Modulo I - Completo-Final-Updated

CENTRO PERUANO AMERCANO “EL CULTURAL”
0
METHODOLOGY
COURSE
MODULE I
FUNDAMENTALS OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE

TEACHING
I WEEK
Course introduction – Diagnostic Test MET
1. Methods and approaches overview

2. The communicative approach
3. The communicative competence
1
SESSION 1
An Overview of Language Teaching Methods and Approaches

Debate and developments around the methods of language teaching and learning have been ongoing
since the time of Comenius in the 17th century, if not before. The complexity of contexts and the greater
appreciation of the issues lead us to the conclusion that the panacea of a single, universal, optimum
method for teaching and learning modern languages does not exist. Instead, teachers now acknowledge
the need to adopt an informed eclectic approach, incorporating elements from the range of methods
available. Most language teaching today emphasise oral communication, although many Higher
Education programmes.
In attempting to define what ‘method’ is, we can consider Edward Anthony’s tripartite distinction of
Approach, Method and Technique (Anthony: 1963).
This distinction was developed and recast by Richards and Rodgers (1982, 1985) as Approach, Design
and Procedure, encompassed within the overall concept of Method, “an umbrella term for the
specification and interrelation of theory and practice” (Richards & Rodgers 1985: 16) where
➢ Approach refers to the beliefs and theories about language, language learning and teaching that
underlie a method
➢ Design relates the theories of language and learning to the form and function of teaching
materials and activities in the classroom;
➢ Procedure concerns the techniques and practices employed in the classroom as consequences
of particular approaches and designs.
METHOD
Approach Design
Procedure
(Richards & Rodgers 1985:17)
There are many publications discussing the various language teaching methods employed over the years.
We have drawn here, inter alia, upon Chapter Two of H. Douglas Brown’s Teaching by Principles: An
Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy (Longman/ Pearson Education, White Plains, New York,
2nd edition 2001).
Brown draws a distinction between methods as “specific, identifiable clusters of theoretically
compatible classroom techniques” (p15), and methodology as “pedagogical practices in
general…Whatever considerations are involved in ‘how to teach’ are methodological”
(ibid.).’Methodology’ here can thus be equated to Richards and Rodgers’ ‘Procedure’.
Pedagogic approaches are typically informed by both a theory of language and a theory of language
learning. For example, audiolingualism was informed by a structuralist model of language and by
behaviourist learning theory (Richards and Rodgers 1986).
2
The twentieth century saw new methods emerging with regularity in what Marckwardt (1972:5) saw as
a cyclical pattern of “changing winds and shifting sands” with each new method breaking from what
preceded, while incorporating some of the positive aspects of its predecessors. This mortality of language
learning methods, to use Decoo’s phrase can usually be attributed to the neglect or lack of one particular
component (Decoo 2001: §4.5)
The Grammar-Translation Method

The Classical or Grammar-Translation method represents the tradition of language teaching adopted in
western society and developed over centuries of teaching not only the classical languages such as Latin
and Greek, but also foreign languages. The focus was on studying grammatical rules and morphology,
doing written exercises, memorizing vocabulary, translating texts from and prose passages into the
language. It remained popular in modern language pedagogy, even after the introduction of newer
methods. In America, the Coleman Report in 1929 recommended an emphasis on the skill of reading in
schools and colleges as it was felt at that time that there would be few opportunities to practise the spoken
language. Internationally, the Grammar-Translation method is still practised today, teaching the classical
older stages of languages (Latin, Greek, Old Irish etc.) where its validity can still be argued in light of
expected learning outcomes, but also, with less justification, in some institutions for modern language
courses. Prator and Celce-Murcia (1979:3) listed the major characteristics of Grammar-Translation:
➢ Classes are taught in the mother tongue, with little active use of the target language;
➢ Much vocabulary is taught in the form of lists of isolated words;
➢ Long, elaborate explanations of the intricacies of grammar are given;
➢ Grammar provides the rules for putting words together, and instruction often focuses on the
form and inflection of words;
➢ Reading of difficult classical texts is begun early;
➢ Little attention is paid to the context of texts, which are treated as exercises in grammatical
analysis;
➢ Often the only drills are exercises in translating disconnected sentences from the target
language into the mother tongue;
➢ Little or no attention is given to pronunciation.
Decoo attributes the grammar-translation method’s fall from favor to its lack of potential for lively
communication. A greater attention to grammar (focus on form/ structure) has now re-emerged as well
as appropriate integration by teachers of structures into content focused lessons. But the explicit teaching
of grammatical paradigms in isolation is rare nowadays.
The Direct Method

While Henri Gouin’s The Art of Learning and Studying Foreign Languages, published in 1880, can be
seen as the precursor of modern language teaching methods with its ‘naturalistic’ approach, the credit
for popularizing the Direct Method usually goes to Charles Berlitz, who marketed it as the Berlitz
Method.
The basic premise of the Direct Method was that one should attempt to learn a second language in much
the same way as children learn their first language. The method emphasized oral interaction, spontaneous
use of language, no translation between first and second languages, and little or no analysis of grammar
rules.
Richards and Rodgers summarized the principles of the Direct Method as follows (2001: 12)
➢ Classroom instruction was conducted exclusively in the target language;
3
➢ Only everyday vocabulary and sentences were taught;

➢ Oral communication skills were built up in a carefully graded progression organized around
questions-and-answer exchanges between teachers and students in small intensive classes;
➢ Grammar was taught inductively;
➢ New teaching points were taught through modelling and practice;
➢ Concrete vocabulary was taught through demonstration, objects, pictures; Abstract vocabulary
was taught through association of ideas;
➢ Both speech and listening comprehension were taught;
➢ Correct pronunciation and grammar were emphasized.
Decoo identifies as its weakness the lack of insight into the reality of the classroom situation for most
learners, in its aspiration to a mastery of the language that few could achieve.
Many of the elements of the Direct Method listed above will be familiar to teachers in Higher Education,
which, however, now includes more language use tailored to the needs and experiences of the students,
and also a return to ‘focus on form’ (language structures)
The Audio-Methods
The Audiolingual/Audiovisual Method is derived from "The Army Method," so called because it was
developed through a U.S. Army program devised after World War II to produce speakers proficient in
the languages of friend and foes. In this method, grounded in the habit formation model of behaviorist
psychology and on a Structural Linguistics theory of language, the emphasis was on memorization
through pattern drills and conversation practices rather than promoting communicative ability.
Characteristics of the Audio-Methods:

➢ New material is presented in dialogue form;
➢ There is dependence on mimicry, memorization of set phrases, and overlearning
➢ Structures are sequenced by means of contrastive analysis taught one at a time;
➢ Structural patterns are taught using repetitive drills;
➢ There is little or no grammatical explanation. Grammar is taught by inductive analogy rather
than by deductive explanation;
➢ Vocabulary is strictly limited and learned in context;
➢ There is much use of tapes, language labs, and visual aids;
➢ Great importance is attached to pronunciation;
➢ Very little use of the mother tongue by teachers is permitted;
➢ Successful responses are immediately reinforced;
➢ There is a great effort to get students to produce error-free utterances;
➢ There is a tendency to manipulate language and disregard content.
(adapted from Prator & Celce-Murcia 1979)
The Oral-Situational Approach

This resembles the Audiolingual approach as it is based on a structural syllabus but it emphasizes the
meanings expressed by the linguistic structures, not just the forms, and also the situations or contexts
chosen to practice the structures. It can be found in courses dating from the 1970s, which are now
criticized for not achieving the hoped-for results.
As they were based on behaviorist psychology (see below), the Audio-method and Oral-situational
approach were limited by their neglect of cognitive learning. The drill-based approach in the classroom
re-emerged in early Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) software where it was perceived to
4
motivate pupils and develop autonomous study and learning. CALL is now more sophisticated and can
foster cognitive learning as well.
OTHER APPROACHES
a. Total Physical Response
b. Community Language
c. Silent Way
d. Suggestopedia
a. TOTAL PHYSICAL RESPONSE

(TPR) is a method used in communicative approach, while the aim of communicative approach is to
develop the ability to communicate. Total Physical Response (TPR) is a method developed by Dr. James
J. Asher, a professor emeritus of psychology at San José State University, to aid learning second
languages. The method relies on the assumption that when learning a second or additional language,
language is internalized through a process of code breaking similar to first language development and
that the process allows for a long period of listening and developing comprehension prior to production.
Students respond to commands that require physical movement. Moreover, Peck in Richards adds that
the best known of English as a Second Language approach involving movement is Total Physical
Response. Total Physical Response (TPR) is one method for communicative language teaching, to do
learning in a communicative way. Zainil states that TPR is a language teaching method built around the
coordination of speech and action. In addition, Asher stated that TPR is a method of teaching language
by using physical movement to react to verbal input in order to reduce learners inhibitions and lower
their effective filter. It reacts the learners to react language without thinking too much, facilities long
term retention, and reduces learner’s anxiety and stress.
In addition, Richard and Renandya from Peck explain that in TPR the teacher gives commands, models
them, and gradually weans the young learners from watching the teachers’ model. TPR also combines a
number of other insights in its rationale principles of children language acquisition are important. Noted
that children, in learning their first language, appear to do a lot of listening before they speak, and that
their listening is accompanied by physical responses (reaching, grabbing, moving, looking, and so on).
In this method not only the teacher can give the commands or models but also another student. Then
soon, the students or young learners are able to carry out a variety of commands. The young learners
understand most of what is said, and in the process acquire receptive language, especially vocabulary
and grammar. A lesson might start with:
Teacher: Stand up! (pause, then stands up)
Touch your shoulder! (pauses, then touches shoulder)
Sit down! (pause, then sits down).
Later, some young learners understand and follow the teachers’ commands:
Teacher: Touch your head! Erika,
Mahmud,and Syamid: (touch heads)
Most other young learners: (follow others and touch heads)
Teacher: Good! Great job, Erika, Mahmud and Syamid.
Asher also gave the benefit of this method; they are instant understanding of the target language,
regardless of academic aptitude, high speed long-term retention; and free of stress. By studying with this
method, hopefully the learners will be good in learning languages, because looking form the benefits of
this method will make the students understanding faster. Further, there are seven principles of TPR as:
5
1) assimilation and skills can be increased significantly,

2) vocabulary retention can be increased through physical activities,
3) comprehension skills are established,
4) teaching of speaking should be delayed until comprehension skills are established,
5) skills acquired through listening transfer to other skills,
6) teaching should emphasize meaning than form, and
7) teaching should minimize learners’ stress.
Thus, the teacher who wants to apply this method should pay remind these principles to make the aims
of TPR become applied; and in order to implement TPR effectively, it is necessary to plan regular
sessions that progress in a logical order, and to keep several principles in mind. Finally, TPR is one of
communicative approaches that should involve the components of communicative competence to make
the application of the teaching more easily. It motivates young learners to do and to coordinate action
and speak. So, using TPR by giving a model to the young learners will make the young learners easily
to remember and recycle the vocabulary given and may be encourage to learn.
b. COMMUNITY LANGUAGE LEARNING

This approach alternatively called Community Language Learning (CLL) and Counseling-Learning,
stresses the role of the affective domain in promoting cognitive learning. Developed by Charles Curran
(1976), it is founded on techniques borrowed from psychological counseling. The basic theoretical
premise is that the human individual needs to be understood and aided in the process of fulfilling personal
values and goals. This is best done in community with others striving to attain the same goals.
Major Characteristics
The first principle of CLL is that the teacher serves as the “knower/counselor” whose role is essentially
passive. He or she is there to provide the language necessary for students to express themselves freely
and to say whether it is they want to say. The class is comprised of six to twelve learners seated in a close
circle, with one or more teachers who stand outside the circle, ready to help. The techniques used are
designed to reduce anxiety in the group to a minimum and to promote the free expression of ideas and
feelings. The method provides five learning stages.
Stage 1. Students make statements aloud in their native language based on whatever they desire to
communicate to the others in the group. The teacher, placing his or her hand on the student’s shoulder,
translates the utterance softly into the student’s ear. The student then repeats the utterance after the
teacher’s model recording it on tape. Another student, desiring to make a response, will signal this desire
to the teacher, who then comes around the circle and provides a target-language equivalent for this
student in the same way. Again, the response is recorded on tape, so that at the end of the conversation
the whole dialogue is recorded. This tape-recorded script is used later in the class session as a source of
input for the analysis and practice of the language.
Stage 2. This second stage, known as the “self-assertive stage,” differs from the first in that the
students try to say what they want without constant intervention and help from the teacher.
Stage 3. IN this “birth stage,” students increase their independence from the teacher and speak in
the new language without translation unless another student requests it.
Stage 4. The “adolescent” or “reversal” stage is one in which the learner has become secure enough
to welcome corrective feedback from the teacher or other group members.
Stage 5. This “independent” stage is marked by free interaction between students and teacher(s):
everyone offers corrections and stylistic improvement in a community spirit. By this time, the trust level
is high and no individual is threatened by this type of feedback from others in the group. At all times,
the atmosphere is one of warmth, acceptance, and understanding. (Based on Stevick 1973, reprinted and
revised in Curran 1976. pp 87-100.)
6
Proficiency Orientation
Many elements hypothesized to contribute to the building of proficiency are presented in this lesson:
there is contextualization and personalized learning throughout the class hour; students are creating with
the language; there is attention to accuracy without sacrificing affective concerns. In fact, one of the
major strengths of the method seems to be the warm, community atmosphere that is created by the
procedure and the provision of corrective feedback on this humanizing context. The teacher takes care
to help students induce the grammatical system from their own input and isolates important and useful
vocabulary that they need to review for active-control.
Potential Drawbacks
One area that may need attention in using CLL methodology is that of course content or context. As
described, the procedure does not ensure that a variety of contexts necessary for coping in the target
culture is included. Since the content is determined by the participants in the group, who may not
necessarily know what to expect in encounters in the target remedied, however, if the teacher is willing
to encourage or enable students to include such content in the lesson on occasion. For example, the
conversation could center around authentic material that students had read or viewed (Stevick 1992).
Another potential drawback is that some students may feel uncomfortable with the apparent lack of
structure or sequence in the introduction of grammatical and lexical items. This problem also could be
dealt with if the teacher is willing to introduce some control in this regard.
c. THE SILENT WAY: LEARNING THROUGH SELF-RELIANCE
Background
Introduced by Gattegno (1975), this method can be classified as cognitivist in orientation. In
Gattegno’s view, the mind is an active agent capable of constructing its own inner criteria for learning.
The three key words of the philosophy behind this approach are independence, autonomy, and
responsibility: every learner must work with his or her own inner resources (i.e., exiting cognitive
structures, experiences, emotions, knowledge of the world) to absorb learning from the environment.
The Silent Way assumes that learners work with these resources and nothing else, as they are solely
responsible for what they learn. The teacher’s role is to guide students in the hypothesis-testing process
in which they are constantly engaged. (For a thorough discussion of the theories behind Gattegno’s
approach, see Gattegno 1975; Stevick 1980, 1990; and Richards and Rodgers 1986)
Stevick (1980) outlines five basic principles underlying the Silent Way:
1. Teaching should be subordinated to learning.
2. Learning is not primarily imitation or drill.
3. In learning, the mind equips itself by its own working, trial and error, deliberate
experimentations, suspending judgment, and revising conclusions.
4. As it works, the mind draws on everything it has already acquired, particularly its experience in
learning the native language.
5. If the teacher’s activity is to be subordinated to that of the learner, then the teacher must stop
trying to interfere and sidetrack that activity (p. 137)
Karambelas (1971) isolated the following techniques and principles tin the Silent Way:
1. Repeated modeling of utterances by the teacher is avoided because mimicry is not necessary. In
the Silent Easy, students way hear a given word only once, if at all. The teacher, as implied by
the name of the approach, remains essentially silent.
7
2. Material is never subjected to rote memorization. Rather, students become familiar with new
structures and recognize them through contextualized uses and practice.
3. Correction is seldom offered by the teacher, since learners are assumed to have developed their
own inner criteria of correctness and are capable of correcting their own errors.
4. Oral work is often followed by writing practice early on in instruction.
5. Whenever possible, the learner is made responsible for his or her own learning.
The method is perhaps best known for its use of colored rods, called Cuisenaire rods, for teaching the
basic structure of the language. A set of colored-coded phonetic and word charts is also essential to the
Silent Way classroom. As in the direct method, the target language is the exclusive language of
instruction.
It is difficult to make an assessment of the proficiency orientation or potential drawback of this method
without first having extensive experience using it. However, form my own limited experience in
observing Silent Way demonstration classes, it does seem that this method is oriented in several ways
towards proficiency goals. Because students are responsible for their own learning, they must pay close
attention and actively interact with other in class. Students use the language meaningfully and creatively,
within the limitations imposed by the vocabulary and structures of the lesson, as they are invited to
construct their own messages early in the learning sequence. The students’ attention is constantly being
directed to accuracy as they attempt to produce the language, and the students themselves, in cooperation
with the teacher, serve as monitors of their own output in a low-anxiety, cooperative atmosphere.
Potential Drawbacks
One of the drawbacks of this method is that learners do not work with authentic, culturally based
materials or hear authentic native speech, at least in the early phases of instruction. If students are to
develop a functional proficiency in the language, it would seem that they need ample opportunities to
hear native speakers using the language to cope with everyday situations they might encounter in the
target culture. The place of culture and culture-based language instruction is not clear form the literature
about the Silent Way. Richards and Rodgers 1986 explain that manuals for teachers re generally not
available and that the Silent Way teacher is responsible for designing and sequencing instruction (p. 107).
d. SUGGESTOPEDIA: TAPPING SUBCONSCIOUS RESOURCES
Background
This method, also known as Suggestive-Accelerative Learning and Teaching (SALT), and the Lozanov
Method, originated in Bulgaria. It was introduced by Georgi Lozanov (1978), a psychotherapist and
physician, who believes that relaxation techniques and concentration will help learners tap their
subconscious resources and retain greater amounts of vocabulary and structures than they ever thought
possible.
Hallmarks of the method include the “suggestive” atmosphere in which it takes place, with soft lights,
baroque music, cheerful room decorations, comfortable seating, and dramatic techniques used by the
teacher in the presentation of material. All of these features area aimed at totally relaxing student,
allowing them to open their minds to learning the language in an unencumbered fashion.
Chastain (1988) describes Suggestopedia as a holistic method that tried to direct learning to both the left
and right hemispheres of the brain. Learning should involve both analysis and synthesis at the same
8
time, using both the conscious and the unconscious mind. Because Lozanov sees anxiety as a hindrance
that severely limits learning potential, two teaching principles are proposed to break down the
sociopsychological constraints of traditional learning environments. The first principle is that of
infantilization, which is designed to help students recapture the kind of learning capacities they had as
children. The second is that of pseudopassivity, which refers to a relaxed physical state of heightened
mental activity and concentration (Chastain, 1988, p. 104). The general goal of the method is to enable
students to learn language in an atmosphere that is liberated from the restrictive influences that students
experience in more traditional classroom settings.
An instructional cycle consists of three parts, summarized below. This characterization is based on
Stevick (1980) and Bancroft (1982).
1. First, there is a review of the previously learned material, exclusively in the language, Games
and skits are often used for this purpose. Mechanistic practice is avoided.
2. Next, new material is presented in context through lengthy dialogues, which are introduced in
two “concert” phases. Prior to the concert phases, students listen to a guided imagery tape in
order to relax. This relaxation aspect is key element of the method (Bragger 1991). The dialogues
(ten of which are used in the first course) represent typical language-use situations inthe target
culture. The dialogues are constructed so to have continuity in plot and context throughout the
course. Characters in the dialogues are given names that rhyme and have a varietyof interesting
personalities and professions. In the activation phase (see Phase 3, below), students may adopt
the roles of these characters for language-practice activities.
In the activate concert, students listen to music as the teacher reads the dialogue lines, usually
one of a time. Students follow along in the book, with the target language text on the left side
of the page and the English equivalent on the right side. The teacher’s voice inflection changes
with the music. For example, the first line might be shouted, the second whispered, and the third
said in a normal voice. The tone of the presentations does not necessarily correspond with what
is being said, but is used simply to provide variety and contrast to increase the “suggestive”
quality of the presentation. Students listen to this dialogue while practicing controlled breathing
techniques to assure concentration.
During the passive concert, students listen to the reading of the text again, this time with eyes
closed. The dialogue is read at a normal rate of speech, accompanied by more baroque music.
The two concert phases are designed to allow students to absorb the new material at an
unconscious level.
3. After both concerts are finished, there is an eight-hour follow-up session on the new material,
called the activation phase. At this point, students engage in role-plays and practice activities to
“activate” the material they have learned in the concerts. When grammatical explanations are
needed, they are provided in the native language.
Some American adaptations of Suggestopedia include shorter class periods, larger class sizes, and
shortened forms of the active séances (see, for example, Bancroft 1982). Readers interested in more
detailed discussion of this method should consult Stevick 1980, Bancroft 1982, and Richards and
Rodgers 1986.
9
This method seems to have a variety of features that are helpful in the development of language
proficiency. The language is initially presented in context through dialogues that are culturally based.
Such texts based on everyday life give students models that can be used to develop functional proficiency
through role-play and other interactive language-practice activities. The method also addresses the
affective needs of students by providing a relaxed and nonthreatening atmosphere for learning. There
also seems to be an interest in the development of accuracy, as explanations are provided for grammatical
structures learned and the material is practiced and reviewed in Phases 1 and 3 of the instructional cycle.
Potential Drawbacks
One possible drawback with a dialogue-based approach is that the input material seems to be almost
exclusively pedagogically prepared. The use of authentic input material, both for reading comprehension
and for listening, seems somewhat limited, at least from descriptions of the method in the literature.
Perhaps the dialogue material is supplemented at some point with unedited, authentic presentation texts;
if not, this might be one way in which the Lozanov method could be adjusted to correspond more closely
to proficiency goals.
Chastain (1988) maintains that adapting Suggestopedia to the typical classroom situation “Presents huge
problems because Lozanov recommends implementation only in its original and complete format, which
does not fit the typical classroom schedule” (p. 103). The adaptation mentioned earlier (see Bancroft
1982) has attempted to address this difficulty.
10
Approaches and methods – an overview

Theory of Theory of Objectives Syllabus Activity Learner Teachers Roles of
language learning types roles roles materials
Language is a Memorization and To reach a practical A list of structures Repetition, To listen and Acts as a model in Relies on textbook
set of structures: habit formation. command of the four and vocabulary substitution drills; repeat respond to presenting and visual aids;
Situational Language
related to basic skills. graded according to avoid translation questions and structures; textbook contains
situations. Automatic, accurate grammatical and grammatical commands, orchestrates drill tightly organized,
Teaching
control of basic difficulty. explanation; learner has no practice; corrects structurally graded
sentence patterns. learners should control over error, test progress. lessons.
Oral before written never be allowed content; later
mastery. to make a mistake allowed to initiate
statements and
ask questions.
Language is a Habit formation, Control of the Graded syllabus of Dialogues and Organisms than Central and active Primarily teacher
Audiolingual
system of rule- skills are learned structures of sound, phonology, drills, repetition can be directed by teacher dominated oriented. Tapes
governed more effectively if form and order, morphology and and memorization skilled training method. Provides and visuals,
structures oral precedes mastery over syntax. Contrastive pattern practice. techniques to model, controls language lab often
hierarchically written; analogy not symbols of the analysis. produce correct direction and pace. used
arranged. analysis language responses
Language is a Activities involving Objectives will reflect Will include some/all Engage learners in Learners as Facilitator of the Primary role of
Communicative
system for the real communication; the needs of the of the following: communication; negotiator, communication promoting
expression of carrying out learner; they will structures, functions, involve process interactor, giving process participants’’ communicative
meaning: meaningful tasks: include functional notions, themes, such as as well as taking. tasks and texts, language use;
primary function and using language skills as well as tasks. Ordering will information needs analyst, task-based
interaction and which is meaningful linguistic objectives. be guided by learner sharing, counsellor, process materials;
communication. to the learner to needs. negotiation of manager. authentic.
promote learning meaning and
interaction.
Basically a L2 learning is the Teach oral Sentences-based Imperative drills to Listener and Active and direct role No basic test;
structuralist, same as L1 learning; proficiency to syllabus with elicit physical performer, little ‘the director of a materials and
grammar based comprehension produce learners grammatical and actions. influence over the stage play’ with media have an
Total Physical
Response
view of before production, is who can lexical criteria being content of learning students as actors. important role
language. “imprinted” through communicate primary, but focus on later. Initially voice,
carrying out uninhibitedly and meaning not form. action and
commands (right intelligibly with native gestures are
brain functioning) speakers. sufficient.
reduction of stress.
Each language is Processes of Near-native fluency, Basically structural Learner responses Learning is a Teachers must a) Unique materials:
compose of learning a second correct lessons planned to commands, process of teach b)test c) get colored rods, color-
elements that language are pronunciation, basic around grammatical questions and personal growth. out of the way. coded
give it a unique fundamentally practical knowledge items and related visual cues. Learners are Remain impassive. pronunciation and
The Silent Way
rhythm and spirit. different from L1 of the grammar of vocabulary. Items Activities responsible for Resist temptation to vocabulary and
Functional learning. L2 learning the L2. Lerner learn are introduced encourage and their own learning model, remodel, vocabulary charts.
vocabulary and is an intellectual, how to learn a according to their shape oral and must develop assist, direct exhort.
core structure cognitive process. language grammatical responses without independence
are a key to the Surrender to the complexity. grammatical autonomy and
spirit of the music of the explanation or responsibility.
language. language, silent modelling by
awareness then teacher.
active trial.
Language is Learning involves No specific No set syllabus. Combination of Learners are Counselling/parental No textbook, which
more than a the whole person. It objectives. Near Course progression innovative and members of a analogy. Teacher would inhibit
Community Language
system for is a social process of native mastery is the is topic-based; conventional. community. provides a safe growth. Materials
communication. growth from child- goal. learners provide the Translation, group Learning is not environment in which are developed as
Teaching
It involves whole like dependence to topics. Syllabus work, recording, viewed as an students can learn course progresses.
person, culture, self-direction and emerges from transcription, individual and grow.
educational, independence. learners’ intention reflection and accomplishment,
developmental and the teacher’s observation but something that
communicative reformulations. listening, free is achieved
processes. conversation. collaboratively.
The essence of There are two ways Designed to give Based on a selection Activities allowing Should not try and The teacher is the Materials come
language is of L2 language beginners and of communicative comprehensible learn language in primary source of from realia rather
The Natural Approach
meaning. development intermediate learners activities and topics input about things the usual sense, comprehensible than textbooks.
Vocabulary nor “acquisition” – a basic communicative derived from in the here-and- but should try and input. Must create Primary aim is to
grammar is the natural subconscious skills. Four broad learners needs. now. Focus on lose themselves in positive low-anxiety promote
heart of process, and areas: basic meaning not form. activities involving climate. Must choose comprehension
language. “learning” – a personal meaningful and orchestrate a and
conscious process. communicative skills communication. rich mixture of communication.
Learning cannot lead (oral/written); classroom activities.
to acquisition. academic learning
skills (oral/written)
Rather Learning occurs To deliver advanced Ten unit courses Initiatives, question Must maintain a To create situations Consists of texts,
conventional, through suggestion, conversational consisting of 1,200 and answer, role passive state and in which the learner tapes, classroom
Suggestopedia
although when learners are in competence quickly. word dialogues play, listening allow the materials is more suggestible fixtures and music.
memorization of a deeply relaxed Learners are graded by exercises under to work on them and present material Texts should have
whole state. Baroque music required to master vocabulary and deep relaxation. (rather than vice in a way most likely force, literary
meaningful texts is used to induce this prodigious lists of grammar. versa) to encourage quality and
is recommended state vocabulary pairs, positive reception interesting
although the goal is and retention. Must characters.
understanding not exclude authority
memorization. and confidence.
11
SESSION 2
WHAT IS COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING?
Perhaps the majority of language teachers today, when asked to identify the methodology they employ
in their classrooms, mention “communicative” as the methodology of choice. However, when pressed to
give a detailed account of what they mean by “communicative,” explanations vary widely. Does
communicative language teaching, or CLT, mean teaching conversation, an absence of grammar in a
course, or an emphasis on open-ended discussion activities as the main features of a course? What do
you understand by communicative language teaching?
Task 1
Which of the statements below do you think characterizes communicative language teaching?
People learn a language best when using it to do things rather than through studying how language works
and practicing rules.
• Grammar is no longer important in language teaching.
• People learn a language through communicating in it.
• Errors are not important in speaking a language.
• CLT is only concerned with teaching speaking.
• Classroom activities should be meaningful and involve real communication.
• Dialogs are not used in CLT.
• Both accuracy and fluency are goals in CLT.
• CLT is usually described as a method of teaching.
Communicative language teaching can be understood as a set of principles about the goals of language
teaching, how learners learn a language, the kinds of classroom activities that best facilitate learning, and
the roles of teachers and learners in the classroom. Let us examine each of these issues in turn.
The Goals of Language Teaching

