CHAPTER 1

OVERVIEW OF SPECIAL EDUCATION IN THE PHILIPPINES

This chapter contains a brief overview of Special Education in the Philippines. It also
presents some data and background about persons with disabilities in the Philippine setting.
This will bring awareness to the readers about the importance of understanding persons with
disabilities and how to best deal with their special needs.
Special Education in the Philippines is defined as the arrangement of teaching
procedures, adapted equipment and materials, accessible settings and other interventions
designed to address the needs of students with learning differences, mental health issues,
physical and developmental disabilities and giftedness (http://eduphil.org/special education in
the Philippines.html, Retrieved Dec. 28, 2014).
Moreover, chapter II of Title II of the Magna Carta for Disabled Persons, RA 7277
introduced some rules on special education in the Philippines. Section 12 mandates that the
"State shall take into consideration the special requirements of disabled persons in the
formulation of educational policies and programs." Section 14 of RA 7277, on the other hand,
provides that the state "shall establish, maintain and support complete, adequate and integrated
system of special education for the visually impaired, hearing impaired, mentally retarded
persons, and other types of exceptional children in all regions of the country.
Out of 84.4 million Filipinos, approximately 5.486 million (13%) are individuals with
special needs. Around 4.8% are provided with appropriate educational services, but the 95.2% of
those with exceptionalities are unreserved. By year 2005, these were the total number of children
with disabilities:
40, 260 - learning disabilities
11,592 - hearing impaired
2,670 visually impaired
12,456 intellectually disabled
5,112 behavior issues
760 orthopedically disabled
5,172 children with autism
912 speech defectives
142 chronically ill
32 children with cerebral palsy
Source: http://eduphil.org/special education in the Philippines.htmll

Furthermore, based on the 2010 Census of Population and Housing (2010 CPH), of the
92.1 million household population in the country, 1,443 thousand persons or 1.57 percent had
disability,). The recorded figure of persons with disability (PWD) in the 2000 CPH was 935,551
persons, which was 1.23 percent of the household population.
Among the 17 regions, Region IV-A. (CALABARZON) had the highest number of PWD
at 193 thousand. This was followed by the National Capital Region (NCR) with 167 thousand
PWD. The Cordillera Administrative Region (CAR), on the other hand, had the lowest number
of PWD at 26 thousand.
Ten regions had proportion of PWD higher than the national figure. These were Region
VI, Western Visayas (1.95 percent), Region IVB (MIMAROPA) and Region V, Bicol (both 1.85
percent each), Region VIII, Eastern Visayas (1.75 percent), Region II, Cagayan Valley (1.72
percent), Region I, Ilocos (1.64 percent), CAR (1.63 percent), Region XI (Davao) and Region VII,
Central Visayas (both 1.60 percent each), and CARAGA (1.58 percent).
In the same study, it was found that of the total PWD in 2010, males accounted for 50.9
percent while females comprised 49.1 percent. These figures resulted in a sex ratio of 104 males
with disability for every 100 females with disability.
Males with disability outnumbered females in the age groups 0 to 64 years. The largest
excess in the number of males was in the age group 0 to 14 years with a sex ratio of 121 males
per 100 females. On the other hand, there were more females with disability than males in the
age group 65 years and over. This is because of the higher survival rate of women than men. In
this age group, there were 70 males with disability per 100 females.

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 As for the age range, the research revealed that for every five PWD, one (18.9 percent)
was aged 0 to 14 years, three (59.0 percent) were in the working age group (aged 15 to 64 years),
and one (22.1 percent) was aged 65 years and over.
Persons with disability were more likely to be in the ages 5 to 19 years and 45 to 64
years. By five-year age group, among the household population with disability, children aged 10
to 14 years comprised the largest age group (7.2 percent). This was followed by those in the age
groups 15 to 19 years (6.9 percent), 5 to 9 years (6.7 percent), and 50 to 54 years (6.6 percent).
The data presented in the census serves as useful Information for Filipinos to be more
knowledgeable of the updates about persons with special needs who need extra care and
attention.
In response to the reported data, the Department of Health (2013) mandated to come
up with a national health program for PWD as based on Republic Act No. 7277," An Act Providing
for the Rehabilitation and Self-Reliance of Disabled Persons and Their Integration into the
Mainstream of Society and for Other Purposes" or otherwise known as "The Magna Carta for
Disabled Persons" and the implementing Rules and Regulations (IRR) of RA 7277. This
document stipulated that the DOH is required to: (1) institute a national health program for
PWDs, (2) establish medical rehabilitation centers in provincial hospitals, and (3) adopt an
integrated and comprehensive program to the Health Development of PWD, which shall make
essential health services available to them at affordable cost. In response to this, the DOH issued
Administrative Order No. 2006-0003, which specifically provides the strategic framework and
operational guidelines for the implementation of Health Programs for PWDs.
In 2013, a Medium Term Strategic Plan (2013-2017) was developed to strengthen the
existing health program for PWDs. However, in the review done for the purpose, it was noted
that in the implementation of the program in the past years, there were operational issues and
gaps identified that need to be addressed. These include among others, the need to strengthen
multi-sectoral action to harmonize efforts of stakeholders; clarify delineation of roles and
responsibilities of concerned government agencies working for PWDs; strengthen national
capacity, both facilities and manpower, to provide rehabilitation services for PWDs from primary
to tertiary level of care; provide access to health facilities and services for PWDs; and, strengthen
registration database for PWDs.
Recently, the World Health Organization released the Global Disability Action Plan
2014-2021. This document intends to help countries direct their efforts towards specific actions
in order to address health concerns of persons with disabilities. The Action Plan identified three
major objectives: to remove barriers and improve access to health services and programmes; (2)
to strengthen and extend rehabilitation, assistive technology, assistance and support services,
and community-based rehabilitation; (3) to strengthen collection of relevant and internationally
comparable data on disability and support research on disability and related services.
Considering all of the above, the Health and Wellness Program of Persons with
Disabilities currently has been configured to address all the issues discussed above, and aligned
with the thrusts and goals of Kalusugang Pangkalahatan or Universal Health Care, the Global
Disability Action Plan 2014-2021, and, the direction the program should take in the succeeding
years as articulated in the newly developed strategic plan. Source:
http://www.doh.gov.ph/node/366. html
It is admirable to discern how the Department of Health in the Philippines prepared
long term plans for the benefit of the persons with disabilities.

