Eur J Appl Physiol (2010) 109:429–435

DOI 10.1007/s00421-010-1375-0

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

The effect of strength training and short-term detraining

on maximum force and the rate of force development
of older men
Dale I. Lovell • Ross Cuneo • Greg C. Gass

Accepted: 18 January 2010 / Published online: 7 February 2010

Ó Springer-Verlag 2010

Abstract This study examined the effect of strength exercise should be performed on a regular basis to maintain
training (ST) and short-term detraining on maximum force training adaptations.
and rate of force development (RFD) in previously seden-
tary, healthy older men. Twenty-four older men (70– Keywords Strength training  Maximum force 
80 years) were randomly assigned to a ST group (n = 12) Rate of force development  Detraining
and C group (control, n = 12). Training consisted of three
sets of six to ten repetitions on an incline squat at 70–90% of
one repetition maximum three times per week for 16 weeks Introduction
followed by 4 weeks of detraining. Regional muscle mass
was assessed before and after training by dual-energy X-ray Aging is associated with significant reductions in muscular
absorptiometry. Training increased RFD, maximum bilat- strength and power. In particular, after the seventh decade,
eral isometric force, and force in 500 ms, upper leg muscle the decline in muscular strength is reported to be [3% per
mass and strength above pre-training values (14, 25, 22, 7, year and the decline in muscular power [5% per year
90%, respectively; P \ 0.05). After 4 weeks detraining all (Daley and Spinks 2000; Harries and Bassey 1990;
neuromuscular variables were significantly (P \ 0.05) Vandervoot and Symons 2001). The reduced ability to
lower than after 16 weeks training but remained signifi- produce force rapidly or rate of force development (RFD)
cantly (P \ 0.05) higher than pre-training levels except for is likely the result of age-related atrophy in muscle mass in
RFD which had returned to pre-training levels. These particular fast-twitch or Type II fibers (Lexell et al. 1988)
findings demonstrate that high-intensity ST can improve and a decrease in the quality of the remaining muscle in
maximum force and RFD of older men. However, older terms of its slower contractile properties (Kostka 2005).
individuals may lose some neuromuscular performance While muscular strength is important for older adults,
after a period of short-term detraining and that resistance the ability to develop force rapidly (i.e., RFD) has been
shown to be more relevant when performing activities of
daily living (ADL) such as stair climbing, rising from a
Communicated by Susan Ward.
chair and attempting to avoid falls (Bassey et al. 1992;
D. I. Lovell (&) Caserotti et al. 2008). Furthermore, reduced muscle
School of Health and Sport Sciences, strength in older people, after a period of immobilization or
The University of the Sunshine Coast, Maroochydore, Australia disuse, has be associated with muscle atrophy (D’Antona
e-mail: dlovell@usc.edu.au
et al. 2003), and a reduced ability to produce force rapidly,
R. Cuneo which can increase the risk of falling (Fleming et al. 1991).
Department of Diabetes and Endocrinology, Therefore, it is essential that strength training (ST)
Princess Alexandra Hospital, Brisbane, Australia programs are designed to be able to increase the maximum
force and RFD of older adults, in particular for those older
G. C. Gass
Faculty of Health Sciences and Medicine, adults over the age of 70 years. While it is well established
Bond University, Gold Coast, Australia that strength training can increase the muscular strength