Communicative language teaching sets as its goal the teaching of communicative competence. What does
this term mean? Perhaps we can clarify this term by first comparing it with the concept of grammatical
competence. Grammatical competence refers to the knowledge we have of a language that accounts for
our ability to produce sentences in a language. It refers to knowledge of the building blocks of sentences
(e.g., parts of speech, tenses, phrases, clauses, sentence patterns) and how sentences are formed.
Grammatical competence is the focus of many grammar practice books, which typically present a rule of
grammar on one page, and provide exercises to practice using the rule on the other page. The unit of
analysis and practice is typically the sentence. While grammatical competence is an importantdimension
of language learning, it is clearly not all that is involved in learning a language since one can master the
rules of sentenceformation inalanguageandstillnotbevery successful atbeingableto use the language for
meaningful communication. It is the latter capacity which is understood by the term communicative
competence.
Communicative competence includes the following aspects of language knowledge:

• Knowing how to uselanguage for a range of different purposes and functions
12
• Knowing how to vary our use of language according to the setting and the participants (e.g.,
knowing when to use formal and informalspeechorwhen to uselanguageappropriatelyforwritten
as opposed to spoken communication)
• Knowing how to produce and understand different types of texts (e.g., narratives, reports,
interviews, conversations)
• Knowing how to maintain communication despite having limitations in one’s language
knowledge (e.g., through using different kinds of communication strategies)
Consider the following sentences that are all requests for someone to open a door. Imagine that the context
is normal communication between two friends. Check if you think they conform to the rules of
grammatical competence (GC), communicative competence (CC), or both.
GC CC
Please open the door.
I want the door to be opened by you.
Would you be so terribly kind as to open the door for me?
Could you open the door?
To opening the door for me.
Would you mind opening the door?
The opening of the door is what I request.
How Learners Learn a Language

Our understanding of the processes of second language learning has changed considerably in the last 30
years and CLT is partly a response to these changes in understanding. Earlier views of language learning
focused primarily on the mastery of grammatical competence. Language learning was viewed as a process of
mechanical habit formation. Good habits are formed by having students produce correct sentences and
not through making mistakes. Errors were to be avoided through controlled opportunities for production
(either written or spoken). By memorizing dialogs and performing drills, the chances of making mistakes
wereminimized. Learningwasverymuchseen asunderthecontrol of the teacher.
In recent years, languagelearning hasbeen viewed from avery different perspective. It is seen as resulting
from processes such as:
■ Interaction between the learner and users of the language

■ Collaborative creation of meaning
■ Creating meaningful and purposeful interaction through language
■ Negotiation of meaning as the learner and his or her interlocutor arrive at understanding
■ Learning through attending to the feedback learners get when they use the language
■ Paying attention to the language one hears (the input) and trying to incorporate new forms into
one’s developing communicative competence
■ Tryingout and experimenting with different ways of saying things
13
The Kinds of Classroom Activities That Best Facilitate Learning

With CLT began a movement away from traditional lesson formats where the focus was on mastery of
different items of grammar and practice through controlled activities suchasmemorization of dialogsand
drills, and toward theuse ofpairworkactivities, roleplays, group workactivities and project work.
Task 3
Examine a classroom text, either a speaking text or a general English course book. Can you find examples
of exercises that practice grammatical competence and those that practice communicative competence?
Whichkindsof activities predominate?
The Roles of Teachers and Learners in the Classroom

The type of classroom activities proposed in CLT also implied new roles in the classroom for teachers
and learners. Learners now had to participate in classroomactivitiesthatwerebasedonacooperativerather
thanindividualistic approach to learning. Students had to become comfortable with listening to their peers
in group work or pair work tasks, rather than relying on the teacher for a model. They were expected to
take on a greater degree of responsibility for their own learning. And teachers now had to assume the role
of facilitator and monitor. Ratherthanbeingamodelforcorrect speechand writingandone withtheprimary
responsibility of making students produce plenty of error-free sentences, the teacher had to develop a
different view of learners’ errors and of her/his own role in facilitating language learning.
Task 4
What difficulties might students and teachers face because of changes in their roles in using a
communicative methodology?
The Background to CLT

In planning a language course, decisions have to be made about the content of the course, including
decisions about what vocabulary and grammar to teach at the beginning, intermediate, and advanced
levels, andwhichskillsand micro skills to teach and in what sequence. Decisions about these issues belong
to the field of syllabus design or course design. Decisions about how best to teach the contents of a
syllabus belong to the field of methodology.
Language teaching has seen many changes in ideas about syllabus design and methodology in the last 50
years, and CLT prompted a rethinking of approaches to syllabus design and methodology. We may
convenientlygroup trends in language teaching in the last 50 years into three phases:
Phase 1: traditional approaches (up to the late 1960s)

Phase 2: classic communicative language teaching (1970s to 1990s)
Phase 3: current communicative language teaching (late 1990s to the present)
Let us first consider the transition from traditional approaches to what we can refer to as classic
communicative language teaching.
14
Phase 1: Traditional Approaches (up to the late 1960s)

Traditional approaches to language teaching gave priority to grammatical competence as the basis of
language proficiency. They were based on the belief that grammar could be learned through direct
instruction and throughamethodology thatmademuchuseof repetitive practice and drilling. The approach
to the teaching of grammar was a deductive one: students are presented with grammar rules and then given
opportunities to practice using them, as opposed to an inductive approach in which students are given
examples of sentences containing a grammar rule and asked to work out the rule for themselves. It was
assumed that language learning meant building up a large repertoireofsentencesandgrammaticalpatterns
and learning to produce these accurately and quickly in the appropriate situation. Once a basic command
of the language was established through oral drilling and controlled practice, the fourskillswereintroduced,
usuallyinthesequenceofspeaking, listening, reading and writing.
Techniques that were often employed included memorization of dialogs, question-and-answer practice,
substitution drills, and various forms of guidedspeakingandwritingpractice. Great attention to accurate
pronunciation and accurate mastery of grammar was stressed from the very beginning stages
of language learning, since it was assumed that if students made errors, these would quickly become a
permanent part of the learner’s speech.
Task 5
Do you think drills or other forms of repetitive practice should play any role in language teaching?
Methodologies based on these assumptions include Audiolingualism (in North America) (also known as
the Aural-Oral Method), and the Structural-Situational Approach in the United Kingdom (also known as
Situational Language Teaching). Syllabuses during this period consisted of word lists and grammar lists,
graded across levels.
In a typical audiolingual lesson, the following procedures would be observed:
1. Students first hear a model dialog (either read by the teacher or on tape) containing key structures
that are the focus of the lesson. They repeat each line of the dialog, individually and in chorus.
The teacher pays attention to pronunciation, intonation, and fluency. Correction of mistakes of
pronunciation or grammar is direct andimmediate. Thedialog is memorized gradually, lineby line.
Alinemaybebrokendowninto several phrasesif necessary. The dialog is read aloud in chorus, one
half saying one speaker’s part and the other half responding. The students do not consult their
book throughout this phase.
2. The dialog is adapted to the students’ interest or situation, through changing certain key words or
phrases. This is acted out by the students.
3. Certainkey structures from thedialog areselected and used as the basis forpatterndrills of different
kinds. These are first practiced in chorus and then individually. Some grammatical explanation
may be offered at this point, but this is kept to an absolute minimum.
4. The students may refer to their textbook, and follow-up reading, writing, or vocabulary activities
based on the dialog may be introduced.
5. Follow-up activitiesmaytakeplaceinthelanguagelaboratory, where further dialog and drill work
is carried out.
(Richards and Rodgers 2001, 64–65)
In a typical lesson according to the situational approach, a three-phase sequence, known as the P-P-Pcycle,
wasoftenemployed: Presentation, Practice, and Production.
Presentation: The new grammar structure is presented, often by means of a conversation or short text.
The teacher explains the new structure and checks students’ comprehension of it.
15
Practice: Students practice using the new structure in a controlled context, through drills or substitution
exercises.
Production: Students practice using the new structure in different contexts, often using their
own content or information, in order to develop fluency with the new pattern.
The P-P-P lesson structure has been widely used in language teaching materials and continues in modified
form to be used today. Many speaking- or grammar-based lessons in contemporary materials, for example,
begin with an introductory phase in which new teaching points are presented and illu stratedin somewayand
where the focus is on comprehension and recognition. Examples of the new teaching point are given in
different contexts. This is often followed by a second phase in which the students practice using the new
teaching point in a controlled context using content often provided by the teacher. The third phase is a
free practice period during which students try out the teaching point in a free context and in which real or
simulated communication is the focus.
The P-P-P lesson format and the assumptions on which it is based have been strongly criticized in recent
years, however. Skehan (1996, p.18), for example, comments:
✓ The underlying theory for a P-P-P approach has now been discredited. The belief that a precise
focus on a particular form leads to learning and automatization (that learners will learn what is
taught in the order in which it is taught) no longer carries much credibility in linguistics or
psychology.
✓ Under the influence of CLT theory, grammar-based methodologies such as the P-P-P have given
way to functional and skills-based teaching, and accuracy activities such as drill and grammar
practice havebeenreplaced byfluency activities based on interactive small-group work. This led to
theemergence of a “fluency-first” pedagogy (Brumfit 1984) in which students’ grammar needs
are determined on the basis of performance on fluency tasks rather than predetermined by a
grammatical syllabus. We can distinguish two phases in this development, which we will call
classic communicative language teaching and current communicative language teaching.
Phase 2: Classic Communicative Language Teaching (1970s to 1990s)

In the 1970s, a reaction to traditional language teaching approaches began and soon spread around the
world as older methods such as Audiolingualism and Situational Language Teaching fell out of fashion.
The centrality of grammar in language teaching and learning was questioned, since it was argued that
language ability involved much more than grammatical competence. While grammatical competence
was needed to produce grammatically correct sentences, attention shifted to the knowledge and skills
needed to use grammar and other aspects of language appropriately for different communicative purposes
such as making requests, giving advice, making suggestions, describing wishes and needs, and so on. What
was needed in order to use language communicatively was communicative competence. This was a
broader concept than that of grammatical competence, and as we saw in Chapter 1, included knowing what
to say and how to say it appropriately based on the situation, the participants, and their roles and intentions.
Traditional grammatical, vocabulary syllabuses,andteachingmethodsdidnotincludeinformationofthiskind.
It was assumed that this kind of knowledge would be picked up informally.
The notion of communicative competence was developed within the discipline of linguistics, (or more
accurately, the sub-discipline of sociolinguistics) and appealed to many within the language teaching
profession,whoarguedthat communicative competence, and not simply grammatical competence, should be the
goal of language teaching. The next question to be solved was, what would a syllabus that reflected the
notion of communicative competence look like and whatimplications would it haveforlanguage teaching
methodology?Theresult wascommunicativelanguageteaching.Communicativelanguageteachingcreated
16
a great deal of enthusiasm and excitement when it first appeared as a new approach to language teaching
in the 1970s and 1980s, and languageteachers and teaching institutions all around the world soon began
to rethink their teaching, syllabuses, and classroom materials. In planning language courses within a
communicative approach, grammar was no longer the starting point. New approaches to language
teaching were needed.
Rather than simply specifying the grammar and vocabulary learners needed to master, it was argued that
a syllabus should identify the following aspects of language use in order to be able to develop the learner’s
communicative competence:
1. As detailed a consideration as possible of the purposes for which the learner wishes to acquire the
target language; for example, using English for business purposes, in the hotel industry, or for
travel
2. Some idea of the setting in which they will want to use the target language; for example, in an
office, on an airplane, or in astore
3. The socially defined role the learners will assume in the target language, as well as the role of
their interlocutors; for example, as a traveler, as a salesperson talking to clients, or as a student in a
school
4. The communicative events in whichthe learners willparticipate: everyday situations, vocational
or professional situations, academic situations, and so on; for example, making telephone calls,
engaging in casual conversation, or taking part in a meeting
5. The language functions involved in those events, or what the learner will be able to do with or
through the language; forexample, makingintroductions, givingexplanations, or describing plans
6. The notions or concepts involved, or what the learner will need to be able to talk about; for
example, leisure, finance, history, religion
7. The skills involved in the “knitting together” of discourse: discourse and rhetorical skills; for
example, storytelling, giving an effective business presentation
8. The variety or varieties of the target language that will be needed, such as American, Australian,
or British English, and the levels in thespoken and written language whichthelearners will need to
reach
9. The grammatical content that will be needed
10. The lexical content, or vocabulary, that will be needed (van Ek and Alexander 1980)
Phase 3: Current communicative language teaching

This led to two important new directions in the 1970s and 1980s – proposals for a communicative
syllabus, and the ESP movement.
Classroom Activities in Communicative Language Teaching

Since the advent of CLT, teachers and materials writers have sought to find ways of developing classroom
activities that reflect the principles of a communicative methodology. This quest has continued to the
present, as we shall see later in the booklet. The principles on which the first generation of CLT materials
are still relevant to languageteachingtoday, so in thischapter wewillbrieflyreview the main activity types
that were one of the outcomes of CLT.
Accuracy versus Fluency Activities

One of the goals of CLT is to develop fluency in language use. Fluency is natural language use occurring
when a speaker engages in meaningful interaction and maintains comprehensible and ongoing
communication despite limitations in his or her communicative competence. Fluency is developed by
17
creating classroom activities in which students must negotiate meaning, use communica tion strategies, correct
misunderstandings, and work to avoid communication breakdowns.
Fluency practice can be contrasted with accuracy practice, which focuses on creating correct examples
of language use. Differences between activities that focus on fluency and those that focus on accuracy
can be summarized as follows:
Activities focusing on fluency
■ Reflect natural use of language
■ Focus on achieving communication
■ Require meaningful use of language
■ Require the use of communication strategies
■ Produce language that may not be predictable
■ Seek to link language use to context
Activities focusing on accuracy

■ Reflect classroom use of language
■ Focus on the formation of correct examples of language
■ Practice language out of context
■ Practice small samples of language
■ Do not require meaningful communication
■ Control choice of language
Task 6
Canyougiveexamplesoffluencyandaccuracyactivities that you use in your teaching?
The following are examples of fluency activities and accuracy activities. Both make use of group work,
reminding us that group work is not necessarily a fluency task (see Brumfit 1984).
Fluency Tasks
Agroupofstudentsofmixedlanguageabilitycarryoutaroleplayin whichtheyhave to adoptspecifiedroles and
personalities provided for them on cue cards. These roles involve the drivers, witnesses, and the policeat a
collision between two cars. The language is entirely improvised by the students, though they are
heavilyconstrained by the specified situation and characters.
The teacher and a student act out a dialog in which a customer returns a faulty object she has purchased
to a department store. The clerk asks what the problem is and promises to get a refund for the customer or
to replace the item. In groups, students now try to recreate the dialog using language items of their choice.
They are asked to recreate what happened preserving the meaning but not necessarily the exact language.
They later act out their dialogs in front of the class.
Accuracy Tasks
Students are practicing dialogs. The dialogs contain examples of falling intonation in Wh-questions. The
class is organized in groups of three, two students practicing the dialog, and the third playing the role of
monitor. The monitor checks that the others are using the correct intonation pattern and corrects them
where necessary. The students rotate their roles between those reading the dialog and those monitoring.
The teacher moves around listening to the groups and correcting their language where necessary.
Students in groups of three or four complete an exercise on a grammatical item, such as choosing between
the past tense and the presentperfect, anitem whichtheteacher haspreviouslypresented and practiced as a
18
whole class activity. Together students decide which grammatical form is correct and they complete the
exercise. Groups take turns reading out their answers.
Teachers were recommended to use a balance of fluency activities and accuracy and to use accuracy
activities to support fluency activities. Accuracy work could either come before or after fluency work.
For example, based on students’ performance onafluencytask, theteachercouldassignaccuracy work to
dealwithgrammatical orpronunciationproblems the teacher observed while studentswerecarrying out the
task. An issue that arises with fluency work, however, is whether it develops fluency at the expense of
accuracy. In doing fluency tasks, the focus is on getting meanings across using any available communicative
resources. This often involves a heavy dependence on vocabulary and communication strategies, and
there is little motivation to use accurate grammar or pronunciation. Fluency work thus requires extra
attention on the part of the teacher in terms of preparing students for a fluency task, or follow-up activities
that provide feedback on language use.
While dialogs, grammar, and pronunciation drills did not usually disappear from textbooks and classroom
materials at this time, they now appeared as part of a sequence of activities that moved back and forth
between accuracy activities and fluency activities.
And the dynamics of classrooms also changed. Instead of a predominance of teacher-fronted teaching,
teachers were encouraged to make greater use of small-group work. Pair and group activities gave learners
greateropportunities to use the language and to develop fluency.
Mechanical, Meaningful, and Communicative Practice

Another useful distinction that some advocates of CLT proposed was the distinctionamong threedifferent
kindsofpractice– mechanical, meaningful, and communicative.
Mechanical practice refers to a controlled practice activity which students can successfully carry out
without necessarily understanding the language they are using. Examples of this kind of activity would be
repetition drills and substitution drills designed to practice use of particular grammatical or other items.
Meaningful practice refers to an activity where language control is still provided but where students are
required to makemeaningful choiceswhencarryingout practice. For example, in order to practice the use
of prepositions to describe locations of places, students might be given a street map with various buildings
identified in different locations. They are also given a list of prepositions such as across from, on the
corner of, near, on, next to. They then have to answer questions such as “Where is the book shop? Where
is the café?” etc. The practice is now meaningful because they have to respond according to the location
of places on the map.
Communicative practice refers to activities where practice in using language within a real
communicative context is the focus, where real information is exchanged, andwherethelanguageused is
not totally predictable. For example, students might have to draw a map of their neighborhood and answer
questions about the location of different places, such as the nearest bus stop, the nearest café, etc.
Exercise sequences in many CLT course books take students from mechanical, to meaningful, to
communicative practice. The following exercise, for example, is found in Passages 2 (Richards and
Sandy 1998).
19
Superlative adjectives
Superlative adjectives usually appear before the noun they modify.
The funniest person I know is my friend Bob.

The most caring individual in our school is the custodian. They can also occur with the
noun they modify
Of all the people in my family, my Aunt Ruth is the kindest. Of all my professors, Dr.
Lopez is the most inspiring.
Superlatives are often followed by relative clauses in the present perfect.
My cousin Anita is the most generous person I’ve ever met.

The closest friend I’ve ever had is someone I met in elementary school.
Complete these sentences with your own information, and add more details. Then compare with a partner.
1. One of the most inspiring people I’ve ever known is …
One of the most inspiring people I’ve ever known is my math teacher. She encourages students to think rather
than just memorize formulas and rules.
2. The most successful individual I know is …
3. Of all the people I know …. is the least self-centered.
4. The youngest person who I consider to be a hero is …
5. The most moving speaker I have ever heard is …
6.
7. Of all the friends I’ve ever had …. is the most understanding.
8. One of the bravest things I’ve ever done is …
Use the superlative form of these adjectives to describe people you know. Write at least five sentences.
brave honest interesting smart generous inspire ing kind witty
Group work
Discuss the sentences you wrote in Exercises A and B. Ask each other follow-up questions.
What did your neighbor do, exactly?

D. She’s a firefighter, and once she saved a child from a burning building …
If students read and practice aloud the sentences in the grammar box, this constitutes mechanical practice.
Exercises A and B can be regarded as meaningful practice since students now complete the sentences with
their own information. Exercise C is an example of communicative practice since it is an open-ended
discussion activity.
Task 7
Examine the activities in one unit of a course book. Can you find examples of activities that provide
mechanical, meaningful, andcommunicative practice? Whattypeof activities predominate?
Thedistinctionbetweenmechanical, meaningful, andcommunicative activities is similar to that given by

Littlewood (1981), who groups activities into two kinds:
Pre-communicative activities Communicative activities

Structuralactivities Functional communication activities
Quasi-communicative activities Social interactional activities
Functional communication activities require students to use their language resources to overcome an
information gap or solve a problem (see below). Social interactional activities require the learner to pay
attention to the context and the roles of the people involved, and to attend to such things as formal versus
informal language.
20
Information-Gap Activities
An important aspect of communication in CLT is the notion of information gap. This refers to the fact
that in real communication, people normally communicate in order to get information they do not
possess. This is known as an information gap. More authentic communication is likely to occur in the
classroom if students go beyond practice of language forms for their own sake and usetheirlinguistic
and communicative resources in order to obtain information. In so doing, they will draw available
vocabulary, grammar, and communication strategies to complete a task. The following exercises make
use of the information-gap principle:
Students are divided into A-B pairs. The teacher has copied two sets of pictures. One set (for A
students) contains a picture of a group of people. The other set (for B students) contains a similar picture
but it contains a number of slight differences from the A-picture. Students must sit back to back and ask
questions to try to find out how many differences there are between the two pictures.
Students practice a role play in pairs. One student is given the information she/he needs to play the
part of a clerk in the railway station information booth and has information on train departures, prices,
etc. The other needs to obtain information on departure times, prices, etc. They role-play the
interaction without looking at each other’s cue cards.
Jigsaw activities
These are also based on the information-gap principle. Typically, the class is divided into groupsand
each group has part of the information needed to complete an activity. The class must fit the pieces
together to complete the whole. In so doing, they must use their language resources to communicate
meaning- fullyand so takepartinmeaningful communication practice. Thefollowing are examples of
jigsaw activities:
• The teacher plays a recording in which three people with different points of view discuss
their opinions on a topic of interest. The teacher prepares three different listening tasks, one
focusing on each of the three speaker’s points of view. Students are divided into three groups
andeachgrouplistensandtakes notes on one of the three speaker’s opinions. Students are then
rearranged into groups containing a student from groups A, B, and C. They now role-play the
discussion using the information they obtained.
• The teacher takes a narrative and divides it into twenty sections (or as many sections as there
are students in the class). Each student gets one section of the story. Students must then move
around the class, and by listening to each section read aloud, decide where in the story their
section belongs. Eventually the students have to put the entire story together in the correct
sequence.
Other Activity Types in CLT

Many other activity types have been used in CLT, including the following:
Task-completion activities: puzzles, games, map-reading, and other kinds of classroom tasks in
which the focus is on using one’s language resources to complete a task.
Information-gathering activities: student-conducted surveys, interviews, and searches in which
students are required to use their linguistic resources to collect information.
Opinion-sharing activities: activities in which students compare values, opinions, orbeliefs, suchas
a ranking task in which students list six qualities in order of importance that they might consider in
choosing a date or spouse.
Information-transfer activities: These require learners to take information that is presented in one
form, and represent it in a different form. For example, they may read instructions on how to get from
21
A to B, and then draw a map showing the sequence, or they may read information about a subject and
then represent it as a graph.
Reasoning-gap activities: These involve deriving some new information from given information
through the process of inference, practical reasoning, etc. For example, working out a teacher’s
timetable on the basis of given class timetables.
Roleplays: activities in which students are assigned roles and improvise a scene or exchange based on
given information or clues.
Emphasis on Pair and Group Work

Most of the activities discussed above reflect an important aspect of classroom tasks in CLT, namely that
they are designed to be carried out in pairs or small groups. Through completing activities in this way,
it is argued, learners will obtain several benefits:
■ They canlearn from hearing the language used by other members of the group.
■ They will produce a greater amount of language than they would use in teacher-
fronted activities.
■ Their motivational level is likely to increase.
■ They will have the chance to develop fluency.
Teaching and classroom materials today consequently make use of a wide variety of small-group
activities.
Task 8
Whataresomeadvantages andlimitationsofpairand group work in the language classroom?
22
SESSION 3
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE
While communicative competence (CC) has come to capture a multiplicity of meanings depending on
who you ask, it is nevertheless a useful phrase. In its skeletal form CC consists of some combination of
the following components (Bachman 1990, Canale & Swain 1980):
• organizational competence (grammatical and discourse)