DEFINITION AND TYPES OF DISABILITIES

Funnell, Koutokidis and Lawrence (2008) explained that the term "disability" broadly
describes as impairment in a person's ability to function. These are caused by changes in various
subsystems of the body, or to mental health. The authors emphasized that the degree of disability
may range from mild to moderate, severe, or profound. A person may also have multiple
disabilities. In the Philippines, this is in relation to Erikta's (2010) report that disability refers
to any restriction or lack of ability (resulting from an impairment) to perform an activity in the
manner or within the range considered normal for a human being. It was stressed that
impairments associated with disabilities may be physical, mental or sensory motor impairment
such as partial or total blindness, low vision, partial or total deafness, oral defect, having only

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one hand/ no hands, one leg/ no legs, mild or severe cerebral palsy, retarded, mentally ill, mental
retardation and multiple impairment.
Funnell, et al (2008) also discussed that the conditions causing disability are classified
by the medical community as:
• inherited (genetically transmitted);
• congenital, meaning caused by a mother's infection or other disease during pregnancy,
embryonic or fetal developmental irregularities, or by injury during or soon after birth;
• acquired, such as conditions caused by illness or injury;
• of unknown origin.

Moreover, common special needs include learning disabilities, communication

disabilities, emotional and behavioral disorders, physical disabilities, and developmental
disabilities.
Wadswoth (2008) explained that learning disability is a classification that includes
several areas of functioning in which a person has difficulty learning in a typical manner, usually
caused by an unknown factor or factors.
When the term "learning disabilities" is used, it describes a group of disorders
characterized by inadequate development of specific academic, language, and speech skills.
Types of learning disabilities include reading disability (dyslexia), mathematics disability
(dyscalculia) and writing disability (dysgraphia).
In the website, http://www.disabledworld.com/ disability/types/, "Disability" can be
broken down into a number of broad sub-categories, which include the following:

a) Mobility and Physical Impairments

This category of disability includes people with varying types of physical disabilities
including:
• Upper limb(s) disability
• Lower limb(s) disability
• Manual dexterity
• Disability in co-ordination with different organs of the body

Disability in mobility can be either an in-born or acquired with age problem. It could
also be the effect of a disease. People who have a broken bone also fall into this category of
disability.

b) Spinal Cord Disability

Spinal cord injury (SCI) can sometimes lead to lifelong disabilities. This kind of injury
mostly occurs due to severe accidents. The injury can be either complete or incomplete. In an
incomplete injury, the messages conveyed by the spinal cord are not completely lost. A complete
injury results in a total malfunction of the sensory organs. In some cases, spinal cord disability
can be a birth defect.

c) Head Injuries - Brain Disability

A disability in the brain occurs due to a brain injury. The magnitude of the brain injury
can range from mild, moderate and severe. There are two types of brain injuries:
• Acquired Brain Injury (ABI)
• Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI)

ABI is not a hereditary type defect but is the degeneration that occurs after birth.

There are several causes of such cases of injury and are mainly because of external
forces applied to the body parts. TBL results in emotional malfunctioning and behavioral
disturbance.

d) Vision Disability
There are a large number of people that suffer from minor to various serious vision
disability or impairments. These injuries can also result into some serious problems or diseases

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like blindness and ocular trauma, to name a few. Some of the common vision impairment
includes scratched cornea, scratches on the sclera, diabetes related eye conditions, dry eyes and
corneal graft.

e) Hearing Disability
Hearing disabilities includes people that are completely or partially deaf, (Deaf is the
politically correct term for a person with hearing impairment).
People who are partially deaf can often use hearing aids to assist their hearing.
Deafness can be evident at birth or occur later in life from several biologic causes, for example
Meningitis can damage the auditory nerve or the cochlea.
Deaf people use sign language as a means of communication Hundreds of sign
languages are applied around the world. In linguistic terms, sign languages are as rich and
complex as any oral language, despite the common misconception that they are not "real
languages".

f) Cognitive or Learning Disabilities

Cognitive Disabilities are kind of impairment present in people who are suffering from
dyslexia and various other learning difficulties and includes speech disorders.

g) Psychological Disorders
Affective Disorders: Disorders of mood or feeling states either short or long term. Mental
Health Impairment is the term used to describe people who have experienced psychiatric
problems or illness such as:
• Personality Disorders - Defined as deeply inadequate patterns of behavior and thought
of sufficient severity to cause significant impairment to day-to-day activities.
• Schizophrenia: A mental disorder characterized by disturbances of thinking, mood, and
behavior.
Source: http://www.disabled-world.com/disability/types/

In connection to Psychological disorders are the terms used in the Wikipedia as the
Emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD). These broad categories are commonly used in
educational settings, to group a range of more specific perceived difficulties of children and
adolescents. Both general definitions as well as concrete diagnosis of EBD may be controversial
as the observed behavior may depend on many factors.
The 5 models that are used in EBD are:
• Biophysical
• Psychodynamic
• Cognitive
• Behavioral
• Ecological

A child exhibiting one or more of the following characteristics to a marked degree for a
long duration of time that adversely affects their education:
• Difficulty to learn that cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory, or health factors.
• Difficulty to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with peers and
teachers.
• Inappropriate types of behavior (acting out against self or others) or feelings (expresses the
need to harm self or others, low self-worth, etc.) under normal circumstances.
• A general pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression.
• A tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears associated with personal or school
problems.

