance was increased in 5,
20 kg increments until the subjects could only perform 2 to 5 repetitions with maximal exertion and
proper technique. The 1 RM was estimated using the number of squat repetitions performed with
that weight (1). After the back squat RM, the subjects rested for 5 min before starting the bench
press warm up. The bench press technique consisted of the head, back, hips, feet, and legs
contacting the bench or floor at all times. The subjects were instructed to lower the barbell to touch
the chest and then raise the barbell by fully extending the elbows. The repetition was not deemed
successful if the subject failed to use the demonstrated technique. Next, the participant completed
at least 3 warm up sets before attempting the RM set. The 1RM was estimated using the number
of bench press repetitions performed with that weight (1). See Figure 1 for detail of the timeline of
testing session throughout the study.

Figure 1. Overall Timeline of Events.

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Approximately 2 to 4 days (at least 48 hrs and no more than 96 hrs) after the initial testing, the
second testing session took place. The subjects started with a 5-min warm up on the Aerodyne
Ergometer and then began the squat warm up. Each subject completed at least 4 back squat warm
up sets with approximately 1 min between sets. During the warm up sets a marked coin was
flipped to randomly assign which substance the subject would inhale first. A 2-min rest was given
prior to completing the maximal exertion set (ME), which consisted of performing as many reps as
possible with 85% of the subject’s predicted 1RM. Three seconds before initiating the ME set the
subject inhaled either the AI or the VVR (placebo). The AI was in liquid form and VVR in gel form.
Both were contained within a micro-centrifuge tube. During testing, the substance inhaled was
unknown to the subject and to the researcher who administered it. After the ME set was
completed, there was a 5-min break prior to beginning the bench press warm up. After 4 sets of
bench press warm up, each subject also completed the ME set at 85% 1RM. Three seconds prior
to the ME set the subject inhaled once again either the AI or the VVR. The same substance was
inhaled for both the bench press and back squat. The third testing session was 2 to 4 days (at
least 48 hrs and no more than 96 hrs) after the second session. The third session was identical to
the second testing session except the subject inhaled the substance that they did not inhale during
the second session (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Sample Timeline of 85% of 1RM Trial.

Statistical Analyses
Using SPSS (v19.0) a Paired Samples t test was used to measure differences in the number of
repetitions completed after inhaling the AI or the VVR. A one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA)
was used to measure any differences in the calculated 1RMs of all three sessions (pre-test, AI, and
VVR).

RESULTS

The statistical results are based on 25 male subjects who completed all 3 testing sessions. Three
subjects did not finish the study due to scheduling issues. All subjects who completed the study
reported no physical injuries due to the testing protocol. There was no significant difference
between the number of repetitions performed in the back squat (AI = 6.7 ± 2.3 vs. VVR = 6.4 ± 1.8;
P = 0.403) or the bench press (AI = 5.4 ± 1.2 vs. VVR = 5.2 ± 1.6; P = 0.422) after inhaling the AI
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compared to the VVR (Table 1). There was also no significant difference between the calculated
1RM for both back squat and bench press when using AI, VVR or initial testing session (no
substance inhaled).

Table 1. Repetitions Performed with 85% of 1RM (Mean ± SD).

Back Squat Bench Press

VVR 6.4 ± 1.8 5.2 ± 1.6

AI 6.7 ± 2.3 5.4 ± 1.2

VVR; Vick’s® VapoRub®, AI; Ammonia Inhalant

Table 2. Predicted 1RM (Mean ± SD).

Conditions Back Squat Bench Press

Pre-test (kg) 170.7 ± 33.1 129.2 ± 20.4

VVR (kg) 176.4 ± 35.5 128.9 ± 21.4

AI (kg) 177.4 ± 33.9 129.7 ± 21.2

VVR; Vick’s® VapoRub®, AI; Ammonia Inhalant

DISCUSSION

Although AIs are often used to enhance performance in sports competitions and prior to heavy
resistance training bouts among athletes and weight lifters (3,4), the results of this study indicate
no significant differences in the AI testing sessions compared to the VVR sessions in the back
squat and bench press. Although more research is needed on the effects of AIs relating to exercise
performance, our data suggests that there may be no significant link between the two. A placebo
effect interaction due to participants not inhaling substances before lifting on a regular basis could
somewhat explain the results.

While there were no differences in performance, this study does not account for any potential
psychological impact of AIs. Subjects reported anecdotally that the substances “made them feel
like they were more aroused and awake.” If an individual has no pre-existing medical conditions
and feels that AIs do improve their performance, then, there are no known contraindications to use
in low doses. However, people with respiratory issues like asthma should avoid using AIs due to
the potential for the lungs to become irritated. It is also recommended that AIs should not be used
to aid head and neck injuries due to the risk of a sudden, unexpected reflex (10).

Potential limitations to this study include the amount of Ammonia that was inhaled by each subject.
Although each subject inhaled the ammonia from the same size capsule, the amount of inhalation
by each subject may have been much different. Another issue that will have to be answered in
future research is whether the AI would have had a positive influence on the back squat and bench
press performance at a higher percentage of 1RM (i.e., >85% of 1RM). It is understood that
anecdotal reports suggest that AIs are used for short anaerobic bursts of strength. It may be
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possible that with when using AIs the amount of weight someone can perform after 2 or 3
repetitions decreases significantly. Utilizing a weight closer to predicted maximum may create a
more realistic picture of a power-lifting or sport-specific activity. Further research is needed to
clarify this point.

The practical significance due to a psychological impact of the AIs is an area that should also be
explored by subsequent research. Determining if AIs impact the nervous system in a way that
improves motor unit firing, biomechanics, and muscle fiber activity may help explain the anecdotal
accounts of its ergogenic effects. Further research is needed to determine if this effect is
repeatable with other substances used as a control.

CONCLUSIONS

While there were no differences in performance, this study did not account for any potential
psychological impact of AIs. Therefore, if an individual feels that AIs do improve their performance,
and has no pre-existing medical conditions that would present harm with AI use, then there are no
contraindications for use in low doses. However, given the lack of a significant impact of AIs on
the back squat and bench press performance, AIs should not be prescribed universally by trainers
and strength coaches.

Address for correspondence: S. R. Richmond, PhD, Department of Kinesiology, Missouri State

University, Springfield, MO, Phone: 417-836-8481, Email: ScottRichmond@MissouriState.edu

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The opinions expressed in JEPonline are those of the authors and are not attributable to
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