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and muscle mass of older adults (Macaluso and De Vito was not taking any medication known to interfere with the
2004), less clear is the effect of strength training on RFD. exercise response, (3) had normal spirometry and a resting
Although some studies (Chrusch et al. 2001; Newton et al. 12 lead ECG, (4) had resting blood pressure of \150/
2002) have found strength training can increase the RFD of 90 mmHg.
older adults others have found no increase (Bellew et al. Subsequently 24 older men who were moderately active
2003; Dreyer et al. 2006). The differences between studies with walking and gardening as their main activities but not
is most likely due to a number of factors such as meth- participating in regular physical activity were selected to
odological differences in the strength training programs, participate in the study. Participants were randomly assigned
methods used to assess RFD and age and gender of par- to either a strength training group (age 75.2 ± 0.8 years;
ticipants. In particular the types of exercises used in the height 174 ± 2 cm; weight 79.4 ± 4.5 kg) or a non-training
strength training program can have a significant effect on control group (age 73.7 ± 1 years; height 175 ± 1 cm;
the neuromuscular response (Fleck and Kraemer 2004). weight 78.9 ± 4.3 kg). The study was approved by the
Furthermore most older adults involved in strength training Griffith University Ethics Committee and written consent
studies are usually \70 years of age (Frontera et al. 1988; was obtained from all participants.
Hakkinen et al. 2000; Newton et al. 2002).
For individuals who exercise, regardless of age, periods Experimental design
of training cessation (detraining) or inactivity may be
anticipated, however, periods of inactivity are more pre- The 20-week study consisted of 16 weeks of training and a
valent in older adults because of illness, hospitalization, 4-week detraining period. All participants were tested for
and limited periods of disability. Although some studies lower extremity muscular strength, maximum force and
have examined the effect of detraining ([12 weeks) after a RFD and body composition before and after 16 weeks of
period of strength training (Fatouros et al. 2005; Taaffe and training and after the 4-week detraining period. Lower
Marcus 1997), few studies have examined the effect of extremity strength was also tested every 4 weeks during
short-term detraining (4 weeks), after a period of strength the 16 weeks of training in both the ST and control (C)
training on the muscular strength, maximum force and groups. Participants were advised to maintain their normal
RFD of older individuals. daily routines and eating habits and to refrain from
Therefore, the aim of this study was to examine the beginning any new exercise program during the study.
change in muscular strength, maximum force and RFD of
men aged 70–80 years in response to 16 weeks of strength Training protocol
training on an incline squat machine. In addition the effect
of 4 weeks detraining was also assessed to determine the The 16-week training protocol consisted of training the
loss of adaptations after the 16 weeks of strength training. lower extremities three times per week in non-consecutive
days with each session lasting approximately 25 min. Each
participant was trained individually by the author on an
Methods incline squat machine (Body/Solid Inc., Broadview, IL,
USA). Each session consisted of a 5-min warm-up on a
Participants cycle ergometer (Monark 828E) at 30 W followed by
5 min of quadriceps and hamstring stretching. Participants
Participants in the study were recruited through advertise- also completed 5 min of stretching at the end of each
ments placed in local newspapers and consisted of healthy training session. The warm-up period was followed by one
men aged between 70 and 80 years. Respondents to the set of ten repetitions at 50% of each participant’s training
newspaper advertisement completed a physical activity load. A training intensity of three sets of eight repetitions at
readiness questionnaire (‘‘PAR-Q’’) by telephone inter- 50% of one repetition maximum (1RM) was selected for
view. Each respondent identified as potentially suitable for the first 2 weeks of training to maximize participant safety
the study then attended the laboratory on three separate and compliance. Training intensity was increased to three
occasions for further screening and familiarization. On sets of six to ten repetitions at 70–90% of 1RM in the third
these occasions, each participant (1) was provided with an week of training and training continued at this intensity
information sheet setting out details of the experiment, (2) until the 16th week of training. Based on the results from
completed a medical history questionnaire, (3) undertook the four weekly repeated measurements, absolute incre-
spirometry and a resting 12 lead electrocardiogram (ECG). ments in the training load were added during the 16 weeks
As a result of the familiarization and screening process, to maintain the participants’ training intensity at 70–90%
each participant selected for the study: (1) was clinically of 1RM. All sets throughout training were separated by
free from known cardiovascular and respiratory disease, (2) 2 min of recovery time.

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Strength measurement Statistical analysis