The term includes schizophrenia, and does not apply to children who are socially
maladjusted, unless it is determined that they have an emotional disturbance.

INITIALIZING DISORDERS

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 A child with an internalizing disorder is said to be suffering from depression, and
experience loss of interest in activities including social activities, work, and life. This goes with
one part of the EBD federal definition; a general pervasive mood of depression of disturbed
behavior. Young adults between the ages of 19-32 can also suffer from anxiety, separation
anxiety, fears and phobias (trusting people), obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), autism
spectrum disorders, and panic disorder.
Teachers of these children are asked to:
• monitor medications for side effects and behavioral fluctuations
• assist with behavioral treatments in the classroom
• reinforce cognitive behavioral interventions related to classroom

EXTERNALIZING DISORDERS
Words and phrases that are commonly used with children who externalize are
extroverted, under-controlled, and acting out. This includes attention deficit hyperactivity
disorder (ADHD) and conduct disorder. These children act out their emotions instead of holding
them in, exhibiting behaviors such as fighting, bullying, cursing, and other forms of violence.
This book presented some of the disabilities in the Philippine setting that include Intellectual
Disability, Learning Disability, Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, Autism, ADHD, Speech
Defect, Visually Impaired, Hearing Impaired, Cerebral Palsy and Gifted. After learning about
the different disabilities discussed from various sources, perspectives from the significant adults
in the lives of the persons with disabilities are presented in the succeeding chapters. Views from
the family, educators and professionals about their observation and how they dealt with persons
with disabilities are gathered as added information to the few references about special education
in the Philippine setting.

CHAPTER 2 INTELLECTUAL DISABILITY

THINK OF ME FIRST AS A PERSON

You look at me with pity, concern or indifference,
for I am a retarded child.
But you only see the outside of me. If I could express myself.
I would tell you what I am inside.

I am very much like you. I feel pain and hunger.

I cannot ask politely for a glass of water,
but I know the parched dry feeling of thirst.
I itch when mosquitoes bite me and run when I see a bee.
I feel cozy drinking cocoa in the kitchen
when a snowstorm blusters outside.

I had heaviness inside when I left my mother

to board the minibus for school.
My eyes darted back and forth, seeking escape,
but knowing there was none.
When my sister takes me to the playground and children
call me names, she cries and takes me home.
Then I feel warm and dizzy, and it is hard for me to breathe

Mother's eyes are wet; she holds me and tells me a story,

and I forget the children's jeers.
When I dress myself and Mother pats my head, saying,
"Good job, Jim!"
I feel...big, as big as Greg, who goes to second grade.

I am a child - in age now and in ability always.

I find the touch of soft toys and snuggly dogs comforting.

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 I love the toys of childhood - a kite, a balloon,
a wagon to pull.
I like to let go at the top of a slide and after dizzy seconds
find myself at the bottom.
I like sleds on soft snow, the wetness of rain on my forehead.

Though it is comfortable to be babied,

I am less dependent when people treat me as a big boy.
I don't want their sympathy;
I want their respect for what I can do.
I am slow, and many things you take
for granted are hard for me.
I can hardly understand what "tomorrow" means.
It took me months to learn to pedal the tall blue tricycle, but
I was so proud when at last both feet pedaled in the same
direction and the wheels went forward.
How happy I was when I turned on the right faucet
to get a drink of water.
I didn't want to ever turn it off.

If I can learn at my own pace and still be accepted,

I can fit into a world where slowness is suspect.

Think of me first as a person,

who hurts and loves and feels joy.
And know I am a child to encourage and direct.
Smile, and say hello - even that is enough.

- Rita Dranginis, 1974

The poem is trying to describe and tell a story about a child with intellectual disability.
The lines, "If I can learn at my own pace and still be accepted; can fit into a world where slowness
is suspect" can leave a strong impact to anyone. The poem serves as a constant reminder that
each individual is unique and has his own learning styles. However, working with these
individuals is a massive challenge. This chapter will talk about the basic facts of intellectual
disability and some strategies for Teachers, parents and other professionals to help them guide
these individuals cope with their disability.

INTELLECTUAL DISABILITY
Intellectual Disability (ID) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by
impairment of mental capacity. Children with this kind of disability struggle to learn and to
adapt with their environment since their mental capacity do not match with their chronological
age. It is hard for them to learn complex and abstract ideas. Children with ID develop slowly
than their peers. Learning to sit, crawl, walk and talk are delayed. They can acquire new skills
but it will take time before they can master it. Learning new information and applying them in
a practical and functional manner is also challenging.
Intellectual Disability was formerly known as Mental Retardation (MR). The word
retarded comes from a Latin word retardare which means delay, slow or hinder. This makes
the definition of mental retardation as mental delay. Back then, the term mental retardation
does not give any shame that is why this term became a replacement to terms such as idiot
(profound mental retardation), imbecile (severe and moderate mental retardation) and moron
(mild mental retardation). Mental Retardation also replaces the term Mongoloid or
Mongolism, a medical term to describe a person with Down Syndrome. During the 1960s, the
term mental retardation started to acquire a disgraceful and derogatory effect because this term
is being used as an insult. At present, the term intellectual disability or mentally challenged are
used because it is more respectful than the term retarded.

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 Intellectual disability is not the same as Learning Disability. Learning Disability affects
academic learning such as reading, writing, and math. On the other hand, Intellectual disability
not only affects the academic learning of the individual but also the experiential and social
learning.
The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (APA, 2000) lists three main
diagnostic criteria for intellectual disability.