• pragmatic competence (functional and sociolinguistic)
• strategic competence
• psychomotor skill (pronunciation)
The array of studies on CC provides what is perhaps the most important linguistic principle of learning
and teaching:
Given that communicative competence is the goal of a language classroom,

instruction needs to point toward all its components: organizational, pragmatic,
strategic, and psychomotor. Communicative goals are best achieved by giving
due attention to language use and not just usage, to fluency and not just
accuracy, to authentic language and contexts, and to student’s eventual need to
apply classroom learning to previously unrehearsed context in the real world.
It is important to note that the CC principle still has a bit of a reactionist flavor reacting to other
paradigms that emphasized attention to grammatical forms, to “correct” language above all, to artificial,
contrived language and techniques in the classroom, and to a finite repertoire of language forms and
functions that might not have lent themselves to application in the world outside the classroom. But since
most of our language-teaching generalizations are, after all, at least partially conceived against the backdrop
of previous practices, such a statement can stand as a reasonably accurate description of our current
understanding of CC.
To attempt to list all the applications of such a principle to the language classroom would be an
exhaustive endeavor! Many such applications will become evident in later chapters of this book. But for
the sake of closure and simplicity, consider the following six classroom teaching “rules” that might emerge:
1. Remember that grammatical explanations or drills or exercises are only part of a lesson or curriculum;
give grammar some attention, but don’t neglect the other important components (e.g., functional,
sociolinguistic, psychomotor, and strategic) of CC.
2. Some of the pragmatic (functional and sociolinguistic) aspects of language are very subtle and
therefore very difficult. Make sure your lessons aim to teach such subtlety.
3. In your enthusiasm for teaching functional and sociolinguistic aspects of language, can’t forget that
the psychomotor skills (pronunciation) are an important component of both. Intonation alone conveys
a great deal of pragmatic information.
23
4. Make sure that your students have opportunities to gain some fluency in English without having to be
constantly wary of little mistakes. They can work on errors some other time.
5. Try to keep every technique that you use as authentic as possible: use language that students will
actually encounter in the real world and provide genuine, not rote, techniques for the actual conveyance
of information of interest.
6. Someday your students will no longer be in your classroom. Make sure you are preparing them to be
independent learners and manipulators of language “out there.”
There twelve principles that have just been reviewed are some of the major foundation stones for teaching
practice. While they are not by any means exhaustive, they can act for you as major theoretical insights on
which your techniques and lessons and curricula con be based.
I hope you have gained from this discussion the value of undergirding your teaching with sound principles
that help you to understand why you choose to do something in the classroom: What kinds of questions to
ask yourself before the fact about what you are doing, how to monitor yourself while you are teaching, how
to assess after the fact the effectiveness of what you did, and then how to modify what you will do the next
time around.
If a language learner is asked what they think the goal of a language course is, they would probably answer
that it is to teach the grammar and vocabulary of that language. However, if they are asked what their goal
is as language learners, they would most probably answer that it is to be able to communicate in that
language.
I am not saying that in actuality the goal of a language course is to teach solely grammar and vocabulary -
well, at least it shouldn’t be just that anymore. (I’ve been in a course with such an outdated approach, and
the results were, of course, poor). Fortunately, the focus of second language teaching has moved from purely
teaching grammar and vocabulary, to providing the skills for effective communication. In linguistics
terminology, a language course should not only have “linguistic competence” as its goal, but
“communicative competence” in general.
But what do these terms mean? Communicative competence is a term coined by Dell Hymes in 1966 in
reaction to Noam Chomsky’s (1965) notion of “linguistic competence”. Communicative competence is the
intuitive functional knowledge and control of the principles of language usage. As Hymes observes:
“…a normal child acquires knowledge of sentences not only as grammatical, but also as appropriate. He
or she acquires competence as to when to speak, when not, and as to what to talk about with whom, when,
where, in what manner. In short, a child becomes able to accomplish a repertoire of speech acts, to take
part in speech events, and to evaluate their accomplishment by others.” (Hymes 1972, 277)
In other words, a language user needs to use the language not only correctly (based on linguistic
competence), but also appropriately (based on communicative competence). Of course, this approach does
not diminish the importance of learning the grammatical rules of a language. In fact, it is one of the four
components of communicative competence: linguistic, sociolinguistic, discourse, and strategic competence.
24
1. Linguistic competence is the knowledge of the language code, i.e. its grammar and vocabulary, and of
the conventions of its written representation (script and orthography). The grammar component includes
the knowledge of the sounds and their pronunciation (i.e. phonetics), the rules that govern sound
interactions and patterns (i.e. phonology), the formation of words by means of e.g. inflection and
derivation (i.e. morphology), the rules that govern the combination of words and phrases to structure
sentences (i.e. syntax), and the way that meaning is conveyed through language (i.e. semantics).
2. Sociolinguistic competence is the knowledge of sociocultural rules of use, i.e. knowing how to use and
respond to language appropriately. The appropriateness depends on the setting of the communication,
the topic, and the relationships among the people communicating. Moreover, being appropriate depends
on knowing what the taboos of the other culture are, what politeness indices are used in each case, what
the politically correct term would be for something, how a specific attitude (authority, friendliness,
courtesy, irony etc.) is expressed etc.
3. Discourse competence is the knowledge of how to produce and comprehend oral or written texts in the
modes of speaking/writing and listening/reading respectively. It’s knowing how to combine language
structures into a cohesive and coherent oral or written text of different types. Thus, discourse
competence deals with organizing words, phrases and sentences in order to create conversations,
speeches, poetry, email messages, newspaper articles etc.
4. Strategic competence is the ability to recognize and repair communication breakdowns before, during,
or after they occur. For instance, the speaker may not know a certain word, thus will plan to either
paraphrase, or ask what that word is in the target language. During the conversation, background noise
or other factors may hinder communication; thus the speaker must know how to keep the communication
channel open. If the communication was unsuccessful due to external factors (such as interruptions), or
due to the message being misunderstood, the speaker must know how to restore communication. These
strategies may be requests for repetition, clarification, slower speech, or the usage of gestures, taking
turns in conversation etc.
These four components of communicative competence should be respected in teaching a foreign language
and they usually are by modern teaching methods employed in second language teaching. Usually most of
the above are best learned if the language learner immerses into the culture of a country that speaks the
target language. Wouldn’t it be great if the language teaching methodologies helped language learners
reach communicative competence to a great degree even if the learner has never immersed into the target
culture?
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN THE LIGHT OF

COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH
Since its appearance in late 1960s, Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) has been widely
applied in language teaching. This method’s goal is to aim at teaching ‘Communicative Competence’
including not only grammatical competence but also socio-linguistic, disclosure, and strategic
competence.
As mentioned above, CLT’s goal is to help learners achieve communicative competence, which caught a
lot of scholars’ attention. The concept of “communicative competence” was first introduced by Hymes in
1972 in response to Chomsky’s concept of grammatical competence and continued to be developed by
25
Canale and Swain (1980),Canale (1983) etc.(cited, 2008, p29). Here are four components of communicative
competence classified by Savignon 1972, 1983, 1987; Canale and Swain 1980; Canale 1983; Byram1997
Grammatical competence refers to sentence-level grammatical forms, the ability to recognize the lexical,
morphological, syntactical and phonological features of a language and to make use of those features to
interpret and form words and sentences. One demonstrates grammatical competence not by stating a rule
but by using a rule in the interpretation, expression, or negotiation of meaning.
Discourse competence is concerned not with isolated words or phrases but with the interconnectedness of
a series of utterances or written words or phrases to form a text, a meaningful whole. The text might be a
poem, an e-mail message, a sportscast, a telephone conversation, or a novel. Discourse competence is also
the knowledge of rules regarding the cohesion (grammatical links) and coherence (appropriate combination
of communicative functions) of various types of discourse ( e.g., use of appropriate pronouns, synonyms,
conjunctions, substitution, repetition, making of congruity and continuity, topic-comment sequence, etc.)
Socio-cultural competence is the mastery of socio-cultural rules of appropriate use of the second language;
that is, how utterances are produced and understood in different socio-linguistic contexts (e.g.,
understanding of speech act conventions, awareness of norms of stylistic appropriateness, the use of a
language to signal social relationships, etc.)
Strategic competence is the mastery of verbal and nonverbal communication strategies in second language
used when attempting to compensate for deficiencies in the grammatical and socio-linguistic competence
or to enhance the effectiveness of communication (e.g. paraphrasing how to address others when uncertain
of their relative social status, slow speech for rhetorical effect, etc.) (as cited in Savignon, S.J, 2002, p 9-
10)
Later on, Celce-Murcia et al (1995) added one more aspect of communicative competence, which is known
as “Actional Competence”. Actional competence is defined as the ability to match actional intent with
linguistic form based on the knowledge of language functions and knowledge of speech act sets.( To, 2009,
p40)The chronological evolution of Celce- Murcia et al’s model can be seen in the following diagram:
26
Carnale& Swain Carnale Celce-Murcia,

Dornyeiand Thurrell
1980 1983 (1995)
Although there are some differences in the way different scholars classified communicative competence,
all of them always consider discourse competence is the core of communicative competence.
For the sake of clarity and consistency, we will refer to Celce-Murcia et al's (1995) classification whenever
the term ‘communicative competence’ is mentioned. In sum, only gaining linguistic competence cannot
fulfill the goal of CLT method. Therefore, teaching English in general, teaching speaking in particular need
to help students gain all of the five aspects of communicative competence under the light of the
communicative approach.
.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.
27
METHODOLOGY
COURSE
MODULE I

TEACHING
II WEEK
1. Integrated approaches TBL & CBI
2. Problem based learning – PBL
3. Project based learning
28
SESSION 1
INTEGRATED SKILLS
One image for teaching English as a second or foreign language (ESL / EFL) is that of a tapestry. The
tapestry is woven from many strands, such as the characteristics of the teacher, the learner, the setting, and
the relevant languages (i.e., English and the native languages of the learners and the teacher). For the
instructional loom to produce a large, strong, beautiful, colorful tapestry, all of these strands must be
interwoven in positive ways. For example, the instructor’s teaching style must address the learning style of
the learner, the learner must be motivated, and the setting must provide resources and values that strongly
support the teaching of the language. However, if the strands are not woven together effectively, the
instructional loom is likely to produce something small, weak, ragged, and pale—not recognizable as a
tapestry at all.
In addition to the four strands mentioned above—teacher, learner, setting, and relevant languages—other
important strands exist in the tapestry. In a practical sense, one of the most crucial of these strands consists
of the four primary skills of listening, reading, speaking, and writing. This strand also includes associated
or related skills such as knowledge of vocabulary, spelling, pronunciation, syntax, meaning, and usage. The
skill strand of the tapestry leads to optimal ESL / EFL communication when the skills are interwoven during
instruction. This is known as the integrated-skill approach.
If this weaving together does not occur, the strand consists merely of discrete, segregated skills— parallel
threads that do not touch, support, or interact with each other. This is sometimes known as the segregated-
skill approach. Another title for this mode of instruction is the language-based approach, because the
language itself is the focus of instruction (language for language’s sake). In this approach, the emphasis is
not on learning for authentic communication.
By examining segregated-skill instruction, we can see the advantages of integrating the skills and move
toward improving teaching for English language learners.
SEGREGATED-SKILL INSTRUCTION
In the segregated-skill approach, the mastery of discrete language skills such as reading and speaking is
seen as the key to successful learning, and language learning is typically separate from content learning
(Mohan, 1986). This is contrary to the integrated way that people use language skills in normal
communication, and it clashes with the direction in which language teaching experts have been moving in
recent years.
Skill segregation is reflected in traditional ESL / EFL programs that offer classes focusing on segregated
language skills. Why do they offer such classes? Perhaps teachers and administrators think it is logistically
easier to present courses on writing divorced from speaking, or on listening isolated from reading. They
may believe that it is instructionally impossible to concentrate on more than one skill at a time.
Even if it were possible to fully develop one or two skills in the absence of all the others, such an approach
would not ensure adequate preparation for later success in academic communication, career-related
29
language use, or everyday interaction in the language. An extreme example is the grammar-translation
method, which teaches students to analyze grammar and to translate (usually in writing) from one language
to another. This method restricts language learning to a very narrow, non-communicative range that does
not prepare students to use the language in everyday life.
Frequently, segregated-skill ESL / EFL classes present instruction in terms of skill-linked learning
strategies: reading strategies, listening strategies, speaking strategies, and writing strategies (see Peregoy &
Boyle, 2001). Learning strategies are strategies that students employ, most often consciously, to improve
their learning. Examples are guessing meaning based on context, breaking a sentence or word down into
parts to understand the meaning, and practicing the language with someone else.
Very frequently, experts demonstrate strategies as though they were linked to only one particular skill, such
as reading or writing (e.g., Peregoy & Boyle, 2001). However, it can be confusing or misleading to believe
that a given strategy is associated with only one specific language skill. Many strategies, such as paying
selective attention, self-evaluating, asking questions, analyzing, synthesizing, planning, and predicting, are
applicable across skill areas (see Oxford, 1990). Common strategies help weave the skills together.
Teaching students to improve their learning strategies in one skill area can often enhance performance in
all language skills (Oxford, 1996).
Fortunately, in many instances where an ESL or EFL course is labeled by a single skill, the segregation of
language skills might be only partial or even illusory. If the teacher is creative, a course bearing a discrete-
skill title might actually involve multiple, integrated skills. For example, in a course on intermediate
reading, the teacher probably gives all of the directions orally in English, thus causing students to use their
listening ability to understand the assignment. In this course, students might discuss their readings, thus
employing speaking, listening skills, and certain associated skills, such as pronunciation, syntax, and social
usage. Students might be asked to summarize or analyze readings in written form, thus activating their
writing skills. In a real sense, then, some courses that are labeled according to one specific skill might
actually reflect an integrated-skill approach after all.
The same can be said for ESL / EFL textbooks. A particular series might highlight certain skills in one book
or another, but all the language skills might nevertheless be present in the tasks in each book. In this way,
students have the benefit of practicing all the language skills in an integrated, natural, communicative way,
even if one skill is the main focus of a given volume.
CONTENT BASED INSTRUCTION (CBI)

In contrast to segregated-skill instruction, both actual and apparent, there are at least two forms of
instruction that are clearly oriented toward integrating the skills.
Content Based Instruction (CBI) is a teaching approach that focuses on learning language through
learning about something. Although CBI is not new, there has been an increased interest in it because it has
proven very effective in ESL and EFL programs around the world.
Content-Based Instruction (CBI) is “an approach to second language teaching in which teaching is
organized around the content or information that students will acquire, rather than around a linguistic or
30
other type of syllabus” (Richards & Rodgers, 2001, p.204). In other words, CBI involves integrating the
learning of language with the learning of content simultaneously; here, content typically means academic
subject matter such as math, science, or social studies. In CBI, the language is utilized as the medium for
teaching subject content (Mohan, 1986). The language learning objectives are achieved through content
learning. The syllabi in most CBI courses are derived from content areas, and vary widely in detail and
format. In a word, CBI is a method of teaching language and content in tandem.
CBI requires better language teachers. Language teachers must be knowledgeable in content areas and be
able to elicit knowledge from students. In addition, language teachers have such responsibility as to keep
context and comprehensibility foremost in their instruction, to select and adapt authentic materials for use
in class, to provide scaffolding for students’ linguistic content learning, and to create learner-centered
classrooms (Stryker & Leaver, 1993).
CBI requires better learners as well. Students are hypothesized to become autonomous and independent in
CBI, so that they are conscious of their own learning process and can take charge of their learning.
Furthermore, students are expected to support each other in collaborative modes of learning. Finally,
students need to make commitment to this new approach to language learning (Stryker & Leaver, 1993).
Typically, the materials in CBI are used with the subject matter of the content course. It is recommended
that “authentic” materials are identified and utilized. There are two implications of authenticity. One
implication is that the materials are similar to those used in native-language instruction; the other relates to
the use of newspaper and magazine articles and any other media materials “that were not originally
produced for language teaching purposes” (Brinton et al., 1989). Many CBI practitioners (Richards &
Rodgers, 2001) also recommend some realia, such as tourist guidebooks, technical journals, railway
timetables, newspaper ads, or TV broadcasts.
CBI in language teaching has been widely used in a variety of different settings since 1980s such as English
as Specific Purpose (ESP) Programs for Students with limited English Proficiency (SLEP), Language for
Specific Purposes (LSP), immersion programs, and ESL/EFL Language Programs. Since CBI refers to an
approach rather than a method, no specific techniques or activities are associated with it. At the level of
procedure, teaching materials and activities are selected according to the extent to which they match the
type of program. Finally, CBI provides the opportunity for teachers to match students’ interests and needs
with interesting, comprehensible, and meaningful content (Brinton et al., 1989).
WHAT IS CONTENT BASED INSTRUCTION?

Content-based teaching differs from traditional language classes because language comes second to the
content. In other words, the teacher runs a course on current affairs, or American history, or fiction writing,
through which students also learn English. It is important to note that English ends up as subordinate to the
material, although the teacher must recognize and be prepared to help students with language skills.
TYPES OF CONTENT BASED INSTRUCTION:

• The Sheltered Model: It is used at university where the goal of teachers is to enable their ESL
students to study the same content material as regular English L1 students. Sheltered CBI is called
“sheltered” because learners are given special assistance to help them understand regular classes.
31
• The Adjunct Model: Undertaken by ESL teachers. The aim of Adjunct classes is to prepare students
for “mainstream” classes where they will join English L1 learners.
• The Theme Based Model: These classes can be taught by EFL teachers who create content material
based on the needs and interests of the students. Other types of teaching may fall within the realm
of CBI. English for Specific Purposes and Task based instruction are both examples of CBI.
CONTENT BASED LESSON:

Because of the nature of the content, all four skills get integrated. It’s important to note that the content
continues through the whole course, not just a handful of lessons. A course on shopping one day, using the
bank on another day, and making hotel reservations in English at a different class session is an example of
a CBI class.
An example of CBI lesson can be approached following these steps:
1. PREPARATION
• A subject of interest is chosen.
• Finding suitable sources that deal with different aspects of the subject. These could be websites,
reference books, audio or video of lectures or even real people.
2. THE LESSON
• Using small groups
• Assigning each group a small research task and a source of information in the target language
to use to help them fulfil the task.
• groups sharing and comparing information.
• A result in the form of an end product such as a report or presentation of some kind.
ADVANTAGES
• Language learning becomes more interesting and motivating.
• CBI offer a wide educational knowledge to learners in the form of the different topics instructed.
• It helps students develop valuable study skills such as note taking, summarizing and extracting key
information from texts.
• Developing collaborative skills, especially when using group work, which can have great social
value. Disadvantages
DISADVANTAGES
• CBI implicit language instruction can confuse learners and may give them the impression that they
are not actually learning language.
• Overuse of native language can be a problem in some parts of the lesson.
• Finding information sources and texts that lower levels can understand can be difficult. In a
nutshell, although CBI is a challenging approach for both teachers and students, the outcome of its
implementation can be rewarding and motivating.
32
TASK BASED LEARNING
TBL (Task-based learning), or TBLT (Task-based language teaching) is an approach in which learning
revolves around the completion of meaningful tasks. In the TBL approach, the main focus is the authentic
use of language for genuine communication. In this post, we'll talk about what defines a task, the possible
phases of a TBL lesson and give you an example of a TBL lesson.
Defining tasks
In order for us to understand TBL, we need to define what a task is. According to Willis, tasks can be real-
life situations or have a pedagogical purpose. In both cases, a task should:
- provide opportunities for students to exchange information with a focus on meaning, not a specific
form or pattern/structure;
- have a clear purpose: learners should know the outcome they are expected to produce when they finish
performing the task. The outcome may vary. It might be making a YouTube video tutorial, finding a
solution for a problem or writing an email requesting information;
- result in an outcome that can be shared with more people;
- relate to real world activities.
Phases of a TBL lesson

The framework of a TBL lesson may vary. It is usually composed of the following phases:
a. Pre-task
b. Task (which can be sub-divided in different stages)
c. Post-task
a. Pre-task:
The pre-task phase of a TBL lesson is the moment when the teacher sets the task, contextualizes the topic
of the lesson, raises students’ interest and prepares learners to perform the task. When preparing students
to perform a task, teachers might need to help students with both content and language. This can be done
by activating students’ general knowledge on a certain topic and by helping students anticipate the type of
language they will need to perform the task proposed. It is extremely important that students understand
the objectives of the task during this phase.
b. Task:
In this stage of the TBL lesson, learners perform the task proposed. They are supposed to perform the task
in small groups or pairs, and use their existing knowledge of language to express themselves in a
spontaneous way. As the focus is communication, the teacher is not supposed to carry out extensive error
correction at this stage, but should monitor and provide support.
When students finish performing the task, they need to plan how they are going to report it to the rest of
the class or to other groups. They may rehearse and research the language necessary in order to share the
outcome of what they had done. Finally, students report the outcome of the task to other students.
c. Post-task:
The post-task stage is when students evaluate their performance. This might be done by comparing the
33
outcome of their task to that of a proficient user of the language. It can also involve feedback provided
by the teacher and subsequent practice of language items that emerged from the task. It is important to stress
that form-focused language work should be in response to students’ production. That means that the teacher
will not teach a grammar lesson and expect that learners use that specific structure while performing the
task, neither should the teacher work on a pre-selected language item in this phase of the lesson. This makes
the role of the teacher as a monitor extremely important in TBL.
The lesson below is a TBL lesson that I used with one of my Intermediate (CEFR B1) students.
In this lesson plan, I am describing the rationale behind my choices, the outcomes of the different phases
of the lesson and how they might differ with other groups of students. You will notice that the breakdown
of every phase is very detailed – “organizing” and managing the completion of the task is an important role
for the teacher in TBLT. If the teacher just sets a task and let students do it, they might not understand why
they are doing what they are doing, feel lack of support and not perceive that they are learning.
A TBL lesson plan

TASK: Recommending places in São Paulo to a friend via a What’s App audio message
PRE-TASK
In the pre-task stage, students learned about the task and were asked to talk about popular places tourists
could visit in their city, São Paulo. In order to generate interest and prepare students for the upcoming task,
and depending on your group profile, you may give suggestions, use prompts to provide support to learners,
ask students to carry out research, or even provide an input task to help students generate ideas. However,
in the pre-task stage, the teacher is not supposed to pre-teach vocabulary or structures to students.
In order to help students, carry out this task, you may ask them to:
- Create a mind map containing interesting places to be visited

- Suggest places and ask learners to share what they know about them / carry out research
Batman Alley
Iblrapuera park What can you see there?
Location
Admission fee
So Cathedral
tourist MASP
attractions Batman What can you see there?

in SP Location
Admission fee
Sao Paulo Art Museum
Football Museum
What can you see there?
Municipal Theater
Location
Municipal Market Admission fee
34
TASK
In this phase of the lesson, students carry out the task. In this lesson, learners worked in groups of three
during this stage. In order for the task to be completed successfully, it is the teacher’s role to break down
the task and help learners get organized.
In this lesson, the task was delivered in three different phases:
Assessing: students were asked to go back to the list of places they had brainstormed and discuss how
appealing they were. They were asked to list characteristics of these places and share why they might be
appealing (or not) to tourists. Students were allowed to search online to gather as much information as
possible.
Selecting: students were asked to compare the places and select the ones not to be missed by someone
visiting São Paulo for the first time. They were expected to come up with a list of three places.
Recording the audio message: Students were asked to plan, rehearse and record an audio message
suggesting places in the city.
Reporting: Students shared their audio messages with other groups, and compare their recommendations.
POST-TASK
Apart from giving instructions for the completion of the task, an important role the teacher should play
during the task is to monitor learners’ production. In the post-task phase, I gave feedback on content and
language that emerged during the task. Some aspects dealt with during feedback were:
- adjectives to describe places
- language to make comparisons
- language to make recommendations
In the post-task phase, it is important to provide students with the chance to practice the language that had
emerged from the task.
The lesson described shows that, in TBL, tasks are a way to promote the use of authentic and genuine
language with a focus on meaning and communication. When employing this approach to teaching, thus,
teachers need to be prepared to design relevant and meaningful tasks, adopt a number of roles in the
classroom and possess the linguistic competence to deal with emergent language and provide students with
useful feedback and practice.
35
SESSION 2
PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING (PBL)
Problem-Based Learning (PBL) is a teaching method in which complex real-world problems are used as
the vehicle to promote student learning of concepts and principles as opposed to direct presentation of facts
and concepts. In addition to course content, PBL can promote the development of critical thinking skills,
problem-solving abilities, and communication skills. It can also provide opportunities for working in
groups, finding and evaluating research materials, and life-long learning (Duch et al, 2001).
PBL can be incorporated into any learning situation. In the strictest definition of PBL, the approach is used
over the entire semester as the primary method of teaching. However, broader definitions and uses range
from including PBL in lab and design classes, to using it simply to start a single discussion. PBL can also
be used to create assessment items. The main thread connecting these various uses is the real-world
problem.
Any subject area can be adapted to PBL with a little creativity. While the core problems will vary among
disciplines, there are some characteristics of good PBL problems that transcend fields (Duch, Groh, and
Allen, 2001):
• The problem must motivate students to seek out a deeper understanding of concepts.
• The problem should require students to make reasoned decisions and to defend them.
• The problem should incorporate the content objectives in such a way as to connect it to previous
courses/knowledge.
• If used for a group project, the problem needs a level of complexity to ensure that the students must
work together to solve it.
• If used for a multistage project, the initial steps of the problem should be open-ended and engaging
to draw students into the problem.
The problems can come from a variety of sources: newspapers, magazines, journals, books, textbooks, and
television/ movies. Some are in such form that they can be used with little editing; however, others need to
be rewritten to be of use. The following guidelines from The Power of Problem-Based Learning (Duch et
al, 2001) are written for creating PBL problems for a class centered around the method; however, the
general ideas can be applied in simpler uses of PBL:
• Choose a central idea, concept, or principle that is always taught in a given course, and then think of
a typical end-of-chapter problem, assignment, or homework that is usually assigned to students to
help them learn that concept. List the learning objectives that students should meet when they work
through the problem.
• Think of a real-world context for the concept under consideration. Develop a storytelling aspect to an
end-of-chapter problem, or research an actual case that can be adapted, adding some motivation for
students to solve the problem. More complex problems will challenge students to go beyond simple
plug-and-chug to solve it. Look at magazines, newspapers, and articles for ideas on the story line.
Some PBL practitioners talk to professionals in the field, searching for ideas of realistic applications
of the concept being taught.
36
• The problem needs to be introduced in stages so that students will be able to identify learning issues
that will lead them to research the targeted concepts. The following are some questions that may help
guide this process:
o What will the first page (or stage) look like? What open-ended questions can be asked? What
learning issues will be identified?
o How will the problem be structured?
o How long will the problem be? How many class periods will it take to complete?
o Will students be given information in subsequent pages (or stages) as they work through the
problem?
o What resources will the students need?
o What end product will the students produce at the completion of the problem?
• Write a teacher's guide detailing the instructional plans on using the problem in the course. If the
course is a medium- to large-size class, a combination of mini-lectures, whole-class discussions, and
small group work with regular reporting may be necessary. The teacher's guide can indicate plans or
options for cycling through the pages of the problem interspersing the various modes of learning.
• The final step is to identify key resources for students. Students need to learn to identify and utilize
learning resources on their own, but it can be helpful if the instructor indicates a few good sources to
get them started. Many students will want to limit their research to the Internet, so it will be important
to guide them toward the library as well.
The method for distributing a PBL problem falls under three closely related teaching techniques: case
studies, role-plays, and simulations. Case studies are presented to students in written form. Role-plays have
students improvise scenes based on character descriptions given. Today, simulations often involve
computer-based programs. Regardless of which technique is used, the heart of the method remains the same:
the real-world problem.
Problem-based learning (PBL) is a student-centered approach in which students learn about a subject by
working in groups to solve an open-ended problem. This problem is what drives the motivation and the
learning. 
WHY USE PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING?

