T 7.2.1.2 Análisis y Sintesis Fourier

TPS 7.2.1.
Fourier-Analysis
and Synthesis
by K. Breidenbach
revised by
Anton Oster
January 1999
“The sensitive electronics of the equipment contained in the present experiment litera-
ture can be impaired due to the discharge of static electricity. Consequently, electro-
static build up should be avoided (particularly by utilizing appropriate rooms) or
eliminated by discharging (e.g. at the panel frames or similar).”
TPS 7.2.1.2 Table of Contents
Table of Contents
Measurement techniques
0 Practical Information on the Experiments .............................................................................. 5
0.1 The Oscilloscope .....................................................................................................................5
0.2 The Spectrum Analyzer ...........................................................................................................6
0.3 Measurement Assembly .......................................................................................................... 8
TPS 7.2.1.2 Fourier - Analysis and Synthesis

1 Representing of Periodic Signals Using Fourier Series ........................................................ 13
2 Experiments on Fourier Analysis and Synthesis ...................................................................17

2.1 General Information, Read Me! ............................................................................................ 17
2.2 The Symmetrical Square-Wave Signal .................................................................................19
2.3 The Pulse Train .....................................................................................................................21
2.4 Triangular-Wave Signal .........................................................................................................26
2.5 Saw-Tooth Signals .................................................................................................................27
2.6 Modulations and Beat Phenomena ........................................................................................ 28
2.7 Rectified Signals ...................................................................................................................30
Solutions .......................................................................................................................................... 33
3
TPS 7.2.1.2 Fourier Analysis and Synthesis 0
0 Practical Information on the Experiments
In Sections 0.1 - 0.3 some fundamental questions rection factor. Naturally, for this the correspond-
are dealt with so that the experiments in the fol- ing form factor of the signal must be known. If
lowing chapters can be conducted more easily. the signal curve is unknown, then a voltage mea-
These chapters may be omitted by students whose surement can only be carried out using an oscillo-
knowledge is sufficiently advanced. scope. Here, we must distinguish between two
cases:
0.1 The Oscilloscope 1. The voltage signal to be measured is non-sinu-
The oscilloscope is one of the most important soidal, but periodic with a “high” frequency.
measuring instruments used in electrical engi- The oscilloscope is operated here in repeating
neering and electronics. It is used to graphically real-time mode. This is the mode which is most
display voltages u(t) with respect to time and can often used. The principle is simple and will be
thus be regarded as a 2-dimensional voltmeter. dealt with here only briefly, since it is assumed
The signal is represented in the form of cartesian that the student is already familiar with it. A saw-
coordinates with the abscissa (x-axis) usually rep- tooth generator is started each time the periodic
resenting the time scale and the y-axis the voltage signal to be measured exceeds a level (trigger
scale, e.g. msec./Div. and V/Div., see Fig. 0.1-1. level), which can be set. This generator produces
There are, of course, other voltage measuring in- a voltage which is strictly linear with respect to
struments such as the moving coil meter and the time. This voltage operates as the horizontal de-
digital voltmeter and one can ask why, then, the flector in a cathode-ray tube. The saw-tooth gen-
oscilloscope should be so indispensable for volt- erator is a component of the time base. The
age measurement. The answer lies in the fact that vertical deflection is controlled by the measured
normal pointer meters or digital meters are only signal itself. This results in a stationary represen-
suitable for measuring voltages that have a de- tation of the voltage signal on the screen when the
fined voltage - time curve. They can normally trigger is functioning correctly. It is interesting to
only be used to measure DC or harmonic AC volt- note that the screen displays only a small part of
ages. Each time a non-sinusoidal voltage is mea- the signal curve. When the time base is set at e.g.
sured with such an instrument, an incorrect T = 1 ms/Div. and the screen has a grid of ten di-
reading results. However, for known signal curves visions, then a “picture window” of duration
the incorrect reading can be converted using a cor- T = 10 · 1 ms = 10 ms is formed on the screen. In
real-time operation, the oscilloscope has, there-
fore, a slow-motion function. Processes which are
much too fast to be observed by the human eye
can be made visible.
2. The voltage signal to be measured is either not
periodic, or has a very long period.
The oscilloscope must then be operated in storage
mode.
Note:
It is not practical, within the scope of this book,
to give more than general guidelines about the use
of the oscilloscope. Please take definite setting
instructions from the manufacturer’s operating in-
structions. With reference to the experiments
described in this book, it is recommended to use a
low-cost storage oscilloscope with 2 channels
Fig. 0.1-1: The function of the oscilloscope
A: Amplitude window
and a bandwidth of 20 MHz. All the experiments
T: Time window have been carried out using such a device
5
(LH Cat. No. 575 29) and produced the results giv- together with the input signal. Depending on the
en here in the examples. The experiments can, spectral quality of the input signal and the oscil-
however, to a great extent, be carried out using lator frequency, an IF signal which lies exactly in
only a purely real-time oscilloscope. the pass range of the band filter appears at the
mixer output. The AC voltage signal at the out-
put of the band filter is produced for various
0.2 The Spectrum Analyzer spectral components in the input signal at corre-
The Spectrum Analyzer spondingly different frequencies of the VCO. If
Signals can be equally validly described in terms of the VCO frequency is linearly dependent on its
their spectrum as well as in terms of their control voltage, then it can be used for the X de-
behaviour with respect to time. Spectrum or fre- flection of a cathode ray tube (or an XY-re-
quency analyzers are used in measurement technol- corder). In this way, the X axis also receives a
ogy for the recording of signal spectra. These linear frequency division. The desired fre-
analyzers operate either in digital mode using quency-dependent amplitude representation of
mathematical algorithms such as e.g. the fast Fou- the input signal is displayed on the monitor when
rier transformation (FFT) or in analog as filter the VCO varies, if, after rectification and corre-
banks or sweep analyzers. The latter principle is sponding amplification, the output voltage of the
realised in the spectrum analyzer, training panel band filter is connected to the Y deflection of the
726 94 and should, thus, be investigated more beam tube (or XY-recorder). Therefore, the
closely. spectrum analyzer represents a process of the
The analyzer is made up of a signal path (amplitude well-known superheterodyne principle used in
component) A, an oscillator component B and an radio technology, whereby the band filter can be
indicating unit C (see Fig. 0.2-1). The harmonic regarded as a spectral window. The position of
signal supplied by the VCO is fed into the mixer this window within the frequency range is deter-
Fig. 0.2-1: Construction of a spectrum analyzer

A: Signal path (amplitude section)) B: Oscillator section
1 Input amplifier/attenuator V1 6VCO
2 Mixer 7 Saw-tooth generator
3 Band filter
4 Rectifier C: Display unit
5 Output amplifier V2
6
mined by the VCO frequency. The width of the

window is determined by the selected bandwidth
of the band pass filter.
When the VCO sweeps the set frequency span, the
center position of the spectral window is corre-
spondingly shifted along with it. The principle of
the operation of the spectrum analyzer is shown in
Fig. 0.2-2. Its assembly is shown in Fig. 0.2-1.
The Time Rule of Electrical Telecommunications

Technology Fig. 0.2-2
When using analyzers according to the sweep fil- The principle of the spectrum analyzer
ter principle, one of the most fundamental laws of A: Amplitude transfer function a (f) of the bandpass (spec-
electrical engineering must be taken into consid- tral window) with bandwidth b. The centre frequency of
the BP shifts with V = SPAN/T.
eration. According to the time rule of telecommu-
B: Arbitrary signal spectrum
nications technology, the transient response of a
low-pass filter system to a voltage jump becomes
all the longer, the smaller its bandwidth b is. This change in frequency of the VCO is. The change in
is also true for band pass filters. If pulses of very frequency based on the time unit depends on:
short duration are to be transmitted via a low-pass 1. The period T of the saw-tooth generator
filter (LP) then the output signal of the LP needs (SCAN TIME)
more time to reach the pulse amplitude, the 2. The absolute frequency range (SPAN)
smaller the bandwidth b of the filter is. The time through which the VCO passes.
law of electrical telecommunications technology If, for example, a spectrum analysis has to be car-
is similar to the uncertainty principle in atomic ried out in a wide frequency range and, in addition
physics. It states that it is impossible to decrease to this, a very short saw-tooth period is selected,
the duration of a signal as well as the bandwidth then a very large change in frequency per time
of the transmission channel for that signal at the unit is the result. The mixer output signal passes
same time. When tuning the VCO, the mixer out- the center frequency of the BP correspondingly
put signal is all the longer in the pass range of the quickly. According to the time rule, the bandwidth
following band pass filter (BP), the slower the of the BP must now be selected “sufficiently”
Fig. 0.2-3: The time rule of electrical communications technology

A: Input signal Pulse with duration T and amplitude a.
B: Transmission channels with LP character fg1< fg2
C: Output signals
7
large, if the BP is to build up to the input ampli- cilloscope and counter. The measurement assem-
tude, see Fig. 0.2-3. The spectral resolution capa- bly is also a part of the experiment set-up. The
bility of the analyzer drops with a large bandwidth analyzer and the counter are connected together as
of the BP. For this reason, the application of the a single unit. Therefore, it initially measures the
spectrum analyzer requires a constant compro- VCO frequency of the analyzer (toggle switch in
mise between the spectral RESOLUTION and position TTL, rotary switch to freq. A). If fre-
fault-free amplitude reproduction. For the rela- quency measurements are carried out at other
tionship between SCAN-TIME T, bandwidth b measurement points, the bridging plug connection
and the frequency window SPAN the following between counter and analyzer is to be removed if
approximation is valid: necessary, or the analog input of the counter is to
be used after actuation of the toggle switch.
20
b= (f − f min ) Eq. 0.2-1 Equipment
T max
1 Function generator
0...200 kHz / 230 V 726 961
Where:
1 Power supply unit ± 15 V, 3 A 726 86
fmax : maximum frequency
1 Spectrum analyzer 726 94
fmin : minimum frequency
1 Frequency counter 0...10 MHz 726 99
b : bandwidth of the filter
1 Multimeter M3E 531 57
T : saw-tooth period SCAN-TIME .
1 Oscilloscope HM 205/2 575 29
2 Probes 10:1 (switchable) 575 231
The difference f max – fmin is called frequency
1 XY Recorder optional 575 662
SPAN.
1 Set of bridging plugs 501 511
Examples:
1 Set of connecting leads 500 414
1. SPAN = 200 kHz
T = 1/25 s Objectives
b = 10 000 Hz. The student should:
Compare the adjustment possibilities of the spec- – attain practice in handling the equipment.
trum analyzer 726 94. Using a real time oscillo- – recognize the effect of the time law of electri-
scope you can display the spectrum with cal communications technology on practical
b = 10 000 Hz and SPAN = 200 kHz! measurement.
The spectral resolution is: – recognize the structure of line spectra.
R = 20,
in other words: 20 spectral lines could theoreti- Experiment procedure
cally be distinguished. – Assemble the experiment according to plug-
2. SPAN = 1000 Hz in diagram MP-1.
T = 20 s – Using the frequency counter and the oscillo-
⇒ b = 33 Hz scope, set a square-wave signal with an am-
⇒ R = 30. plitude AR = 5 V and a frequency fR = 2 kHz
For a display on the oscilloscope we require a on the function generator. The TTL A input
storage oscilloscope. of the frequency counter must remain con-
nected to the analyzer by means of bridging
0.3 Measurement Assembly plugs. Testing the signal frequency fR takes
Preliminary note place via connecting leads, and, after switch-
Here, an introductory investigation of the spec- over of the counter, via the analog input.
trum and the time curve of a symmetrical square- 1. Draw the true-to-scale curve with respect to
wave is made. This is done in order to practice the time of the square-wave signal.
handling of the equipment of the complete mea- 2. Record the spectrum of the square wave sig-
surement set-up which is used in the following ex- nal in the frequency range of approx.
periments. By complete measurement set-up we 1.5 kHz...20 kHz. The experiment is divided
always mean the equipment which is required to into Points 2.1, 2.2 and 2.3. However, first
permit the investigation of signals in the time and read the following notes on using the spec-
spectral domains. This means that such a work trum analyzer. The terms used are the same as
place always consists of a spectrum analyzer, os- in Section 0.2.
8
Operating instructions for the spectrum analyzer Setting the frequency window (SPAN)
A. Setting the signal path First, the lower frequency limit is set. This is car-
It is advantageous to set the gains V1, V2 as high as ried out in SCAN-MODE fmin with the corre-
possible, as this increases the sensitivity of the sponding control. Then, the upper frequency limit
signal path. However, avoid overdriving your sys- is set in SCAN-MODE f max. The frequencies can
tem (indicated when the LED OVER lights up). be read from the connected counter. Here,
SPAN = fmax – fmin holds true.
B. Setting the oscillator section In SCAN-MODE RUN, the VCO will now sweep
Important operating instructions for the frequency the set frequency range once. An LED indicates
tuning can be derived from the time law of electri- when the upper frequency limit has been reached.
cal communications engineering. The VCO stops at fmax, so that an inadvertent over-
The VCO of the spectrum analyzer is controlled writing of the spectrum is avoided when the XY
by the saw-tooth generator. The amplitude and recorder is used. For the same reason, a premature
scan time of the latter are set using the control ele- reset of the VCO to fmin during the sweep cycle is
ments SCAN-MODE (fmin, fmax) and SCAN-TIME. also not possible. Reset in RUN-mode is, there-
The choice of the correct run time must be based on fore, only possible after fmax has been reached.
the time law and can, therefore, not be fixed. It is However, should one desire to interrupt the spec-
dependent on both the chosen bandwidth b/Hz and trum recording during the sweep cycle, which can
on the frequency window SPAN = fmax – fmin. In last up to 160 s, because e.g. one notices at an
your own experiments use either Eq. 0.2-1 or trial early stage that set parameters must be changed,
and error. The LH experiment instructions always this is only possible in SCAN-MODE STOP. In
offer corresponding setting notes. this mode, the locking of the RESET function is
Fig. 0.3-1: Plug-in diagramm MP-1
9
cancelled. In addition, the analyzer can be oper- operation using the pushbutton UP/DOWN.
ated manually in this setting by means of a toggle In manual operation, the VCO runs with a
switch. The setting UP of the toggle switch makes fixed scan time of T = 640 s when the
the VCO run in the direction f max, while the button pushbutton is actuated. Stop the scanning
setting DOWN reduces the frequency. When fmax process when you find a spectral line. You
has been reached, the analyzer carries out an auto- then have time to read the spectral amplitude
matic zero balance (Auto-Zero). During the Auto- S(n) from the voltmeter. Enter these ampli-
Zero phase, the input signal is switched off tude values S(n), the sweep indices n and the
internal. corresponding frequencies f in Table 1. Also
Note: note down there the analyzer settings. This
should always be done, as it allows you to
Since the XY recorder cannot be used for a sweep check your measurement results by calcula-
period T = 1/25 s (see C), the set frequency span is tion at a later date. Draw a graph of the spec-
here repeatedly swept in RUN-MODE. This trum.
makes it possible to use the spectrum analyzer
2.2 Automatic operation of the spectrum analyzer
also as a sweep generator.
with the XY-recorder
C. Connection of the display unit Connect the spectrum analyzer as shown in
External measurement instruments are used as plug-in diagram MP-1.
display units. The X+ input of the recorder is connected to
1. Analog voltmeter the X socket of the analyzer, while the Y+ in-
2. XY recorder put is connected to the analyzer’s output. The
3. Storage oscilloscope recorder inputs X– and Y– are connected to
Special features of the different display units for each other and to ground. Both axes of the re-
the experiment procedures are closely dealt with corder must be calibrated. The X-axis is set to
in more detail under Points 2.1, 2.2 and 2.3. fmax, and the Y-axis is matched to the greatest
spectral amplitude. You may need to practice
2.1 Application of the spectrum analyzer as a fre-
this procedure first. It is sensible to calibrate
quency selective voltmeter (advantageous for
the recorder so that the spectrum you are
quantitative measurements).
looking for is reproduced in a size which con-
Connect an analog voltmeter, 10 V DC, to the forms to your recorder paper.
analyzer output (see plug-in diagram MP-1).
A. Setting the signal path
A. Setting the signal path
V1/2 = 1
V1 = 1 In automatic operation, switching over the gain V2
V2 = 2, 5, 10 during the scan process does not improve the mea-
V2 is matched to the magnitude of the respec- surement results.
tive spectral line and selected as large as pos- b = 500 Hz.
sible.
b = 500 Hz. B. Setting the oscillator section
Frequency range fr : 20 kHz
B. Setting the oscillator section SPAN = fmax – fmin : 20 kHz...500 Hz
Frequency range f r : 20 k Hz approx.!
SPAN = fmax – f min : 20 kHz...500 Hz SCAN TIME T : 160 s
approx.! The analyzer cycle is started when the unit is
SCAN TIME T : 20 s switched to SCAN-MODE RUN. Record the
– Now, record the spectrum of the square-wave spectrum in scan mode RUN. Do not forget to
signal by starting the VCO in SCAN MODE lower the pen (Pen Down).
RUN. In the range of spectral energy, the out- Unlike manual operation, the scan procedure is
put signal shows a short dip. Stop the VCO in not stopped, but rather carried out to the end in
SCAN-MODE STOP and control it UP/ RUN mode.
DOWN around the spectral line in manual
10
2.3 Using the storage oscilloscope as a display What do you observe?