One repetition maximum strength testing was assessed on an Statistical analyses were performed using the Statistical
incline squat machine (Body/Solid Inc., Broadview, IL, Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS Version 10.0). All
USA) using standardized procedures as described previously data are reported as mean and standard error of the mean
(Levinger et al. 2007). All participants attended two famil- (M ± SEM). A repeated measures ANOVA using a gen-
iarization sessions before the start of the study to reduce the eral linear model was used to determine differences within
risk of injury and muscle soreness after the testing. and between groups before training, after 16 weeks of
training and after 4 weeks of detraining. Where significant
Maximum force and rate of force development results were noted, a Bonferroni post hoc test was used to
determine the difference between groups. The level of
To determine maximum force and RFD participants per- significance was set at P \ 0.05.
formed an isometric contraction in the squat position.
Knees were kept at 110° throughout the test. At a given
signal, participants exerted maximum force with their legs
Results
against a force platform by pressing their shoulders against
fixed pads on a squat bar. Participants were instructed to
All participants completed the 20-week study with the
exert their maximum force as fast as possible during a
attendance rate for the ST group [98%, with only five
period of 4 s. Body position was carefully monitored
participants absent for seven training sessions during
throughout the test to ensure maximum effort and safety.
the 16 weeks of training. Initially, the training and
Three trials were completed and the best performance was
control groups did not differ significantly in age, body
used for subsequent statistical analysis.
composition, muscular strength and maximum force or
A Kistler 900 9 600 mm (Type 9287A) multi-compo-
RFD.
nent force platform and a Kistler (Type 9865C) 8-channel
charge amplifier were used to measure the power and RFD.
The force signal was sampled at 1,000 Hz and recorded on Leg strength
an IBM compatible computer (Pentium II). Maximum
force was defined as the highest value recorded during each Within-group analysis revealed a significant training effect
isometric contraction. The force–time analysis on the as the ST group increased leg strength every 4 weeks over
absolute scale was used to calculate the maximum bilateral the 16-week training program (Table 1). After 4 weeks of
isometric force (MBIF) and the force produced from detraining, leg strength had declined by 13 ± 3 kg
the start of the contraction up to 500 ms (F500 ms) (P \ 0.000) compared to after 16 weeks training. How-
(Thorstensson et al. 1976). The RFD was calculated from ever, this reduced leg strength was still greater than
the maximum force that occurred over the first derivative pre-training values (P \ 0.000). Between-group analysis
of the force–time curve. showed no difference in leg strength between the ST and C
group during the first 4 weeks, with leg strength greater in
Body composition analysis the ST group for the remainder of the study (Table 1). Leg
strength in the C group did not change significantly during
The body composition of all participants was measured the study period.
by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA) (Norland
XR36, Fort Atkinson, WI, USA). The DEXA scans were Maximum force and rate of force development
performed in the pencil beam mode (scan time approxi-
mately 4 min, radiation exposure approximately 0.4 mrem). After 16 weeks of strength training, RFD, MBIF and
From the DEXA scans, upper limb muscle mass, total body F500 ms in the ST group had increased significantly above
fat mass and percentage body fat were determined. Upper pre-training values, and were significantly greater than C
leg muscle mass (ULMM) was assessed using the ischial values (Table 2). After 4 weeks detraining MBIF and
tuberosity and the knee joint as upper and lower margins, F500 ms in the RT group were significantly less than after
respectively, and was calculated using the equation: 16 weeks training but greater than pre-training values.
RFD had returned to pre-training values in the ST group
ULMM ¼ total upper leg mass  upper leg fat mass
after 4 weeks detraining and was not significant different
 ð1:82  upper limb BMC)
from C values. RFD, MBIF and F500 ms in the C group did
(Heymsfield et al. 1990). The coefficient of variation for not alter significantly throughout the 20 weeks of the study
repeated measures was \1% for ULMM and fat mass. (Table 2).

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Table 1 Change in leg strength

Week Leg strength (kg) P value
(1RM) for the ST and C groups
after 16 weeks training and Control group Strength training Between Within ST group
4 weeks detraining group groups (compared to week 0)

0 48.6 ± 5.5 41.9 ± 6.3 0.430

4 48.2 ± 5.2 57.3 ± 7.4 0.326 0.001
8 46.8 ± 5.5 66.5 ± 7.1 0.041 0.000
12 47.8 ± 5.6 72.5 ± 7.3 0.015 0.000
Values are mean ± SEM. 16 48.2 ± 5.5 79.5 ± 7.9 0.004 0.000
16–20 weeks represents
20 48.0 ± 5.5 66.3 ± 7.3 0.043 0.000
4 weeks detraining

Table 2 Changes in force characteristics after 16 weeks of training and 4 weeks of detraining for the strength training (ST) and control (C)
groups
Variable ST (n = 12) C (n = 12)
0 weeks 16 weeks 20 weeks 0 weeks 16 weeks 20 weeks

