Intelligent Agents

CHAPTER 2
Stuart Russell and Peter Norvig, Artificial
Intelligence: A Modern Approach, Global
Edition 3/E
 Outline
2

⚫ Agents and environments

⚫ Rationality
⚫ PEAS (Performance measure, Environment,
Actuators, Sensors)
⚫ Environment types
⚫ Agent types

Artificial Intelligence a modern approach

 Agents
3

• An agent is anything that can be viewed as

perceiving its environment through sensors and
acting upon that environment through actuators

• Human agent:
– eyes, ears, and other organs for sensors;
– hands, legs, mouth, and other body parts for actuators

• Robotic agent:
– cameras and infrared range finders for sensors
– various motors for actuators

Artificial Intelligence a modern approach

 Agents and environments
4

• The agent function maps from percept histories to

actions:
[f: P* → A]

• The agent program runs on the physical architecture to

produce f
• agent = architecture + program

Artificial Intelligence a modern approach

 Vacuum-cleaner world
5

Demos:
http://aima.cs.berkeley.edu/demos.html

⚫ Percepts: location and contents, e.g., [A,Dirty]

⚫ Actions: Left, Right, Suck, NoOp
⚫ Agent’s function -> look-up table
⚪ For many agents this is a very large table

Artificial Intelligence a modern approach

 Rational agents
6

• Rationality
– Performance measuring success
– Agents prior knowledge of environment
– Actions that agent can perform
– Agent’s percept sequence to date

• Rational Agent: For each possible percept sequence, a

rational agent should select an action that is expected to
maximize its performance measure, given the evidence
provided by the percept sequence and whatever built-in
knowledge the agent has.

Artificial Intelligence a modern approach

 Examples of Rational Choice
7

Consider the simplified map of Romania below.

Numbers correspond to travel times. Consider the
following choices.

1. To go from Rimnicu Vilcea to Craivo:

a. RV – Pitesti – Craiova, or
b. RV- Craiova?
2. To go from Oradea to Craiova:
a. Go via Arad-Sibiu-…, or
b. Go via Sibui, or
c. Go via Arad-Timisoara-….?
Artificial Intelligence a modern approach
8
 Rationality
9

⚫ Rational is different from omniscience

⚪ Percepts may not supply all relevant information
⚪ E.g., in card game, don’t know cards of others.

⚫ Rational is different from being perfect

⚪ Rationality maximizes expected outcome while perfection
maximizes actual outcome.

Artificial Intelligence a modern approach

 Autonomy in Agents

The autonomy of an agent is the extent to which its

behaviour is determined by its own experience,
rather than knowledge of designer.
⚫ Extremes
⚪ No autonomy – ignores environment/data
⚪ Complete autonomy – must act randomly/no program

⚫ Example: baby learning to crawl

⚫ Ideal: design agents to have some autonomy
⚪ Possibly become more autonomous with experience
 PEAS
11

• PEAS: Performance measure, Environment, Actuators,

Sensors

• Must first specify the setting for intelligent agent design

• Examples:

– Automated Taxi Driver

– Part-picking robot

– Interactive English tutor

Artificial Intelligence a modern approach

 PEAS for automated taxi driver
12

– Performance measure: Safe, fast, legal,

comfortable trip, maximize profits
– Environment: Roads, other traffic,
pedestrians, customers
– Actuators: Steering wheel, accelerator, brake,
signal, horn
– Sensors: Cameras, sonar, speedometer, GPS,
odometer, engine sensors, keyboard
 PEAS Part-picking robot
13

⚫ Agent: Part-picking robot

⚫ Performance measure: Percentage of parts in
correct bins
⚫ Environment: Conveyor belt with parts, bins
⚫ Actuators: Jointed arm and hand
⚫ Sensors: Camera, joint angle sensors

Artificial Intelligence a modern approach

 PEAS: Interactive English tutor
14

⚫ Agent: Interactive English tutor

⚫ Performance measure: Maximize student's
score on test
⚫ Environment: Set of students
⚫ Actuators: Screen display (exercises,
suggestions, corrections)
⚫ Sensors: Keyboard, microphone

Artificial Intelligence a modern approach

 Environment types
15

• Fully observable (vs. partially observable)

• Deterministic (vs. stochastic)
• Episodic (vs. sequential)
• Static (vs. dynamic)
• Discrete (vs. continuous)
• Single agent (vs. multiagent):

Artificial Intelligence a modern approach

 Fully observable (vs. partially observable)
16

⚫ Is everything an agent requires to choose its actions

available to it via its sensors? Perfect or Full
information.
⚪ If so, the environment is fully accessible
⚫ If not, parts of the environment are inaccessible
⚪ Agent must make informed guesses about world.