unit.
We are using plug-in diagram MP-1 again 4. Describe the envelope curve of the spectrum
here. of a symmetrical square-wave signal? Draw
Set the analyzer as when using the XY-re- the curve you expect as a dotted line in dia-
corder. Set the scan time to, e.g. gram 1. What general statement can you
T = 20 s, T = 40 s. make about the spectrum?
The easiest way to proceed is to record the
spectra with the storage oscilloscope in Table 1
ROLL mode. This eliminates the difficulties
of triggering. The storage time base is set so Signal: Analyzer:
that the period is greater than or equal to the AR = V V1 =
SCAN TIME set at the analyzer. The analyzer b = Hz
output is connected to the Y-input of the stor- f0 = Hz fr = kHz
age oscilloscope. Try to optimize your use of T = s
the screen area for displaying the spectra by SPAN :
selecting a suitable Y-gain. When the spec-
trum you are looking for is displayed com- Measured values Theory
pletely on the screen, you can cancel the f S(n) SR(n) SR(n)
n V2
ROLL function by pressing the button kHz V V V
marked SINGLE. The contents of the screen
are then “frozen”. If the spectrum is to be
stored long-term, it is recommended that the
memory contents be saved with the HOLD
function. Draw the spectrum in a diagram.
3. Check the time law of electrical communica-

tions technology. Use either an XY-recorder
or a storage oscilloscope as a display unit.
Repeat Experiment 2 using the following set-
tings:
b = 100 Hz / 10 Hz
T= 5 s, 40 s, 160 s
11
12
1 Representing of Periodic Signals Using Fourier Series
Many of the oscillating phenomena which occur Results:

in nature and technical processes are harmonic, Here, a periodic signal is again produced from the
i.e. they can be described mathematically by sine superpositioning of harmonic signals. However,
or cosine functions. this signal is no longer harmonic. The frequency
In electrical engineering harmonic signals often of the superpositioned signals is determined by
occur as voltages or currents. the component with the lowest frequency.
If a number of harmonic oscillations whose fre- The experiment results agree with the theory and
quencies are an integral multiple of a fundamental there is therefore good reason to assume that any
frequency f 0 are superpositioned, a periodic inter- given curve form can be reproduced by adding
ference diagram is obtained which generally ap- further harmonic functions with a suitable choice
pears complicated. of amplitude. This is the basic idea behind the so-
called Fourier expansion. However, two consider-
Introductory experiment: ations are required to make it generally valid:
Use the experiment set-up in plug-in diagram 1. In general, phase-shifts Φn occur between the
FAS-1. different oscillations.
Set the following signals on the synthesizer: 2. There is often a constant time component (a
s1 (t) = S1 sin (2 π f0 t) (i.e. φ1= 90°) DC voltage) S 0 by which the superpositioning
s2 (t) = S2 sin (2 π 2 f0 t) (i.e. φ2 = 90°) is shifted on the Y-axis.
with: With these considerations, every non-harmonic,

S1 = 5V periodic signal of period T 0 can be represented by
S2 = 2.5 V a mathematical series, the elements of which are
The signals s1(t) and s2(t) form an octave, i.e. they harmonic oscillations. Each of these oscillations
have the frequency ratio 1:2. is defined by the amplitude Sn, the phase Φn and
Display the signal at the summing output of the the frequency f n = n f0.
synthesizer on the oscilloscope. The synthesizer
•
forms the sum of the input signals. Give the math- s ( t ) = S0 +S S ( n )cos( 2 p nf 0 t - F n ) Eq. 1-1
ematical expression for the output signal. Repeat n =1
the experiment for
s2 = A2 cos (2 π 2 f0 t)
i.e. vary φ2 to 0°.
Fig. 1-1: Superpositioning of 2 harmonic signals Fig. 1-2: Superpositioning of 2 harmonic signals
Phase: 90°/90° Phase: 90° / 0°
The output signal s0(t) of the synthesizer is: The output signal s0(t) of the synthesizer is:
s0(t) = S1 sin (2 π f0 t) + S2 sin (2 π 2 f0 t) s0 (t) = S1 sin (2 π f0 t) + S2 cos (2 π 2 f0 t)
13
A little supplementary mathematics We finally obtain:

Instead of the phase-shift Φn and the amplitude
S(n), a representation using 2 separate Fourier se- ∞ ∞
ries with the coefficients an and bn is often chosen. Σ a n cos( 2 πnf 0 t ) +Σ b n sin ( 2 πnf 0 t ) =
n =1 n =1
The Fourier series associated with an is expanded
in cosine and the series associated with bn in sine. ∞
The non-harmonic, periodic signal s(t) can then be Σ S ( n )cos( 2 πnf 0 t − Φ n ) Eq. 1-4
written in the form: n =1
∞ ∞ Eq. 1.1-1 is more suitable for practical measure-

s ( t ) = S 0 +Σ a n ⋅ cos( 2 π nf 0 t) +Σ b n ⋅ sin( 2 π nf 0 t) ments than Eq. 1.1-2 because the spectrum ana-
n =1 n =1 lyzer directly displays the amplitudes S(n). The
Eq. 1-2 synthesizer also makes use of the representation
Equations 1.1-1 and 1.1-2 are equivalent. With: according to Eq. 1.1-1 with its setting possibili-
an = S(n) · cos Φn ties. The complex representation of the Fourier
series:
bn = S(n) · sin Φn Eq. 1-3
we obtain through substitution: ∞
s(t ) = Σ S ( n ) e + i 2 π nf 0 t Eq. 1-5
Σ a n ⋅ cos( 2 π n f 0 t ) n= − ∞
= Σ S ( n ) cosΦ n ⋅ cos ( 2 π n f 0 t ) is often more advantageous for calculation pur-