Nilson (2010) lists the following learning outcomes that are associated with PBL. A well-designed PBL
project provides students with the opportunity to develop skills related to:
• Working in teams.
• Managing projects and holding leadership roles.
• Oral and written communication.
• Self-awareness and evaluation of group processes.
• Working independently.
• Critical thinking and analysis.
• Explaining concepts.
• Self-directed learning.
• Applying course content to real-world examples.
37
• Researching and information literacy.

• Problem solving across disciplines.
CONSIDERATIONS FOR USING PROBLEM-BASED

LEARNING
Rather than teaching relevant material and subsequently having students apply the knowledge to solve
problems, the problem is presented first. PBL assignments can be short, or they can be more involved and
take a whole semester. PBL is often group-oriented, so it is beneficial to set aside classroom time to prepare
students to work in groups  and to allow them to engage in their PBL project. Students generally must:
• Examine and define the problem.

• Explore what they already know about underlying issues related to it.
• Determine what they need to learn and where they can acquire the information and tools
necessary to solve the problem.
• Evaluate possible ways to solve the problem.
• Solve the problem.
• Report on their findings.
GETTING STARTED WITH PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING

• Articulate the learning outcomes of the project. What do you want students to know or be able to
do as a result of participating in the assignment?
• Create the problem. Ideally, this will be a real-world situation that resembles something students
may encounter in their future careers or lives. Cases are often the basis of PBL activities.
• Establishing ground rules at the beginning to prepare students to work effectively in groups.
• Introduce students to group processes and do some warm up exercises to allow them to practice
assessing both their own work and that of their peers.
• Consider having students take on different roles or divide up the work up amongst themselves.
Alternatively, the project might require students to assume various perspectives, such as those of
government officials, local business owners, etc.
• Establish how you will evaluate and assess the assignment. Consider making the self and peer
assessments a part of the assignment grade.
HOW DOES PBL WORK?
PBL is an active way of learning that gives students better retention of knowledge, enhances their
motivation and encourages them to develop skills that are essential for the labor market in the 21st century.
In short: PBL is all about the real world, teachers are very approachable and students learn together in a
dynamic way.
So what are these ‘skills for life’? Research shows that PBL teaches students to:
38
• really understand the subject matter, rather just learning by rote

• collaborate with partners and small teams
• think critically with a view to solving problems
• study and work independently
• feel comfortable with public speaking
In its essence, PBL involves seven steps that teachers follow in groups of 10 to 15 students.
The seven steps are:
1. discuss the case and make sure everyone understands the problem
2. identify the questions that need to be answered to shed light on the case
3. brainstorm what the group already knows and identify potential solutions
4. analyze and structure the results of the brainstorming session
5. formulate learning objectives for the knowledge that is still lacking
6. do independent study, individually or in smaller groups: read articles or books, or attend lectures
to gain the required knowledge
7. discuss the findings
The initial five steps are covered in the first tutorial. You then work individually or in small groups on
‘your’ part of the problem, and come together in the second tutorial to discuss the results as a group.
FOUR ADVANTAGES OF PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING
IT’S ALL ABOUT STUDENTS

In PBL students are personally responsible (under supervision, of course) for what they learn. This requires
them to play an active role in the learning process. Together with the group, they take part in discussions,
share knowledge and formulate their own learning objectives.
THEY LEARN TOGETHER, IN OUR INTERNATIONAL CLASSROOM

Because they work actively on real-life issues, the theory sticks better in their minds and they learn to apply
their knowledge to all sorts of questions. What’s more, students learn essential skills like presenting their
point of view, debating, writing reports and collaborating. They may be assessed on these skills instead of
sitting an exam.
TEACHERS ARE APPROACHABLE AND INSPIRING

The work is supervised by the teacher who supervises the group process, asks important and critical
questions, shares knowledge and provides support as needed.
STUDENTS ACQUIRE SKILLS FOR LIFE

Students are assertive, independent and professional. They are especially skilled in analyzing complex
issues, gathering and structuring information, working in international teams, leading discussions, and
forming and presenting ideas. Research shows that when it comes to developing this particular skillset,
PBL is more effective than traditional education methods.
39
THINGS THE TEACHER SHOULD CONSIDER
• What resources are available to students (e.g. subject experts, technology, books)?
• What will the student produce at the end? How will they represent their learning?
• What skills will students need to have in order to successfully work in groups?
• How will students be assessed?
• What roles will students have when they are working in groups?
• What common questions will students ask?
40
SESSION 3
PROJECT-BASED LEARNING
Project-based learning is an instructional approach designed to give students the opportunity to develop
knowledge and skills through engaging projects set around challenges and problems they may face in the
real world. Project-based learning, or PBL, is more than just projects. PBL students "investigate and
respond to an authentic, engaging, and complex problem, or challenge" with deep and sustained attention.
WHAT ARE THE ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF PROJECT-BASED

LEARNING?
Although definitions and project parameters may vary from school to school, and PBL is sometimes used
interchangeably with "experiential learning" or "discovery learning," the characteristics of project-based
learning are clear and constant.
IN ESSENCE, THE PBL MODEL CONSISTS OF THESE SEVEN

CHARACTERISTICS:
• Focuses the student on a big open-ended question, challenge, or problem to research and respond to
and/or solve.
• Brings what students should academically know, understand, and be able to do into the equation.
• Is inquiry-based.
• Uses 21st-century skills such as critical thinking, communication, collaboration, and creativity, among
others.
• Builds student choice into the process.
• Provides opportunities for feedback and revision of the plan and the project.
• Requires students to present their problems, research process, methods, and results.
Following fifteen years of literature review and distilled educational experience, the Buck Institute for
Education also identified seven essential elements for PBL but focused them on project design. Collectively
these elements are called Gold Standard PBL. According to the BIE, the key elements to project design
include:
• A Challenging Problem or Question
• Sustained Inquiry
• Authenticity
• Student Voice and Choice
• Reflection
• Critique and Revision
• Public Product
All these elements, if combined well, result in students learning key knowledge, understanding, and skills
for success.
41
An example where all these elements come together is in our high school Business Incubator class. Teams
of students propose and design a product based upon a challenging need or intricate problem. These young
entrepreneurs pitch their ideas to business and community leaders in an effort to gain support for launching
their product.
One team of students designed a mobile app providing real-time air quality readings at locations around the
world. Raising awareness about air pollution, supporting health-conscious travelers, and making global
connections were galvanizing real-world provocations for their project.
It’s worth noting that while project-based learning may seem like some specific or isolated instructional
practice, the lists above should look familiar. They are really the elements of great learning experiences.
You don’t have to subscribe to project-based learning to incorporate elements of it in your classrooms.
Having said that, there are benefits that true project-based learning provides.
CHARACTERISTICS OF PROJECT-BASED LEARNING

Here are three characteristics of meaningful project-based learning activities that lead to deeper student
understanding:
1.) Inter-disciplinary
PBL focuses on engaging students with real-world problems. This is an interdisciplinary approach because
real-world challenges are rarely solved using information or skills from a single subject area. Projects
require students to engage in inquiry, solution building, and product construction to help address the real-
world issue or challenge presented. As students do the work, they often use content knowledge and skills
from multiple academic domains to successfully complete the project.
2.) Rigorous
Project-Based Learning requires the application of knowledge and skills, not just recall or recognition.
Unlike rote learning that assesses a single fact, PBL is more complex and can be used to assess how students
apply a variety of academic content in new contexts. As students engage in the work of a project they follow
a process that begins with inquiry. Inquiry leads to deeper learning, not just related to academic content,
but also related to the use of content in real world applications. Inquiry processes can help lead to the
development of solutions that address the problem/challenge of the project and the creation of products to
communicate solutions to an audience based upon the application of content and skills.
3.) Student-centered
In PBL, the role of the teacher shifts from content-deliverer to facilitator/ project manager. Students work
more independently through the PBL process, with the teacher providing support only when needed.
Students are encouraged to make their own decisions about how best to do their work and demonstrate their
understanding. The PBL process fosters student independence, ownership of his/her work, and the
development of 21st century/workplace skills.
BENEFITS OF PROJECT-BASED LEARNING

Too often, traditional learning never ventures beyond the realm of the purely academic. Project-based
learning connects students to the real world. PBL prepares students to accept and meet challenges in the
real world, mirroring what professionals do every day.
42
Instead of short-term memorization strategies, project-based learning provides an opportunity for students
to engage deeply with the target content, bringing about a focus on long-term retention. PBL also improves
student attitudes toward education, thanks to its ability to keep students engaged. The PBL structure lends
itself to building intrinsic motivation because it centers student learning around an essential central question
or problem and a meaningful outcome.
Daniel Pink, in his TED Talk and influential book, Drive, says people are intrinsically motivated by three
things—autonomy, mastery, and purpose. Popular terms like grit and rigor become embedded dispositions
when learners sink their teeth into meaningful endeavors.
A recent collaborative study conducted by the University and Michigan and Michigan State University
suggests the implementation of project-based learning correlated positively with student achievement,
particularly in schools serving high-poverty communities. This research emphasizes the importance of
projects being standards-aligned and supported with research-proven instructional strategies.
Because of its focus on 21st-century skills, the PBL model also enhances students' technology abilities.
Jennifer Gonzalez noted how project-based learning helps students develop teamwork and problem-solving
skills, along with the ability to communicate effectively with others. The collaborative nature of projects
also reinforces the social-emotional learning (SEL) programs being implemented at progressive schools
around the world.
These interpersonal aspects of PBL dovetail perfectly with the use of technology in the classroom.
Technology-based projects are interdisciplinary, collaborative, inquiry-based, self-directed, motivating,
and address the full range of student needs and learning styles, according to Christa Love of Techno Kids.
Additionally, digital literacies and digital citizenship objectives become ingrained in tech-based projects.
Challenges of Project-Based Learning

The Intel Corporation identified several reasons why project-based learning can represent such a radical
departure from what we are used to in education. PBL requires you to coach more and instruct less, to
embrace interdisciplinary learning instead of remaining locked in single-subject silos, and to be more
comfortable with uncertainty and discovery during the learning process.
For many instructors, PBL is a stark contrast to the traditional education they experienced. Change takes
time and is seldom without apprehension and challenges. However, when we consider the types of
educational experiences we value for our modern learners, it becomes apparent the traditional “sage on the
stage” instructional model falls significantly short.
The truth is, though, you can overcome these PBL challenges. Good problems or ideas can come from your
students, parents, or community members. Instead of lectures and book learning, teachers can think through
the steps required to solve a problem and use those steps as project-learning activities. Instead of planning
a massive project, the learning process can be made more manageable by chunking the project into smaller
parts, with frequent checkpoints built into the timeline. Instead of a traditional summative exam, authentic
assessments can be developed by communicating with professionals in the field regarding what a
presentation would look like related to a particular project.
43
Examples of Project-Based Learning in Action
In one science-based project, students begin with a visit to a zoo, learning about animal habitats and forming
opinions on which habitats best suit a selected animal. For this example, the project component included
teams of students collaborating to develop a research-supported habitat plan for presentation to professional
and student zoologists.
While the sciences fit neatly into PBL environment, the instructional strategy lends itself naturally to
interdisciplinary learning. In an example that blends English language arts and the social studies, students
answer the classic essential question, "What role does censorship play in society?" Following introductory
instruction, students select a banned book, read it, compose a persuasive essay and take part in a censorship-
related mock trial experience conducted in the presence of experts.
Want to find solace from the boring, "drill and kill" Math lessons? In this example, students assume the
role of a National Security Agency code breaker, with a life-or-death project scenario in which they must
decode a message potentially revealing the location of a planned terror attack on the United States. Students
decrypt the message, send a coded message of their own and present their work. A professional in a related
field visits the class to launch the project and connect it to real-world experience.
PROJECT BASED LEARNING

PLANNING & TEACHING STRATEGIES
Project-based learning, is a pedagogical method in which students are directed to create an artifact (or
artifacts) to present their gained knowledge. Artifacts may include a variety of media such as writings, art,
drawings, three-dimensional representations, videos, photography, or technology-based presentations. The
basis of PBL lies in the authenticity or real-life application of the research and is considered an alternative
to paper-based, rote memorization, teacher-led classrooms. Proponents of project-based learning cite
numerous benefits to the implementation of these strategies in the classroom including a greater depth of
understanding of concepts, broader knowledge base, improved communication and interpersonal/social
skills, enhanced leadership skills, increased creativity, and improved writing skills.
John Dewey initially promoted the idea of “learning by doing. ” Educational research has advanced this
idea of teaching and learning into a methodology known as “project-based learning. ” Blumenfeld &
Krajcik (2006) cite studies by Marx et al., 2004, Rivet & Krajcki, 2004 and William & Linn, 2003 state
that “research has demonstrated that students in project-based learning classrooms get higher scores than
students in traditional classroom. ”
Project-based learning is not without its opponents, however; in Peer Evaluation in Blended Team Project-
Based Learning: What Do Students Find Important? Hye-Jung & Cheolil (2012) describe social loafing as
a negative aspect of collaborative learning. Social loafing may include insufficient performances by some
team members as well as a lowering of expected standards of performance by the group as a whole to
maintain congeniality amongst members. These authors said that because teachers tend to grade the finished
product only, the social dynamics of the assignment may escape the teacher’s notice.
44
Elements
The core idea of project-based or inquiry based learning is that real-world problems capture students’
interest and provoke serious thinking as the students acquire and apply new knowledge in a problem-solving
context. The teacher plays the role of facilitator, working with students to frame worthwhile questions,
structuring meaningful tasks, coaching both knowledge development and social skills, and carefully
assessing what students have learned from the experience. Typical projects present a problem to solve
(What is the best way to reduce the pollution in the schoolyard pond?) or a phenomenon to investigate
(What causes rain? ).
Examples
At the high school level, classroom activities may include making water purification systems,
investigating service learning, or creating new bus routes. At the middle school level, activities may
include researching trash statistics, documenting local history through interviews, or writing essays about
a community scavenger hunt. Classes are designed to help diverse students become college and career
ready after high school.
Roles
When students use technology as a tool to communicate with others, they take on an active role vs. a passive
role of transmitting the information by a teacher, a book, or broadcast. The student is constantly making
choices on how to obtain, display, or manipulate information. Technology makes it possible for students to
think actively about the choices they make and execute. Every student has the opportunity to get involved
either individually or as a group.
Instructor role in Project Based Learning is that of a facilitator. They do not relinquish control of the
collaborative classroom or student learning but rather develop an atmosphere of shared responsibility. The
Instructor must structure the proposed question/issue so as to direct the student’s learning toward content-
based materials. The instructor must regulate student success with intermittent, transitional goals to ensure
student projects remain focused and students have a deep understanding of the concepts being investigated.
The students are held accountable to these goals through ongoing feedback and assessment. The ongoing
assessment and feedback are essential to ensure the student stays within the scope of the driving question
and the core standards the project is trying to unpack. According to Andrew Miller of the Buck Institute of
Education, formative assessment are used “in order to be transparent to parents and students, you need to
be able to track and monitor ongoing formative assessments, that show work toward that standard. ” The
instructor uses these assessments to guide the inquiry based learning process and ensure the students have
learned the required content. Once the project is finished, the instructor evaluates the finished product and
learning that it demonstrates
Outcomes
Students learn to work in a community, thereby taking on social responsibilities. The most significant
contributions of PBL have been in schools languishing in poverty stricken areas; when students take
responsibility, or ownership, for their learning, their self-esteem soars. It also helps to create better work
habits and attitudes toward learning. Although students do work in groups, they also become more
independent because they are receiving little instruction from the teacher. With Project-Based Learning
students also learn skills that are essential in higher education. The students learn more than just finding
45
answers, PBL allows them to expand their minds and think beyond what they normally would. Students
have to find answers to questions and combine them using critically thinking skills to come up with answers.
Opponents of Project Based Learning warn against negative outcomes primarily in projects that become
unfocused and tangential arguing that underdeveloped lessons can result in the wasting of precious class
time. No one teaching method has been proven more effective than another. Opponents suggest that
narratives and presentation of anecdotal evidence included in lecture-style instruction can convey the same
knowledge in less class time. Given that disadvantaged students generally have fewer opportunities to learn
academic content outside of school, wasted class time due to an unfocused lesson presents a particular
problem. Instructors can be deluded into thinking that as long as a student is engaged and doing, they are
learning. Ultimately it is cognitive activity that determines the success of a lesson. If the project does not
remain on task and content driven, the student will not be successful in learning the material. The lesson
will be ineffective. A source of difficulty for teachers includes, “Keeping these complex projects on track
while attending to students’ individual learning needs requires artful teaching, as well as industrial-strength
project management.” Like any approach, Project Based Learning is only beneficial when applied
successfully.
46
METHODOLOGY
COURSE
MODULE I

TEACHING
III WEEK
1. Teaching strategies
2. Describing Teachers
3. Principles of Mobile Learning
47
SESSION 1
TEACHING STRATEGIES
The learning strategies and activities you choose to engage students should align with the course learning
outcomes you have identified during the backward design process. Most teachers want their students to be
capable of doing more than rote memorization of facts. Instead, they want students to be able to apply,
synthesize, and evaluate course material. These more complex cognitive processes are commonly referred
to as deep learning. Ironically, lecturing is the least effective way for students to accomplish this deep
learning. Deep learning experiences require students to be more responsible for their learning and for being
informed of the course content. This means that you will need to provide students with multiple
opportunities to apply newly learned principles in novel situations. For students to fully engage with a
concept, they must see examples of the type of thinking that experts do in their field, and be able to practice
that conceptual thinking through an application activity that is as close to the real world as possible.
Matching student learning strategies to course outcomes is one of the most important parts of the planning
stage. To help you select learning strategies that align with the course outcomes, assessments and goals, ask
yourself questions like these:
• Is lecturing the best and most efficient way for students to become introduced to the course
content?
• What classroom activities can I use in order to hold students accountable for doing the homework
readings?
• How can I have students connect new knowledge to what they already know?
• When should I tell students something and when should I let them discover for themselves?
• When should I lecture and when should I hold other activities?
• When should I show students how to do something and when should I encourage them to try it
themselves?
• When should I ask students to do something alone and when should I ask them to work together
(collaborative learning)?
• If I see someone make a mistake in a lab, when should I correct the mistake and when should I let
the student discover her/his own mistake?
• When should I review concepts orally and when should I use handouts?
• By considering such questions, you can begin to formulate strategies and techniques that match
the outcomes you set for the course. Then you can choose from a myriad of student learning
approaches, such as discussion sessions, active learning, problem-based learning, group projects,
team-based learning and peer learning, to name just a few.
10 ESL Teaching Strategies That Successfully Motivated My

Students to Reach the Next Level
1. Get yourself in the right mind-set: Classroom learning vs. outside practice.
As teachers, we can’t assume that students know how to practice effectively or even see the importance
of doing so. From that point on, I began seeing myself not only as a teacher but as an English
learning advisor as well!
48
You have to create a holistic English learning experience which extends outside the classroom and into
every corner of your students’ lives. This outlook certainly changed the way I approached teaching, and
ultimately helped many of my students to take their English speaking and listening abilities to the next
level.
2. Create in-class strategies that effectively translate to outside practice.

Sure, our primary responsibility is classroom instruction. Most of us have no interest in following our
students everywhere they go. It’s useful to focus on in-class strategies and ideas that simultaneously benefit
students outside the classroom.
Although some of these ideas may seem obvious to us as teachers, we have to be explicit about teaching
them to our students. As you incorporate the following 8 ideas on the list, remember to make no assumptions
about your students’ basic knowledge of language acquisition. Remember, they aren’t professionals. YOU
are!
3. Take the time to teach students basic principles in second language acquisition.
Studies show that over 80% of language learning students have misconceptions about what it takes to
actually learn a second language. Unfortunately, those misconceptions usually translate to ineffective
learning strategies.
For instance, some students believe that learning a new language simply entails acquiring a large amount
of new vocabulary in the target language. Because of this, they focus their practice time on learning new
words and are unaware that vocabulary acquisition is an ineffective learning strategy all on its own. While
they need not be experts, equipping your students with a basic understanding of the process of learning
English will ensure that their practice time is effective and grounded in sound language learning practices.
4. Use technology to garner motivation and student interest.

Research clearly indicates that motivation is a huge factor in a student’s ability to learn a second language.
I mean, that’s just common sense, right? Some students may come to your class intrinsically motivated and
require very little from you to build interest. Others will require a large degree of extrinsic motivation, and
you may need to be creative to find out what excites them.
To make your job easier, experts have identified common motivating factors that generally apply to
different age groups. For instance, tweens and teens may be motivated by the prospect of socializing with
English speaking peers, while adults may be motivated by the prospect of acquiring a new job. Whatever
the motivation, today’s technology has a vast variety of resources and tools to build on that interest.
Talk to students about changing their Facebook or Instagram profiles into English, instead of leaving them
in their native language. Play entertaining English language video clips that are targeted to your students’
age groups. FluentU’s awesome English language video collection contains clips from news channels,
cartoon programs, YouTube, MTV and more – you’re bound to find something that your particular students
will enjoy. Have the grown-ups browse English language career boards as homework. Have the kids send
English language Tweets. Not matter what age group you’re teaching, technology can be a true interest
builder that students can use outside of the classroom.
49
5. Set realistic expectations and goals, early and regularly.

One of the largest factors in Mayda’s frustration was her unrealistic expectation of how long it would take
her to learn to speak English fluently. Simply examining those expectations and re-establishing her short-
and long-term goals did wonders for her self-confidence.
After my experience with teacher Mayda, goal-setting is now an integral part of my time spent with
beginning students. Setting 1-3 realistic goals and tweaking them along the way can assure students that
they’re on the right track, redirect them when needed and avoid the anxiety that makes language learning
unnecessarily difficult. Furthermore, goal-setting worksheets allow students to outline clear plans while
giving them an opportunity to practice writing and planning skills.
6. Give students explicit instructions and ideas on strategies they can use at home.
As teachers, we often assume that our students have a basic understanding of English learning strategies.
Because of this, we may give students general guidelines and strategies instead of being explicit and
providing much needed examples. Remember that your students don’t have the training or pedagogical
background that you do, nor have they spent countless hours studying language acquisition.
One tidbit of advice that I gave to teacher Mayda was to make sure that she spent a lot of time thinking in
English. But that advice in and of itself was not enough. If I expected her to really put my advice into
practice, I had to specifically give her examples of ways in which she could incorporate this into her daily
life.
I gave her specific strategies for thinking in English. For example, I explained how she could try narrating
her daily activities and routines in her mind in English. I also recommended websites such
as www.newsela.com and www.newsinlevels.com to help her immerse herself in news and current events
that are on the minds of English speakers. That way, she could read articles at her level of English, reflect
on the topics and form opinions about them. This was one tangible way that I advised her to make sure that
she was thinking in English outside of the classroom.
7. Set up English speaking peer groups.

We know that, in order to learn a language, students have to practice speaking to others in authentic
situations. Setting up peer groups is one fun way to facilitate and encourage this. Just as content area
teachers assign group projects pertaining to their content area, ESL teachers can assign group projects with
the goal of increasing the amount of time students spend in meaningful communication outside of class.
As with any group project, you should be purposeful in how students are grouped in order to achieve the
maximum benefit. Also, there should be some sort of final product — as well as several smaller ones along
the way — to give students the opportunity to demonstrate what they’re doing and learning. These products
will also allow you to adequately supervise, assess and advise them along the way.
8. Build and maintain a classroom library.

Reading teachers understand that reading as much as possible is a major key to improving reading fluency.
This is also true for gaining reading fluency in another language. Unfortunately, not all students will have
access to English books at their level, and others will need assistance in choosing books that are appropriate
for their specific reading levels and interests.
50
Building and maintaining a classroom library is one way to make sure your students have access to an
adequate amount of reading materials for at-home reading practice. Accessing virtual libraries like Open
Library and Lit2Go is another option to consider, especially if your resources are limited.
9. Decrease Teacher Talking Time (TTT).