MBIF (N) 702 ± 42 878 ± 55*, 746 ± 43*, 724 ± 65 711 ± 58 706 ± 63
-1 ,
RFD (N s ) 926 ± 125 1109 ± 140* 1014 ± 128 895 ± 87 882 ± 83 892 ± 88
F500 ms (N) 384 ± 56 478 ± 47*, 425 ± 53*, 363 ± 36 351 ± 37 358 ± 35
Values are mean ± SEM
MBIF Maximum bilateral isometric force, RFD rate of force development, F500 ms force in 500 ms
* P \ 0.05, greater than pre-training values (0 weeks); P \ 0.05, greater than control group; 16–20 weeks represents 4 weeks of detraining

Body composition and ULMM after 16 weeks of strength training. However,

after 4 weeks of detraining, RFD had returned to pre-
After 16 weeks of training, ULMM had significantly training levels while some gains in neuromuscular perfor-
increased in the ST group compared to pre-training and C mance remained.
values but had returned to pre-training values after 4 weeks The increase in RFD, MBIF and F500 ms found after
detraining (Table 3). There was no significant difference in 16 weeks of strength training in the present study agrees
body mass, percent body fat and whole body muscle mass with some studies (Hakkinen et al. 1998; Izquierdo et al.
in the ST and C groups over the 20 weeks of the study. 2001) but not others (Bellew et al. 2003). The lack of
training stimulus and the method used to assess the RFD,
MBIF and F500 ms may explain why some studies fail to
Discussion find a significant change in the RFD, MBIF and F500 ms
after strength training in older men. Hakkinen et al. (1998)
The aim of this study was to examine the change in utilized strength training combined with explosive exer-
muscular strength, maximum force and RFD of men aged cises (3–4 sets of 8–12 repetitions at 50–60% of 1RM) to
70–80 years in response to 16 weeks of strength training report a 36 ± 4% increase in MBIF after 24 weeks in men
followed by 4 weeks of detraining. The results showed aged 72 ± 3 years. The present study only used high-
significant increases in leg strength, RFD, MBIF, F500 ms intensity strength training (3 sets of 6–10 repetitions at

Table 3 Body composition of the strength training (ST) and control (C) groups after 16 weeks of training and 4 weeks of detraining
Variable ST (n = 12) C (n = 12)
0 weeks 16 weeks 20 weeks 0 weeks 16 weeks 20 weeks

Body mass (kg) 78 ± 4.1 78 ± 4.2 77 ± 4.2 75 ± 4.1 75 ± 4.1 75 ± 4.2

Body fat (%) 29.2 ± 1 29.1 ± 1 29.1 ± 1 27.9 ± 2 27.5 ± 2 27.9 ± 2
Whole body lean mass (kg) 54.4 ± 2.4 55.0 ± 2.6 55.5 ± 2.8 52.4 ± 1.5 53.5 ± 1.5 52.6 ± 1.5
Upper leg muscle mass (kg)# 10.22 ± 5.3 10.98 ± 5.4* 10.61 ± 4.9* 10.41 ± 3.3 10.52 ± 3.1 10.54 ± 3.3
Values are mean ± SEM
#
* P \ 0.05, greater than pre-training values (0 week); 16–20 weeks represents 4 weeks detraining; muscle mass of both legs