poses. Here S(n) is the complex amplitude. We
have now been introduced to 3 different formu-
S(n)
= Σ [
⋅ cos ( 2 πnf 0 t + Φ n ) + cos ( 2 πnf 0 t − Φ n ) ] las with which a signal of any periodic behavior
2 with respect to time can be described. The repre-
sentation of a signal by the Fourier series is de-
scribed as reverse transformation or Fourier
synthesis. In order to carry this representation
Σ b n ⋅ sin( 2 π n f 0 t )
out for a given time signal, obviously, an and bn,
or S(n) and Φn, or S(n) must be known.
= Σ S ( n ) sin Φ n sin ( 2 π n f 0 t )
S(n) Representations of signals in the frequency domain
= Σ [
⋅ − cos ( 2 πnf 0 t + Φ n ) + cos ( 2 πnf 0 t − Φ n ) ] A periodic signal is described equivalently in the
2 time domain by the Fourier series.
Fig. 1-3: Plug-in diagram FAS 1
14
Fig. 1-4: Harmonic function, curve with respect to time Fig. 1-5: Harmonic function, spectral representation
In the technical sciences, it is common to repre- sponding amplitude spectrum SR(n) in Fig. 1-7
sent signals additionally in the spectral range or that the square-wave function is generated by the
frequency domain. This representation, which is superpositioning of (infinitely) many harmonic
initially strange for our time-oriented perception, oscillations. Their frequencies are odd integral
is made clear in a simple example. Consider the multiples of f = 1/T0 and their amplitudes decrease
harmonic function in Fig. 1-4: as a function of their ordinal number n. This
means:
s(t) = A cos (2 π t/T0) 1. Harmonic f1 = 1/T0 S R(1) = 4 AR/π
When displayed on an oscilloscope, this function 2. Harmonic f2 = 3/T0 S R(2) = 4 AR/3 π
exhibits the familiar curve described by the ampli- 3. Harmonic f3 = 5/T0 S R(3) = 4 AR/5 π
tude A and the period T0. However, an equivalent 4. Harmonic f4 = 7/T0 S R(4) = 4 AR/7 π
..
representation of this function is achieved when A .
and f = 1/T0 are displayed in place of the param- nth. Harmonic fn = (2n–1)/T0
eters A and T0. When the amplitude is plotted over S R(n) = 4 AR/(2n–1)π n = 1, 2, 3, 4, ...
the frequency axis, this is called the amplitude
spectrum. A harmonic function can thus be repre- Note:
sented by a single line (see Fig. 1-5); it contains In addition to the amplitude spectrum S(n), an
the same information. In a non-harmonic, peri- exact spectral discussion also considers the phase
odic function, the amplitudes S(n) and the phases spectrum Φn. In many practical exercises, how-
Φn can be graphically represented separately over ever, we are only interested in the amplitude spec-
the frequency axis. The result is then the ampli- trum. Thus, it is common, for example, to discuss
tude spectrum or the phase spectrum of the signal. the signal spectra occurring due to modulation
Fig. 1-6 shows as an example of this for a sym- processes only in terms of amplitude spectrum.
metric square-wave signal with the amplitude AR For this reason, we will restrict ourselves in the
and the frequency f0. One can see from the corre- following only to the amplitude spectrum.
Fig. 1-6: Symmetrical square-wave oscillation, curve Fig. 1-7: Symmetrical square-wave oscillation,
with respect to time spectral representation
15
The calculation of S(n) and Φn, or the Fourier co- In order to be able to calculate and draw the am-
efficients a n and bn, is termed Fourier analysis. plitude spectrum S(n) and the phase spectrum Φn,
Fourier analysis thus has the purpose of determin- we must first obtain the Fourier coefficients an
ing the amplitude and phase spectra correspond- and bn, so that they can be substituted into Eq. 1.7.
ing to a specific periodic signal. The Fourier coefficients an and bn can sometimes
The following formulas are used to calculate the be calculated more simply when the time-function
spectra: fulfils certain conditions of symmetry. For the
sake of completeness, these shall also be named
T0
here.
2 1. The time-function is even (see Fig. 1-8), i.e.
an =
T0
z s ( t ) ◊ cos( 2pnf t ) dt
0
0
s(t) = s(–t).
The following then applies:
T0
2 T0 / 2
bn =
T0
z s ( t ) ◊ sin( 2 pnf t ) dt
0
0 an =
4
z s ( t ) cos( 2 p n f 0 t ) dt
T0 0
T0 bn = 0
1
a0 =
T0
z s ( t ) ◊ dt
0
Eq. 1-6
T0 / 2
2
a0 =
T0
z
0
s ( t ) dt Eq. 1-9
The component a0 is the linear mean value and
represents the direct component. The following is
obtained from an and bn using Eq. 1-3: Thus:
S(n) = an
S(n) = a n2 + b n2
Φn = 0
bn 2. The time function is odd (see Fig. 1-6), i.e..
Fn = arc tan Eq. 1-7
an s(t) = –s(–t).
The following then applies:
For the reasons mentioned above, only Eq. 1.1-7
will be used below for spectral representation. an = 0
However, for the sake of completeness, the rule
T0 / 2
for forming the complex spectrum S(n) is given. 4
This spectrum contains both the amplitude and the bn =
T0
z s ( t )sin( 2 p n f 0 t ) dt
0
phase information. S(n) is calculated according to
Eq. 1.1-8 to be:
a0 = 0 Eq. 1-10
T0
1 Thus:
S(n) = z s (t )e - i 2 pnf 0 t dt Eq. 1-8
S(n) = bn
T0 0
Φn = 90° = const.
Fig. 1-8: Even time function Fig. 1-9: Odd time function
16
TPS 7.2.1.2 Fourier Analysis and Synthesis 2.1
2 Experiments on Fourier Analysis and Synthesis
2.1 General Information – Read Me! phases can be set digitally, the amplitudes in the
The equipment listed below is required for Exper- range from 0 up to 10 V in 0.01 V steps and the
iments 2.2 to 2.7. phase from 0 up to 360° in 1° steps. Default sig-
nals are predefined to permit rapid adjustment.
Equipment The set values might then also have to be corre-
1 DC power supply ±15 V, 3 A ( *) 726 86 spondingly modified for your experiments.
1 Frequency counter 0...10 MHz 726 99 The Fourier signal can be tapped at one socket and
1 Spectrum analyzer 726 94 displayed on an oscilloscope, for example. The
1 Frequency synthesizer 736 031 composition of the signal is displayed by LEDs.
1 Oscilloscope 531 29 The LEDs are arranged as in standard spectral
2 Probes, 10:1, (switchable) 575 231 representation according to increasing frequency
2 Sets of 10 bridging plugs 501 511 from left to right. The output signal corresponds
1 Multimeter M3E 531 57 to the following finite Fourier series:
1 XY-recorder (optional) 575 662
s ( t ) = S 0 + ∑ S ( n ) ⋅ cos ( 2 π n f 0 t − Φ n )
8
1 Panel frame 726 04
Connecting leads n =1
Any given combination of harmonic signals set
For Experiment 2.3 you also need can be tapped at another socket. A built-in tweeter
1 Function generator enables you to obtain an acoustic impression of
0...200 kHz/230 V 726 961 the Fourier signal.
Objectives
The students should become familiar with the fol-
Summary of technical data
lowing terms and measurement procedures:
– line spectrum Supply voltage : ±15 V DC or
– amplitude spectrum AC 12 V / 20 VA
– phase spectrum Current consumption : < 200 mA
– using measuring instruments Outputs : Fourier:
– Gibb’s phenomenon Cumulative signal of
– attenuation distortion the 8 harmonic com-
– measuring the total harmonic distortion ponents + DC-offset S0
– measuring the ripple Harmonics:
In order to carry out the experiments, you must any randomly set
first know how the major components function. combination of
harmonic components
DC-offset S0 : 0...±10 V
736 031 Frequency synthesizer fundamental
The frequency synthesizer, in the following al- frequency f0 : 108 Hz
ways referred to merely as synthesizer, is a micro- Frequencies of
processor-controlled instrument. It permits the harmonics : nf0, n = 1...8
generation and investigation of non-sinusoidal Amplitudes : 0... 10 V in 0.01 V steps
periodic signals. It operates with 8 harmonic sig- Phases : 0...360° in 1° steps
nals and one DC component. The amplitudes and
(*) If you want to operate 736 031 on its own, you can also optionally
use a plug-in power supply unit with AC 12 V / 20 VA
17
Notes on operation Recording and displaying the measurement re-

In the experiment descriptions, the following sults in the experiments
recommended synthesizer settings are given in the In the experiment solutions, all spectra were au-
following tabular form: tomatically recorded with the XY-recorder,
whereby V2 remained constant. Due to the inertia
of the writing system in the XY recorder, the
Synthesizer: SCAN TIME was set to T = 160 s. The scan
Name of periodic signal times given in the experiment descriptions refer
f S(n) to manual operation of the spectrum analyzer as
n Hz Φn a frequency-selective voltmeter. The quantitative
V
measurements with this device are carried out
using the settings given in the experiment de-
scriptions. Unlike automatic operation using the
XY-recorder, the gain V2 can be set to the respec-
tive maximum value. The results of these meas-
urements are entered in the tables labelled
“spectrum”. For reasons already mentioned, the
analyzer settings given in the solution diagrams
and the spectrum tables may differ.
The experiment procedures often call for the stu-
dent to enter measured values into tables, or to
The column S(n) contains the amplitude values.
sketch graphs. Therefore, copy sheets with tables
The values in this column are calculated directly
and diagrams have been included in the appendix
from the respective spectrum formulas.
to facilitate experimentation.
Note:
If an XY-recorder is not used, the spectra must
be reproduced manually, i.e. by transferring the
values from the tables to the diagrams.
Fig. 2.1-1: Plug-in diagram FAS-1
18
2.2 The Symmetrical Square-Wave Signal

The Fourier representation of the square-wave
signal shown in Fig. 2.2-1 is:
4A 1
sR (t ) =  sin ( 2 π f 0 t ) + sin ( 2 π 3 f 0 t ) +
π  3
1 1 
sin ( 2 π 5 f 0 t ) + sin ( 2 π 7 f 0 t ) + ... 
5 7 
Eq. 2.2-1 Fig. 2.2-1: The symmetrical square-wave signal;
The amplitude spectrum of the square-wave sig- curve with respect to time
nal is given in Eq. 2.2-2:
Y1/2: 0.2 V/Div., 10:1, TB: 0.2 ms;
4A
SR ( n ) = Eq. 2.2-2 Trigger Y1.
πn Sketch the output signal to scale.
Set the synthesizer according to the following ta-
ble: 2. Switch off the higher-frequency harmonics
one after another without changing the ampli-
Synthesizer: tude settings and sketch a graph of the result.
Symmetric square-wave signal Start with s7. Then switch off s5 as well, so
that only s3 and s1 contribute to the output sig-
f S(n)
n
Hz Φn nal. Compare the curves with respect to time.
V Observe the maximum overswing in the dia-
1 108 90° 5.00 grams. What do you notice? Describe the ef-
fect of the higher-frequency spectral
2 216 / 0.00 components whose amplitudes decrease as
their ordinal numbers increase
3 324 90° 1.67
4 432 / 0.00 3. Switch all the harmonics on again with un-

changed amplitudes (and phases).
5 540 90° 1.00 Use the oscilloscope in DUAL mode,
Y1,2 = 0.2 V/Div., 10:1, TB: 0.2 ms/Div., DC.
6 648 / 0.00 Graph the higher harmonics s2(t)...s8(t) relati-
7 756 90° 0.71 ve to the fundamental oscillation s1(t).
Using the oscilloscope, display the following
8 864 / 0.00 one after the other and sketch the correspond-
ing graphs:
The harmonics s3(t), s5(t), s7(t)
Reminder: 4. Determine the amplitudes of the harmonics

As specified above, the signals s1(t)...s8(t) of the for a square-wave signal with an amplitude of
synthesizer are called harmonics. The ampli- AR = 3.93 V. In doing so, you are checking
tudes of these harmonics form the amplitude the set values by calculation. Use Eq. 2.2-2
spectrum and are designated S(n). for this and enter your results in Table 1 in the
column labelled “Theory”. How large is the
1. Use your oscilloscope to display the output amplitude ratio S 1/S 5?
signal of the synthesizer together with the Record the spectrum of the symmetrical
fundamental wave s1(t). square-wave signal. All synthesizer settings
19
remain unchanged, in other words, the set

values apply:
V1 = 2 fr = 2 kHz
V2 = 1 SPAN : 15 Hz...1 kHz approx.
b = 10 Hz T = 20 s
Enter your measured values in Table 1 in the
column marked S(n). Note down the gain now Fig. 2.2-2: Generation of non-linear distortions
present at the output under V2. You can ob-
tain the spectrum amplitude SR(n) with the TDH is a measure of such non-linear distor-
following calculation: tions.
SR(n) = S(n)/(V2 · V1).
Draw the spectrum in a diagram. ∞
Mark the envelope curve of the spectrum here Σ
n= 2
Sn 2
as well. What do you notice about amplitude S ' rms
S(1) of the fundamental oscillation? THD = = Eq . 2.2-3
∞
S rms
5. Repeat Point 2, but this time record the spec-
Σ
n= 1
Sn 2
tra corresponding to the signals in the time
domain. Draw in diagrams. Compare the re- As may be seen from Eq. 2.2-3, THD is the ra-
spective diagrams. tio of the sum of the rms values of the har-
monics S’rms (n = 2... ∞) to the sum of the rms
6. Observe the influence of the phases of the values of the total oscillation Srms (n = 1... ∞).
harmonics on the curves of the signals with 7.1 Let us assume that the synthetically generated
respect to time. Switch on all amplitudes square-wave signal whose spectrum was
again unchanged. Then change, for example, measured in Pt. 4 (Table 1) was created from
the phases of the harmonics s3(t) and s5(t) a harmonic signal through extreme
from SIN to –SIN. Thus, they generate a overdriving of an amplifier. What is the total
phase-shift of –180°. Draw the curve of the harmonic distortion THD when the harmonics
time signal in a diagram. Do the changes have up to n = 8 are taken into consideration?
any effect on the amplitude spectrum? Put the Evaluate your measuring results and use Eq.
loudspeaker on. How do manipulations of the 2.2-3.
phases affect your sense of hearing? What do 7.2 Calculate the theoretical value for THD when
you conclude from your observations ? n → ∞.
Note:
7. The Total Harmonic Distortion THD Don’t make your calculation unnecessarily com-
The total harmonic distortion is a measure of plicated. You can make it simple by first calculat-
the proportion of undesired harmonics in an ing the rms value of the square-wave signal of
oscillation. Fig. 2.2-2 illustrates its signifi- amplitude AR according to Fig. 2.2-1.
cance. If a harmonic input signal si(t) = A1
cos(2πf1t) is applied to the input of a non-lin- 1 0
T
ear system, a signal so(t) will appear at the S Rrms = ∫ S 2 ( t ) dt = AR

T0 0 R
output which under certain circumstances
has a number of new spectral components at The rms value is an average of a squared term.
integral multiples of the fundamental fre- The rms (root mean square) value tells us what
quency f i. Non-linear systems are thus fre- power is being expended on ohmic resistance. For
quency-generative. In telecommunications the power at an ohmic resistance, the polarity
technology, it is important that signals be change in the square-wave signal from +AR to –AR
transmitted with a minimum of error. A is irrelevant. With regard to the power, it follows
transmission system that introduces new that:
spectral components into the signal to be Srms = AR
transmitted distorts the original signal. The
20
2.3 The Pulse Train