As a teacher of English language learners, you probably know all the research regarding decreasing TTT
and ensuring that student talking time is maximized. The research behind this is substantial to say the least,
and I dare not attempt to touch on all of it here. However, I do want to point out that the more opportunities
you give your students to speak in class, the more likely it is that they’ll be using the language as often as
possible outside of the classroom.
By maximizing student talking time, you’re demonstrating to your students that they have an active role to
play in conversation and English learning as a whole. With that idea instilled in them, they’re more likely
to play a more active role in learning the language outside of your classroom.
10. Make your classroom speaking and listening experiences as authentic as possible.
Some experts wholeheartedly believe that, when it comes to language learning, the words “classroom” and
“authentic” are incompatible. This is probably true in many situations. However, I do think that it’s possible
to strategically incorporate authentic speaking and listening time into your lessons AND meet your learning
objectives at the same time.
The key to this is pretty simple: build opportunities for your students
to talk about things that interest them. This will show them that
you’re interested in what they have to say and what they like.
Maintain a positive and encouraging atmosphere for these
experiences to take place and don’t be afraid to get off track (you can
always get back on track later). After all, the overall goal isn’t for the
students to learn scripts or how to answer questions correctly. We want them to ultimately be comfortable
with spontaneous, authentic communication. The way to get there is to — you guessed it! — practice
spontaneous, authentic communication!
Embrace and look positively on your role as an instructor and English learning advisor. Simply by being
conscious of your classroom effectiveness and making small changes accordingly, you can be confident
that you’re giving your students the tools to continue their English learning journey wherever they are.
Best teaching practices

7 Effective Teaching Strategies For The Classroom
The classroom is a dynamic environment, bringing together students from different backgrounds with
various abilities and personalities. Being an effective teacher therefore requires the implementation of
creative and innovative teaching strategies in order to meet students’ individual needs.
Whether you’ve been teaching two months or twenty years, it can be difficult to know which teaching
strategies will work best with your students. As a teacher there is no ‘one size fits all’ solution, so here is a
range of effective teaching strategies you can use to inspire your classroom practice.
51
1. Visualization
Bring dull academic concepts to life with visual and practical learning experiences, helping
your students to understand how their schooling applies in the real-world.
Examples include using the interactive whiteboard to display photos, audio clips and
videos, as well as encouraging your students to get out of their seats with classroom
experiments and local field trips.
2. Cooperative learning
Encourage students of mixed abilities to work together by promoting small group or whole
class activities.
Through verbally expressing their ideas and responding to others your students will develop
their self-confidence, as well as enhance their communication and critical thinking skills which are vital
throughout life.
Solving mathematical puzzles, conducting scientific experiments and acting out short drama sketches are
just a few examples of how cooperative learning can be incorporated into classroom lessons.
3. Inquiry-based instruction
Pose thought-provoking questions which inspire your students to think for themselves and
become more independent learners.
Encouraging students to ask questions and investigate their own ideas helps improve their
problem-solving skills as well as gain a deeper understanding of academic concepts. Both of
which are important life skills.
Inquiries can be science or math-based such as ‘why does my shadow change size?’ or ‘is the
sum of two odd numbers always an even number?’ However, they can also be subjective and
encourage students to express their unique views, e.g. ‘do poems have to rhyme?’ or ‘should all
students wear uniform?’
4. Differentiation
Differentiate your teaching by allocating tasks based on students’ abilities, to ensure no
one gets left behind.
Assigning classroom activities according to students’ unique learning needs means
individuals with higher academic capabilities are stretched and those who are struggling
get the appropriate support.
This can involve handing out worksheets that vary in complexity to different groups of students, or setting
up a range of work stations around the classroom which contain an assortment of tasks for students to
choose from.
Moreover, using an educational tool such as Quizlike can save you hours of time because it automatically
groups your students for you, so you can easily identify individual and whole class learning gaps .
5. Technology in the classroom

Incorporating technology into your teaching is a great way to actively engage your students,
especially as digital media surrounds young people in the 21st century.
Interactive whiteboards or mobile devices can be used to display images and videos, which
helps students visualize new academic concepts. Learning can become more interactive when technology
52
is used as students can physically engage during lessons as well as instantly research their ideas, which
develops autonomy.
Mobile devices, such as iPads and/or tablets, can be used in the classroom for students to record results,
take photos/videos or simply as a behavior management technique. Plus, incorporating educational
programs such as Quizalize into your lesson plans is also a great way to make formative assessments fun
and engaging.
6. Behavior management
Implementing an effective behavior management strategy is crucial to gain your students
respect and ensure students have an equal chance of reaching their full potential.
Noisy, disruptive classrooms do no encourage a productive learning environment, therefore
developing an atmosphere of mutual respect through a combination of discipline and reward can be
beneficial for both you and your students.
Examples include fun and interactive reward charts for younger students, where individuals move up or
down based on behavior with the top student receiving a prize at the end of the week. ‘Golden time’ can
also work for students of all ages, with a choice of various activities such as games or no homework in
reward for their hard work.
7. Professional development
Engaging in regular professional development programs is a great way to enhance teaching
and learning in your classroom.
With educational policies constantly changing it is extremely useful to attend events where
you can gain inspiration from other teachers and academics. It’s also a great excuse to get out of the
classroom and work alongside other teachers just like you!
Sessions can include learning about new educational technologies, online safety training, advice
on how to use your teaching assistant(s) and much more.
Being an effective teacher is a challenge because every student is unique, however, by using a
combination of teaching strategies you can address students’ varying learning styles and academic
capabilities as well as make your classroom a dynamic and motivational environment for students.
DEFINITION OF TEACHER INTERACTION STRATEGY
Teacher interaction strategy is defined as an interaction device a teacher adopts to interact with his/her
students in classrooms. This includes the use of referential/display questions, wait time, turn allocation, as
well as ways of engaging learners in communication. It is believed that the interaction strategy(ies) adopted
by a teacher can promote/ reduce reticence in classrooms because they are believed to be able to determine
the communicativeness of the classroom, which is characterized by:
1. Participation rights: how much a teacher and students talk in classrooms.

2. Role of teacher and students: whether a teacher plays an instructional or facilitator role, and
whether students can take charge of their own learning.
3. Organization of classroom interaction: whether the interaction pattern is teacher fronted or
learner initiated (Walsh op.cit.).
53
TYPES OF TEACHER INTERACTION STRATEGY

Generally, three types of teacher interaction strategy can be identified in an ESL/EFL classroom:
teacher fronted, facilitator oriented, and learner oriented.
1. TEACHER-FRONTED STRATEGY
Teacher-fronted strategy is a controlled interaction device used to facilitate a smooth flowing
classroom discourse to ensure efficiency and smooth lesson progress. Teachers adopting this strategy
usually use a controlled and structural manner to interact with learners. They talk most of the time and
initiate most of the teacher–student exchanges by non-communicative display questions, resulting in a
teacher-dominated, rigid, and restricted interaction pattern. The IRF pattern (teacher initiation/student
response / teacher follow-up) is associated with a teacher-centered classroom methodology, pedagogically
oriented lessons, and teacher-fronted activities (Clifton op.cit.; Gar ton op.cit.). In spite of this, this strategy
appears to be popular among teachers. It is found that ‘teachers instinctively adopt an IRF mode of
instruction because it is perceived, perhaps unconsciously, to be a powerful pedagogical device for
transmitting and constructing knowledge’ (Cullen 2002: 118). The following is an example of the teacher-
dominated IRF interaction pattern induced by this strategy.
Example 1
Purpose: checking understanding of vocabulary.
Teacher: What’s this? (teacher initiation—a display question)

Student: A tower. (learner response—a short reply)
Teacher: Good, yes, a tower. (teacher follow-up—comment) (Author’s data)
The reasons for the popularity of this strategy could include factors such as teachers’ beliefs about
their roles, cultural backgrounds, teaching styles, pedagogical goal(s) of the lesson, and the learners’
proficiency, motivation, and attitude (Scott 1996; Cullen 1998). It seems that it is unrealistic to expect this
strategy to disappear completely from classrooms. None the less, an element of communication could be
incorporated into this strategy, so that both pedagogical and communicative needs could be taken care of.
2. FACILITATOR-ORIENTED STRATEGY
Facilitator-oriented strategy is a set of facilitative interaction devices used by a teacher to facilitate
interaction with his/her students in classrooms, and it includes personalizing a topic, use of referential
questions, reformulation, elaboration, comment, repetition, and use of backchannels, giving content focused
feedback and longer wait time. This set of strategies enables teachers to create ‘authentic’ dialogues with
learners throughout the interaction process. When interacting with learners, the teacher adopts a more ‘let-
go’ and ‘meaning-focused’ approach that breaks from the IRF interaction pattern, resulting in learners’
greater participation rights. For example, referential questions are used, and the wait time is longer. The
right of turn allocation is returned to learners, and non-verbal expressions such as backchannels are used to
show teacher support/ approval. In addition, the feedback given is content focused rather than form focused
(Garton op.cit.; Gil op.cit.). As a result, learners are empowered to take more initiative and responsibility
for learning.
One special feature about these strategies is that they are also practicable in pedagogically oriented
classrooms. As pointed out by Gil (op.cit.), communicative talk can be integrated into a focus-on-form talk
54
if a teacher is willing to open space for learners to make personal comments, indicating that with the use of
an effective strategy such as personalizing the topic, focus-on-form talk and focus-on-meaning talk are not
mutually exclusive. A similar argument is made by Cullen (2002), who argues that the teacher directed IRF
interaction exchanges commonly found in teacher-fronted classrooms could be made more learner directed
and communicative if the Follow-up Move (F-move), the third part of a chain of IRF (initiate–respond–
follow-up), carries discourse (content-focused) rather than evaluative (form-focused) functions. This
implies that pedagogically teacher-fronted classrooms are not necessarily form focused and non-
communicative. The example below illustrates this argument.
Example 2
Purpose: teaching past tense
T: How did you spend your Xmas holiday? (Initiating move—use of a referential question)
S1: mm .... (pause for more than two seconds) ... Bored ... I sleep every day. (Response move—
expressing opinions)
T: Oh, what a shame. Your holiday was boring. You slept the whole day. (Follow-up move -
reformulation to show correct expression + showing sympathy)
Why didn’t you go out? (Initiating move—asking another referential question to create a rapport
with the student)
S1: No, no money. (The whole class laughs.) (Response move—expressing opinions)
T: Yeah. (Follow-up move—backchannel showing understanding)
S2: No, he had money. (Student 2 self-selects and joins in)
S1: How you know I had money? (Expressing opinion and using the correct past tense verb form)
3. LEARNER-ORIENTED STRATEGY
A learner-oriented strategy is a non-intervening interaction device that offers learners full opportunities
to speak in classrooms. The teacher uses a complete hands-off approach to let learners interact among
themselves to work on a task, resulting in a very learner-directed classroom interaction pattern known as
student–student interaction. The whole interaction is basically learner initiated, and the teacher will not
intervene except at the time when learners come across difficulties. Thus, participation rights are open to
all learners who have access to the ‘discursive resources’ of self-selection, topic initiation, topic
development, and topic shift (Clifton op.cit.). This strategy is believed to be able to benefit passive or
reticent learners as their motivation to participate may increase because of the peer support and negotiation
of meaning they are engaged in (Kennedy 1996 quoted in Garrett and Shortall 2002).
None the less, Johnson (1992) points out that we have to be careful when engaging learners in student–
student interactions, as without a language model, fossilization of errors may result. O’Neill (1991) also
cautions that some students view learning on their own as a form of teacher neglect. Thus, in order to ensure
that learners can engage comfortably and confidently in a student–student interaction, a facilitator-oriented
strategy can be used to scaffold learners throughout their interaction process. The following example
illustrates how a facilitator-oriented strategy complements the learner-oriented strategy to help Student 3,
a low proficiency learner, to participate in the discussion.
55
Example 3:
Purpose: Practicing discussion skills.
T: Get yourselves into groups of three, and discuss who your favorite singer is and give reasons for your
choice. (Task setting by a teacher)
S1: My favorite singer is Lesley Cheung ... he die. I feel very ... very sad. (Expressing opinions)
S2: Did you cry when... mmm ... he was died? (Asking for information)
S1: I was not believe it first but ... um ... it was true ... I cried. (Giving information) S2 Now who you
like? (Asking for more information)
S1: Mum ... No, no ... only like Lesley Cheung. [Student 3 keeps quiet and does not participate, and so
the teacher intervenes]
T: (Uses body language to signal she is going to intervene—facilitator-oriented strategy) ... right, John,
how about you? Do you like Lesley Cheung?
S3: (Looks very shy) ... mum ... (shakes his head)
T: Ok ... Do you mean you don’t like him? (Says this very slowly and clearly—confirming)
S3: (Shakes his head) ... don’t like him. (Imitates the teacher’s speaking)
S2: Why?
S3: (thinking) ... I like Leon. (Expresses opinion)
T: Ah... You like Leon more than Lesley. Is that right?
(Confirming and reformulating the expression)
S3: Yeah ... yeah ... (looks very happy)
WHICH TYPE OF INTERACTION STRATEGY SHOULD BE ADOPTED?
The example above shows that the facilitator-oriented strategy can make the pedagogically teacher-
controlled IRF interaction more learner initiated and meaning oriented and can make the free flow student–
student interaction less daunting to beginning/weak learners. It seems that this strategy has a number of
advantages in the teaching and learning process. The use of this strategy in a teacher-fronted classroom
enables both teachers and learners to collectively construct a pedagogically goal-oriented event, allowing
the teacher to strike a balance between the formal feedback/form focused instruction and content-based
follow-up/meaning-focused communication, resulting in students’ stronger motivation and greater
participation opportunities. This strategy also has a key role to play in learner-centered classrooms where
learners are expected to engage in negotiation of meaning to complete a task by themselves. When learners
have interaction difficulties, strategies such as reformulation and elaboration can be used to develop
learners’ confidence in using English to communicate among themselves. To summarize, the use of a
facilitator-oriented strategy can help reduce reticence in both learner-centered and teacher-fronted
classrooms. Nevertheless, whether this can be attained depends not only on teachers’ willingness to give
up their ‘power of control’ but also on their professional skills and having sufficient time to allow a
‘facilitator–learner interaction’ (Clifton op.cit.) to take place.
56
SESSION 2
DESCRIBING TEACHERS
A. What is a teacher?
Teachers use many metaphors to describe what they do. Sometimes they say they are like actors
because ‘we are always on the stage’. Others think they are like orchestral conductors ‘because I direct
conversation and set the pace and tone’. Yet others feel like gardeners, ‘because we plant the seeds
and then watch them grow’. The range of images – these and others – that teachers use about
themselves indicate the range of views that they have about their profession.
Dictionaries also give a variety of messages about teaching. According to the Cambridge
International Dictionary of English, ‘teaching’ means ‘to give (someone) knowledge or to instruct or
train (someone)’, whereas the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English suggests that it means to
‘show somebody how to do something’ or to ‘change somebody’s ideas’.
It is because view are somewhat mixed as to what teachers are, and because different functions
are ascribed to teaching, that we need to examine the teacher’s role not only in education generally,
but in the classroom itself.
A1. Teachers and learners

Many trainers are fond of quoting from a work called The Prophet by Kahlil Gibran. ‘If (the
teacher) is indeed wise, he does not bid you enter the house of his wisdom, but rather leads you to the
threshold of your own mind’ (Gibran 1991:76).
Such humanist sentiments expose a dilemma in the minds of many trainers and trainees. Is teaching
about the ‘transmission’ of knowledge from teacher to student, or is it about creating conditions in
which, somehow, students learn for themselves? To put it another way, if you were to walk into a
classroom, where would you expect to see the teacher – standing at the front controlling affairs, or
moving around the classroom quietly helping the students only when needed?
In recent years, under the influence of humanistic and communicative theories, great emphasis
has been placed on ‘learner-centered’ teaching, that is teaching which makes the learners’ need and
experience central to the educational process. In this framework, it is students’ need which should
drive the syllabus, not some imposed list; it is the students’ learning experiences and their responses
to them which should be at the heart of a language course. The measure of a good lesson is the student
activity taking place, not the performance of the teacher.
The physical manifestation of this trend is to be found in classrooms where learners are given
tasks to work on, and where, in the process of performing these tasks (with the teacher’s help), real
learning takes place. In these situations the teacher is no longer the giver of knowledge, the controller,
and the authority, but rather a facilitator and a resource for the students to draw on. One writer has
suggested that teachers in such learner-centered classrooms need special qualities including maturity,
intuition, educational skills (to develop students’ awareness of language and learning), an openness to
student input, and a greater tolerance of uncertainty. These qualities, he suggest, are in marked contrast
to more traditional teacher behavior (Tudor 1993). Yet they are precisely the characteristics most
people would expect of any teacher, traditional or modern, who has their learners’ best interests at
heart.
57
Not all methodologists find it easy to accept learner-centeredness uncritically, however. Robert
O’Neill, an influential materials writer and trainer, wrote an article whose title clearly expressed his
disquiet since he called it ‘The plausible myth of learner-centeredness’ (O’Neill 1991). He worried
that letting students do the learning on their own with teachers only intervening when and if needed,
might amount to a form of neglect. It could be tantamount to an abdication by the teacher of the
knowledge-giving role. What is wrong with old-fashioned ‘teacher-fronting’ he wondered? It seems
to work; it has always worked, and many students feel more comfortable with it.
It is true that in some educational traditions, students, and teachers find learner-centered
classrooms quite difficult to come to terms with. It also seems to be the case that there are many
occasions when the teacher will want to be at the front of the class to motivate, instruct, or explain
something to the whole class. But there are also many activities where encouraging students to solve
their own problems on their own or in pairs or groups, will have enormously beneficial effects both on
learning, and on the dynamics and atmosphere in the classroom. It is not an ‘either… or’ situation, in
other words. Instead our behavior will depend on how we feel about teaching and what we are
comfortable with, on the type of activity our students are involved in, and on who the students are and
how they feel about what we are asking them to do.
B. The roles of a teacher

Within the classroom our role may change from one activity to another, or from one stage of an activity
to another. If we are fluent at making these at making these changes our effectiveness as teachers is
greatly enhanced.
We have already used the term ‘facilitator’ in Section A above to suggest the teacher’s role in
learner-centered lessons – the way in which facilitator in traditionally used by many commentators.
Roles such as prompter (B4), resource (B6), or tutor (B7) may well fulfill this concept. Yet in one
sense any role which the teacher adopts-and which is designed to help students learn – is to some
facilitative. All roles, after all, aim to facilitate the students’ progress in some way or other, and so it
is useful to adopt more precise terms than facilitator as the sections below indicate.
B1. Controller
When teachers act as controllers they are in charge of the class and of the activity taking place in
a way that is substantially different from a situation where students are working on their own in
groups. Controllers take the roll, tell students thing, organize drills, read aloud, and in various
other ways exemplify the qualities of a teacher-fronted classroom.
Teachers who view their job as the transmission of knowledge from themselves to their
students are usually very comfortable with the image of themselves as controllers. Most people
can remember teachers from their past who had a gift for just such a kind of instruction and who
inspired their students through their knowledge and their charisma. However, not all teachers
possess this ability to inspire, and in less charismatic hands transmission teaching appears to have
less obvious advantages. For a start, it denies students access to their own experiential learning
by focusing everything on the teachers. In the second place it cuts down on opportunities for
students to speak because when the class is acting as a whole group, fewer individuals have a
chance to say anything at all; and in the third place, over-reliance on transmission teaching can
result in a lack of variety in activities and classroom atmosphere.
58
Of course there are times when acting as a controller makes sense such as when
announcements need to be made, when order has to be restored, when explanations are given, or
when the teacher is leading a question and answer session. Indeed in many educational context
this is the most common teacher role. Many teachers fail to go beyond it since controlling is the
role they are used to and are most comfortable with. Yet this is a pity because by sticking to one
mode of behavior we deny ourselves and the students many other possibilities and modes of
learning which are good not only for learning itself, but also for our students’ enjoyment of that
learning.
B2. Organizer
One of the most important roles that teachers have to perform is that of organizing students to do
various activities. This often involves giving the students information, telling them how they are
going to do the activity, putting them into pairs or groups, and finally closing thing down when it
is time to stop.
It is vitally import for teachers to get this role right when it is required. If the students do not
understand what they are supposed to do they may well not get full advantage from an activity. If
we do not explain clearly the ways pairs or groups should be organized, for example, chaos can
ensue. If we have not spent some time engaging the students’ interest and ensuring their
participation, the activity may be wasted.
The first thing we need to do when organizing something is to get students involved, engaged
and ready. In most cases this means making it clear that something ‘new’ is going to happen and
that the activity will be enjoyable or interesting or ‘good for you’. At this point teachers will often
say something like Now we’re going to do this because… and offer a rationale for the activity
students are to be asked perform. Thus, instead of just doing something because the teacher say
so, they are prepared, hopefully with some enthusiasm, for an activity whose purpose they
understand.
Once the students are ready for the activity, we will want to give any necessary instructions,
saying what students should do first, what they should do next, etc. Here it is important to get the
level of the language right and to try and present instructions in a logical order and in as
unconfusing a way as possible. It is frequently a good idea to get students to give the instructions
back, in English or in their own language, as a check on whether they have understood it. An
important tool in instruction is for the teacher to organize a demonstration of what is to happen.
If students are going to use a chart or table to ask other students questions and record their answers,
for example, getting a student up to the front to demonstrate the activity with you may be worth
any number of complex instructions. Demonstration is almost always appropriate and will almost
always ensure that students have a better grasp of what they are supposed to do than instructions
can on their own.
Then it is time for us to start or initiate the activity. At this point students probably need to
know how much time they have got and exactly when they should start.
Finally we stop the activity when students have finish and/or when other factors show the
teacher and the students that it is time to stop. This might be because they are bored, or because
some pairs or groups have already finished before the others. Perhaps the lesson is coming to the
end and we want to give some summarizing comments. At this point it is vital to organize some
59
kinds of feedback, whether this is merely a Did you enjoy that? Type of question (a vitally
important question, of course) or whether it is a more detailed discussion of what has taken place.
Teachers should think about ‘content feedback’ just as much as they concern themselves
with the use a language forms in ‘form and use feedback’. The latter is concerned with our role
as assessor (see below), whereas the former has more to do with the roles of participant and tutor.
When organizing feedback we need to do what we say we are going to do, whether this
concerns the prompt return of homework or our responses at the end of an oral activity. Students
will judge us by the way fulfill the criteria we offer them.
We can summarize the role of organizer as follows:
engage instruct (demonstrate) initiate organize feedback
B3. Assessor
One of the things that students expect from their teachers is an indication of whether or not they
are getting their English right. This is where we have to act as an assessor, offering feedback and
correction and grating students in various ways.
We will be dealing with correction in a chapter all of its own, but where teachers act as
assessors, offering feedback on performance, handing out grades, saying whether students can
pass to the next level, etc. we can make some important points.
Students need to know how and for what they are being assessed. We should tell them what
we are looking for and what success looks like so that they can measure themselves against this.
We might say, for example, that in today’s piece of writing I will be looking especially at
punctuation, or in this communication activity I am more interested in your fluency than your
accuracy. Students then have a clear idea of what they need to concentrate on.
Another critical issue is the one of fairness. When students are criticized or score poor grades
and they then find that other students have suffered less criticism for an equally good or bad
performance, they tend to be extremely unhappy. Most of them want credit for good performance
and constructive criticism for poor performance. What they do not want is a feeling that they are
being unfairly judged.
When we act as assessors (whether in the matter of ‘instant’ correction or more drawn-out
grade giving) we must always be sensitive to the students’ possible reactions. A bad grade is a
bag grade, however it is communicated. But it can be made far more acceptable if it is given with
sensitivity and support.
B4. Prompter
Sometimes, when students are involved in a role-play activity, for example, they lose the thread
of what is going on, or they are ‘lost for words’ (i.e. they may still have the thread but be unable
to proceed productively for lack of vocabulary). They may not be quite sure how to proceed. What
should teachers do in these circumstances? Hold back and let them work things out for themselves
or, instead, ‘nudge’ them forward in a discreet and supportive way? If we opt for the latter, we
are adopting some kind of a ‘prompting’ role.
In such situations we want to help but we do not want, at that stage, to take charge because we
are keen to encourage the students to think creatively rather than have them hang on our every
word. Thus it is that we will occasionally offer words or phrases, suggest that the students say
something (e.g. Well, ask him why he says that), or suggest what could come next in a paragraph
60
a student is writing, for example. Often we have to prompt students in monolingual groups to
speak English rather than using their mother tongue (see Chapter 9D).
When we prompt we need to do it sensitively and encouragingly but, above all, with discretion.
If we are too adamant we risk taking initiative away from the student. If, on the other hand, we
are too retiring, we may not supply the right amount of encouragement.
B5. Participant
The traditional picture of teachers during student discussions, role-play, or group decision-making
activities, is of people who ´stand back´ from the activity, letting the learners get on with it and
only intervening later to offer feedback and/or correct mistakes. However, there are also times
when we might want to join in an activity not as a teacher, but also as a participant in our own
right.
There are good reasons why we might want to take in a discussion. For example, it means that
we can enliven things from the inside instead of always having to prompt or organize from outside
the group. When it goes well, students enjoy having the teacher with them, and for the teacher,
participating is often more instantly enjoyable than acting as a resource.
The danger of teachers as participants, of course, is that we can easily dominate the
proceedings. This is hardly surprising since we usually have more English at our disposal than
our students do. But it is also due to the fact that even in the most egalitarian classroom, the
teacher is still frequently perceived of as ‘the teacher’ and tends to be listened to with greater
attention than his or her students. It takes great skill and sensitivity to avoid this situation.
B6. Resource
In some activities it is inappropriate for us to take on any of the roles we have suggested so far.
Suppose that the students are involved in a piece of group writing, or that they are involved in
preparation for a presentation they are to make to the class. In such situations having the teacher
take part, or try to control them, or even turn up to prompt them might be entirely unwelcome.
However, the students may still have need of their teacher as a resource.
Students might ask how to say or write something or what a word or phrase means. They might
want to know information in the middle of an activity about that activity or they might want
information about where to look for something – a book or a web site for example. This is where
we can be one of the most important resources they have.
A few things need to be said about this teacher role. No teacher knows everything about the
language! Questions like What’s the difference between X and Y? or Why can’t I say Z? are always
difficult to deal with because most of us do not carry complex information of this kind in our
heads. What we should be able to offer, however, is guidance as to where students can go to look
for that information. We could go further, however, and say that one of our really important jobs
is to encourage students to use resource material for themselves, and to become more independent
in their learning generally. Thus, instead of answering every question about what a word or phrase
means, we can instead direct students to a good monolingual dictionary, or in the case of creative
work, towards a good production dictionary. Alternatively, we need to have the courage to say I
don’t know the answer to that right now, but I’ll tell you tomorrow. This means, of course, that
we will indeed have to give them the information the next day, otherwise they may begin to lose
confidence in us.
61
When we are acting as a resource we will want to be helpful and available, but at the same
time we have to resist the urge to spoon-feed our students so that they become over-reliant on us.
B7. Tutor
When students are working on longer project, such as pieces of writing or preparations for a talk
or a debate, we can act as a tutor, working with individuals or small groups, pointing them in
directions they have not yet thought of taking. In such situations we are combining the roles of
prompter and resource, acting as a tutor.
It is difficult to be a tutor in a very large group since the term implies a more intimate
relationship than that of a controller or organizer. However, when students are working in small
groups or in pairs, we can go round the class and, staying briefly with a particular group or
individual, offer the sort of general guidance we are describing. Care needs to be taken, however,
to ensure that as many individuals or groups as possible are seen, otherwise the students who have
not had access to the tutor may begin to feel aggrieved.
It is essential for us to act as tutors from time to time, however difficult this may be. In this
more personal contact the learners have a real chance to feel supported and helped, and the general
class atmosphere is greatly enhanced as a result. Nevertheless, as with prompting and acting as a
resource, we need to make sure that we do not intrude either too much (which will impede learner
autonomy) or too little (which will be unhelpful).
B8. Observer
We will want to observe what students do (especially in oral communicative activities) so that we
can give them useful group and individual feedback.
When observing students, we should be careful not to be too intrusive by hanging on their every
word, by getting too close to them, or by officiously writing things down all the time. Above all
we should avoid drawing attention to ourselves since to do so may well distract them from the
task they are involved in.
It is often useful, when taking notes on students’ performance – either as a whole class, or for
individual students – to have columns not only for what students get wrong but also what they do
right, either in their use of actual language or in their use of conversational strategies. Observing
for success often gives us a different feel for how well our students are doing.
But even when we are acting as controllers, giving feedback or organizing students, we need
to be observing at the same time too, constantly alert to the effect our actions are having, trying
to tease out feelings and reactions in the classroom. We need to be able to work and observe
simultaneously, listening, watching, and absorbing so that we can create the best kind of rapport
between ourselves and our students.
Teachers do not only observe students in order to give feedback. They also watch in order to
judge the success of the different materials and activities that they take into lessons so that they
can, if necessary, make changes in the future. Indeed, one area of teacher development involves
just such observation, built into an action research cycle where we pose questions about what we
do in the classroom and use observation to answer such questions.
62
B9. Which role?