1. Impairment of intellectual functioning

Intellectual functioning is also known as intelligence quotient (IQ). This refers to the
ability of the person to learn reason, solve problems and make decisions. The intelligence is
measured by an IQ test. The average IQ is 100 and if the person scores 70 or below then he is
considered as intellectually disabled.

2. Impairment in adaptive skills

The adaptive skills are life skills needed by a person to function in his daily life. This
adaptive skill is divided into three categories. First, is the conceptual skills that includes
reading, writing, counting, time, money and communication skills. Second is the social skills
or interpersonal skills include following social customs and obeying laws. Lastly is the
practical life skill which includes self-care, home living, and use of community resources, self-
direction, functional academic skills, leisure, health and safety. (Reynolds, T. et al. 2015)
Adaptive Skills are assessed using standardized test. The score of the individual is
compared to the average score of the general population. There is a problem in adaptive
functioning if the score is below 97.5% of the population.

3. The onset is between 0-18 years of age.

Classification of Intellectual Disability
In the training module on mental retardation for teachers of Aida Damian (1996),
intellectual disability was classified according to the degree of mental retardation and
educational category.

A. Mild Mental Retardation

• IQ level 50-55 to approximately 70.
• They can acquire academic skills until the sixth grade level.
• They can support oneself totally or partially at adult level to some degree of economic
usefulness.

B. Moderate Mental Retardation

• IQ level 35-40 to 50-55.
• Can be trained in self-help skills such a dressing, feeding, toileting, social adjustment at
home and to neighbourhood and to some degree of economic usefulness.

C. Severe Mental Retardation

• IQ level 20-25 to 35-40.
• They can master the basic self-help skills and some communication skills.

D. Profound Mental Retardation

• IQ level below 20 or 25.
• Result in severe limitation in self-care and communication.

SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS

1. Physical Features
Some medical conditions such as Down Syndrome (Chromosome 21), Fetal Alcohol
Syndrome and Cerebral Palsy shows obvious signs that are noticeable. But some people with
intellectual disability have a perfectly normal physical appearance.

2. Developmental Delay

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 Children with intellectual disability experienced delay in their developmental
milestone. Compared with other children their own age, they sit, walk and talk later and they
may have trouble dressing or feeding themselves.

3. Problems in logical and abstract thought

Children with intellectual disability struggle to learn and retain new information as
quickly as the other children their age. It's hard for them to see the relationship between similar
but different things.

4. Behavior
These children may exhibit adaptive behaviour to the demands of the environment.
They tend to have low impulse control and poor frustration tolerance. They may also have
difficulty in delaying gratification. Likewise, they may show extreme behaviour such as overly
aggressive or withdrawn due to lack of self-esteem.

CAUSES OF INTELLECTUAL DISABILITY PRENATAL CONTRIBUTIONS

I. Chromosomal Disorder
Down syndrome (Trisomy 21)
It is the most common and best
known type of chromosomal abnormality
associated with mental retardation. This was
introduced in 1959 by Dr. John Langdon
Down. Down syndrome is a result of an
accident in cell development results in 47
instead of 46 chromosomes. The real cause of
the Down syndrome is not yet known but it is
attributed to thyroid problems, drugs and
exposure to radiation. Maternal age can be
the main reason. Parents of any age may have a child with Down syndrome, but the incident is
higher for women over 35.
There are many characteristics of Down syndrome. The most common among them are
listed by Pierangelo (2003) and Gargiulo (2009).

1. Epicanthal fold - slanting eyes with folds of skin at inner corners

2. Simian crease - Short broad hands with short fingers and with a single crease across the
palm
3. Broad feet with short toes, short low-set ears, flat bridge of nose, short neck, small head and
protruding tongue
4. Poor muscle tone
5. Prone to respiratory problem
6. Visual problem such as crossed eyed and far or short sighted
7. Mild to Moderate hearing loss and speech difficulty
8. Heart problem
9. Gastrointestinal tract problems
10. Tendency to become obese
11. Leukemia
12. Thyroid problems

Fragile X Syndrome
A person with this kind of disorder has a weak
or fragile X chromosome of the 23rd pair. This syndrome
affects approximately one in 750 males and about one
in 1,250 females making it one of the most common
inherited cause of mental retardation (as cited by
Gargiulo, 2009). Carrier men pass the permutation to

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all their daughters but none of their sons. Each child of a carrier woman has a 50 percent chance
of inheriting the gene. (Pierangelo, 003)
Some common characteristics of the Fragile X Syndrome are the following:
1. Most boys have mental retardation
2. 1/3 to half of the girls have mental retardation and the rest have either learning disability or
normal IQ
3. Attention deficit, hyperactivity, speech and language problems
4. Self-stimulatory behavior, anxiety, and unstable mood
5. Autistic-like behavior
6. Large ears, long narrow face, prominent forehead, large head, enlarged testicles and flat feet
7. Hyper extensive joints especially fingers

Prader-Willi Syndrome
It is first recognized as a "syndrome" in 1956 by
Prader, Labhart and Willi. It is now recognized as one of the
most common micro deletion syndromes and genetic causes of
obesity. It is caused by a very small deletion in chromosome
15. The dysfunction of the hypothalamus affects physical
growth, sexual development, appetite, temperature control
and emotional stability (Pierangelo, 2003).
According to the website, Genetic Home Reference, most cases of Prader-Willi syndrome
(about 70 percent) occur when paternal genes on chromosome 15 are missing. In another 25
percent of cases, the child inherited two copies of chromosome 15 from the mother and no
chromosome 15 from the father. This phenomenon is called maternal uniparentaldisomy.
Rarely, Prader-Willi syndrome can also be caused by a chromosomal rearrangement called a
translocation, or by a mutation or other defect that abnormally turns off (inactivates) genes
on the paternal chromosome 15.
According to the website of Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research, the
following are some common characteristics of Prader-Willi Syndrome:
1. Impaired body control and mental retardation
2. Hypotonia and poor motor control
3. Short stature, narrow forehead and small hands and feet
4. Insatiable appetite and low metabolism
5. High pain tolerance and low sensory input
6. Behavior difficulties such as temper tantrums, stubbornness, noncompliance and resistance
to change
7. Shows signs of obsessive-compulsive disorder
8. Osteoporosis
9. Thick viscous saliva
10. Fair skin and light colored hair