Theoretical observations
The pulse train represents a generalized square-
wave signal. In digital modulation methods, it is
used as a carrier and is characterized by particular
properties, which we will investigate in the fol-
lowing exercises. The modulation methods based
on the pulse train are dealt with experimentally in
the manual “Pulse Code Modulation”, which con-
tains some of the material described here. Each Fig. 2.3-1: Pulse train curve
pulse train within the time domain is unmistakea-
bly characterized by three parameters:
1. The pulse amplitude A ∞
2. The pulse period TP , also known as the pulse s P ( t ) = S 0 +Σ S P ( n )cos( 2 π n f P t ) Eq. 2.3-4
frame. n =1
3. The pulse duration T 0, also called the pulse In Eq. 2.3-4, the symbol Σ is an abbreviation
width. meaning the sum of all components from n = 1 to
In place of the pulse period T P, its reciprocal, the n = ∞. Instead of this summation symbol, we can
pulse frequency fp = 1/TP, may be substituted. The also write:
ratio of the pulse duration T0 to the pulse period TP
is the duty cycle τ. The following equation ap- ∞
plies: Σ s P ( n ) ⋅ cos( 2 πnf P t ) = S P (1) cos ( 2 πf P t ) +
n =1
T0 S P ( 2 ) cos ( 2 π 2 f P t ) +
τ= = T0 ⋅ f P Eq. 2.3-1
TP S P ( 3 ) cos ( 2 π 3 f P t ) +
Thus, a pulse train is specified by the parameter S P ( 4 ) cos ( 2 π 4 f P t ) + ...
set A, f P and τ. In the following, we will consis-
tently use this form. The curve of a pulse train Eq. 2.3-5
sP(t) is shown in Fig. 2.3-1. Our present level of knowledge allows us to view
The specific appearance of the amplitude spec- the pulse train whose curve with respect to time is
trum of a pulse train is closely linked to the curve known to us from Fig. 2.3-1 and Equations 2.3-2
with respect to time. In the following, we shall and 2.3-3 as a heterodyning of an infinite number
investigate the appearance of this spectrum and of cosine oscillations (plus a DC voltage compo-
the changes which occur in it when the parameters nent S0). In each case, the frequencies of these
A, f P and τ are varied. The pulse function of harmonic oscillations are integral multiples of the
Fig. 2.3-1 is defined in the time domain by: pulse frequency fP. In addition, each oscillation
has a particular, predetermined amplitude SP (n).
sP (t) = sP (t + nTP) n = 1, 2, 3 ... Eq. 2.3-2 The total of all amplitude values SP (n) is the am-
plitude spectrum of our pulse function. For this
 T0 T0
 A for – ≤t≤+ spectrum, theory provides the formula:
sP (t ) =  2 2
sin ( π T0 nf P )
 S P ( n ) = 4 Aτ Eq. 2.3-6
 − A for all others . Eq. 2.3-3 π T0 nf P
This is the mathematical description for the fact We can see from Eq. 2.3-6 that the amplitudes of
that the pulse train consists of equal individual all harmonics are proportional to the pulse ampli-
pulses which are periodically repeated Eq. 2.3-2. tude A and the duty cycle τ. The duty cycle τ addi-
An individual pulse assumes the value +A only tionally appears in a 2nd term of the spectral
during the time interval from –T0/2 to +T0/2, and function. If, for example, the pulse amplitude A is
has a value of –A at all other times. An equivalent doubled, all other amplitudes are also doubled. If
representation of the pulse train may be obtained the duty cycle τ is reduced by half, then all spec-
by applying the Fourier series development. tral components will be half as large; in addition
21
the structure of the spectrum will also be changed. Table 1:

In general, the quantities A and τ will be constants
in an unmodulated pulse train. The interesting part Spectrum of a pulse train
of the spectrum is most certainly contained in the
function: A = 5 V, τ = 2/10, fP= 2 kHz
sin ( π T0 nf P ) f S(n)
si ( π T0 nf P ) = Eq. 2.3-7 n kHz
π T0 nf P V
Such functions are called splitting functions, be- 1 2 3.75

cause they play an important roll in diffraction
2 4 3.03
phenomena in optics. Their principle curve is
shown in Fig. 2.3-2. Here, unlike Eq. 2.3-7, the 3 6 2.02
continuous variable f is used in place of the dis-
crete variable nfP. This is necessary for a complete 4 8 0.93
graphic representation of the splitting function.
The amplitude of a harmonic oscillation is always 5 10 0.00
a positive value. This is achieved in the amplitude 6 12 0.63
spectrum by taking the formation of the value of
the splitting function into consideration. If we ig- 7 14 0.87
nore the negative frequency range (the left-hand
half-plane in Fig. 2.3-2), then the general form 8 16 0.75
of |si ( π T 0 f ) | must have the curve shown in
Fig. 2.3-3. Using Fig. 2.3-3, it is now possible to 9 18 0.42
obtain the desired representation of the amplitude
10 20 0.00
spectrum of the pulse train by once again using the
discrete values nfP for the frequencies on the f-axis 11 22 0.33
(abscissa) and considering the constant factor 4 Aτ
on the Y-axis (ordinate). An example of this is
shown in Fig. 2.3-4 for a pulse train with the pa- Note:
rameters: A = 5 V, τ = 2/10, f P = 2 kHz. The fol- The function generator is used for most of this
lowing table presents the amplitude values SP(n) experiment, as the synthesizer can provide accept-
calculated with Eq. 2.3-6 and the frequencies of able results only in exceptional cases. The main
the harmonic oscillations presented in the way in emphasis of this experiment is thus Fourier analy-
which we interpreted Equations 2.3-4 and 2.3-5. sis. In addition to the objectives given in Chap-
Fig. 2.3-2: The splitting function Fig. 2.3-3: Curve of the magnitude function  si(πT0 f)
22
– We shall draw conclusions regarding the

white spectrum of the individual Dirac pulse.
Test questions
1. What sort of structure does the spectrum of a
pulse train have?
2. Describe the curve of the envelope of the
pulse spectrum?
3. Why do digital modulation methods require
large transmission bandwidths?
4. A function generator generates a square-wave
signal with the frequency f0 which is investi-
Fig. 2.3-4: Spectrum of a pulse train
gated using a spectrum analyzer. Surpris-
ingly, lines at even multiples of f 0, i.e. 2 f0,
ter 2.1, this experiment also has the following 4 f0, 6 f0, etc. are also found in the spectrum.
aims: How do you explain this?
Objectives Experiment procedure
– The experiment provides an understanding of Notes on Points 6, 7 and 8: These points repeat
the structure of the pulse spectrum. It shall Exercises 1 and 2 with altered pulse parameters.
become clear why digital modulation meth- It might be necessary to limit the experiments to
ods, which use pulse trains as carriers, require a few representative duty cycles.
large transmission bandwidths. – Set up the experiment according to plug-in
– The experiment reveals the spectrum of the diagram FAS-2.
symmetrical square-wave signal as a special – Using the function generator, set a pulse train
case of the general pulse spectrum. with the frequency fp = 2 kHz, a pulse ampli-
– We shall draw conclusions about the continu- tude A = 5 V and a duty cycle τ1 = 1/10.
ous amplitude spectrum of a single pulse Check the settings with the oscilloscope and
from the limit values. the frequency counter. Note the definition of
– The periodic Dirac pulse train is investigated. the duty cycle τ according to Eq. 2.3-1.
Fig. 2.3-5: Plug-in diagram FAS-2
23
1. Determine the curve of a pulse train with re- 5. How great is the number , of the spectral
spect to time. Display the pulse train at the lines located between any two zero crossings
output of the function generator on your os- of the envelope?
cilloscope. Recommended settings: 6. Repeat the recording of spectra and curves
Y1 : 2 V/Div at the same pulse frequencies f P = 2 kHz
TB : 0.2 ms/Div. and pulse amplitude A for the duty cycles
Trigger channel 1, DC τ2 = 2/10, τ3 = 3/10, τ4 = 4/10, τ5 = 5/10 as
Draw the time curve of the pulse train to well as τ6 = 9/10. Proceed as described in
scale; Write down all pulse parameters (A, fp, points 1, 2 and 3.
τ). 7. Record the spectra and curves again at
2. Determine the spectrum of a pulse train. the same pulse frequency fp = 2 kHz and
Do not change the settings on the function the pulse amplitude A for the duty cycles
generator; connect your analyzer in parallel to τ2 = 2/10, τ3 = 3/10, τ4 = 4/10, τ5 = 5/10 and
the oscilloscope. τ6 = 9/10. Proceed as described in Points 1, 2
Measure the spectrum of the pulse train de- and 3?
fined by A, f p, and τ by recording the ampli- Analyzer settings:
tudes S(n) and the corresponding frequencies V1 = 1 SPAN : maximum
fn of the individual spectral components. V2 = 5, 10 fr = 50 kHz
Analyzer settings: b = 100 Hz T = 40 s
V1 = 1 fr = 20 kHz 8. Transfer the results from Points 1, 2 and 6
V2 = 5, 10 SPAN : 0.5kHz...20kHz approx. into diagrams. The diagrams show the rela-
b = 100 Hz T = 40 s tionship of the curves with respect to time to
Enter your measurement results in Table A1 the respective spectra as a function of the
(sample copies in the appendix) and graph duty cycle. Discuss this in class. What do you
your results in a diagram. Sketch in the enve- notice about spectra τ1 and τ6?
lope curves with dotted lines. Do not forget to 9. As we already learned under Point 7, spectral
enter the required data on the type of spec- lines always occur at intervals corresponding
trum, pulse parameters and analyzer settings, to integral multiples of the pulse frequency fP.
as only then can your measurements be veri- The lower the pulse frequency, the denser the
fied. spectrum is. What happens to the spectrum
Note: when the pulse frequency f P is allowed to
“go” to fP = 0 Hz?
Check the set duty cycle carefully. Even small
deviations of τ can result in great changes in the Note:
splitting function according to Eq. 2.3-6. If the This limit value means that the periodic pulse
duty cycle is carelessly set, you will end up ana- train becomes a single pulse. The “next” pulse
lyzing another spectrum than the one you intend will not occur until the time TP = 1/fP has
to analyze. Needless to say, in such cases the mea- elapsed. If f P → 0, we obtain T P→ ∞. This
sured and theoretical values can no longer be ex- means that there is no subsequent pulse.
pected to coincide.
3. Using Eq. 2.3-6, calculate the amplitudes 10. Why does the transmission of pulse trains re-
Sp(n) of the spectral components to be ex- quire channels with high bandwidths?
pected according to theory. Remember to ap- 11. What happens if the pulse duration T0 of an
ply the argument in Eq. 2.3-6 in radians. individual pulse approaches 0 while the pulse
With some pocket calculators it is necessary height tends towards ∞ such that
to switch over from degrees to radians. How +T0 / 2
many spectral lines are there in front of the
first zero position of the splitting function?
lim
T0 → 0
∫ s P ( t ) dt = 1 applies?
–T0 / 2
4. Where are the zero positions of the pulse
spectrum envelope in general?
24
The voltage-time area is always constant at

Synthesizer:
this value, and the amplitude increases while
Periodic Dirac pulse train
the pulse duration drops. Such ideal pulse sig-
nals are called Dirac pulses. f S(n)
n Hz Φn
12. Synthesize a periodic Dirac pulse train. V
A periodic sequence of infinitely narrow 1 108 0° 0.71
pulses with the amplitude A is referred to as a
Dirac pulse train. As we can see from Points 2 216 0° 0.71
9 and 11, such a signal is formed by
superpositioning harmonic oscillations with 3 324 0° 0.71
equal amplitudes S(n). In other words, the
4 432 0° 0.71
amplitude spectrum is discrete and all spec-
tral components are equally large. Fig. 2.3-5 5 540 0° 0.71
shows the curve with respect to time and the
spectrum of the Dirac pulse train. The Rus- 6 648 0° 0.71
sian letter “scha” (III) is sometimes used to
denote the Dirac pulse train. The III-function 7 756 0° 0.71
can be used to derive the modulation spectra
8 864 0° 0.71
of the sampled signals.
∞
III( t ) = 1 + 2Σ cos( 2 π nf 0 t ) Eq. 2.3-8 In addition, set a DC component of
n =1
S0 = +0.35 V. Use your oscilloscope to meas-
Approximate the III-function using the fol- ure the signal at the output of the summing
lowing finite partial sum: amplifier Y1: 2V/Div., TB: 0.2ms/Div., Trig-
ger Y1. Draw the curve with respect to time
∞ of the output signal in a diagram.
III( t ) = 1 + 2Σ cos( 2 π nf 0 t ) 13. Draw the harmonics s1(t) and s2(t), s1(t) and
n =1
s3(t), as well as s1(t) and s4(t) together in a dia-
Use the experiment set-up shown in plug-in gram. [s1(t) respectively from measurement
diagram FAS-2. Set the synthesizer as fol- socket: Harmonics]. Compare this with the
lows: conditions resulting for a symmetrical square-
wave signal (Point 3 in Chapter 2.1.1).
Oscilloscope: Y: 0.2V/Div., TB: 0.2 ms/Div.
14. Draw the spectrum of the Dirac pulse train in
the frequency range 50 Hz...1 kHz. Set the
spectrum analyzer as follows:
V1 = 1 T = 40 s
V2 = 10 fr = 2 kHz
b = 10 Hz SPAN: 15 Hz...1 kHz approx.
Fig. 2.3-6: Curve with respect to time and spectrum of the III-function
25
2.4 Triangular-Wave Signal

The Fourier representation for the triangular-wave
signal shown in Fig. 2.4-1 is as follows:
8A 
 cos ( 2 πf 0 t ) + 2 cos ( 2 π 3 f 0 T ) +
1
sD ( t ) =
π 
2
3
cos ( 2 π 5 f 0 t ) + 2 cos ( 2 π 7 f 0 t ) + ...]