The role that we take on is dependent, as we have seen, on what it is wish the students to achieve.
Where some activities are difficult to organize without the teacher acting as controller, others
have no chance of success unless we take a less domineering role. There are times when we will
need to act as a prompter where, on other occasions, it would be more appropriate to act as a
resource.
What we can say, with certainty, is that we need to be able to switch between the various roles
we have described here, judging when it is appropriate to use one or other of them. And then,
when we have made that decision, however consciously or subconsciously it is done, we need to
be aware of how we carry out that role and how we perform.
C. The teacher as performer

In an article published at the end of the 1980s, Christopher Crouch described his experiences of
observing his student teachers on teaching practice in Madrid. One of them, who he called W, was
obviously full of energy and he writes of how she ‘rubbed her hands together’ and ‘advanced on the
front row with a question, almost aggressively…’ Later on, ‘… seeking students to come out to the
front of the class W strode up aisles, literally hauling individuals out of their seats’ (Crouch 1989:
107). Yet amazingly, Crouch reports, the students did not seem to mind this at all: on the contrary they
were pleased to join in and were clearly fascinated by her behavior!
W was different from student teacher X who was ‘relaxed, at ease, but his nonverbal gestures were
exaggerated, larger than life’. He seemed to empathize with his students, gazing into their eyes and
generally being more ‘laid back’ than his colleague. But like W, he too was popular with students.
Many of us will be able to remember teachers whose classroom behavior was exaggerated in a way
not unlike W or X – or indeed some mixture of them both.
We can be sure that neither W nor X behave in the same way when they are walking along the
street as they did in the classes that Christopher Crouch observed. On the contrary, they clearly went
into ‘performance’ mode when they entered the classroom. When, in a piece of informal research, I
asked a number of teachers ‘Are you a different person in the classroom than you are out of the
classroom?’ the responses I got all suggested that the teachers thought of themselves as more energetic,
humorous, and creative in class. Frequently, too, they described themselves as ‘actors’ (Harmer 1995).
If, then, teachers are all performers in the classroom at some level, what does this mean for the
learner-centered teacher? Can we ‘perform’ and still act as a resource? What kind of performance
should we adopt when giving feedback? Does ‘performance’ automatically mean that we must be
standing at the front of the class putting on a show? For clearly if this was the case, teacher performance
would describe only one kind of teacher role and might be criticized for the very transmissive and
teacher-centered behavior it demonstrated. But as W and X show, different teachers perform
differently. Not only that, but any one teacher probably also has many different performance styles
depending on the situation. One minute we may be standing at the front commanding or entertaining,
but a few minutes later we will be working quietly with a pair while the other students are working in
their own pairs.
Knowing that different teachers act differently and that individual teachers vary their behavior,
depending upon what they are doing, gives us insights into classroom behavior. It suggests that instead
of just saying what role teachers should be playing, we can also describe how they should be paying
it. Just as stage directions give the actors and insight into what lines mean, so similar descriptions in
63
teaching may give us insights into how activities can best be managed. This for an activity where the
students are involved in a team game, we will want to behave energetically (because a game needs
excitement and energy), encouragingly (if students need a nudge to have a go), clearly (because we do
not want the game to fail through misunderstanding) and fairly (because students care about this in a
competition situation). If, on the other hand, students are involved in a role-play we should perform
clearly (because students need to know exactly what the parameters of the role-play are),
encouragingly (because students may need prompting to get them going), but also retiringly (because,
once the activity has got going, we do not want to overwhelm the students’ performance) and
supportively (because students may need help at various points). The figure bellow shows how we
might describe these and other activities:
Activity How the teacher should perform

1. Team game energetically, encouragingly, clearly, fairly
2. Role-play Clearly, encouragingly, retiringly, supportively
3. Teacher reading aloud Commandingly, dramatically, interestingly
4. Whole-class listening Efficiently, clearly, supportively
Figure 12: Describing teacher performance styles
What seems to be clear is that while we certainly need to be aware of the roles we described in Section
B (above), and while we also need to be able to use each of these different roles, it is also vitally
important to consider how we actually behave during their performance.
D. The teacher as teaching aid

Apart from the roles which we adopt in the classroom – and the way that these roles are performed,
we are also a kind of teaching aid ourselves, a piece of teaching equipment in our own right. In
particular, we are especially useful when using mime and gesture, as language models, and as providers
of comprehensible input.
D1. Mime and gesture

One of the things that we are uniquely able to do on the spot is to use mime, gesture, and
expression to convey meaning and atmosphere. It is not difficult to pretend to be drinking, or to
pull a sad face. The ability to demonstrate words like frightened or old is fairly easy for many
teachers, just as shrugging shoulders can be used to indicate indifference.
Mime and expression probably work best when they are exaggerated since this makes their
meaning explicit. However, gestures do not necessarily have universal meanings, and what might
seem acceptable in one situation or place will not be appropriate in another. We need, therefore,
to use them with care.
We can also use gesture to express or demonstrate meaning. Thus, fingers can be used to show
how verbs are contracted, and arms can be used to ‘conduct’ choral repetition. Stress can be shown
through clapping or clicking fingers, and intonation can be explained through a kind of drawing
in the air!
One gesture which is widely used, but which teacher should employ with care, is the act of
pointing to students to ask them to participate in a drill or give some other form of response.
64
Though it is quick and efficient, especially when we are having trouble with our students’ names,
it can seem aggressive and it may make it depressingly obvious to the students that, in having
failed to learn their names, we are less than respectful of their identity.
D2. Language model

Students get models of language from textbooks, reading materials of all sorts, and from audio
and videotapes. But we can also model language ourselves. This does not only mean the giving
of a clear language model as in the PPP procedure, but also, for example, the saying of a dialogue
or the reading aloud of a text.
One way in which we can model dialogues is to put up two faces on the board and then stand
in front of each of them when required to speak their lines. For such activities we should make
sure that we can be heard, and we should animate our performance with as much enthusiasm as
is appropriate for the conversation we are modelling. We should judge the appropriate speed too,
making sure that however slowly we speak, a natural rhythm is maintained and normal intonation
patterns preserved as far as possible.
Many of the same requirements apply to reading aloud, a skill which some teachers have
tended to ignore. Yet the reading aloud of a particularly exciting or interesting except can be
extremely motivating and enjoyable for a class, especially when students have been encouraged
to predict what they are going to hear. Poems, too, are very engaging for many students when
teachers read them to the class.
Anyone who doubts the power of such activities only has to look at the reading circles in
primary classes where children group enthusiastically around the teacher to enjoy the experience
of listening to a story. Story-telling and story/poem-reading can work with adults too, though the
content and the way it is handled will be significantly different, of course.
Reading passages aloud to students can capture imagination and mood like nothing else, but
in order for this to work we need to ‘perform’ the reading in an interesting and committed way
and, as with so many other activities, we must be careful not use this activity too frequently.
D3. Provider of comprehensible input

An issue that confronts many teachers in classrooms is how much they themselves should talk, and
what kind of talk this should be. Of course, there are times when teachers have to take the roll or
ask for quiet, or suggest that students should get into pairs and groups. But there are also times
when teachers simply talk to groups, engage in conversation with them, discuss the topic under
consideration or ask them about their weekend, etc.
On most training courses a distinction is made between student-talking time (STT) and teacher-
talking time (TTT). It is the concern to maximize the former that leads many teachers to use pair
and groupwork; it has been assumed that on the whole we want to see more STT than TTT, since,
as trainers frequently point out to their student teachers, You don’t need the languagepractice, they
do.
It is certainly true that some teachers talk too much and that this is not necessarily
advantageous for their students, especially since those teachers are unlikely accepted that a vital
ingredient in the learning of any language is, of course, exposure to it. The American linguist
Stephen Krashen described the best kind of language that students could be exposed to as
‘comprehensible input’, that is language which students understand the meaning of, but which is
65
ENTRO PERUANO AMERCANO “EL CULTURAL”
nevertheless, slightly above their own production level (see Krashen 1985). Yet where can they
go for such language input? In the world outside the classroom, English, if they have access to it,
will frequently appear incomprehensible, especially when they are at a low level. They need
something or someone to provide language which has been ‘roughly-tuned’ to be comprehensible
to them. Moreover, there is someone right there in the classroom to give them just that!
As teachers, we are ideally placed to provide comprehensible input since we know the students
in front of us and can react appropriately to them in a way that a coursebook or a tape, for example,
cannot. We know how to talk at just the right level so that even if our students do not understand
every word we say, they do understand the meaning of what is being said. At such times the
language gains, for the student, are significant.
However, we do need to need to be aware of how much we ourselves are speaking. If we talk
all the time, however ‘comprehensible’ our language is, the students are denied their own chance
to practice production, or get exposure through other means (from reading or listening to tapes,
for example). They may also become bored by listening to the teacher all the time.
Basing a lesson on what we can do ourselves as in the examples above clearly has the enormous
advantage of not being susceptible to technical malfunction (though that can happen!),power cuts,
or unavailability. However, an over-reliance on what we ourselves can offer places excessive
demands upon us. It is hard to be permanently motivating and amusing, and it is taxingto have to
offer a perpetually varied diet of videos, gestures, and expressions. Nevertheless the ways in
which we use our voice, the ways in which we model language and employ gesture and expression
are all basic and important teaching skills.
66
SESSION 3
Principles of Mobile Learning
As learning practices and technology tools change, mobile learning
itself will continue to evolve. For 2021, the focus is on a variety of
challenges, from how learners access content to how the idea of a
‘curriculum’ is defined. Technology like tablets PCs, apps, and access to
broadband internet are lubricating the shift to mobile learning, but a truly
immersive mobile learning environment goes beyond the tools for
learning to the lives and communities valued by each individual learner
I. Principles of Mobile Learning

1. Access
A mobile learning environment is about access to content, peers, experts, portfolio artifacts, credible
sources, and previous thinking on relevant topics. It can be actuated via a smartphone or iPad, laptop or
in-person, but access is constant–which in turn shifts a unique burden to learn on the shoulders of the
student.
2. Metrics
As mobile learning is a blend of the digital and physical, diverse metrics (i.e., measures) of understanding
and ‘performance of knowledge’ will be available.
3. Cloud
Materials are constantly available, allowing for previously inaccessible levels and styles of revision and
collaboration.
4. Transparent
Transparency is the natural byproduct of connectivity, mobility, and collaboration. As planning, thinking,
performance, and reflection are both mobile and digital, they gain an immediate audience with both local
and global communities through social media platforms from twitter to Instagram.
5. Play
Play is one of the primary characteristics of authentic, progressive learning, both a cause and effect of an
engaged mind. In a mobile learning environment, learners are encountering a dynamic and often unplanned
set of data, domains, and collaborators, changing the tone of learning from academic and compliant to
personal and playful.
6. Asynchronous
Among the most powerful principles of mobile learning is asynchronous access. This unbolts an
educational environment from a school floor and allows it to move anywhere, anytime in pursuit of
truly entrepreneurial learning. It also enables a learning experience that is increasingly personalized: just
in time, just enough, just for me.
7. Self-Actuated
With asynchronous access to content, peers, and experts comes the potential for self-actuation. Here,
learners plan topic, sequence, audience, and application via facilitation of teachers who now act as
experts of resource and assessment.
67
8. Diverse
With mobility comes diversity. As learning environments change constantly, that fluidity becomes a norm
that provides a stream of new ideas, unexpected challenges, and constant opportunities for revision and
application of thinking. Audiences are diverse, as are the environments data is being gleaned from and
delivered to.
9. Curation
Apps and mobile devices can not only support curation, but can do so better than even the most caffeine-
laced teacher might hope to. By design, these technologies adapt to learners, store files, publish thinking,
and connect learners, making curation a matter of process rather than ability.
10. Blending
A mobile learning environment will always represent a blending of sorts–physical movement, personal
communication, and digital interaction.
11. Always-On
Always-on learning is self-actuated, spontaneous, iterative, and recursive. There is a persistent need for
information access, cognitive reflection, and interdependent function through mobile devices. It is also
embedded in communities capable of intimate and natural interaction with students.
12. Authentic
All of the previous 11 principles yield an authenticity to learning that is impossible to reproduce in a
classroom. They also ultimately converge to enable experiences that are truly personalized.
II. Benefits of Synchronous and Asynchronous e-Learning

SYNCHRONOUS LEARNING
In an online classroom environment, many of the learning activities and expectations are similar to those
found in a traditional classroom. These learning environments offer meaningful interactions in a face-to-
face setting and are most commonly referred to as synchronous learning activities (Hrastinski, 2008; Harris
et al., 2009; Simonson et al., 2012). Lectures, discussions, and lesson presentations occur at a specific point
in time with the expectation that all students will be available to participate. Synchronous learning
environments support learning and teaching and offer students and teachers with multiple ways of
interacting, sharing, and the ability to collaborate and ask questions in real-time through synchronous
learning technologies. Examples of synchronous online technology types include videoconferencing,
webcasts, interactive learning models, and telephone conferences (Er et al., 2009; eLearners.com, 2012).
Some ways of interacting are:
• Student Engagement
In addition to videoconferencing, webcasts, and telephone conferences other examples of synchronous
technology types include virtual worlds and chat rooms (Er et al., 2009; eLearners.com, 2012). In
order to successfully participate in these environment students must be engaged in student-learning,
which is the most important learner characteristic a student can demonstrate.
• Synchronous Collaboration
Studies show that the higher a learner perceives the level of collaboration the more satisfied they are
with e-learning overall (Diaz & Entonado, 2009; Er et al., 2009). In both the traditional and online
classroom environments, interaction and collaboration are identified as a major factor in successful
learning outcomes (Bonk & Zhang, 2006; Martinez-Caro, 2011. In an online learning environment, the
teacher’s role becomes more about facilitating, guiding, and motivating the learner (Diaz & Entonado,
2009) and can be successfully achieved through feedback and collaboration.
68
• Instructional Pacing
Online learning environments provide flexibility and offer students personalized learning opportunities
(Lorenzo & Ittelson, 2005). Students learning online have the opportunity to express their thoughts
without judgment or interruptions (Er et al., 2009). Online learning experiences can be developed to
provide advanced educational opportunities for the learning needs of individual students.
• ASYNCHRONOUS LEARNING
In an asynchronous learning environment, students are able to actively participate in their own learning,
giving them the opportunity to interact with their peers, provide peer feedback, and reflect on the status
of their personal learning goals and outcomes (Er et al., 2009; Harris et al., 2009; Simonson et al., 2012).
In many learning environments there are learning activities and expectations that require students to
create, synthesize, explain, and apply the content or skills being taught (Harris, Mishra, & Koehler, 2009;
Simonson et al., 2012). Asynchronous technologies support learning and allow more time for student
reflection, collaboration, and student-to-student interactions (Bonk & Zhang, 2006; Skylar, 2009; Meloni,
2010).
According to Meloni (2010) asynchronous communication and learning is by far the more popular learning
type because many of the learning tools are free, require minimal hardware, and are used at the student’s
pace. Just as with synchronous learning, the growing increase in IT and online connections has expanded
the online learning opportunities available. A number of educational benefits can be observed from the use
of asynchronous technologies in an online learning environment including:
1. Enriched student products and portfolios,

2. Student and teacher collaboration, and
3. Learner specific pacing geared to the individual student needs (Hrastinski, 2008; Skylar, 2009;
Meloni, 2010; eLearners.com, 2012).
• Student Portfolios
Electronic portfolios (e-folios) demonstrate a student’s skill and knowledge level over a specific topic.
Online learners often create e-folios that combine text, images, presentations, video, audio, links, and a
discussion space to demonstrate mastery of a specific content area or subject matter (Mason, Pegler, &
Weller, 2004; Lorenzo & Ittelson, 2005; eLearners.com, 2012). Many institutions have begun viewing
e-folios as a replacement for traditional classroom high stake assessments (Lorenzo & Ittelson, 2005).
E-folios help facilitate the exchange of ideas, discourse, and subject area feedback between student
and teacher creating a meaningful learning experience for the student (Lorenzo & Ittelson, 2005). Due
to the success of these e-folios some higher education institutions have also started using them to
document and archive student’s academic careers.
• Asynchronous Collaboration
As with synchronous collaboration, studies have shown that collaboration increases overall student
learning in online learning environments (Diaz & Entonado, 2009; Er et al., 2009). A sense of
community is necessary to sustain the educational experience over time and this can be achieved through
collaborative learning communities (Garrison & Kanuka, 2004). In this learning environment the
teacher’s role is still about developing and facilitating a student’s learning experiences (Diaz &
Entonado, 2009). This facilitation can be successfully achieved through asynchronous collaboration,
69
allowing students to thoughtfully consider learning objectives because they have the time to critically
synthesize their learning (Garrison & Kanuka, 2004; Bonk & Zhang, 2006).
• Individualized Pacing
Asynchronous learning technologies have been defined as personalized learning tools (Lorenzo &
Ittelson, 2005). With these tools, the teacher can assess what students understand and adapt future
course assignments to facilitate a higher level and more in-depth understanding of the content (Bonk &
Zhang, 2006; Hrastinski, 2008). These online learning environments create an opportunity for online
students to become highly self-reflective (Bonk & Zhang, 2006). Perhaps most significantly, what is
facilitated through the use of asynchronous tools provides a learning space where participants can
confront debatable ideas and faulty thinking in more objective and reflective ways (Garrison & Kanuka,
2004).
CONCLUSION
It is clear from the research that the technologies associated with synchronous and asynchronous learning
can improve the quality of student-teacher interactions, foster increased student engagement, and improve
learning outcomes (Hastie, Hung, Chen, Kinsuk, 2010; Simonson et al., 2012). There are strengths and
weaknesses to both designs. Some students like a synchronous online learning environment because they
need face-to-face instruction. For other students, an asynchronous online learning environment provides
more time to consider all sides of an issue before offering their own educated input. Both learning types
have very unique benefits and limitations to online learning. Er et al., (2009) suggests that in order to
overcome these limitations the two learning types should be integrated and utilized to support student
needs within an online learning environment called blended learning. Which suits your online learning
style best?
70
WHAT BLENDED LEARNING IS – AND ISN’T

Last summer, I attended a panel at an education conference where the moderator asked a group of panelists,
“How do you define blended learning?” The moderator’s question came from a realistic vantage point:
with a wide range of educational terms, including project-
based learning, blended learning, personalized learning, and online learning,
it can be difficult to differentiate what blended learning is and isn’t.
Nevertheless, I felt frustrated by her question because it assumed that each
panelist would have different insights to offer on what blended learning
means. Without a universal definition of blended learning, thereis no shared
language by which the education field can describe the phenomena or address
its opportunities and challenges.
The phenomenon of blended learning has its roots in online learning and
represents a fundamental shift in instruction that has the potential to optimize
for the individual student in ways that traditional instruction never could.
Although schools have been using computers and technology for some
time, until recently they haven’t generally used technology to provide students
with a true “blend” of instruction that gives them some element of control
over their learning. The definition of blended learning has three parts,
described below:
1. In part through online learning

First, blended learning is any formal education program in which a student learns at least
in part through online learning, with some element of student control over time, place, path,
and/or pace.
Critical to the definition is “online learning, with some element of student control.” In all blended-
learning programs, students do some of their learning via the internet. This does not mean using any
digital tool, such as an online graphing calculator or Google Docs. Online learning means a bigger
instructional shift from a face-to-face teacher to web-based content and instruction.
Some element of student control is critical; otherwise, blended learning is no different from a teacher
beaming online curriculum to a classroom of students through an electronic whiteboard. The technology
used for the online learning must shift content and instruction to the control of the student in at least
some way for it to qualify as blended learning from the student’s perspective, rather than just the use
of digital tools from the classroom teacher’s perspective. It may be merely control of pace—the ability for
students to pause, go back, or skip forward through online content as free agents. But often, online
learning extends other types of control—in some cases students can choose the time at which they do
their online learning, the path they want to take to learn a concept, or even the location from which they
want to complete the online work—whether in a brick-and-mortar classroom or anywhere else.
71
2. In part in a supervised brick-and-mortar location

The second part of the definition is that the student learns at least in part in a supervised brick- and-
mortar location away from home. In other words, the student attends a physical school with teachers or
guides. Often it’s the neighborhood school, but in other cases it’s a learning center that could even be
housed in a shopping mall space that has been converted into a drop-in computer lab. Blended learning means
that students have at least some on-campus, away-from-home component built into their schedule.
3. An integrated learning experience
The third part of the definition is that the modalities along each student’s learning path within a course
or subject are connected to provide an integrated learning experience. This means that if students are
learning U.S. history in a blended way, the online and face-to-face components work together to deliver
an integrated course. The opposite of this would be that the students learn some topics online and then
return to their traditional classroom to repeat them in a face-to-face lecture. To prevent such lack of
coordination, most blended-learning programs use a computer-based data system to track each student’s
progress and try to match the modality—whether it is online, one-on-one, or small group—to the
appropriate level and topic. The key idea is that blended learning involves an actual “blend” of whatever
formats are within the course of study.
72
APPLYING THE DEFINITION

Let’s also use this definition in a hypothetical situation to see whether it is an example of blendedlearning.
Tracy is a language arts teacher who has posted all of her lesson plans, assignments, and quizzes online
so that students can access them at home, as well as at school. Tracy’s school recently implemented a one-
to-one program in which each student has access to a personal computing device. To leverage the
technology, Tracy has all of her students follow along on their devices during a guided reading exercise,
during which the teacher and students examine a piece of text together. After a class discussion on
the text, Tracy has the students switch over to Google Docs where they each write their own agreement
or disagreement with the central argument of the text. During thistime, Tracy roams the classroom
making sure students are on task and answering any questions that arise.
Is Tracy using blended learning in her classroom? No. Let’s understand why:
• By posting all class material online, Tracy is using the Internet to merely host information, not to manage
the delivery of content or instruction.
• The fact that Tracy’s school is a one-to-one program is irrelevant to whether blended learning is taking
place. One-to-one is not synonymous with blended learning, as it doesn’t imply a shift in instructional
delivery or an element of student control. Although equipping all students with devices can be a crucial
component of creating a blended-learning program, if not implemented correctly, the devices themselves
can easily be used to support traditional instruction (as in Tracy’s case).
• Tracy’s students are all using the personal computing devices to read and write, but they are moving
through the content as a single batch doing the same thing at the same time with no element of control
over the time, place, path, or pace of learning.
• Tracy’s use of Google Docs for the student writing exercise is no different than if her students were writing
with pencil and paper.
Tracy is participating in a “technology-rich” classroom, not a blended one. Technology-rich instruction
shares the features of traditional teacher-led instruction with technological enhancements. This includes
electronic whiteboards, digital textbooks, online lesson plans, Google Docs, virtual reality, and so forth.
These tools may enhance learning experiences, but do not fundamentally shift instruction in a way that gives
students some element of control.
By understanding blended learning as an instructional delivery model that gives students some element
of control over their learning and by leveraging the opportunity of personalization that blended learning
can provide at scale, educators can start to address challenges and opportunities in their schools that will
enable them to move the practice of blended learning forward.
73
Discussion questions
Based on information provided in the lesson for Week 2 and the video/readings, create an original post and
include the following:
1. What specific features define online, blended, and mobile learning environments?
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
2. Which features might you incorporate in the design of a course and lessons to support our English
language learners?
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
3. Post a picture of your learning environment—either when you are working on course materials or at work
(optional but interesting).
74
METHODOLOGY
COURSE
MODULE I

TEACHING
IV WEEK
- Online English language learning (facilitator)
- Online English language learning (learner)
- Module exam
75
SESSION 1
Instructor Presence in the Online Class – Key to Learner Success
Instructor presence in the online environment can be elusive as a shadow – it’s one dimensional,
monochromatic and takes on various forms depending upon the point
of view. Yet, instructor presence in online learning communities is vital
to ‘complete learning’ (by complete I mean student engages with
content, applies higher order thinking skills, and produces tangible
evidence that learning objectives are met). In the virtual environment the
instructor needs to be ‘real’, 3 dimensional, have a personality, be the
subject matter expert and as if this isn’t enough, help the student achieve
the learning goals in this virtual space. A tall order. In this post I’ll share
why and how instructor [virtual] presence is critical, essential
instructional design components to facilitate presence, and strategies used by instructors that demonstrate
presence.
What is online presence?