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70–80% of 1RM) and was able to increase MBIF by training program were the quadriceps and hamstring mus-
25 ± 4% after 16 weeks. The RFD or explosive muscle cles. However, there was no significant difference in whole
strength as assessed in the present study represents the rate body FFM after the 16 weeks training which highlights the
of rise in contractile force at the onset of contraction. The importance of precise regional measurement of muscle
RFD has from a functional perspective been described, as mass following strength training in older men. The increase
the most important muscular strength adaptation elicited by in ULLM in the present study was most likely due to an
resistance training (Aagaard et al. 2002). While we did find increase in the size of the muscle fibers. Although biopsies
significant increases in absolute RFD and F500 ms after were not taken, results from other studies in which biopsies
16 weeks of training, when normalized to MBIF (data not were taken, reveal significant increases in the CSA of Type
shown) these differences were no longer significant sug- I and Type II muscle fibers with strength training in older
gesting that the changes were due to being able to recruit men (Frontera et al. 1988; Hakkinen et al. 2000). After
more muscle mass than actually being able to develop force 4 weeks of detraining, ULLM remained higher than pre-
more rapidly. Andersen et al. (2009) recently reported training values but was significant lower compared to
similar results with younger men after 14 weeks strength ULLM measured after 16 weeks of training. A few studies
training. They found no change in RFD relative to MVC have examined the long-term (12–31 weeks) effects of
and suggested that the lack of change may be associated detraining on FFM or LLM in older men (Hakkinen et al.
with the controlled movements (as used in the present 2000; Ivey et al. 2000) and found most of the gains in
study) employed during the training program and that more muscle mass were completely lost after the detraining
explosive movements may lead to greater changes in RFD period. The present study selected 4 weeks of detraining in
relative to MVC (Andersen et al. 2009). This suggests that an attempt to determine the early consequences of with-
to increase RFD independently of changes in muscle mass drawing the strength -training stimulus. In contrast to pre-
explosive type movements need to be incorporated into a vious detraining studies (Taaffe and Marcus 1997), subjects
strength training program. in the present study retained over 40% of the gains in LLM
Following 4 weeks of detraining, MBIF, RFD and F500 ms after 4 weeks of detraining. The difference in muscle mass
were all lower than after 16 weeks training with MBIF and loss is most likely reflected in the longer detraining period
F500 ms remaining higher than pre-training values. Few of the previous studies. Taaffe and Marcus (1997) using
studies have examined the effect of detraining on the neu- muscle biopsies to assess changes in muscle mass found that
romuscular characteristics of older individuals after a period the CSA of both Type I and Type II muscle fibers had
of strength training. A recent study did reported a decline in reverted to pre-training values after 12 weeks of detraining
power (15.5 ± 2.2%) after 24 weeks of detraining in older in men aged 65–77 years. In the present study, the increase
men and women (65–84 years) following 24 weeks of in muscle mass obtained after 16 weeks of strength training
strength training (Henwood and Taaffe 2008). We found was partially retained after 4 weeks of detraining, providing
similar levels of decline in MBIF (14 ± 2%), RFD information on the expected time course of decay in ULLM
(8 ± 2%) and F500 ms (13 ± 2%) after the detraining period. in men aged 70–80 years.
While there was a 17% reduction in muscular strength during The increase in muscular strength (1RM) after 16 weeks
the 4 weeks of detraining, RFD and F500 ms declined by over of training in the present study is similar to the results of
50% compared to the gains achieved after 16 weeks training. other comparative strength training studies (Ivey et al.
The greater reduction in RFD and F500 ms compared to 2000; Seynnes et al. 2004; Taaffe and Marcus 1997). The
muscular strength indicates a more rapid decline in the percent gain in muscular strength in the present study over
ability to develop force quickly than the ability to develop the 16 weeks of training was 90 ± 0.6% which was sig-
maximum force once the stimulus of strength training had nificantly higher than the 7.2 ± 1.1% increases in ULLM.
been removed. This has significant consequences for older The difference between increases in muscular strength and
individuals as the ability to develop force rapidly is an muscle mass is most likely due to enhanced neural drive,
important performance characteristic, contributing to sev- motor unit recruitment and improved skill and coordination
eral tasks of daily life such as climbing stairs, walking, and especially during the early stages of a resistance training
attempting to avoid a fall (Hazell et al. 2007). programme (Gabriel et al. 2006; Sale 1988). Hakkinen
The increase in ULLM (0.8 ± 0.2 kg) found in the et al. (2000) reported an increase of 30–40% in integrated
present study after 16 weeks of training is similar to the electromyograms (IEMGs) in the vastus lateralis of men
increase reported by others following a strength training aged 62–77 years after 24 weeks of resistance training.
with similarly aged men (Latham et al. 2004). The increase They attributed the increase in IEMG to increased motor
in ULLM accounted for approximately 80% of the increase unit activation and also reported a decrease in the
in whole body fat free mass (FFM) and was not an unex- co-activation of the antagonists during testing of muscular
pected result as the primary muscles used in the resistance strength.

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After 4 weeks of detraining, muscular strength in the exercise must be performed on a regular basis to maintain
present study remained higher than pre-training values but training adaptations.
was lower when compared to after 16 weeks of resistance
training. Previous studies have reported little or no loss of
muscular strength in older individuals after a period of
short-term detraining (\8 weeks) (Lemmer et al. 2000; References
Sforzo et al. 1995). The present study found a 17.4 ± 2%
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