1 1
52 7
Eq. 2.4-1
The amplitude spectrum of the triangular-wave
signal is given in Eq. 2.4-2: Fig. 2.4-1: The symmetrical triangular-wave signal
8A
SD ( n ) = with n: 1,3,5, 7,...
( nπ ) 2
Why is the triangular-wave signal especially
Eq. 2.4-2 suited for the generation of harmonic signals,
Set up the experiment as shown in plug-in dia- and how should we proceed?
gram FAS-1 2. Record the spectrum of the synthetic triangu-
1. Set the synthesizer as shown in the following lar wave signal. Do not change any of the
table. synthesizer settings.
Set the spectrum analyzer as follows:
Synthesizer: Triangular-wave signal V1 = 1
V2 = 1, 10
f S(n) b = 10 Hz
n Hz Φn fr = 2 kHz
V
SPAN: 15 Hz...1 kHz approx.
1 108 0° 7.07 T = 20 s in manual operation
T = 160 s for XY recorder
2 216 / 0.00
Enter your measured values in the column
3 324 0° 0.79 designated S(n) in Table A2 ((sample copies
in the appendix)). Write down the output gain
4 432 / 0.00 of the spectrum analyzer under V2. The spec-
tral amplitude SD(n) we are looking for is de-
5 540 0° 0.28
termined using the formula:
6 648 / 0.00 SD(n) = S(n)/(V2V1) .
Draw the spectrum as a graph in a diagram.
7 756 0° 0.14 Determine the total harmonic distortion THD
of the triangular wave signal using Eq. 2.2-3
8 864 / 0.00 (see Chapter 2.2) and your measured values.
3. Observe the effect of the phases of the har-
monics on the curve of the signal with respect
1. Display the output signal of the synthesizer to time. Change, for example, the phase of
on your oscilloscope. harmonic s3(t) from COS. to –COS. Draw the
Y1: 0.5V/Div, 10:1; TB: 2 ms/Div.; curve of the time signal in a diagram. Do your
Trigger Y1. actions have any effect on the amplitude
Draw the output signal to scale in a diagram. spectrum?
26
2.5 Saw-Tooth Signals

The falling saw-tooth signal
The Fourier representation of the saw-tooth signal
shown in Fig. 2.5-1 is:
A
s s ( t ) = 2 π  sin ( 2 πf 0 t ) + sin ( 2 π 2 f 0 t ) +
1
 2
1 sin 2 π 3 f t + 1 sin 2 π 4 f t + ... 

( 0 ) ( 0 ) 
3 4 
Eq. 2.5-1 Fig. 2.5-1: Falling saw-tooth signal
The amplitude spectrum of the falling saw-tooth
signal is given by Eq. 2.5-2:
2A V1 = 2
SS ( n ) = with n :1,2,3, 4,... Eq. 2.5-2
nπ V2 = 2
b = 10 Hz
Set up the experiment according to plug-in dia- fr = 2 kHz
gram FAS-2. SPAN: 15 Hz...1 kHz approx.
1. Set the synthesizer according to the following T = 20 s in manual operation
table. T = 160 s for XY recorder
Enter your measured values in the column
Synthesizer: falling saw-tooth signal designated S(n) in Table 1. Write down the
present output gain of the spectrum analyzer
f S(n)
n Hz Φn under V2. The spectral amplitude SS(n) we are
V looking for is determined using the formula:
1 108 90° 2.26 SS(n) = S(n)/(V2V1).
Draw the spectrum in a diagram.
2 216 90° 1.13
The rising saw-tooth signal
3 324 90° 0.75 The Fourier series of the rising saw-tooth signal as
shown in Fig. 2.5-2 only differs from that of the
4 432 90° 0.57
falling saw-tooth signal with respect to the phase
5 540 90° 0.45 relationships between the harmonics. The Fourier
series is thus:
6 648 90° 0.38
A
s s ( t ) = 2 π  sin ( 2 πf 0 t ) − sin ( 2 π 2 f 0 t ) +
1
7 756 90° 0.33
 2
8 864 90° 0.28 1 sin 2 π 3 f t − 1 sin 2 π 4 f t + ... 
( 0 ) ( 0 ) 
3 4 
1. Display the output signal of the synthesizer
Eq. 2.5-3
on your oscilloscope.
The amplitude spectrum of the rising saw-tooth
Y1: 0.5 V/Div, 10:1; TB: 2 ms/Div.;
signal can also be obtained from Eq. 2.5-2:
Trigger Y1.
2A
Draw the output signal to scale in a diagram. SS ( n ) = with n :1,2,3, 4,...
2. Record the spectrum of the falling saw-tooth nπ
signal. Do not change any of the synthesizer
settings.
Set the spectrum analyzer as follows:
27
3. Observe the effect of the phases of the har-

monics on the curve of the falling saw-tooth
signal with respect to time. Leaving the am-
plitudes unchanged as in Point 1, set the phas-
es of the even numbered harmonics to –SIN.
Display the output signal of the synthesizer
Y1: 0.2 V/Div, 10:1; TB: 2 ms/Div.;
Trigger Y1.
Draw the output signal to scale in a diagram.
Fig. 2.5-2: Rising saw-tooth signal
2.6 Modulations and Beat Phenomena
Fig. 2.6-1 shows a harmonic carrier
sC(t) = a cos (2 π fC t)
modulated by a harmonic message signal The oscillation with f1 is termed the upper side
sM(t) = A cos( 2 π fM t). line (USL), while the frequency f2 is referred to as
An amplitude-modulated signal is generated at the lower side line (LSL). Both oscillations have
the output of the modulator with the following the same amplitude S = k a A/2. Of course, it is
form: possible to produce a signal mixture from two
harmonic oscillations similar to those in Eq. 2.6-1
s AM ( t ) = k ⋅ s C ( t ) s M ( t ) which is not a modulation product in an electronic
system. A simple example of this is the summing
amplifier shown in Fig. 2.6-2, to the inputs of
= kaA cos( 2 πf C t )cos( 2 πf M t ) which the harmonic signals s1(t) and s2(t) are ap-
plied.
=
kaA
2
[cos[ 2 π ( f C + f M ) t ] + The inverting summer supplies at its output the
signal s0(t):
– s0(t) = s1(t) + s2(t)
cos[ 2 π ( f C − f M ) t ]] = A1 cos (2 π f1 t) + A2 cos(2 π f2 t)
We then substitute the arithmetic mean Ω and the
Eq. 2.6-1 difference frequency f for the frequencies f 1 and f2:
We can see from Eq. 2.6-1 that the modulation is
f1 = (Ω – f) Ω = (f1 + f2) /2
generated here by a pure multiplication process.
The modulator constant k has the dimension 1/V. f2 = (Ω + f) f = (f2 – f1) /2
The signal described by Eq. 2.6-1 is a double-
sideband amplitude modulation suppressed car- Then we “reverse” the mathematics of Eq. 2.6-1
rier (DSB-AMSC) and consists of two harmonic to obtain:
oscillations with the frequencies:
f1 = f C + fM
f2 = fC – fM
Fig. 2.6-1: Generation of AM Fig. 2.6-2: Generation of beat phenomena
28
–s0(t) = A1 cos(2π (Ω – f)t) + A2 cos(2 π (Ω + f) t) evant oscillations. The frequency f is half the
difference frequency of f1 and f 2 and gives us
for the special case of equal amplitudes: the envelope curve.
A1 = A2 = A
–s0(t) = A [cos (2π (Ω – f) t) + cos(2π (Ω + f) t)] Displaying a beat using the synthesizer
–s0(t)= 2 A cos (2π f t) cos (2π Ω t) Set the synthesizer as shown in the following ta-
Eq. 2.6–2 ble:
The signal formed by superpositioning is called a

Synthesizer: Beat
beat. If we compare Eq. 2.6-1 and Eq. 2.6-2, we
may draw the following conclusions: f S(n)
1. Beats are formed directly through the n
Hz Φn
V
superpositioning of two harmonic oscilla-
tions. 7 756 0° 3.53
2. DSB-AMSC gives mainly the same signal
8 864 0° 3.53
curve as the beat, but is generated in a differ-
ent manner.
The modulation process shifts the message 1. Display the output signal of the synthesizer
signal into the upper frequency band. It is the on your oscilloscope.
modulation process which provides the two Y1: 2 V/Div; TB: 2 ms/Div; Trigger Y1.
harmonic oscillations with approximately Draw the signal in a diagram. Also mark the
equal frequencies which must be phase shifts and the envelope curve. What is
superpositioned to obtain the beat phenom- the maximum beat amplitude according to
enon. Thus, every DSB-AMSC is a beat but not Eq. 2.6-2? What is the frequency of the beat
every beat is AM! envelope?
According to Eq. 2.6-1 and Eq. 2.6-2, a beat 2. Record the spectrum and draw it in a dia-
is characterized by the superpositioning of gram.
two harmonic oscillations. Wherever the Analyzer settings.
lower-frequency oscillation cos(2π f t) has a V1 = 1 SPAN : 15 Hz...1 kHz
zero crossover, the beat has a node and, due V2 = 2 fr = 2 kHz
to the change in sign, is subjected to a phase b = 10 Hz T = 40 s
shift of 180° (cf. Fig. 2.6-3))
The frequency of the beat Ω is the arithmetic
mean of the frequencies f1 and f 2 of the rel- Double-sideband AM plus carrier (DSB-AMPC)
Equation 2.6-1 describes DSB-AM SC. We obtain
AM plus carrier by superpositioning a DC voltage
onto the modulating signal.
sAM(t) = (aC + ksM(t)) cos (2π f Ct) Eq. 2.6-3
In Eq. 2.6-3, it is obvious that the modulating sig-
nal sM(t), multiplied by the factors k, is super-
positioned with a DC voltage the magnitude of
which is equal to the carrier amplitude aC (cf.
Eq. 2.6-1). This leads to the formation of the car-
rier oscillation. By converting and applying
Eq. 2.6-3 we obtain:
sAM(t) = a C cos (2π f C t) +
[A · k/2 cos(2π(fC + fM) t) +
cos(2 π (f C – fM)t)] Eq. 2.6-4
Fig. 2.6-3: Curve of beats with respect to time
29
If we assume a modulator constant k = 1, then we 5. What is the modulation depth m? Evaluate

obtain with the synthesizer table or the spectrum.
m = A/aC : modulation depth 6. Switch off the signal s8(t). Again draw the
curve of the output signal with respect to time

( )
m
s AM ( t ) = a C  cos ( 2 πf C t ) + cos 2 π ( f C + f M ) t
in a diagram. Record the spectrum. Use the
 2 settings given in Point 4. Compare your re-
sults here with those for Points 1 and 2.
 7. Switch on the signal s7(t) again. Reduce the
( )
m
+ cos 2 π ( f C − f M ) t  amplitudes of s6(t) and s8(t) to 1.0 V. Draw
2  the curve of the AM signal with respect to
time in a diagram. Sketch the corresponding
Eq. 2.6-5
spectrum. Use the analyzer settings given in
Displaying AMPC with the synthesizer Point 4.
Set your synthesizer according to the following
table: 2.7 Rectified Signals
The process of rectification generates a non-har-
Synthesizer: AMPC monic periodic output signal from a harmonic in-
put signal (see Fig. 2.7-1). Thus a rectified signal
f S(n) will also have a discrete line spectrum.
n
Hz Φn
V
A. Half-wave rectification, half-wave sinusoidal
6 648 0° 2.00 signal
7 756 0° 4.00 The Fourier representation of the half-wave recti-
fication signal (half-wave sine) shown in Fig. 2.7-
8 864 0° 2.00 1 is:
s HS ( t ) = A − A sin ( 2 πf 0 t ) −
3. Draw the curve of the summation signal with π 2
respect to time in a diagram.
Oscilloscope: Y1: 2 V/Div, TB: 2 ms/Div. ∑ 2 A ⋅ cos ( 2 πnf 0 t ) Eq. 2.7-1
4. Record the AMPC spectrum with the XY-re- π ( n 2 − 1)
corder. where n i s even, i.e. n = 2, 4, 6,...
Analyzer settings: The amplitude spectrum for half-wave rectifica-
V1 = 1 SPAN : 15 Hz...1 kHz tion is given by Eq. 2.7-2:
V2 = 2 fr = 2 kHz 2A
S(n) = Eq. 2.7-2
b =10 Hz T = 40 s
π ( n 2 − 1)
In addition, there is also a spectral component of
magnitude A/2 for n = 1.
We can see from Eq. 2.7-1 that the half-wave si-
nusoidal signal has an extended amplitude spec-
trum. The rectification process provides a signal
with a large alternating component. This alternat-
ing component, which is often undesired, is de-
scribed as ripple, symbolized as w. The ripple w is
defined as the quotient of the rms value of the
superpositioned AC voltage U'rms and the DC
voltage U0.
U ' rms
Fig. 2.7-1: Signal curve for half-wave rectification w= Eq. 2.7-3
U0
30
Using Eq. 2.7-1, the rms AC voltage for the half- In addition, set a DC-offset of 1.60 V.
wave sine signal is determined as: 1.1 Display the output signal of the synthesizer
2
∞ 
2A 
2
1  A
⋅   +Σ 
Y1: 0.5 V/Div, 10:1; TB: 2 ms/Div.
U ' rms = 
2  2  n = 2  π ( n 2 − 1)  Trigger Y1.
Eq. 2.7-4 1.2 Record the spectrum of the synthetic half-
The DC voltage of the half-wave sine signal is: wave sine curve. Do not change any of the
synthesizer settings.
A
U0 = Select the following settings on your spec-
π trum analyzer:
In many cases, the residual ripple of the rectified V1 = 1
voltage may not exceed certain cut-off values V2 = 1, 2, 5,10
(e.g. in communications technology). In certain b = 10 Hz
circumstances, additional smoothing measures fr = 2 kHz
are required. Two possible methods are filtering SPAN: 15 Hz...1 kHz approx.
or voltage regulation using ICs. T = 20 s in manual operation
1. Set the synthesizer according to the table be- T = 160 s for XY recorder
low. Enter your measured values in the column
marked S(n) in Table 1. Record the present
Synthesizer: Half-wave rectification output gain of the spectrum analyzer under
V2. We obtain the desired spectral amplitude
f S(n) SHS(n) through conversion with V1 · V2. Graph
n
Hz Φn the spectrum in a diagram. Use the multim-
V
eter to measure the DC voltage U0 in the out-
1 108 270° 2.50 put signal of the synthesizer and record this
2 216 180° 1.06 value.
Determine the ripple w of the half-wave si-
3 324 / / nusoidal signal from the measured values
according to Eq. 2.7-3 and Eq. 2.7-4.
4 432 180° 0.21
5 540 / /
6 648 180° 0.09
Fig. 2.7-2: Signal curve for bridge rectification
31
B. Bridge rectification: the full-wave sinusoidal In addition, set a DC-offset of +3.2 V.