⚫ In decision theory: perfect information vs. imperfect

information.
Cross Word Poker Backgammon Taxi Part picking robot Image analysis
Fully Partially Partially driver
Partially Fully Fully

Artificial Intelligence a modern approach

 Deterministic (vs. stochastic)
17

⚫ Does the change in world state

⚪ Depend only on current state and agent’s action?

⚫ Non-deterministic environments
⚪ Have aspects beyond the control of the agent
⚪ Utility functions have to guess at changes in world

Cross Word Poker Backgammon Taxi Part picking robot Image analysis
Deterministic Stochastic Stochastic driver
Stochastic Stochastic Deterministic

Artificial Intelligence a modern approach

 Episodic (vs. sequential):
18

⚫ Is the choice of current action

⚪ Dependent on previous actions?
⚪ If not, then the environment is episodic

⚫ In non-episodic environments:
⚪ Agent has to plan ahead:
Current choice will affect future actions

Cross Word Poker Backgammon Taxi Part picking robot Image analysis
Sequential Sequential Sequential driver
Sequential Episodic Episodic

Artificial Intelligence a modern approach

 Static (vs. dynamic):
19

⚫ Static environments don’t change

⚪ While the agent is deliberating over what to do

⚫ Dynamic environments do change

⚪ So agent should/could consult the world when choosing actions
⚪ Alternatively: anticipate the change during deliberation OR make
decision very fast
⚫ Semidynamic: If the environment itself does not change
with the passage of time but the agent's performance
score does.
Cross Word Poker Backgammon Taxi Part picking robot Image analysis
Static Static Static driver
Dynamic Dynamic Semi

Another example: off-line route planning vs. on-board navigation system

Artificial Intelligence a modern approach
 Discrete (vs. continuous)
20

⚫ A limited number of distinct, clearly defined percepts and

actions vs. a range of values (continuous)

Cross Word Poker Backgammon Taxi Part picking robot Image analysis
driver Conti
Discrete Discrete Discrete Conti Conti

Artificial Intelligence a modern approach

 Single agent (vs. multiagent):
21

⚫ An agent operating by itself in an environment or there are

many agents working together

Cross Word Poker Backgammon Taxi Part picking robot Image analysis
Single driver Single
Multi Multi Multi Single

Artificial Intelligence a modern approach

 Summary.
Observable Deterministic Episodic Static Discrete Agents

Cross Word Fully Deterministic Sequential Static Discrete Single

Poker Fully Stochastic Sequential Static Discrete Multi

Backgammon Partially Stochastic Sequential Static Discrete Multi

Taxi Partially Multi

Stochastic Sequential Dynamic Conti
driver

Part picking robot Partially Stochastic Episodic Dynamic Conti Single

Image analysis Fully Deterministic Episodic Semi Conti Single

Artificial Intelligence a modern approach

 Choice under (Un)certainty
23

Fully
Observable
yes
no
Deterministic no

yes

Certainty: Uncertainty
Search

Artificial Intelligence a modern approach

 Agent types
24

⚫ Four basic types in order of increasing generality:

⚪ Simple reflex agents
⚪ Reflex agents with state/model
⚪ Goal-based agents
⚪ Utility-based agents
⚪ All these can be turned into learning agents

Artificial Intelligence a modern approach

 Simple reflex agents
25

Artificial Intelligence a modern approach

 Simple reflex agents
26

⚫ Simple but very limited intelligence.