William's Syndrome
It is a rare disorder characterized by a deletion of
chromosome 7 which can result to physical and
developmental problems including mental retardation.
Most common symptoms are the following:
1. Elfin-like facial features
2. Moderate to mild retardation
3. Impulsive and outgoing personality
4. Limited spatial skills and motor control
5. Heart and blood vessel problems
6. Hypercalcemia - high blood calcium level
7. Low birth weight, slow weight gain and feeding problems
8. Dental and kidney problems
9. Hyperacusis - sensitive hearing
10. Musculoskeletal

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II. Metabolic and Nutritional Disorder
Galactosemia
Infants are unable to process galactose, a form of sugar found in milk and other
products. Some indicator that an infant have this disorder are jaundice, vomiting, cataracts,
liver damage and mental retardation.

Phenylketonuria (PKU)
Infant's body are unable to process protein. They lack the liver enzymes needed to
process phenylalanine which is common to milk and other high-protein food products. 10 the
enzyme phenylalanine is not metabolized by the body of the affected infant, it will accumulate
in the bloodstream and become toxic. This will result to brain damage and mental retardation.

III. Developmental Disorder of the Brain Formation

Cranial malformations can also result to mental retardation. One common condition is
the microcephaly. It is characterized by a small head and severe retardation. The opposite of
this is the hydrocephalus characterized by enlargement of cranial cavity because there is an
interference of the flow of cerebrospinal fluid. Another example is Anencephaly wherein a large
portion of the brain fails to develop properly. All three cranial malformations can lead to mental
retardation.

IV. Infections
Rubella or German measles
Exposure of a pregnant woman in this infection during the first trimester of her
pregnancy can result to very serious consequences. It is highly contagious disease that can result
to mental retardation, vision and defects, heart problems and low birth weight.

Sexually transmitted disease

Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS), syphilis and herpes simplex
are also attributed to mental retardation. The infections are transmitted through unprotected
sexual intercourse with an infected person or sharing of hypodermic needle. The infection is
capable of penetrating the placenta during pregnancy and eventually attacking the central
nervous system and also damaging the immune system.

RH incompatibility
According to the book, Mental Retardation 5th Edition by Beirne-Smith, Ittenbach &
Patton (as cited by Gargiulo, 2009). RH incompatibility is a blood group incompatibility between
a mother and her unborn child. It is the result of the Rh factor, a protein found on the surface of
the red blood cells. Rh positive blood contains this protein but the Rh negative do not. When the
Rh negative mother carries an RH positive baby, her body will produce antibodies against any
Rh positive fetus. This often leads to mental retardation, cerebral palsy and epilepsy.

Toxoplasmosis
Toxoplasmosis can be found in fecal matter, raw meat and eggs. Fetal infection may
occur if the mother was exposed during her third trimester. This can lead to mental retardation,
cerebral palsy, blindness, microcephaly and other serious condition.

Cytomegalovirus
Cytomegalovirus is a part of herpes group. Most women may develop immunity from
previous exposure to this virus. The fetus will be severely affected if the mother has initial
exposure to this kind of virus. This can result to brain damage blindness, and hearing
impairments.

V. Maternal Behavior
Pregnant women who are reckless with their behaviour can endanger the fetus in their
womb. Smoking, using illegal drugs and drinking alcoholic beverages can damage the

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central nervous system and can lead to severe damage such as mental retardation, physical
deformities, heart defects, attention disorder and behavioural problems.

Perinatal Causes
The birth process is a difficult one. Some problems arise even at this stage that can lead
to different developmental delay like mental retardation. For instance, if the mother has a
difficult and prolonged delivery or the umbilical cord was damage, this can lead to anoxia
(oxygen deprivation) or hypoxia (insufficient oxygen). Another example is the obstetrical or
birth trauma wherein the improper use of forceps can lead to damage an infant's skull due to
excessive pressure. Moreover, the delivery position may also cause a problem. A breech
presentation may give the possibility of damage in the umbilical cord or an injury to the infant's
head since the infant exit the birth canal buttocks or feet first instead of a normal head-first
presentation. Likewise, precipitous birth can also be distressing to the mother and the infant.
This is a fast labor that can only last less than three hours. This may cause fetal injury or a head
injury since the infant pass through the canal too quickly.

Postnatal Causes
1. Infections
Even after birth, the infant is still vulnerable to different factors that can affect his
development. Childhood diseases such mumps, measles and chicken pox can cause complication
that can lead to meningitis. This is a viral infection that can damage the covering of the brain
known as meninges. Likewise, encephalitis is another overwhelming complication in which
there is an inflammation of the brain tissue. Both viral infections can lead to the damage of the
central nervous system.

2. Environmental Factors
Toxins
Kozma and Stock asserted in the book, Children with Mental Retardation (as cited
by Gioguli, 2009) lead and mercury poisoning are two environmental toxins that can cause
mild mental retardation. Children may ingest lead from paint, crayons, toys, pencils and the
like. These toxins can cause seizures and brain damage.

Adverse living condition

Most children under socio-economic class are at risk of mental retardation. Unfortunate
situations such as nutritional problem, inadequate health care, lack of early cognitive
stimulation, child abuse and neglect may be associated to mental retardation.