signal 2.1 Display the output signal of the synthesizer
The Fourier representation of the bridge rectifica- on your oscilloscope.
tion signal (full-wave sine) shown in Fig. 2.7-2 is: Y: 2 V/Div, TB: 2 ms; Trigger V1.
s fs ( t ) = 2 A − ∑ 4A ⋅ cos ( 2 π nf 0 t ) 2.2 Record the spectrum of the synthetic full-
π π ( n 2 − 1) wave sine curve. Do not change any of the
Eq. 2.7-5 synthesizer settings.
where n is even, i.e.: n = 2, 4, 6, ... Select the following settings on your spec-
The amplitude spectrum for bridge rectification is trum analyzer:
given by Eq. 2.7-6: V1 = 1
V2 = 1, 2, 5, 10
4A
S fs ( n ) = Eq. 2.7-6 b = 10 Hz
π ( n 2 − 1) fr = 2 kHz
If we compare the Fourier series of the half-wave SPAN : 15 Hz...1 kHz approx.
and full-wave sine, we discover that: T = 20 s in manual operation
– The DC voltage component U0 for bridge rec- T = 160 s for XY recorder
tifications is twice as great as for half-wave Enter your measured values in the column
rectification. marked S(n) in Table 2. Record the present
– The spectral component with the basic fre- output gain of the spectrum analyzer under
quency f 0 which appears in half-wave rectifi- V2. We obtain the desired spectral
cation disappears for full-wave rectification. amplitude SFS(n) through conversion:
These are the reasons why bridge rectification is S(n)
superior to half-wave rectification. S FS ( n ) =
Set the synthesizer according to the table below. V2 ⋅ V1
Graph the spectrum in a diagram. Use the
Synthesizer: Bridge rectification multimeter to measure the DC voltage U0 in
the output signal of the synthesizer and record
f S(n) this value.
n
Hz Φn
V Determine the ripple w of the full-wave sinu-
1 108 / / soidal signal from the measured values ac-
cording to Eq. 2.7-3 and Eq. 2.7-4.
2 216 180° 2.12
3 324 / /
4 432 180° 0.42
5 540 / /
6 648 180° 0.18
32
TPS 7.2.1.2 Fourier Analysis and Synthesis Solutions
Measurement set-up (0.3)
Results The amplitude SR(1) of the fundamental oscilla-

1. tion is greater than the square-wave amplitude
AR by a factor of 4/π = 1.27. The law for the for-
mation of the spectrum of a symmetrical square-
wave signal is:
4 AR
SR ( n ) = n = 1, 2 , 3
π ( 2 n − 1)
Fig. S0-1: Curve of a square-wave signal with respect to time

Parameters: AR= 5.0 V
fR = 2.0 kHz
2.1 Table 1:
Spectrum of a symmetrical square-wave signal
Signal: Analyzer: Fig. S0-2: Spectrum of a square-wave signal

AR = 5 V V1 = 1 Signal: Analyzer:
f 0 = 2.0 Hz b = 500 Hz AR = 5.0 V V1 = 1 V2 = 2, 5, 10
fR = 2.0 kHz b = 500 Hz T = 20 s
f r = 20 kHz fr = 20 Hz
T = 20 s Span:500 Hz...20 kHz
Display in manual operation
Measured values Theory
f S(n) SR(n) SR(n)
n V2 2.2
kHz V V V
1 2 6.6 1 6.6 6.37
3 6 4.2 2 2.1 2.12
5 10 6.6 5 1.32 1.27
7 14 4.7 5 0.94 0.91
9 18 3.6 5 0.72 0.71
Note:
Fig. S0-3: Spectrum of a square-wave signal
The set square-wave amplitude is proportional to Signal: Analyzer:
the measurement result. As the amplitude cannot AR = 5.0 V V1 = 1 V2 = 1
be determined more precisely than ±5% with the fR = 2.0 kHz b = 500 Hz T = 160 s
fr = 20 Hz
oscilloscope, we must accept deviations of this Span : 500 Hz...20 kHz
magnitude. Display with XY-recorder
33
2.3 If mechanical measurement instruments,

which are subject to inertia, are used as dis-
play instruments, e.g. a multimeter or an XY-
recorder, the low-pass behavior of the whole
system is increased still further. The needle
or pen shows practically no deflection. It is
thus a good idea when using an XY recorder
to select the scan time one step larger than is
required by the time law for the analyzer fil-
ters.
Fig. S0-4: Spectrum of a square-wave signal

Signal: Analyzer: 4. The envelope in the spectrum of the sym-
AR = 5.0 V V1 = 1 V2 = 1
fR = 2.0 kHz b = 500 Hz T = 40 s metrical square-wave signal has the hyper-
fr = 20 kHz bolic curve 1/f.
Span : 500 Hz...20 kHz
Representation on storage oscilloscope Further general comments on the spectrum of the
symmetrical square-wave signal:
3. The reduction of the bandwidth b narrows the – The spectrum has a line structure.
spectral window. The manual frequency set- – The spectral lines occur at odd multiples of
ting thus becomes more and more difficult al- the fundamental frequency fR.
though the spectral lines become more (3 f R, 5 f R, 7 f R,...)
pronounced. Even when a storage oscillo- – The amplitudes SR(n) are inversely propor-
scope is used as an (almost) inertialess dis- tional to the odd multiples of the fundamen-
play instrument, the spectrum cannot be tal frequency.
reproduced at full amplitude. The reason for (1/3, 1/5, 1/7,..)
this is to be found in the time law of electrical – The amplitudes SR(n) are proportional to the
communications technology. The filters of amplitude AR of the square-wave signal.
the analyzer no longer respond.
34
The Symmetrical Square-Wave Signal (2.2)
Results
1. 3.
Fig. S2.2-1 Fig. S2.2-4

Symmetrical square-wave signal with the harmonics: s1, s3 , The harmonics s1 and s3
s5 , s7
2.
Fig. S2.2-2 Fig. S2.2-5

Symmetrical square-wave signal with the harmonics: s1, s3 , The harmonics s1 and s5
s5
Fig. S2.2-3 Fig. S2.2-6

Symmetrical square-wave signal with the harmonics: s1, s3 The harmonics s1 and s7
The maximum overswing approaches the signal

edges as the number of harmonics increases. This
is referred to as Gibb’s phenomenon. The higher-
frequency spectral components are responsible
for the edge steepness. Steep signal edges thus
result in an extended amplitude spectrum.
35
4. see Table 1, “Theory” column 5.

S1/S5 = 5
Table 1 :
Spectrum of a symmetrical square-wave signal

Signal: Analyzer:
A = 3.93 V V1 = 1
τ = 5/10 b = 500 Hz
f0 = 108 Hz fr = 20 kHz
SPAN: 15 Hz...1kHz
T = 20 s
Fig. S2.2-8: Spectrum with the components s1 , s3, s5
Analyzer settings:
Measured values Theory V1 = 2 T = 160 s
V2 = 1 SPAN:15 Hz..1 kHz approx.
n f S(n) SR(n) SR(n) b = 10 Hz fr = 2 kHz
V2
Hz V V V
1 108 10.0 1 5.00 5.00
2 216 — — — 0.00
3 324 7.0 2 1.75 1.67
4 432 — — — 0.00
5 540 4.2 2 1.05 1.00
6 648 — — — 0.00
Fig. S2.2-9: Spectrum with the components s1 , s3
7 756 8.0 5 0.80 0.71 Analyzer settings:
V1 = 2 T = 160 s
8 864 — — — 0.00 V2 = 1 SPAN: 15 Hz..1 kHz approx.
b = 10 Hz fr = 2 kHz
The amplitude of the fundamental oscillation S1 is The representation of the signal in the time do-
greater than the square-wave amplitude by a fac- main and the spectral domain are equivalent. It
tor of 4/π ≈ 1.27. becomes clear once again that the higher-fre-
quency spectral components in the curves of the
signals with respect to time are responsible for the
steepness of the edge. If the higher-frequency
components are not present in the spectrum, the
time signal obtained has a smaller edge steepness.
6.
Fig. S2.2-7: Spectrum with the components s1, s3 , s5, s7

Analyzer settings:
V1 = 2 T = 160 s
V2 =1 SPAN: 15 Hz..1 kHz approx.
b =10 Hz fr = 2 kHz
Fig. S2.2-10: Influence of the phases on the time-curve of

the signal
s1(t): 90° (= SIN) s5(t): 270° (= –SIN)
s3(t): 270° (= –SIN) s7(t): 90° (= SIN)
36
No effects are noticeable on the amplitude spec- 7.2

trum. However, the phases have a strong influence Theoretical determination of the total harmonic
on the curve of the time signal. The phase rela- distortion.
tionships apparently have no audible effect. This Calculating the rms value Srms of the square wave
is surprising when one considers that the mem- oscillation:
brane of a loudspeaker is excited by signals with
completely different curves depending on the ∞ Sn 2
phase relationships of the harmonics. S rms = Σ =A
n =1 2
7.1
From this we obtain the rms value S’rms of the har-
Determining the THD from measured values us-
monics:
ing Eq. 2.2-3:
∞ Sn 2 ∞ Sn 2 S1 2
∞ S rms = Σ = Σ −
Σ Sn 2
n= 2
n= 2 2 n =1 2 2
S ' rms
THD = =
2 8
∞ S rms = A2 − 8A = A 1−
Σ
n= 1
Sn 2
π2 π2
1. 75 2 + 1. 05 2 + 0 . 80 2 Where S1 = 4 A/π .
THD = We obtain the total harmonic distortion THD by
5. 00 2 + 1. 75 2 + 1. 05 2 + 0 . 80 2 taking the quotient:
= 40 .15% Eq. S ' rms 8

THD = = 1− = 43. 5%
S rms π2
2.2-3
The THD determined using the spectrum analyzer
is obviously a close approximation to the value
expected theoretically for the ideal case.
37
 π n
The Pulse Train (2.3) sin  
 10 
Answers S P1 ( n ) = 2 , 0 V
πn
1. The pulse spectrum has a line structure. The
spectral lines occur at intervals corresponding 10
to integral multiples of the pulse frequency fP . For τ1 =1/10 there are a total of 9 spectral lines up
2. The envelope of the spectrum has the curve of to the first zero point of the splitting function.
a splitting function si( π f). The zero points of Table 1:
the envelope are at integral multiples of 1/T0,
i.e. the reciprocal value of the pulse duration. Spectrum of a pulse train
3. Digital modulation methods use pulse trains. Signal: Analyzer:
The use of short pulse durations results in A = 5V V1 =1
very extended modulation spectra; the impor- τ1 = 1/10 b = 100 Hz
tant position of the first zero point is shifted f 0 = 2.00 kHz fr = 20 kHz
into a higher frequency range. SPAN : 500 Hz...20kHz
4. From the theory, we know that the spectrum T = 40 s
of the symmetrical square-wave signal is
given by: Measured values Theory
4A SR(n) SR(n)
SR ( n ) = where n :1, 3, 5, 7 ,... Eq. 2.2-2 f S(n)
V2
πn n kHz V V V
No spectral components may occur for even 1 2.0 9.4 5 1.88 1.97
frequency multiples, i.e. n = 2, 4, 6... If they
do occur, this is a sign that the duty cycle is 2 4.0 8.9 5 1.78 1.87
not correct.
3 6.0 8.2 5 1.64 1.72
Results
4 8.0 7.3 5 1.46 1.52
1.
5 10.0 6.2 5 1.24 1.27
6 12.0 5.0 5 1.00 1.01
7 14.0 7.4 10 0.74 0.73
8 16.0 4.5 10 0.45 0.47
9 18.0 2.5 10 0.25 0.22
10 20.0 — 10 — 0.00
Fig. S2.3-1
A=5V fP = 2 kHz τ1 = 1/10
2. and 3.
Our starting point is Eq. 2.3-6:
sin ( π T0 nf P )
S P ( n ) = 4 Aτ
π T0 nf P
with: τ = T 0 · f P
we obtain:
sin ( π n τ ) Fig. S2.3-2
S P ( n ) = 4 Aτ Eq. 2.3-1
Spectrum of a pulse train
π nτ Signal: Analyzer:
A = 5.0 V V1 = 1 V2 = 1
If we set the pulse parameters A = 5 V and τ1 = 1/10 b = 100 Hz T = 160 s
τ1 = 1/10 we obtain: fP1 = 2.0 kHz fr = 20 kHz
SPAN: 500 Hz...20 kHz
38
4.
The spectrum of a periodic pulse train consists of
discrete lines. The amplitudes of the spectral lines
are bounded by an envelope curve with a form de-
scribed by the splitting function according to
Eq. 2.3-7. The splitting function has zero points
for:
sin ( π T 0 f) = 0
π T0 f = mπ m = 1, 2, 3
The m-th zero point is thus found at frequency: Fig. S2.3-3
A=5V fP = 2 kHz τ2 = 2/10
m
f = = f0 m
T0
Note:
When expressed in terms of τ and f P, the zero
A frequency drift of the function generator will
points are located at the frequencies:
lead to a shift in the spectral lines.
mf Number of spectral lines between two zero points:
f = P
τ 1
Examples: τ l≤ ⇒l=4
= 1/10, fP = 2 kHz τ2
f 01 = 20 kHz, f 02 = 40 kHz
τ = 2/10, fP = 3 kHz Table 2:
f 01 = 15 kHz, f 02 = 30 kHz.
5.
Signal: Analyzer:
The number of spectral lines between 2 zero
A = 5V V1 =1
points is equal to the natural number , for which:
τ2 = 2/10 b = 100 Hz
1 fP1 = 2.00 kHz fr = 20 kHz
l≤
τ SPAN : 500 Hz...20kHz
This means that for τ1 = 1/10, there are , = 9 lines T = 40 s
between two zero points. The tenth line has the
amplitude 0, and thus coincides with the zero Measured values Theory
point. f S(n) SR(n) SR(n)
n V2
6. kHz V V V
Analog to 3.
1 2.0 7.2 2 3.60 3.74
sin ( π nτ )
S P ( n ) = 4 Aτ 2 4.0 5.9 2 2.95 3.03
π nτ
If we set the pulse parameters A and τ2, we obtain: 3 6.0 4.0 2 2.00 2.02
 2π n  4 8.0 9.7 10 0.97 0.94