The concept of ‘presence’ in the online environment is in itself complex, involving thought, emotion and
behaviors (Lehman and Conceicao, 2011). Presence in this context can be divided into categories
of social, cognitive and instructor presence as presented in the Community of Inquiry model, which provides
a framework for learning in the online environment (Garrison, 2003). An uncomplicated definition of online
presence is, a sense of ‘being there’ or ‘being together with others’. For students to experience this sense of
presence online, the technology must become transparent – the web enabled device, the platform, or site is
invisible, in other words:
…the student becomes engaged by the content (whether people, text, images or other) and the technology
disappears.
76
Why Instructor presence is Key to Learner Success…
Of course, there are theoretical reasons which describe why the role of the instructor is crucial to online
learning, but this week as I reviewed student feedback from our most recent session of online courses at my
workplace, it became apparent just how important the instructor’s role is, by the level of ‘presence’ as
perceived by the student. Below is a selection of student comments, which illustrate the value of the
instructor. Responses are to this question
– “What did you like best about the course”:
Dr. insight and instruction is outstanding. As a student who already holds a Master’s degree in Science,
I appreciate a good instructor …
…The best thing about the course was Dr. . He really made things so that you could understand them…Dr.
was very helpful, but at this point (the middle of week 8), he still has not uploaded grades for any of the
course discussion boards, some of which I submitted 7 weeks ago….[this comment reinforces the value of
instructor feedback]
A research study in Journal of Interactive Online Learning supports this observation. The study found that
the largest single instructor action that students attributed to their success in the online course wasthe
feedback provided by instructors that helped them [students] understand their strengths and weaknesses.
The second most important success factor identified was the “instructor’s ability to focus discussions on
relevant issues” (Kupczynsk et al., 2010).
Course Design to Support Instructor Presence

Another concept which is interesting is how the instructional design of the course itself supports ‘presence’.
Course design can be considered, the silent instructor. When strong design principles are in place, this frees
up the online instructor to invest time in connecting with students in the online community and teaching.
“The need for presentation of clear, concise objectives, instructions and general participation guidelines
should be a cornerstone of online course development. Both groups in this study expressed significant
frustration when these elements were not present and believed that successful engagement with content and
activities was dependent on sound instructional design and organization”. (Kupczynsk, 2010).
How the Instructor can establish presence
1. The professor as a real person:

Our instructors create a one to two-minute welcome video. Students watch the clip
during the first few days of the class. Instructors create a YouTube video clip (can
be private), or create a movie file on their laptop and upload the clip to our Learning
Management platform. I love these clips – each are unique as the professor. Some
are filmed in the instructor’s office, outside, or even in a coffee shop. These clips
make the professor ‘real’ and set the tone for an open and interactive learning
community.
2. Communicating regularly:
Posting a weekly announcement with course updates, web resources, commenting on course discussion
boards and/or upcoming assignments also seems to be an effective method by the instructor
77
communicating ‘en masse’. Using humor strategically can also break the ice and make the class fun, with a
humourous YouTube clip or comic.
3. Feedback on assignments.
My absolutely favorite method of feedback that I received as a student, was when my professor recorded
feedback on an assignment using the screen cast format, [Jing is one example]. The file was emailed (and
posted in the gradebook). The instructor gave specific, personal commentary, and though it was only 3 or 4
minutes in length, it was effective. Another option is Audacity or Screencast.com.
4. Feedback/input on Class Discussions.
[Not surprising] research also suggests that students respond positively when instructors are involved in
class discussions, rating this as a strong indicator of presence.
It takes a completely different skill set to instruct online than in the face-to-face environment. Hopefully
this post provided some insight and assistance for those instructors teaching online.
The Role of the Online Instructor/Facilitator

"It's a very ancient saying, but a true and honest thought, that if you
become a teacher, by your pupils you'll be taught."
Lyrics by Oscar Hammerstein (The King and I)
A prerequisite to the use of computer-mediated communication (CMC) when facilitating online instruction
is access to a high level of computing power and a reliable telecommunication infrastructure. After saying
that, I want to emphasize in the strongest way that when developing and delivering instruction, whether
online or not, the use of technology is secondary to well-designed learning goals and objectives. What
distinguishes online instruction from entertainment or recreation is the purposefulness of the designers and
developers in provoking certain intelligent responses to the learning materials, context, and environment.
This article will list the roles and functions of the online instructor in computer conferencing (CC1). Simply
stated, computer conferencing is "direct human communication, with the computer acting simply as a
transaction router, or providing simple storage and retrieval functions" (Santoro, 1995, p. 14). Regardless
of the level of technology used for CC--such as email, mailing lists, MOOs, MUDs, BBSs, computer
conferencing systems, or the Web--certain instructional tasks must be performed for successful learning. It
may not create the best learning environment to rely solely on CC. However, used alone or in conjunction
with other media, such as audioconferencing, classroom delivery or printed materials, CC can be used to
provide an effective instructional system.
78
Types of Interaction in Learning

In essence, learning involves two types of interaction: interaction with content and interpersonal interaction,
(i.e., interaction with other people). Both are critical in many types of learning. I think as an educator designs
a course that is to promote higher order learning, such as analysis, synthesis, andevaluation, rather than rote
memorization, it becomes important to provide an environment in which both kinds of interaction can occur.
Technology available today, like CC (computer conferencing communication), allows interaction with and
about the content. In the past, while this interpersonal interaction has occurred almost solely between
instructor and student in distance education, it is increasingly possible for students to interact with one
another, even when geographically separated. Again, different channels of communication can hinder or
facilitate interpersonal and interaction with content. It isa combination of technologies and media that
provide an environment rich in various opportunities forinteraction that the designer can use, provided the
strengths and limitations of each are taken into consideration. Interpersonal interaction does not necessarily
require real-time (synchronous) communication. Therefore, interaction among instructor and students can be
independent of time and place. Designers of online instruction need to be aware that the higher the content
density of the materials to be learned, the more self-pacing is becoming the responsibility of the learner. High
density content may be better delivered via recorded media such as printed text, video tape or on a Web site-
-all of which can be revisited by the learner at his/her convenience and individual pace.
The Role of the Instructor When Teaching in the CC

Environment
Clearly the most important role of the online instructor is to model effective teaching and accept "the
responsibility of keeping discussions track, contributing special knowledge and insights, weaving together
various discussion threads and course components, and maintaining group harmony" (Rohfeld & Hiemstra,
1995, p. 91).
There are many necessary conditions for successful online tutoring, which I have categorized into the
following four areas (Berge, 1995): pedagogical, social, managerial, and technical. Not all of these roles
need to be carried out in their entirety by the same person. In fact, it may be rare that they are. A brief
description of those roles follows (Feenberg, 1986; Gulley, 1968; Kerr, 1986; McCreary, 1990; McMann,
1994; Paulsen, 1995).
Pedagogical (intellectual; task)
Certainly, some of the most important roles of online discussion moderator/tutor revolves around their duties
as an educational facilitator. The moderator uses questions and probes for student responses that focus
discussions on critical concepts, principles and skills.
Social
Creating a friendly, social environment in which learning is promoted is also essential for successful
moderating. This suggests "promoting human relationships, developing group cohesiveness, maintaining
the group as a unit, and in other ways helping members to work together in a mutual cause," are all critical
to success of any conferencing activities.
Managerial (organizational; procedural; administrative)
This role involves setting the agenda for the conference: the objectives of the discussion, the timetable,
procedural rules and decision-making norms. Managing the interactions with strong leadership and direction
is considered a sine qua non of successful conferencing.
79
Technical
The facilitator must make participants comfortable with the system and the software that the conference is
using. The ultimate technical goal for the instructor is to make the technology transparent. When this is done,
the learner may concentrate on the academic task at hand.
Pedagogical Recommendations
Have Clear Objectives.
Participants must believe their online interactions is time well spent.
Maintain as Much Flexibility as You Can.
Because of the individuality of the learners, courses need to remain flexible and the instructor needs to
support this. Rather than presenting an elaborate seminar agenda at the outset and a complex process for
students to fulfill, follow the flow of the conversation, while guiding it toward the subject
Encourage Participation.
The use of various learning options can stimulate learner participation and interaction--small group
discussion, debates, polling activities, dyadic learning partnership exchanges, and one-on-one message
exchanges recognizing student’s messages are some of the activities to use when encouraging
participation.
Maintain a Non-authoritarian Style.
It is usually better to avoid the "authority figure" role when teaching online, especially with adults.
Be Objective.
Before generalizing to the conference about a contribution, consider such things as the tone and content
of the posting, the author and his/her skills, knowledge and attitudes that you may know about from prior
conference postings, and time of the posting in relation to the conference thread.
Don't Expect Too Much.
Online instructors need to be content if two or three well-articulated, major points are communicated in
a particular thread of discussion.
Don't Rely on Offline Materials.
Summarize the assigned readings online so that the discussion in the CC remains mostly self-contained.
• Promote Private Conversations as well as those in the CC (computer conferencing communication).
Design opportunities for private conversations among two or more people who you suspect have similar
interests in the content.
Find Unifying Threads.
Instructors can weave several strands of conversation into a summarization that may prompt people to
pursue the topic further.
Use Simple Assignments.
Group assignments are appropriate to this media, but an over-complicated design in them is not.
Make The Material Relevant.
Develop questions and activities for learners that relate to the students' experiences.
Required Contributions.
In credit courses especially, students can be required to sign on and contribute substantively a certain
number of times. With some computer conferencing systems, it is possible and may be appropriate to
require a participant to respond to the topic or question under discussion before he/she can access the
answers posted by other participants.
80
Present Conflicting Opinions.

Instructors can draw attention to opposing perspectives, different directions, or conflicting opinions that
could lead to debates and peer critiques.
Invite Visiting Experts.
Guest experts may join the conference with students to respond to posted contributions, or so students
can ask questions of the visitor.
Don't Lecture.
Experience strongly suggests that a long, elaborate, logically coherent sequence of comments yields
silence. Instead, use open-ended remarks, examples, and weaving to elicit comment and other views.
Request Responses.
The instructor may ask particular learners for comments on a topic or question, then give them time to
respond, for instance "by tomorrow."
81
Create Conditions for Language Learning
82
Social Recommendations
Be Accepting of Lurkers.
Recognize that there will be "lurkers" in the conference and they may never participate with comments.
Some people learn by listening to others so do no assume learning is not taking place. Both lurkers (and
any latecomers to the class) must be acknowledged and welcomed.
Guard Against Fear in Your Conference.
Fear of public ridicule often stifles participation in CC. Be gently accepting of students' comments and
deal with exceptions off the list.
Watch the Use of Humor or Sarcasm.
It may be wise not to use humor or sarcasm due to different cultural and ethnic backgrounds that may be
represented on the CC (= computer conferencing communication). Using text-based communications, it is
especially difficult to construe intent and tone from on-screen text, unless you know the student's very well
Use Introductions.
The facilitator should encourage the participants to introduce themselves, to help build the sense of
community.
Facilitate Interactivity.
A sense of interactive participation is often promoted by using special introductory techniques, dyadic
partnering, and some assignments that facilitated informal discussion among learners.
Praise and Model the Discussant Behavior You Seek.
Reinforcing and modeling good discussant behaviors, such as by saying, "Thank You" to students who
respond effectively online, can be helpful to encourage courtesy and interaction.
Do Not Ignore Bad Discussant Behavior.
Request change (privately) in poor discussant behaviors and have a written "netiquette" statement to refer
to..
Expect That Flames May Occur.
Participants may breach etiquette and respond with harsh or vulgar language. If this problem should occur,
the tutor needs to react and remind people (privately) about computer etiquette.
83
Managerial Recommendations
Informality.
Depending upon the instructional objectives of the course, the instructor may decide that informality should
be encouraged. One way to stress the informality of this communications medium is to let people know that
perfect grammar and typing are much less important than making their meaning clear. It is simple to edit
items that will become part of the group's report later.
Distribute a List of Participants.
Distribute, or make available to all subscribers to the conference, a list of participants so that private
messages can be addressed to individuals and not to the list.
Be Responsive.
Respond quickly to each contribution. One way of doing this is by posting a personal message to the
contributor or by referring to the author's comments in a post to the conference. In some conferences, it is
not advisable to respond to each individual contribution, but better to respond to several at once by weaving
them together. Experience with your content and students will need to guide the instructor--test different
ways to see what works most effectively.
Providing for Administrative Responsibilities.
Coordinating and providing information about activities for such things as registration, admissions, student
counseling, normal bookstore activities and many other administrative functions often are questions which
are unanticipated by the novice online instructor.
Be Patient.
Messages sometimes are not acknowledged or responded to for days or weeks by conference participants.
Contrast the last recommendation concerning responsiveness with this one: Be prepared to wait several days
for comments and responses, and do not rush in to fill every silence with moderator contributions.
Request Comments on Metacommunications.
Request metacommunications) by inviting participants to tell how they feel about the course within the
conference.
Synchronize and Resynchronize.
As much as possible, ensure that all students begin in unison and in an organized fashion. Also,
periodically design ways so that students can "restart" together.
Be Mindful of the Proportion of Instructor Contribution to the Conference.
As a rule, instructors or moderators should generally contribute between one quarter to one-half of the
online material.
Procedural Leadership.
The online tutor should initiate procedures and stifle frustrating procedural discussions. Change what isn't
working, but do not allow the conference to be taken over by discussion of failed procedure rather than
content or more useful discussion.
Use Private Email for Prompting as is Appropriate for Discussion.
Using private messages the facilitator can urge participants to join in the discussion, to initiate debates, and
to solicit suggestions.
Be Clear.
Succinctly and clearly, state the conference topic and the expectations for students within the conference.
Clarify the topic and expectations throughout the conference proceedings.
Don't Overload.
The instructor should pace the conference so that the equivalent of about one long post per day is made. If
the participants have a lot to contribute, the moderator should contribute less so that the slower students
can keep up.
84
Change Misplaced Subject Headings.

Immediately change the subject line on a contribution posted under a wrong discussion heading to the
more appropriate one.
Handle Tangents Appropriately.
Return inappropriate digressions to the author or guide the participates back to the original topic.
Vary Participants' Amount of Contribution.
If there is a participant who appears overly outspoken, ask that person (privately) to wait a few responses
before contributing. Similarly, ask less outspoken individuals to participate more actively.
Student Leaders.
It is perfectly reasonable to design elements of most online instruction so that students could take turns as
assistant moderators and lead the discussion. This needs to be determined by the content of the class, and
the skill, knowledge and attitude of the students. Again, one instructor does not necessarily need to solely
execute all these roles and tasks.
Preparation Time.
Instructors find that planning, developing and distributing course materials needs a substantially greater
lead-time for preparation than may be anticipated at first.
End the Sessions.
Decisively end to each discussion thread and the conference. Conclude discussions so that they do not drag
on after they have served their purpose.
Have experienced instructors.
Avoid having a first-time instructor also teach online the first time.
85
Technical Recommendations
Use Technical Support.
Using face-to-face tutorials sessions for novice computer conference participants is recommended, but not
always possible. If it is possible, it may be useful to have technical support people available at these
sessions, and available to answer emailed or telephoned inquiries. Before the conference begins, the
instructor should know who is available for technical support that is needed beyond his/her skills level.
Provide Feedback.
Provide swift feedback, especially to technical problems.
Develop a Study Guide.
A common reader, study guide or workbook that addresses both the content and any common technical
concerns is important. These could serve as the basis for discussion, provide introductory information,
description of course activities, resources materials, and other information about the course components or
procedures.
Provide Time to Learn.
Learners need support as they learn and use new software features. Provide adequate time for novice users
to be comfortable with the technology before they must participate.
New Methods of Indicating Feedback.

One needs to develop standards for online feedback to students' work, such as how corrections or notes to
the author can be accomplished working online versus hardcopy.
Promote Peer learning.
Encourage novice email or e-conference users to work with more experienced peers.
Avoid Lecturing.
Single contributions should be limited to no more than two screens. Longer postings are hard to read on
screen, become tedious, and impede discussion. If lecture is in order, it is better to send the lecture either
separately as a reading, electronically to be downloaded, or by mail.
Giving Direction.
It is important to not give too much direction. Learners will often rebel if the structural design of the
conference is excessive.
86
Summary
Each computer conference, regardless of the technology that carries it, has a different "feel" about it and
what may work in one setting with one group of people may not in another. Both the teacher and each student
are challenged by new roles, functions, and tasks they need to perform. While instructors are asked to
articulate more clearly their goals and methods to others in the development team, students are also
asked to take more responsibility for their learning. It takes time for student and instructor to develop
effective use of technologically mediated instruction, and it takes time for students to learn in this
environment. In many instructional situations, to be successful there often needs to be more discussion
occurring among the students than the one-way transmission of facts and information from teacher to student
generally allows. Online instructors need to be aware that this can make some students and faculty profoundly
uncomfortable and take positive steps to build both confidence and communicative competence in online
instruction. Computer conferencing usually should not be the only medium one uses to create the elements
in a learning environment. If your instructional goals and objectives lend themselves to the instructor
focusing on the right questions to ask, rather than the right answer to give, then computer conferencing should
be given serious consideration as an effective medium for communication within the instructional system
being designed.
POST GUIDANCE DISCUSSION
Think about the many roles of the online instructor/facilitator.
1. Which role(s) do you feel are most important and what types of online strategies can you use to be
successful in your selected role(s). For example, to establish teaching presence, you should participate in
online course discussion threads on a regular basis, even just to acknowledge and focus/refocus the
discussion.
2. Create a slogan that describes your philosophy for online instruction/facilitation (words to live by for
online instruction).
1 .………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
2 …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
87
Discussion Rubrics
Requirement:
- Create an original post (generally 150-250 words or similar in other digital format)
- Read and respond to at least one other person’s initial post with a substantial reply (additional
insights, links related to original post etc., generally 150 words or similar in other digital
format)
Criteria Does not Meets Exceeds

mee (3) (5)
Posted by due No posts by the Initial post by All posts
date due date due date, response are on time
to 1 post not
posted by
due date
Content No evidence of required Some evidence Clear evidence
information from of required of required
post guidance information from information from
guidance post guidance
Responses to Response doesn’t meet Response meets Response meets

Classmates any of the some of the all of
o Thoughtful criteria criteria the criteria
o Appropriate
o Helpful
o Acknowledging
o Contributing
88
SESSION 2
THE ONLINE LEARNER
Online learners, our target audience when developing online lessons, are a key consideration. Many factors
exist that provide indicators of success for these virtual students; however, not all learners are created equal
and understanding how to best promote effective online learning skills and strategies is a mission in need of
accomplishment.
89
Online Learner Interview

Please share your experiences as an online learner.
Person Interviewed: ……………………………………………
Date of Interview: …………………………………….
What types of online courses have you

taken (subjects, for credit, degrees, just
for fun etc.)?
Think of one online course you took

where you had a positive learning
outcome.
What strategies did you incorporate to be

successful in the course?
What was difficult for you?
Was there a difference between taking a

course online and learning in a face-to-
face classroom?
What would you do differently to ensure

your success in online learning?
Use the information from your online learner interview, and answer
a. What characteristics of successful online learners were most evident from the surveys?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………….
b. What are the most common drawbacks?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………….
90
What Makes a Successful Online Learner?

Two key advantages of online learning are flexibility and convenience. But online learning is a lot more
challenging than it may seem. To see if you're ready, see how many items of the following skills you have:
1. Persistence
Persistence is perhaps the biggest key to success in online learning. Students who succeed are those who
are willing to tolerate technical problems, seek help when needed, work daily on every class, and persist
through challenges.
• When you run into a challenge, keep trying and ask for help.
• Set up a manageable study schedule for yourself and stick to it. Students who succeed are those who log
in and make progress every day. This is especially important after the novelty of going to school online starts
to wear off!
2. Effective Time-Management Skills
You must be able to manage your time well. Most courses are not taught in real time. There are no set times
for classes.
This flexibility is one of the great benefits of online learning. It can also be a drawback for a student who
procrastinates, is unable to stick to a routine study schedule, or is not able to complete assignments without
daily reminders from a teacher.
Effective time-management skills do not just happen. They have to be learned. Once you do, they will benefit
you throughout your life. Follow the tips below to develop yours:
• Review the syllabus for each of your courses. Develop a long-term plan for completing your major
assignments.
• Make a daily "To Do" list. Have fun checking things off the list as you complete them.
It takes time to develop good habits, but you will gain satisfaction from being well organized and
accomplishing your tasks.
3. Effective and Appropriate Communication Skills

Communication skills are vital in online learning because students must seek help when they need it.
Teachers are willing to help students, but they are unable to pick up on non-verbal cues, such as a look of
confusion on a student's face. Follow these tips:
Use the tools provided by the school to communicate with your teachers. Many online schools and
programs provide several ways for students and/or parents to communicate with teachers and staff. These
might include e-mail, discussion groups, chat room office hours, cell phones, and even text messaging.
Teachers and staff want to help you to succeed in your classes and will answer your questions. It may feel
awkward to talk with your teachers this way, but don't worry. If your teacher has chat room or cell phone
office hours, don't be shy about using those tools to communicate with your teacher.
Use appropriate style and language for school. When communicating with teachers and other staff, you
should write in full, grammatically correct sentences and with a respectful tone. Many students are used to
a very informal style of writing in chat rooms, blogs, text messages, and so forth.
Because of the distance, it's tempting for some students to say things out of anger or frustration that they
would never say to a teacher in person. Online teachers are professionals. Treat them with respect and
courtesy.
91
4. Basic Technical Skills

Online learners need basic technical skills to succeed. These include the ability to create new documents,
use a word processing program, navigate the Internet, and download software.
Most online schools have new student orientation programs. These teach students how to use the school's
learning management system and other online tools, but they typically do not cover the basics.
If you lack basic computer skills, you may want to find an online tutorial to check the hardware and
software requirements. Make sure your own computer meets those requirements.
5. Reading and Writing Skills

Reading and writing are the main ways you will communicate in an online class. Although some hard
copies of textbooks might be required, you should be comfortable reading a lot of documents on a
computer screen and able to type.
Some tests and quizzes have multiple-choice questions, but many of your assignments will involve writing
short or long answers.
If you type less than 25-30 words per minute, it may be worth completing a typing software program
before beginning online classes.
6. Motivation and Independence

To be successful, an online student has to want to succeed. Online learning requires independence, internal
motivation, responsibility, and a certain level of maturity.
 Have you given some thought to your own personal reasons for attending school?
 Are you determined and self-motivated to succeed in school?
There are many worthwhile reasons to work hard in school. You might want a greater level of personal
satisfaction with your future career. Or perhaps it's personal pride in your accomplishments. Or maybe you
are seeking a wider range of opportunities available to you with higher education or a higher income.
7. A Good Study Environment

Another critical component of academic success is a good study environment.
• Get some peace and quiet. You will need a quiet place to work without distractions from things like
television, family, or roommates.
• Avoid games. Consider uninstalling any computer games to avoid temptation. Or keep the games on a
different computer in the house.
• Turn off your cell phone. Let friends and family members know the hours that you will be "at" school.
• Beware surfing the black hole of the Internet. It is easy to lose track of the time as you wander from
site to site.
• Consider ergonomics. Adjust the height of your chair, keyboard, and screen so that you are comfortable.
Forearms and thighs should be level and parallel to the floor. Wrists should not be bent while typing.
• Set up good lighting and comfortable seating. Lighting in the room should be at least as bright as the
computer screen to avoid eyestrain.
92
Resources to Help Students Be Successful Online in Three