⚫ Action does not depend on percept history, only on current
percept.
⚫ Therefore no memory requirements.
⚫ Infinite loops
⚪ Suppose vacuum cleaner does not observe location. What do you do
given location = clean? Left of A or right on B -> infinite loop.
⚪ Fly buzzing around window or light.
⚪ Possible Solution: Randomize action.
⚪ Thermostat.
⚫ Chess – openings, endings
⚪ Lookup table (not a good idea in general)
35100 entries required for the entire game

Artificial Intelligence a modern approach

 States: Beyond Reflexes
27

• Recall the agent function that maps from percept histories

to actions:
[f: P* -> A]
⚫ An agent program can implement an agent function by
maintaining an internal state.
⚫ The internal state can contain information about the state
of the external environment.
⚫ The state depends on the history of percepts and on the
history of actions taken:
[f: P*, A*-> S -> A] where S is the set of states.
⚫ If each internal state includes all information relevant to
information making, the state space is Markovian.

Artificial Intelligence a modern approach

 States and Memory: Game Theory
28

⚫ If each state includes the information about the

percepts and actions that led to it, the state space has
perfect recall.
⚫ Perfect Information = Perfect Recall + Full
Observability + Deterministic Actions.

Artificial Intelligence a modern approach

 Model-based reflex agents
29
⚫ Know how world evolves
⚪ Overtaking car gets closer from
behind
⚫ How agents actions affect the
world
⚪ Wheel turned clockwise takes you
right

⚫ Model base agents update their

state

Artificial Intelligence a modern approach

 Goal-based agents
30

• knowing state and environment? Enough?

– Taxi can go left, right, straight

• Have a goal
⚪ A destination to get to

⚫ Uses knowledge about a goal to guide its actions

⚪ E.g., Search, planning

Artificial Intelligence a modern approach

 Goal-based agents
31

• Reflex agent breaks when it sees brake lights. Goal based agent
reasons
– Brake light -> car in front is stopping -> I should stop -> I should use brake

Artificial Intelligence a modern approach

 Utility-based agents
32

⚫ Goals are not always enough

⚪ Many action sequences get taxi to destination
⚪ Consider other things. How fast, how safe…..

⚫ A utility function maps a state onto a real number

which describes the associated degree of
“happiness”, “goodness”, “success”.
⚫ Where does the utility measure come from?
⚪ Economics: money.
⚪ Biology: number of offspring.
⚪ Your life?

Artificial Intelligence a modern approach

 Utility-based agents
33

Artificial Intelligence a modern approach

 Learning agents
34

⚫ Performance element is
what was previously the
whole agent
⚫ Input sensor
⚫ Output action
⚫ Learning element
⚫ Modifies performance
element.

Artificial Intelligence a modern approach

 Learning agents
35

⚫ Critic: how the agent is

doing
⚫ Input: checkmate?
⚫ Fixed

⚫ Problem generator
⚫ Tries to solve the problem
differently instead of
optimizing.
⚫ Suggests exploring new
actions -> new problems.

Artificial Intelligence a modern approach

 Learning agents(Taxi driver)
36

⚪ Performance element
How it currently drives
⚪ Taxi driver Makes quick left turn across 3 lanes
Critics observe shocking language by passenger and other drivers
and informs bad action
Learning element tries to modify performance elements for future
Problem generator suggests experiment out something called
Brakes on different Road conditions
⚪ Exploration vs. Exploitation
Learning experience can be costly in the short run
shocking language from other drivers
Less tip
Fewer passengers

Artificial Intelligence a modern approach

 The Big Picture: AI for Model-Based Agents
37

Planning
Decision Theory
Action Reinforcement
Learning
Game Theory

Knowledge Learning
Logic Machine Learning
Probability Statistics
Heuristics
Inference

Artificial Intelligence a modern approach

 The Picture for Reflex-Based Agents
38

Action
Reinforcement
Learning
Learning

• Studied in AI, Cybernetics, Control Theory, Biology,

Psychology.

Artificial Intelligence a modern approach

 Summary
39

⚫ Agents can be described by their PEAS.

⚫ Environments can be described by several key properties
⚫ A rational agent maximizes the performance measure for
their PEAS.
⚫ The performance measure depends on the agent
function.
⚫ The agent program implements the agent function.
⚫ 3 main architectures for agent programs.

Artificial Intelligence a modern approach