sin  
 10  5 10.0 — 10 — 0.00
SP 2 ( n ) = 4.0 V
2π n
6 12.0 5.6 10 0.56 0.62
10
7 14.0 8.3 10 0.83 0.86
8 16.0 7.6 10 0.76 0.76
9 18.0 4.8 10 0.48 0.42
10 20.0 — 10 — 0.00
39
Table 3:
Signal: Analyzer:
A = 5V V1 =1
τ3 = 3/10 b = 100 Hz
fP1 = 2.00 kHz fr = 20 kHz
SPAN : 500 Hz...20kHz
T = 40 s
Fig. S2.3-4: Spectrum of a pulse train Measured values Theory

Signal: Analyzer:
A = 5.0 V V1 = 1 V2 = 1 f S(n) SR(n) SR(n)
n V2
τ2 = 2/10 b = 100 Hz T = 160 s kHz V V V
fP1 = 2.0 kHz fr = 20 kHz
SPAN: 500 Hz...20 kHz 1 2.0 5.1 1 5.10 5.15
2 4.0 6.1 2 3.05 3.02

 3π n 
sin   3 6.0 6.4 10 0.64 0.66
 10 
SP 3 ( n ) = 6.0 V
3π n 4 8.0 9.6 10 0.94 0.94
10 5 10.0 6.6 5 1.32 1.27
Number of spectral lines between two zero points:
6 12.0 6.1 10 0.61 0.62
1
l≤ ⇒l=3 7 14.0 3.1 10 0.31 0.28
τ3
8 16.0 7.7 10 0.71 0.76
9 18.0 5.6 10 0.56 0.57
10 20.0 — 10 — 0.00
Fig. S2.3-5
A =5V fP = 2 kHz τ3 = 3/10
Fig. S2.3-6: Spectrum of a pulse train

Signal: Analyzer:
A = 5.0 V V1 = 1 V2 = 1
τ3 = 3/10 b = 100 Hz T = 160 s
SPAN : 500 Hz...20 kHz
40
 4π n 
sin  
 10 
S P 4 ( n ) = 8. 0 V
4π n
10
1
l≤ ⇒l=2
τ4

Signal: Analyzer:
A = 5.0 V V1 = 1 V2 = 1
τ4 = 4/10 b = 100 Hz T = 160 s
SPAN:500 Hz...20 kHz
 5π n 
sin  
Fig. S2.3-7  10 
S P 5 ( n ) = 10 . 0 V
A =5V fP = 2 kHz τ4 = 4/10 5π n
Table 4: 10
Signal: Analyzer:
A = 5V V1 =1 1
l≤ ⇒ l =1
τ4 = 4/10 b = 100 Hz τ5
fP1 = 2.00 kHz fr = 20 kHz
SPAN : 500 Hz...20kHz
T = 40 s

f S(n) SR(n) SR(n)
n V2
kHz V V V
1 2.0 6.0 1 6.00 6.05
2 4.0 9.4 5 1.88 1.87
3 6.0 6.3 5 1.26 1.25 Fig. S2.3-9

A =5V fP = 2 kHz τ5 = 5/10
4 8.0 7.6 5 1.52 1.51
5 10.0 — 5 — 0.00
6 12.0 5.1 5 — 0.00
7 14.0 5.5 10 0.55 0.53
8 16.0 4.6 10 0.46 0.47
9 18.0 7.0 10 0.70 0.67
10 20.0 — 10 — 0.00
41
Table 5:
 9π n 
sin  
Spectrum of a pulse train  10 
SP 6 ( n ) = 2.0 V
Signal: Analyzer: 9π n
A = 5V V1 =1 10
τ5 = 5/10 b = 100 Hz
fP1 = 2.00 kHz fr = 20 kHz Number of spectral lines between two zero points:
SPAN : 500 Hz...20kHz 1
l≤ ⇒l=9
T = 40 s τ6

f S(n) SR(n) SR(n)
n V2
kHz V V V
1 2.0 6.3 1 6.30 6.37
2 4.0 — 1 — 0.00
3 6.0 4.3 2 2.15 2.12
4 8.0 — 2 — 0.00
5 10.0 6.4 5 1.28 1.27 Fig. S2.3-11

A=5 fP = 2 kHz τ6 = 9/10
6 12.0 — 5 — 0.00
Note:
7 14.0 9.2 10 0.92 0.91 The pulse train with τ6 = 9/10 results from in-
8 16.0 — 10 — 0.00 verting (i.e. factor –1) the pulse train
with τ1 = 1/10. As the factor –1 in the curve with
9 18.0 7.2 10 0.72 0.71 respect to time has no effect on the amplitude
spectrum, SP6 must be calculated according to the
10 20.0 — 10 — 0.00 formula for SP1.

Signal: Analyzer:
A = 5.0 V V1 = 1 V2 = 1
τ5 = 5/10 b = 100 Hz T = 160 s
42
Table 6: 7.
The only change observable in the spectrum when
Spectrum of a pulse train the pulse frequency is changed is compression or
extension along the frequency axis. The ampli-
Signal: Analyzer: tude values remain the same. At fP = 3 kHz, the
A = 5V V1 =1 spectral lines show up at intervals of 3 kHz; be-
τ6 = 9/10 b = 100 Hz cause the duty cycle remains unchanged, the posi-
fP1 = 2.00 kHz fr = 20 kHz tion of the first zero point of the envelope curve is
SPAN : 500 Hz...20kHz shifted according to the formula:
T = 40 s
1
f 01 = f P 2 = 10 ⋅ 3 kHz = 30 kHz
Measured values Theorie τ1
f S(n) SR(n) SR(n)
n V2
kHz V V V If fP = 4 kHz, the spectral lines occur at intervals
of 4 kHz. The first zero point of the envelope is
1 2.0 4.1 2 2.05 1.97 located at 40 kHz.
2 4.0 3.8 2 1.90 1.87
3 6.0 8.7 5 1.74 1.72
4 8.0 7.8 5 1.56 1.51
5 10.0 6.4 5 1.28 1.27
6 12.0 5.0 5 1.00 1.01
7 14.0 7.1 10 0.71 0.74
8 16.0 4.4 10 0.44 0.47

9 18.0 1.8 10 0.18 0.22 Signal: Analyzer:
A = 5.0 V V1 = 1 V2 = 1
τ1 = 1/10 b = 500 Hz T = 160 s
10 20.0 — 10 — 0.00 fP2 = 3.0 kHz fr = 50 kHz
Fig. S2.3-12: Spectrum of a pulse train Fig. S2.3-14: Spectrum of a pulse train
Signal: Analyzer: Signal: Analyzer:
A = 5.0 V V1 = 1 V2 = 1 A = 5.0 V V1 = 1 V2 = 1
τ6 = 9/10 b = 100 Hz T = 160 s τ1 = 1/10 b = 500 Hz T = 160 s
fP1 = 2.0 kHz fr = 20 kHz fP3 = 4.0 kHz fr = 50 kHz
SPAN : 500 Hz...20 kHz SPAN : 500 Hz ... 50 kHz
43
Table 7 : Table 8:
Spectrum of a pulse train Spectrum of a pulse train

A = 5V V1 =1 A = 5V V1 =1
τ1 = 1/10 b = 500 Hz τ1 = 1/10 b = 500 Hz
f P2 = 3.00 kHz fr = 50 kHz fP3 = 4.00 kHz fr = 50 kHz
SPAN : 500 Hz...50kHz SPAN : 500 Hz...50kHz
T = 40 s T = 40 s
Measured values Theory Measured values Theory

f S(n) SR(n) SR(n) f S(n) SR(n) SR(n)
n V2 n V2
kHz V V V kHz V V V
1 3.0 9.7 5 1.93 1.97 1 4.0 5.8 5 1.16 1.18
2 6.0 8.8 5 1.77 1.87 2 8.0 5.3 5 1.06 1.12
3 9.0 8.5 5 1.70 1.72 3 12.0 5.1 5 1.02 1.03
4 12.0 7.2 5 1.43 1.52 4 16.0 4.3 5 0.86 0.91
5 15.0 5.8 5 1.17 1.27 5 20.0 3.5 5 0.70 0.76
6 18.0 9.7 10 0.97 1.02 6 24.0 5.8 10 0.58 0.61
7 21.0 7.0 10 0.70 0.73 7 28.0 4.2 10 0.42 0.44
8 24.0 4.3 10 0.43 0.47 8 32.0 2.6 10 0.26 0.28
9 27.0 1.5 10 0.15 0.22 9 36.0 0.9 10 0.09 0.13
10 30.0 — 10 — 0.00 10 40.0 — 10 — 0.00
11 33.0 — 10 — 0.18 11 44.0 — 10 — 0.11
8.
Time curves and spectra as a function of the duty
cycle
τ1 = 1/10 τ2 = 2/10
Fig. S2.3-15 Fig. S2.3-16
44
We can see from the spectra that, as the duty cycle

τ becomes smaller:
1. The amplitudes of the harmonics decrease.
2. The positions of the zero points shift into the
higher-frequency range.
τ3 = 3/10
3. The number of spectral lines between any two
zero points increases.
The spectra for τ1 = 1/10 and τ6 = 9/10 are the
same. This is because the corresponding time sig-
nals differ only by a DC component or a signal
inversion, which do not show up in the spectrum.
Fig. S2.3-17
9.
We obtain the continuous spectrum of a single
pulse for the limit case f P→ 0. The spectrum does
not consist of individual, distinct spectral lines, as
in the case of a periodic pulse train. However, the
envelope curve is maintained. In particular, the
τ4 = 4/10 position of the zero points does not change, as this
is solely a function of the pulse width T 0. For the
spectra of diagrams 2...6, the transition from the
periodic pulse train to the non-periodic single
pulse means a compression of the discrete spectral
lines to a continuous amplitude spectrum.
Fig. S2.3-18 10.

The narrower the pulse is, i.e., the shorter the
pulse duration T0, the farther into the higher-fre-
quency range the first zero point is shifted. Theo-
retically, we would need channels with an infinite
bandwidth available for transmitting pulses. Of
τ5 = 5/10 course, there are no such channels. When pulses
are transmitted using real channels, their spectra
are always clipped. For acceptable pulse transmis-
sion, we require a bandwidth which reaches at
least the first zero point. As we know, this point is
located at f 01 = 1/T0. Thus the narrower the pulse
is, the greater is the required bandwidth.
Fig. S2.3-19
11.
The position of the zero point in this special case
moves toward infinity, f01 → ∞. At the same time,
the pulse amplitude a is increased.
The result is a continuous pulse spectrum with
constant amplitude values, a so-called “white”
τ9 = 9/10 spectrum (see below).
Fig. S2.3-20
45
12.
δ(t) δ(f)
Fig. S2.3-21
Curve with respect to time and spectrum of a Dirac pulse
Fig. S2.3-22: Curve of a synthesized Dirac pulse with respect to time
13.
Fig. S2.3-23: Harmonic signals in Dirac pulse
Comparison with the display for a symmetrical

square-wave:
All the harmonics have the same amplitude in a
Dirac pulse.
14.
Fig. S2.3-24: Spectrum of a Dirac pulse

Analyzer:
V1 = 1 V2 = 10
b = 10 Hz T = 160 s
fr = 2 kHz SPAN : 15 Hz...1 kHz approx.
46
Triangular-Wave Signal (2.4)