Areas: Technical, Academic & Study Planning
Students need a wide range of skills to learn successfully in online settings; they need to be tech savvy, know
how to collaborate with peers, conduct online research, navigate proficiently within the learning
management platform, manage their time effectively and engage in the learning process byinteracting with
content, peers and completing course work via the learning platform. Many high school and undergraduate
students (perhaps even learners with an undergraduate degree or higher) have a skillgap in one area or
another when beginning an online course for the first or even second time. It is alsolikely a significant
number of students lack the required academic skills for the online course they plan to complete. Research
states that as many as 60% of entering college freshman do not have the math or writing skills required for
college-level course work. It is no wonder that some college-level students are not successful with online
studies. Several students will fail, withdraw, or may not learn as deeply as they could have due to a lack of
skills in one or more areas.
Three Categories of Resources: The resources featured here address skill gaps in three areas:
1) technical,
2) academic and
3) study skills.
The academic section includes resources for subject areas of writing composition, grammar and math. The
technical section links to sites that provide instruction for learners in basic web skills including e-mail and
file uploads, how-to navigate and search on the web, and it also features a list of resources for student support
specific to learning management (LMS) platforms. The section on study skills provides a list of resources
geared to learners studying online; skill development for time management, study planning and prioritizing.
How to Help Students: I have compiled the following resources hoping it may help online learners, by
readers sharing ideas and strategies for learning support as discussed here. To further support students, I also
recommend institutions create an orientation program for new online students that introduces students to the
LMS platform, the features specific to the course site, the syllabus, as well as the resources for academic and
technical support. Another idea implemented already by several institutions is a learner readiness quiz,
specific to online students. Illinois Online Network has a Self-Evaluation for Potential Online Students, as
does Penn State’s World Campus, with its Online Readiness Assessment. This quiz is licensed under that
Creative Commons Share Alike license allowing other institutions to use it as long as certain conditions are
followed.
It goes without saying, though I’ll emphasize the point anyway, that the bonus lies with the student to take
advantage of support and resources provided; educators and institutions do have a responsibility to support
learning, but it’s the student’s responsibility to take charge and learn.
93
I. Resources for Technical Skills
Basic Web Skills: Students require a minimum set of skills to function within an online course that
includes: how to email, browse the Internet, upload files, download needed plug-ins or
software, etc. Yet some students won’t have one or more of the needed skills when beginning an online
course. Below are suggested resources to fill in the skills gap.
Image of Mozilla Foundation’s ‘Web Literacy Map’ developed by Doug Belshaw that outlines the skills
and competencies people need to read, write and participate effectively on the web. Further details see
resources section.
• Digital Learn.org: tutorials between five and seven minutes on: email basics, web search, basics of
Windows or Mac operating systems, and navigating a website
• Teach-ease (University of South Florida) how to use a web browser, and Internet basics
How to Use Google Drive (formerly Google Docs): Knowing how to share documents, collaborate
within virtual teams are other skills needed for students, and not just for learning online but for working and
functioning within a digital culture.
• Overview of Google Drive: Video tutorials and basic instructions on the features of Google documents,
sharing, storing and collaborating.
• Chat and real-time collaboration, Google Drive
How to Bookmark Sites: Bookmarking, also known as “social bookmarking” are actions that allow
studentsto save web sites and online documents for later reference, reading, annotating, and even sharing.
There areseveral online bookmark platforms:
• Diigo: How to Bookmark with Diigo
• Delicious: How to use Delicious Bookmarks Website Basics
• Marks: Installation of add-on is required specific to Web browser, download and further
information available here
How to Navigate within the LMS Platform: Each learning management platform has its own unique
features, and though many are designed to be intuitive and user-friendly, some users require instruction in the
form of video clips or text documents to develop confidence and proficiency. It’s helpful for the student that
just-in-time-learning is provided by way of links within the course site to instructions specific to a task—for
example: how to comment withina discussion forum, or how to upload an assignment file. Several institutions
have created tutorials gearedto the institution’s students. One example, New Jersey Institute of Technology
created tutorials on how to use features of Moodle.
I can see why some institutional educators create their own instructional videos for students, as unfortunately
many help videos and text instructions offered by the LMS providers aregeared to instructors,
not students, per below.
• Moodle: Student Tutorials are written for instructors, not students
• Canvas: Canvas Student Guide also appears written for instructors, note the first help topic ‘Where do I
find more help for students?’
• Desire2Learn: Desire2Learn Resource Center another example of the poor support options provided for
students. I found nothing on this site that provides support for students, yet numerous help documents and
resources for instructors. It’s no wonder that many institutions have created student help videos—all on the
same topics, for example ‘how to post to a discussion forum’ see examples from Mansfield University,
Montana State, San Jose State University, Clayton State University, (the list goes on) all which provide the
same instructions. This is further evidence of the barriers students face when learning online; unless their
94
institutions provides detailed support, some students face barriers to learning due to lack of support for
navigating within the learning platform.
• Blackboard: Blackboard for Students: tutorials geared to students and instructors
• Haiku: For Students: Using Haiku LMS: of all the platforms, this is the only one (I could find) featuring
a section specific to students.
II. Resources for Academic Skills
Writing Help:
• OWL The Purdue Writing Lab: Purdue is the mother-of-all sources for writing help of any kind—from
grammar help, to developing thesis statements, to report writing, citation help and more. The site features
over 200 free resources, all of which are available to anyone.
• Guide to Grammar and Writing by Capital Community College Foundation. Very good site covering a
breadth of topics to support various aspects of writing including essays, outlines and reports. Includes a
section on grammar.
• Institution resources. Many institutions offer writing help centers free of charge for students. Ideally,
students studying in for-credit online classes should have access to similar support services online. If a
writing center for online students is available at your institution, provide details on the course site, and/or
post a note on message board with details for students.
• e-Tutoring.org is a collaborative online tutoring program and platform for writing skills that provides
one-on-one, online support to students from numerous subscribing colleges within the US. It offers two
models: collaborative and single. “Within the collaborative model, participating institutions share resources
to provide greater coverage and quicker turn-around time. e-Tutoring monitors the quality of the tutor
feedback. Within the individual model, an institution is free to use the software platform with their own
tutors.”
Grammar:
• 2Owl: Grammar: These resources help students with grammar and the site includes a range
of Grammar-related exercises.
• Index to Grammar terminology by Capital Community College Foundation.
Math:
• Kahn Academy: Khan academy is one of the most comprehensive web sites providing skill development
in algebra, trig, calculus, statistics, chemistry, biology as well as subjects in history and language arts.
Lessons begin at the elementary level, and continue to up to university-level topics and subjects. The site
features hundreds of short videos on specific concepts within a subject that range from five to twenty minutes
in length. Also offers practice exercises, and support forums.
• Institution support. As mentioned above some institutions offer virtual support in math for online
students, if this is the case, provide details on the course site, and/or post a note on message board with details
for students.
95
CLOSING THOUGHTS
There are numerous other sources on the Web students can turn to for help. The list above is but a very small
representation of what is available. However, often time is a barrier for students needing help; searching is
time-consuming which is why institutions offering online courses [ideally] need to make help available, and
easy to find to support learners that are still learning how to learn. Offering just-in-time help that is focused
and specific to a deficient skill can reduce barriers to learning, and lead to meaningful and successful
education experiences.
Discussion Guidance
Use the information from your online learner interview, online learner survey, reflection survey, and
readings for our discussion of the online learner-strategies for success.
a. What characteristics of successful online learners were most evident from the readings, your individual
discussion forum, your online learner interview, and your self-evaluation as an online learner?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
b. What are the most common drawbacks?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
c. Considering the online learners (or potential online learners) at your institution, what might be some
specific challenges for you as a facilitator?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
d. If you could provide words of wisdom to an online course designer/facilitator on how to provide an
optimum learning experience for online learners, what would be your number one recommendation?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
96
Technology Learning Environments

The term "learning environment,” suggests place and space—a school, a classroom, a library. But in today's
interconnected and technology-driven world, a learning environment can be virtual, online, remote; in other
words, it doesn't have to be a place at all. Perhaps a better way to think of 21st century learning environments
is as the support systems that organize the condition in which humans learn best—systems that accommodate
the unique learning needs of every learner and support the positive human relationships needed for effective
learning.
Let's take a look at some specific features of different 21st century technology learning environments.
First, some terms--this is getting more complicated now that we have so many options:
Face-to-face learning (f2f):

When teachers and students are physically together in a space.
Synchronous or live sessions:
When teachers and students are meeting live, like in Zoom. Teachers could be lecturing, students
could bepresenting, teachers could put students into breakout rooms, etc.
Asynchronous sessions:
When students are completing work, but on their own time. Not live. This could be watching
videos or reading texts, writing discussion board posts, recording themselves speaking or
presenting, writing a paper,etc.
Blended or hybrid learning:
When part of the dedicated class lesson time is held face-to-face and part is online (either live
synchronous online like Zoom or asynchronous like watching videos and doing discussion
boards). Example: A class meets 2 days a week, Mondays and Wednesdays. Every Monday,
all students and the teacher comes toclass together f2f, and every Wednesday, the all meet
together in Zoom online during class time.
HyFflex model (or hyrid flexible model):
Teachers deliver lessons f2f and online at the same time; students choose (or are assigned)
whether to come to class f2f or online (e.g., Zoom). Example: Class meets Mondays and
Wednesdays. The teacher goes to the classroom both days. Student Group A comes to class f2f
on Mondays and studies online in Zoom with the teacher on Wednesdays. Student Group B
studies online with the teacher on Zoom on Mondays and comes to class f2f on Wednesdays. A
note on HyFlex, which all of a sudden became popular due to the pandemic: "For HyFlex to work,
the classroom needs to be set up with, at minimum, a camera, videoconferencing capabilities and
some way of interacting with the students at a distance. Live classes are streamed live and could
be recorded for later playback. Professors interact with both in-person and synchronous online
learners; through platforms such as Zoom or Teams. Class recordings might be complemented
by asynchronous discussion boards and other collaborative tools in the campus learning
management system" (Inside HigherEd).
Sometimes you get to choose the format of your courses, but many times your institution makes
this choicefor you. The assignments you develop and technologies you choose will be
determined by the type of learning structure you will use.
97
The Future of Learning Environments
Watch the video, and as you watch, think about our 21st century learning environments and how they
effectively incorporate best practices we discussed in this Week. I hope you will be inspired and consider
some of these practices as you develop your own online course and activities.
https://youtu.be/NtPVGn04sDk
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………..……….
98
Netiquette Guidelines
What is Netiquette?
Netiquette is an informal group of rules and ways of behaving on the Internet. For the purposes of our
course, it is important to use Netiquette posting in the discussion threads and emailing messages.
The problem is that no one is able to see your facial expressions, body language, or the learning
environment when you communicate online.
Here are some important points to remember so you will be able to communicate and express yourself
clearly online without creating misunderstandings:
 Be clear – always put the topic you are writing about in the subject line
 Use appropriate language – check to make sure that what you are writing is not too emotional so others
miss the meaning and intent of your message Don’t use all capital letters – this means that you are
angry and yelling
 Be brief – people are more likely to read short messages
 Make a good impression – use expressions such as “would you” or “could you” to make requests rather
than the imperative form which transmits a command
 Be selective on the information you put in a post or email – once it is posted it can be seen by anyone
who has access to your email, a website, or our course
 Reread your post or email carefully before submitting. Make sure your meaning is clear and there isnothing
that could be misinterpreted
 Consider others – forgive spelling errors and grammatical mistakes, especially in this course. If the
error affects meaning, you can always reply and ask for clarification…for example, you might post,
“You wrote , but I think you meant to say . Could you please clarify for me? Thanks
 Remember to use “Please” and “Thank you” even more than when you are communicating face to face
 Cite others work that you use – if you post information from an Internet site, include
the link and the author’s name if available. For example, the information in this
document was adapted from Landsberger, J. (1996),
http://www.studygs.net/netiquette.html
 Be careful not to “flame”, or post a personal attack on someone – another reason to recheck your posts
so no one is offended
 Use emoticons to express emotions and help clarify the intent of your message. Read on for more on
emoticons and a list that you can use and what they mean.
99
Emoticons and Abbreviations

Emoticons are the simple symbols that represent feelings.
Emoticons are made by combining two or more symbols, letters or numbers from the standard computer
keyboard into a kind of pictograph turned on its side. Thus, a colon stands for a pair of eyes, a dash is the
nose, and some other symbol becomes the mouth, creating a face that expresses visually what would take
many words to say.
Following are emoticons and standard abbreviations that are useful when communicating in cyberspace.
EMOTICONS
Smiles = :-) or :->

Big smile or hahaha! = :-D
Tongue in cheek = :-J
Unhappy or sad = :-(
Really unhappy = :-c
(:-(
Very sad =
Forlorn = :-<
Smirk = :-l
Disgusted = :-|
Not funny = :/)
Shouting = :-O
"Oh, nooooo!" = :-o
Censored = :-#
Kiss = :-x
ABBREVIATIONS:
By the way = BTW

In my humble opinion = IMHO
In other words = IOW
Laughing out loud = LOL
On the floor laughing = OTF
Grin = <g> <G>
Big Grin = <grin> or
<bg>
100
SESSION 3
Module exam
101
Best Practices of Online English Language Teaching

Tech Tools and Resources
Tech Resource URL/ LMS Component Best Practice
MS Word / Adobe Software program Easy access (Internet not needed),

form feature multiple purpose
PowerPoint movie Software program Engagement, learner-centered
production
iMovie Mac program Teacher presence, personalization,
Moviemaker – PC program build
community
TextFree App Google Play and Apple Store Teacher presence, communication
with learners
Avatar maker http://avatarmaker.com Personalization
Padlet http://padlet.com Collaboration
Quizlet http://quizlet.com Cognition, build context
Rubistar http://rubistar.4teachers.org Link learning and assessment to

objectives
Tagxedo Word Cloud http://tagxedo.com Dual coding; contextual support
SKYPE http://www.skype.com Teacher presence, communication
Smore http://www.smore.com Higher-order thinking skills
Online videos http://www.youtube.com Skill integration; visual support for

listening
Google Forms https://drive.google.com Online assessment, survey, data

collection
adobe spark https://youtu.be/Qmx47pzwddI Digital tool that is used to create

visually engaging graphics, web
pages, and videos. Easy access,
Skill integration, foster creative
learning experiences
102
ENTRO PERUANO AMERCANO “EL CULTURAL”
MODULE 1
REFERENCES: I WEEK
- Anthony, Edward M. 1963. “Approach, method and technique.” English Language Teaching 17: 63-57
- Beglar, David, and Alan Hunt (2002). Implementing task-based language teaching. In Jack Richards and
Willy Renandya (eds). Methodology
- Brown, H. Douglas 2001 Teaching by Principles: An Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy
Longman/ Pearson Education, White Plains, New York.
- Brumfit, Christopher (1984). Communicative Methodology in Language Teaching. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
- Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Chomsky, Noam (1965). Aspects of the theory of syntax. Cambridge: M.I.T. Press.
- Clarke, M., and S. Silberstein (1977). Toward a realization of psycholinguistic principles in the ESL
reading class. Language Learning, 27 (1), 48–65.
- Feez, S., and H. Joyce (1998). Text-Based Syllabus Design. Australia: Macquarie University
- Hymes, Dell H. (1966). “Two types of linguistic relativity”. In Bright, W. Sociolinguistics. The Hague:
Mouton. pp. 114–158.
- Hymes, Dell H. (1972). “On communicative competence”. In Pride, J.B.; Holmes, J. Sociolinguistics:
selected readings. Harmondsworth: Penguin. pp. 269–293.
- in Language Teaching: An Anthology of Current Practice. New York: Cambridge University Press.
- Krahnke, K. (1987). Approaches to Syllabus design for Foreign Language Teaching. Washington, DC:
Center for Applied Linguistics.
- Littlejohn, A., and D. Hicks (1996). Cambridge English for Schools.
- Littlewood, W. (1981). Communicative Language Teaching. New York: Cambridge University Press.
- Nunan, David (ed) 2003 Practical English Language Teaching McGraw Hill.
- Prabhu, N. S. (1987). Second Language Pedagogy. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Prator, C.H. and Celce-Murcia, M. 1979. An outline of language teaching approaches. In Celce-Murcia, M.
and McIntosh, L. (Ed.), Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language. New York: Newbury House.
- Quist, G., 2000 “Language Teaching at University: A Clash of Cultures.” Language and Education 14.2:
123-139
- Richards, Jack C., and Theodore Rodgers (2001). Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching.
Second Edition. New York: Cambridge University Press.
- Richards, Jack C., and Charles Sandy (1998). Passages. New York: Cambridge University Press.
- Skehan, P. (1996). Second language acquisition research and task-based instruction. In J. Willis and D.
Willis (eds). Challenge and Change in Language Teaching. Oxford: Heinemann.
- This article is in the Public Domain. Reprinted in its original text format. Retrieved from the Web site:
https://linguisticator.com/communicative-competence/
https://speakenglishgym.com/communicative-competence.html
- Van Ek, J., and L. G. Alexander (1980). Threshold Level English. Oxford: Pergamon.
REFERENCES - II WEEK
- Chamot, A. U., & O’Malley, J. M. (1994). The CALLA handbook: Implementing the cognitive-academic
language learning approach. Reading: MA: Addison Wesley.
- Integrated Skills in the ESL / EFL Classroom (ERIC Digest #EDO-FL-01-05) Author: Rebecca Oxford,
University of Maryland
- Mohan, B. (1986). Language and content. Reading, MA: Addison Wesley.
- Nunan, D. (1989). Designing tasks for the communicative classroom. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge
University Press.
- O’Malley, J. M., & Valdez Pierce, L. (1996). Authentic assessment for English language learners: Practical
approaches for teachers. New York: Addison Wesley.
103
- Oxford, R. (1990). Language learning strategies. What every teacher should know. Boston, MA: Heinle &
Heinle.
- Oxford, R. (1996). Language learning strategies around the world. Cross-cultural perspectives. Manoa:
University of Hawaii Press.
- Peregoy, S. F. & Boyle, O. F. (2001). Reading, writing, and learning in ESL. New York: Addison Wesley
Longman.
- Scarcella, R. & Oxford, R. (1992). The tapestry of language learning: The individual in the communicative
classroom. Boston: Heinle & Heinle.
- Shaping the Way We Teach English: Successful Practices Around the World Readings and Resources -
Authors: Leslie Opp-Beckman and Sarah Klinghammer, University of Oregon
- Nilson, L. B. (2010). Teaching at its best: A research-based resource for college instructors (2nd ed.).  San
Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. 
- Duch, B. J., Groh, S. E, & Allen, D. E. (Eds.). (2001). The power of problem-based learning. Sterling, VA:
Stylus.
- Grasha, A. F. (1996). Teaching with style: A practical guide to enhancing learning by understanding
teaching and learning styles.Pittsburgh: Alliance Publishers.
LINKOGRAPHY
- This article is in the Public Domain. Reprinted in its original text format. Retrieved January 14, 2006, from
the Web site: http://www.cal.org/ericcll/digest/0105oxford.html
https://teaching.cornell.edu/teaching-resources/engaging-students/problem-based-learning
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/educationx92x1/chapter/problem-based-learning//
- The following section summarizes, paraphrases, and uses quotes from
this article: http://docs.lib.purdue.edu/ijpbl/vol1/iss1/3/
REFERENCES: WEEK III

COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE
- Auerbach, E. R. (1986). Competency-Based ESL: One Step Forward or Two Steps Back? TESOL
Quarterly, 20 (3).
- Beglar, David, and Alan Hunt (2002). Implementing task-based language teaching. In Jack Richards and
Willy Renandya (eds). Methodology
- in Language Teaching: An Anthology of Current Practice. New York: Cambridge University Press.
- Brumfit, Christopher (1984). Communicative Methodology in Language Teaching. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
- Clarke, M., and S. Silberstein (1977). Toward a realization of psycholinguistic principles in the ESL
reading class. Language Learning, 27 (1), 48–65.
- Feez, S., and H. Joyce (1998). Text-Based Syllabus Design. Australia: Macquarie University
- Krahnke, K. (1987). Approaches to Syllabus design for Foreign Language Teaching. Washington, DC:
Center for Applied Linguistics.
- Littlejohn, A., and D. Hicks (1996). Cambridge English for Schools.
- Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Richards, Jack C., and Charles Sandy (1998). Passages. New York: Cambridge University Press.
- Skehan, P. (1996). Second language acquisition research and task-based instruction. In J. Willis and D.
Willis (eds). Challenge and Change in Language Teaching. Oxford: Heinemann.
- Van Ek, J., and L. G. Alexander (1980). Threshold Level English. Oxford: Pergamon.
- HARMER, Jeremy (2003) “how to teach English” by Longman Publishing Group
104
https://citl.indiana.edu/teaching-resources/teaching-strategies/
- This article is in the Public Domain. Reprinted in its original text format. Retrieved february 23, 2018 from
the Web site: https://www.quizalize.com/blog/2018/02/23/teaching-strategies/
https://www.fluentu.com/blog/educator-english/effective-esl-teaching-strategies-motivation/
https://www.socialstudies.org/publications/socialeducation/january-february2004/encouraging-reticent-
students-participation-in-classroom-discussions BY William W. Wilen is professor of Social Studies
Education at Kent State University, Ohio.
- Winnie Lee and Sarah Ng: Reducing student reticence through teacher interaction strategy.ELT Journal
Volume 64/3 July 2010; doi:10.1093/elt/ccp080 ª The Author 2009. Published by Oxford University Press;
all rights reserved. Advance Access publication October 29, 2009
- Simple Strategies to Help a Shy Student: This article is in the Public Domain. Reprinted in its original text
format. Retrieved from the Web site: https://www.teachhub.com/4-simple-strategies-help-shy-student
By: Loriana Romano, Lisa Papa, and Elita Saulle
https://citl.indiana.edu/teaching-resources/teaching-strategies/
https://www.fluentu.com/blog/educator-english/effective-esl-teaching-strategies-motivation/
- This article is in the Public Domain. Reprinted in its original text format. Retrieved february 23, 2018 from
the Web site: https://www.quizalize.com/blog/2018/02/23/teaching-strategies/
PRINCIPLE OF MOBILE LEARNING

− Retrieved from the link: https://www.huffpost.com/entry/blended-learning-its-not-_b_6165398
ADVANTAGES OF USING BOTH SYNCHRONOUS AND ASYNCHRONOUS TECHNOLOGIES IN

AN ONLINE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT
− Bolliger, D. U., & Shepherd, C. E. (2010). Student perceptions of ePortfolio integration in online courses.
Distance Education, 31(3), pp. 295-314. doi:10.1080/01587919.2010.513955
− Bonk, C., & Zhang, K. (2006). Introducing the R2D2 model: Online learning for the diverse learners of this
world. Distance Education, 27(2), pp. 249-264. doi:10.1080/01587910600789670
− Bourne, J., McMaster, E., Rieger, J., & Campbell, O. (1997). Paradigms for on-line learning: A case study in
the design and implementation of an asynchronous learning networks (ALN) course. Journal of Asynchronous
Learning Networks, 1(2). Retrieved from
http://fie2012.org/sites/fie2012.org/history/fie97/papers/1039.pdf
− Diaz, L. A., & Entonado, F. B. (2009). Are the functions of teachers in e-learning and face-to-face learning
environments really different? Educational Technology & Society, 12(4), pp. 331-343. Retrieved from
http://proxy1.ncu.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=4478511
9&site=eds-live
− e-Learners.com (2012, April 2). Synchronous vs. asynchronous classes [blog].Retrieved from
http://www.elearners.com/online-education-resources/online-learning/synchronous-vs-asynchronous-classes/
-WHAT BLENDED LEARNING IS: RETRIEVED FROM THE LINK:
http://www.blendedlearning.org/what-blended-learning-is-and-isnt/
105
REFERENCES - WEEK IV
I.INSTRUCTOR PRESENCE IN THE ONLINE CLASS – Key to Learner Success
- Lehman, R. & S.C.C. Conceicao. (2011). Creating a Sense of Presence in Online Teaching.
Jossy Bass Publishing. San Fransisco, CA.
- Kupczynski, L., Ice, P., Wiesenmayer, R., & McCluskey, F. (2010). Student perceptions of the
relationship between indicators of teaching presence and success in online courses. Journal
of Interactive Online Learning, 9 (1).
THE ROLE OF ONLINE INSTRUCTOR / FACILITATOR

Author: Zane L. Berge, Ph.D. A
modified draft of this article appears as: Berge, Z.L. (1995). Facilitating Computer Conferencing:
Recommendations From the Field. Educational Technology. 35(1) 22-30. berge@umbc.edu
II.THE ONLINE LEARNER
• What Makes a Successful Online Learner?

Source: Minnesota Online High School and Minnesota Department of Education
https://careerwise.minnstate.edu/education/successonline.html
• Resources to Help Students Be Successful Online in Three Areas: Technical, Academic & Study
Planning Retrieved from the link:
https://onlinelearninginsights.wordpress.com/2014/04/09/resources-to-help- students-be-successful-
online-in-three-areas-technical-academic-study-planning- skills/
• Technology Learning Environments-Retrieved from the link:
https://creativeeducator.tech4learning.com/v09/articles/Developing_21st_Century_L
earning_Environments
106
- The role of online instructor / facilitator

- Author: Zane L. Berge, Ph.D. A
modified draft of this article appears as: Berge, Z.L. (1995). Facilitating Computer Conferencing:
Recommendations From the Field. Educational Technology. 35(1) 22-30. berge@umbc.edu
THE ONLINE LEARNER
- What Makes a Successful Online Learner?
Source: Minnesota Online High School and Minnesota Department of Education

https://careerwise.minnstate.edu/education/successonline.html
- Resources to Help Students Be Successful Online in Three Areas: Technical, Academic &
Study Planning Retrieved from the link:
- https://onlinelearninginsights.wordpress.com/2014/04/09/resources-to-help-students-be-successful-
online-in-three-areas-technical-academic-study-planning-skills/
- Technology Learning Environments-Retrieved from the link:
https://creativeeducator.tech4learning.com/v09/articles/Developing_21st_Century_Learning_Enviro
nments
107

Modulo I - Completo-Final-Updated

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Modulo I - Completo-Final-Updated

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Modulo I - Completo-Final-Updated

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

CENTRO PERUANO AMERCANO “EL CULTURAL”

FUNDAMENTALS OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE

Course introduction – Diagnostic Test MET

1. Methods and approaches overview

An Overview of Language Teaching Methods and Approaches

(Richards & Rodgers 1985:17)

The Grammar-Translation Method

The Direct Method

➢ Classroom instruction was conducted exclusively in the target language;

➢ Only everyday vocabulary and sentences were taught;

Characteristics of the Audio-Methods:

The Oral-Situational Approach

a. TOTAL PHYSICAL RESPONSE

1) assimilation and skills can be increased significantly,

b. COMMUNITY LANGUAGE LEARNING

c. THE SILENT WAY: LEARNING THROUGH SELF-RELIANCE

d. SUGGESTOPEDIA: TAPPING SUBCONSCIOUS RESOURCES

Approaches and methods – an overview

The Goals of Language Teaching

Communicative competence includes the following aspects of language knowledge:

How Learners Learn a Language

■ Interaction between the learner and users of the language

The Kinds of Classroom Activities That Best Facilitate Learning

The Roles of Teachers and Learners in the Classroom

The Background to CLT

Phase 1: traditional approaches (up to the late 1960s)

Phase 1: Traditional Approaches (up to the late 1960s)

Phase 2: Classic Communicative Language Teaching (1970s to 1990s)

Phase 3: Current communicative language teaching

Classroom Activities in Communicative Language Teaching

Accuracy versus Fluency Activities

Activities focusing on accuracy

Mechanical, Meaningful, and Communicative Practice

The funniest person I know is my friend Bob.

Superlatives are often followed by relative clauses in the present perfect.

My cousin Anita is the most generous person I’ve ever met.

What did your neighbor do, exactly?

Thedistinctionbetweenmechanical, meaningful, andcommunicative activities is similar to that given by

Pre-communicative activities Communicative activities

Other Activity Types in CLT

Emphasis on Pair and Group Work

• organizational competence (grammatical and discourse)

Given that communicative competence is the goal of a language classroom,

COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN THE LIGHT OF

Carnale& Swain Carnale Celce-Murcia,

FUNDAMENTALS OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE

CONTENT BASED INSTRUCTION (CBI)

WHAT IS CONTENT BASED INSTRUCTION?

TYPES OF CONTENT BASED INSTRUCTION:

CONTENT BASED LESSON:

TASK BASED LEARNING

Phases of a TBL lesson

A TBL lesson plan

- Create a mind map containing interesting places to be visited

attractions Batman What can you see there?

WHY USE PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING?

• Researching and information literacy.

CONSIDERATIONS FOR USING PROBLEM-BASED