Traumatic Brain Injury

The term is not used for a person who was born with a brain injury or injuries that
happen during birth. It is an acquired injury to the brain caused by an external physical force
(hit by something or being shaken violently, resulting in total or partial functional disability or
psychosocial impairment, or both that adversely affects a child's educational performance (IDEA,
as cited by Pierangelo, 2003).
Some common signs of TBI are the following:
1. Difficulty in reading, writing, planning, understanding and sequencing
2. Problems in speaking, seeing, hearing and using other senses
3. Problems in short term and long term memory
4. Changes in mood, anxiety and depression
5. Problems in balancing and walking
6. Seizures

Strategies and Techniques

Since intellectual disability is not a disorder, there is no cure. Children with this kind
of disability are capable of learning. Parents, teachers and other professionals should work hand
in hand on how to explore different options to train these individuals to become independent and
self-sufficient.

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BEST PRACTICES AT SCHOOL
Multi-sensory Approach
The great philosopher Confucius once said, “I hear and I forget. I see and I remember.
I do and I understand." This is his guiding principle that most special education teachers are
considering when thinking what best strategy to use with their intellectual disabled student.
Our brain receives stimuli from our environment through the use of different senses.
Multi-sensory approach is a technique used wherein all the senses are engaged. However,
teachers should take note that pupils have different ways of learning. Some are visual learners
while others are auditory learners. There are also students who learn more through tactile
experience while others through kinesthetic method.
Talking alone will not give a vivid picture to the individual with intellectual disability.
As you might anticipate, teaching them abstract ideas can lead to frustration since it is difficult
for them to grasp these ideas. The use of visual aids such as charts, pictures, graphic organizer,
flash cards and graphs are highly encouraged. Using PowerPoint presentation and videos are
also stimulating for these learners. Likewise, the use of story-telling and puppetry in presenting
lessons can perk up the child's interest. Teachers can also engage the students in song and dance
to strengthen the skills they like to teach.
Teachers observed that students, who were taught using techniques similar with their
learning styles, learn more easily. They can also learn fast and can retain and apply concepts
mare readily to future learning.

Task Analysis
Another method which most teachers find effective in teaching simple to complex
functional or life skills is the use of task analysis. In this approach, a complex behaviour or tasks
is broken into several steps. These steps are introduced, practiced and done one step at a time.
In this manner, there is a greater chance for the student with intellectual disability to succeed
in mastering the task before going to the next step. This can be used in teaching the student
vocational skills or self-help skills such as how to brush, take a bath, dressing table setting and
the like. The activities that were previously mentioned may be too easy or automatic for us but
these are challenging for most individuals with intellectual disability. Here is an example of task
analysis for washing hands and brushing teeth:

Washing hands:
1. Turn on the faucet.
2. Wet hands.
3. Turn off the faucet.
4. Rub hands with soap.
5. Rinse
6. Turn off the faucet
7. Dry hands

Brushing teeth:
1. Wet the toothbrush with water.
2. Put toothpaste on the brush.
3. Brush teeth up and down.
4. Brush teeth in front and back.
5. Rinse mouth with water.
6. Spit the water in the sink.

Experiential Learning
David Kolb's experiential theory is widely used by special education teachers. This is a
method of teaching wherein students learn through involvement or first-hand experience
Teachers used this kind of technique in teaching pupils skills in functional academics, vocational
training, community living and self-help skills. Experiential learning is best to individuals with
mild to severely intellectual disability.
One example of experiential learning is simulation. It a good strategy in teaching
individuals with intellectual disability. In this approach, the teacher staged or imitates an event

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through manipulation of classroom setting. Some examples are teaching students to make
change, following directions in a cookbook, reading washing instructions or completing a job
application form.
One characteristic of an individual with intellectual disability is the inability to
generalize skills to different settings. The student may learn how to make change in the
classroom through the simulation approach but he fails to apply it in a real or natural setting.
Simulation is useful and has its advantages but it is not recommended all the time.
Teachers are concerned with the application of the functional skills to real-life situation.
Instead of simulation, educators prefer the learning instruction to occur in natural or
community-based setting most of the time to eradicate the difficulties of the person with
intellectual disability to apply what they learned from one setting to another. It was noted by
the teachers that students with this kind of disability learn and remember more when the
instructions were done in the actual environment. Some examples are reading a menu, shopping
for groceries and cooking.

Thematic Unit Approach

Thematic instruction incorporates reading, math, and science and literature with
different themes such as communities, family, special occasion or festivity and the like. The
special education teacher can connect the lesson to the children's experiences making the lesson
more interesting and engaging. It gives opportunity for the children with intellectual disability
benefit from collaborative and cooperative learning. It also helps the learner focus on the
objectives or the mastery of the tasks.

Montessori Approach
This approach was developed from experimental research conducted by Dr. Maria
Montessori, the first female physician in Italy. Montessori observed the children with special
needs who in early 1900's are placed in adult asylum. She studied the educational methods of
her teachers, Jean Itard and Eduard Seguin, who are now considered the pioneers of special
education.
In her experience in working with children with special needs, Montessori developed
two principles. First, mental deficiency required a special kind of education; second that this
special education needs didactic materials or apparatus (Gutec, 2004). She believes that children
can grow and develop at their own pace without too many restrictions but in an orderly
environment.
Most schools which cater to children with special needs in the Philippines adapt in this
kind of approach. In this method, the teacher prepared the classroom to encourage independence
freedom within limits and a sense of order. The classroom has child-sized tables, chairs, shelves,
labels and movable equipment. The environment and the learning materials are interesting,
attractive and developmentally appropriate for children with special needs.
This method also provides practical life exercises. Some activities include buttoning,
zipping, tying, lacing, hooking, snapping, gardening, washing, table setting, serving meal and
cooking. The successful performance of everyday skills can give children with intellectual
disability a sense of independence and self-confidence. Likewise, these activities can help develop
their motor and coordination skills.
In this technique, sensory training is also important. The child is given freedom to
choose which materials to use through directed play. He is given independence in exploring his
environment through the use of musical instruments, pieces of fabric with different texture,
geometric solids, color tablets, smelling boxes, rods, blocks, beads, puzzles, clay and alike. The
self-initiated work encourages the child with intellectual disability to start and finish the work
on his own.
Luckason et, al (2002, cited by Westwood, 2007) defined intellectual disability as
characterized by significant limitations both in intellectual functioning and adaptive behavior
as expressed in conceptual, social, and practical adaptive skills. This disability originated before
age 18.
Westwood (2007) explains that individuals with intellectual disability are previously
referred to as mental handicap or mental retardation. Children with this disability maybe
classified into mild intellectual disability or moderate to severe intellectual disability.