Results
1.
Fig. S2.4-2: Spectrum of a triangular-wave signal

Signal: Analyzer:
A = 8.6 V V1 = 1 V2 = 1
f0 = 108 Hz b =10 Hz T = 160 s
Fig. S2.4-1: Curve with respect to time of a triangular-wave SPAN: 15 Hz...1 kHz
signal fr = 2 kHz
Many function generators use a comparator/inte- Calculate the total harmonic distortion from your
grator circuit to generate square-wave signals and measured values:
triangular-wave signals. A sinusoidal signal is
then obtained from the triangular-wave signal by ∞
a diode network. This is possible because the har- ∑ Sn 2
monic content of the triangular-wave signal (total n=2 S ' rms
harmonic distortion) is relatively small, see Point THD = = Eq. 2.2-4
∞ S rms
2.
∑ Sn 2
2. Table 1: n =1
Spektrum of a sym. triangular-wave signal
If we use n = 1...n = 8, we obtain the following
Signal: Analyzer: approximation
A = 8.6 V V1 =1
0 . 78 2 + 0 . 30 2 + 0 .16 2
b = 10 Hz THD = = 12%
f0 = 108 Hz fr = 2 kHz 7 . 00 2 + 0 . 78 2 + 0 . 30 2 + 0 .16 2
SPAN : 15 Hz...1kHz The second harmonic contains the largest propor-
T = 20 s tion of the total harmonic distortion:
Measured values Theory 0 . 78
THD = = 11%
f S(n) SR(n) SR(n) 7 . 00
n V2
Hz V V V 3.
1 108 7.0 1 7.0 7.07 Manipulating the phases has no effect on the am-
plitude spectrum.
2 216 — — — 0.00
3 324 7.8 10 0.78 0.75
4 432 — — — 0.00
5 540 3.0 10 0.30 0.28
6 648 — — — 0.00
7 756 1.6 10 0.16 0.13
8 864 — — — 0.00 Fig. S2.4-3: Effect of the phases on the curve of the signal
with respect to time
47
Saw-Tooth Signals (2.5)

Results
1.
Fig. S2.5-1: Curve of a falling saw-tooth signal with respect Fig. S2.5-2: Spectrum of a falling saw-tooth
to time Signal : Analyzer:
A = 3.5 V V1 = 2 V2 = 2
f0 = 108 Hz b = 10 Hz T = 160 s
2. Table 1: SPAN: 15 Hz...1 kHz
fr = 2 kHz
Spectrum of a falling saw-tooth signal
3.
Signal: Analyzer:
A = 3.5 V V1 =2
b = 10 Hz
f 0 = 108 Hz fr = 2 kHz
T = 20 s
n f S(n) SR(n) SR(n)

V2
Hz V V V
Fig. S2.5-3: Curve of a rising saw-tooth signal with respect
1 108 9.3 2 2.33 2.23 to time
2 216 4.6 2 1.15 1.11 The rising saw-tooth signal is formed from the
3 324 7.2 5 0.72 0.74 falling saw-tooth signal by changing the phase
relationships between the spectral components!
4 432 5.6 5 0.56 0.56
5 540 9.0 10 0.45 0.45
6 648 7.6 10 0.38 0.37
7 756 7.2 10 0.36 0.32
8 864 6.4 10 0.32 0.28
48
Modulations and Beat Phenomena (2.6)

Results
1. 4.
Fig. S2.6-1: Curve of beats with respect to time

Fig. S2.6-4: Spectrum of DSB-AMPC
Analyzer:
The phase shifts are circled. V1 = 1 T = 160 s
The frequency of the envelope curve is approx. V2 = 2 SPAN: 15 Hz..1 kHz approx.
f = 1/(10 · 0.2 ms) = 500 Hz. b = 10 Hz fr = 2 kHz
Theoretically we would expect:
Ω = (8.78 + 7.81)/2 kHz 5.
= 8.3 kHz Beat frequency Modulation depth from Eq. 2.6-5:
f = (8.78 – 7.81)/2 kHz m A 2V
= 485 Hz Frequency of the envelope curve = = ⇒ m = 100%
2 aT 4 V
Maximum amplitude 7.0 V.
2. 6.
Fig. S2.6-5:
Fig. S2.6-2: Beat spectrum Envelope curve with nodes.
Analyzer: Phase shifts circled. DSB-AMSC is a beat.
V1 = 1 T = 160 s
V2 = 2 SPAN: 15 Hz..1 kHz approx.
3.
Fig. S2.6-6: Spectrum of DSB-AMSC ,

Analyzer:
V1 = 1 T = 160 s
V2 = 2 SPAN: 15 Hz...1 kHz, approx.
Fig. S2.6-3: Curve of DSB-AMPC
49
7.
Fig. S2.6-8: Spectrum of DSB-AMPC , m = 50%.

Fig. S2.6-7 Analyzer:
Curve of DSB-AMPC with respect to time, m = 50% V1 = 1 T = 60 s
V2 = 2 SPAN: 15 Hz...1 kHz, approx.
50
Rectified Signals (2.7)

Results
1.1
Fig. S2.7-2: Spectrum of a half-wave sinusoidal signal

Fig. S2.7-1: Half-wave sine curve with respect to time Signal : Analyzer:
A = 5.0 V V1 = 1 V2 = 2
1.2 Table 1 : f0 = 108 Hz b = 10 Hz T = 160 s
fr = 2 kHz SPAN: 15 Hz...1 kHz
Spectrum of a half-wave sinusoidal signal
Determining the ripple from the measured values:
Signal: Analyzer: 1
A = 5.0 V V1 =1 '
U rms = 2 . 40 2 + 1. 04 2 + 0 .15 2 V = 1. 31V
b = 10 Hz 2
f 0 = 108 Hz fr = 2 kHz
SPAN : 15 Hz...1 kHz U 0 = 1. 60 V
T = 40 s
w = 82%
The theoretical value for the ripple of the half-
n f S(n) SR(n) SR(n)
V2 wave sine with all harmonics considered
Hz V V V
is actually 121%!
1 108 4.8 2 2.40 2.50
2.1
2 216 5.2 2 1.04 1.06
3 324 — 5 — 0.00
4 432 1.5 10 0.15 0.21
5 540 — 10 — 0.00
Fig. S2.7-3: Full-wave sine curve with respect to time
51
2.2 Table 2 : The theoretical value for the ripple of the full-
wave sine is 48.2%. In bridge rectification, the
Spectrum of a full-wave sinusoidal signal DC voltage component is twice as great as for
half-wave rectification. This is a desirable effect.
Signal: Analyzer: At the same time, the spectral component with the
A = 5.0 V V1 =1 basic frequency f0 is no longer present. This
b = 10 Hz makes it easier to carry out any smoothing which
f0 = 108 Hz fr = 2 kHz may be necessary. The spectrum contains only
SPAN : 15 Hz...1 kHz spectral components at even multiples of the basic
T = 40 s frequency.

f S(n) SR(n) SR(n)
n V2
Hz V V V
1 108 — 2 — 0.00
2 216 9.6 5 1.92 2.12
3 324 — 5 — 0.00
4 432 4.0 10 0.40 0.42
5 540 — 10 — 0.00
6 648 2.0 10 0.20 0.18
Fig. S2.7-4: Spectrum of a full-wave sinusoidal signal

Signal : Analyzer:
A =5V V1 = 1 V2 = 2
f0 = 108 Hz b = 10 Hz T = 160 s
fr = 2 kHz
Determining the ripple from the measured values:

1
'
U rms = 1. 92 2 + 0 . 4 2 + 0 . 2 2 V = 1. 39 V
2
U 0 = 3. 20 V
w = 43. 8%
52
TPS 7.2.1.2 Fourier Analysis and Synthesis Appendix
Appendix
53
Table A1 Table A2
Spectrum Spectrum
A = V V1 = A = V V1 =
τ = b = Hz b = Hz
f0 = kHz fr = kHz f0 = Hz fr = kHz
SPAN : SPAN :
T = s T = s
Measured values Theory Measured values Theory

f S(n) SR(n) SR(n) f S(n) SR(n) SR(n)
n V2 n V2
kHz V V V Hz V V V
1 1 108
2 2 216
3 3 324
4 4 432
5 5 540
6 6 648
7 7 756
8 8 864
10
11
54
Signal: Analyzer:
A = V V1 = V2 =
τ = b = T =
f0 = Hz fr = SPAN:
55
Key words Page

A
Amplitude spectrum ............................................................................... 17, 19, 20, 22, 23, 25, 26
B
Beat phenomena .............................................................................................................. 28, 29, 49
C
Condition of symmetry ............................................................................................................... 16
D
Dirac pulse train ......................................................................................................................... 25
Dirac pulse .................................................................................................................................. 25
Duty cycle ...........................................................................................................21, 23, 24, 38, 44
E
Envelope curve ..............................................................................................11, 23, 29, 34, 38, 39
F
Filter banks .................................................................................................................................... 6
Form factor .................................................................................................................................... 5
Fourier analysis ........................................................................................................................... 16
Fourier expansion ........................................................................................................................ 13
Fourier series .............................................................................................................13, 14, 17, 27
Fourier synthesis ......................................................................................................................... 14
Frequency synthesizer ................................................................................................................. 17
Full-wave sine signal ............................................................................................................ 31, 32
Fundamental oscillation .............................................................................................................. 17
G
Gibb’s phenomena ................................................................................................................ 17, 35
H
Half-wave rectification (half-wave sinusoidal) .......................................................................... 30
Harmonic ......................................................................................................................... 17, 20, 37
L
Lower side line (LSL) ................................................................................................................. 28
56
Key words Page

P
Pulse amplitude ...........................................................................................................7, 21, 23, 24
Pulse duration ......................................................................................................21, 24, 25, 38, 45
Pulse periods ...............................................................................................................................21
Pulse train ......................................................................................................21, 23, 24, 38, 39, 42
R
Resolution capability ..................................................................................................................... 8
Reverse transformation ...............................................................................................................14
Ripple ........................................................................................................................ 17, 30, 51, 52
S
Sense of hearing .......................................................................................................................... 20
Signal edge ............................................................................................................................ 35, 36
Single pulse ...........................................................................................................................23, 45
Spectral domain .................................................................................................................8, 14, 36
Spectrum analyzer ...............................................................................................6, 8, 9, 14, 18, 20
Splitting functions ...........................................................................................................22, 24, 38
Superheterodyne principle ............................................................................................................ 6
Sweep analyzer .............................................................................................................................. 6
T
Time base ...................................................................................................................................... 5
Time domain ...............................................................................................................6, 14, 21, 36
Time rule of electrical telecommunications technology .............................................. 7, 9, 11, 34
Total harmonic distortion....................................................................................17, 20, 26, 37, 47
U
Upper side line (USL) .................................................................................................................28
Z
Zero crossing .................................................................................... 24, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 45
57
58

T 7.2.1.2 Análisis y Sintesis Fourier

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TPS 7.2.1.

TPS 7.2.1.2 Fourier - Analysis and Synthesis

2 Experiments on Fourier Analysis and Synthesis ...................................................................17

0 Practical Information on the Experiments

Fig. 0.2-1: Construction of a spectrum analyzer

mined by the VCO frequency. The width of the

The Time Rule of Electrical Telecommunications

Fig. 0.2-3: The time rule of electrical communications technology

Fig. 0.3-1: Plug-in diagramm MP-1

2.3 Using the storage oscilloscope as a display What do you observe?

3. Check the time law of electrical communica-

1 Representing of Periodic Signals Using Fourier Series

Many of the oscillating phenomena which occur Results:

with: With these considerations, every non-harmonic,

A little supplementary mathematics We finally obtain:

∞ ∞ Eq. 1.1-1 is more suitable for practical measure-

= Σ S ( n ) cosΦ n ⋅ cos ( 2 π n f 0 t ) is often more advantageous for calculation pur-

Fig. 1-3: Plug-in diagram FAS 1

2 Experiments on Fourier Analysis and Synthesis

Notes on operation Recording and displaying the measurement re-

Fig. 2.1-1: Plug-in diagram FAS-1

2.2 The Symmetrical Square-Wave Signal

4 432 / 0.00 3. Switch all the harmonics on again with un-

Reminder: 4. Determine the amplitudes of the harmonics

remain unchanged, in other words, the set

ear system, a signal so(t) will appear at the S Rrms = ∫ S 2 ( t ) dt = AR

2.3 The Pulse Train

the structure of the spectrum will also be changed. Table 1:

Such functions are called splitting functions, be- 1 2 3.75

– We shall draw conclusions regarding the

Fig. 2.3-5: Plug-in diagram FAS-2

The voltage-time area is always constant at

2.4 Triangular-Wave Signal

cos ( 2 π 5 f 0 t ) + 2 cos ( 2 π 7 f 0 t ) + ...]

2.5 Saw-Tooth Signals

1 sin 2 π 3 f t + 1 sin 2 π 4 f t + ... 

3. Observe the effect of the phases of the har-

Fig. 2.6-1: Generation of AM Fig. 2.6-2: Generation of beat phenomena

The signal formed by superpositioning is called a

If we assume a modulator constant k = 1, then we 5. What is the modulation depth m? Evaluate

6 648 180° 0.09

Fig. 2.7-2: Signal curve for bridge rectification

B. Bridge rectification: the full-wave sinusoidal In addition, set a DC-offset of +3.2 V.

4 432 180° 0.42

6 648 180° 0.18

Measurement set-up (0.3)

Results The amplitude SR(1) of the fundamental oscilla-

Fig. S0-1: Curve of a square-wave signal with respect to time

Spectrum of a symmetrical square-wave signal

Signal: Analyzer: Fig. S0-2: Spectrum of a square-wave signal

3 6 4.2 2 2.1 2.12

5 10 6.6 5 1.32 1.27

7 14 4.7 5 0.94 0.91

9 18 3.6 5 0.72 0.71

2.3 If mechanical measurement instruments,

Fig. S0-4: Spectrum of a square-wave signal

The Symmetrical Square-Wave Signal (2.2)

Fig. S2.2-1 Fig. S2.2-4

Fig. S2.2-2 Fig. S2.2-5