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 Those children with mild intellectual disability are described to be indistinguishable in
many ways from children described as slow learners in the past. It is recommended that these
children will be provided with an appropriate instructional programme, adequate support, and
teaching methods oriented to their individual needs.
Children with moderate to severe intellectual disability are more commonly
accommodated in special schools/classes. The following areas were prioritized within the
curriculum for students with intellectual disability:
- communication
- self-care and daily living skills
- social skills
- basic academic skills (literacy and numeracy)
- self regulation and self-direction
- independent functioning in the community
- employability

Children with intellectual disability are slower at acquiring cognitive skills. They find
it difficult to interpret information, think, reason and solve problems.
Attention, memory and generalization were found as the specific difficulties of people
with intellectual disabilities. Children with intellectual disabilities tend to focus on irrelevant
details or they get easily distracted from a learning task. In addition, many children with
intellectual disability had difficulty in storing information in the long term memory. Lastly,
these children were found not able to generalize what they have learned.
Challenges in language ability and social developments were also experienced by
children with intellectual disability. They have a very slow rate in the acquisition of speech and
language. In addition, these children also experience difficulty in making friends and in gaining
acceptance especially for those who would exhibit challenging or irritating behaviors.
It is highly recommended for these children to experience things at first hand, in
collaboration with other people that will guide them in understanding certain experiences. It
would also be important for these children to experience reality-based learning. Contents in the
instruction should be simplified by steps to help them gradually master the learning process.
Furthermore, the following were explained by Westwood (2007) as basic principles to
consider when working with students with intellectual disabilities:
- provide plentiful cues and prompts to enable the learner to manage each step in a task
- make all possible use of cooperative group work, and teach children the necessary group-
working skills.
- frequently assess the learning that has taken place against the child's objectives in the
curriculum
- Use additional helpers to assist with the teaching (aides, volunteers, parents)
- Involve parents in the educational programme when possible
- Most importantly, do not sell the students short by expecting too little from them.

Based on Filipino Professional specialists, the following were observed from a child who
has intellectual disability:
1. Poor grades
2. Difficulty to understand computer lessons
3. Would stare at you blankly
4. Tends to cry when being persisted to understand what is being taught
5. Deficit in cognitive functioning
6. Deficit in memory
7. Deficit in adaptive behavior
8. Generally friendly, socially adept
9. Lag in cognitive skills compared to peers
10. Can learn how to read with individualized instruction
11. Fine motor, gross motor and speech are also not age appropriate

Based on interviews, children with intellectual disabilities are dealt through the
following:

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1. Administration of psychological test (I.Q., personality, study habits, aptitude) to verify
intellectual capacity
2. Being recommended to attend in a small class or to be tutored
3. Early intervention
4. Use of Adaptive behavior assessment tools
5. All activities must be task-analyzed to ensure that pre requisite skills are present before the
next skill is taught.
6. All pre-requisite skills must be present before the next skill is taught
7. Age-appropriate activities must be utilized when teaching across all subject areas: 15-year old
students with ID must not be taught subtraction or addition anymore. Educational intervention
must instead be focused on teaching activities of daily living (ADLs) in which they will be trained
to function in their house or community more independently.

Art work of a child with intellectual Disability

Nikki Jessica Cahigus

INTERVIEW
Karlo's Case
Age: 15 years old
Birth order: 3rd of 4 children
Father: 53 years old, unemployed, finished grade 4
Mother: separated from Father, HS graduate
The elder sister of Karlo was the one interviewed and described her brother as someone
who loves to draw and to play with others. The sister expressed that since her parents are
separated, she takes in the responsibilities as a mother and an "ate", (elder sister)
The siblings are the ones taking care of him, and usually his wants and needs are always
met at home. The siblings would describe Karlo as "isip bata," (childlike), they try their best to
understand and give way to the requests of Karlo.
At present, Karlo stopped in his studies because of financial difficulties in the family.
The sister shared that the reason of the child's disability was because of traumatic experience in
the past. It happened when they had a vacation in the province. Karlo was five years old then
when he was requested to take care of his 7 months younger brother. His parents and siblings
needed to buy something. Then, Karlo decided to take a bath in a brook and brought along with
him his younger brother. Accidentally, the baby was drowned in the brook, and during that
incident, Karlo had difficulty in expressing his ideas clearly. The sister shared that Karlo was
really normal before, and when the accident happened, he became different. He turned out to be
always sad, and would sometimes cry every time that he is alone. He is delayed with his skills
like in speech, reading and writing.
The change in Karlo's condition hurt the family, because this was really unexpected.
Karlo's family was hoping that someday he will go back to his normal behavior. At present, the
family is working hand in hand to meet Karlo's needs and remain hopeful that someday he will
finish his studies. The whole family understands Karlo's case.

OTHER INTERVIEWS:
Name: Juana Dularbal
Age: 82

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Education: College Graduate
Child's Name: Anthony
No of Children: 2
Note: youngest

Question 1:
How do you describe your child?
Answer:
Good, helpful
Can change his own clothes
Can help in the household chores

Question 2:
What can you say about the education of your child?
Answer:
He attended Cupertino Elem School (in level 3 at that
time) but he stopped when his Father died
He likes to join us in going to the couples for Christ.
He insists on what he likes
He is now studying in Servants of Charity

Question 3:
What advices can you give to parents of children with special needs?
Answer:
Continues support for the child's education
Just be kind and show love
Try to understand all the differences
Do not be angry and be careful with actions that will be

CHAPTER 3 LEARNING DISABILITY

Did you know that some of the world famous and stable personalities have learning
disability? These prominent people include Albert Einstein, Leonardo Da Vinci, Thomas Edison
and Winston Churchill. Renowned personalities in contemporary times such as Walt Disney,
Tom Cruise, Whoopi Goldberg, and Steven Spielberg had trouble in school when they were
young.
Learning Disability doesn't have to do with the person's intelligence. Samuel Kirk
first coined the term leaning disability in 1963 (Gargiulo, 2009). The person with this kind of
disability has a normal or above average intelligence but his brain is having difficulty to receive,
process, analyze and store information. As a result, the person has difficulty in learning as
quickly and efficiently compared to their min-disabled pers.
Students with learning disability are typical part of our regular classroom. But we tend
to overlock these students or recognize their special needs. This is because the condition is hard
to diagnose. You can't tell by just looking at the person that he has a learning disability. The
person looks normal and seems to be an intelligent person but he may not be able to demonstrate
the skill expected at his age level. Oftentimes, teachers, parents and other significant adults see
them as lazy and disobedient.

CHARACTERISTICS OF STUDENTS WITH LEARNING DISABILITY

Not all individuals with learning disability have the same characteristics. Some
students may have difficulty in one or several of these areas. We also have to take note that
students who have these characteristics may also succeed in school.
In some instances, their characteristics are contradictory. Some students may be
hyperactive while others are lethargic. The manifestations of the problems also vary with each
grade level. During preschool level, a language disorder may be observed as delayed in speech. I

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the elementary level, reading problems may occur and in secondary level, writing difficulty may
be observed.
Learning disabilities manifest at different stages of life and deficits can be observed in
different ways depending on the age of the individual (Lerner as cited by Gargiulo, 2009).

• Problems with mechanical and social use of language

Most students with learning disability have problems in grammar (syntax) and vid
meaning or vocabulary (semantic). Similarly, these students may have difficulty in breaking
words into their component sounds or blending sounds together to form a word (phonology).
Likewise, students with learning disability have difficulty in using language in social
situation (pragmatics). They are not good conversationalist, meaning they find it difficult to
engage in a meaningful conversation. Usually, the conversation with individuals with learning
disability is often characterized by long silence and they often allow the other person to dominate
the conversation. This may result to uncomfortable feeling on the part of the person whom they
talk to.
Furthermore, most students with learning disability have difficulty in understanding
textual materials. They have problems in identifying the main ideas of paragraphs presented to
them. It is difficult for these students to assess themselves when they do not understand difficult
passages. They seem unmindful when they do not understand what they are reading.

• Problems with mathematics

Mathematics is second to reading difficulties of students with learning disability.
Difficulty in computation of math facts, understanding word problems and spatial relationship,
writing numbers, problems with telling time, understanding fractions and decimals are typical
to them. Often, they lack the ability to use efficient problem solving strategies.

• Problems with perception

Students with learning disability may have problems in auditory perception. They may
find it difficult to follow verbal instructions and to discriminate words that sound the same, like
fat and fab.
Another problem may occur in their visual perception. These students may reverse
letters, experience difficulty in identifying shapes and solving puzzles.
Moreover, some students with learning disability have problems with their fine and
gross motor muscles. Gross motor skills refer to movements involving large muscles used for
walking, running, dancing, jumping and climbing stairs. Fine motor skills refer to movements
involving small muscles requiring fine manipulations of fingers and hands including holding and
using a pencil, crayon and scissors, dressing, pouring drinks and using a spoon and fork.

• Problems with attention and hyperactivity

Very often, students with learning disability have poor attention span and they are
often easily distracted. It is hard for them to stick to one task, follow directions and focus their
attention for a long period of time. Others are active and fidgety. They usually exhibit
inappropriate impulse control and concentration. They blurt out the first things on their minds
and are often talking non-stop. Researchers have consistently found an overlap of 10 to 25
percent between ADHD and learning disabilities (Hallahan et. al, 2009).

• Problems with memory and cognition

Oftentimes, students with learning disability have problems with their homework. They
usually fail to remember to bring home their homework, often distracted while doing their
homework and forget to turn in their homework.
Many researchers agree that students with learning disability have problems with
short-term memory and working memory. It is difficult for these learners to remember
information after having seen or heard it. Repeating words presented visually or verbally may
be hard for them (short-term memory). In the same manner, it is challenging for them to keep
information in mind while simultaneously doing another mental tasks (working memory).

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 Another problem that these learners encounter is how to demonstrate logical thinking
that is necessary in planning and using strategies in problem solving. They also lack the ability
to assess and monitor their performance.

• Problems in social, emotional and motivational skills

Individuals with learning disability are prone to socioemotional problems. Because of
their constant failure in the past, they tend to be shy, withdrawn and isolated. When they are
presented with difficult or new tasks, they have the tendency to give up and expect the worst
because they think that no matter how hard they try, they will fail. As a result, the person fails
to learn a new skill, reinforcing the feelings of helplessness and worthlessness (Hallahan, 2009).
Likewise, these learners are externally motivated. They strongly believe that their
success or achievement is not based on their ability and determination rather on external factors
such as luck and fate. They have difficulty in working independently and need constant support
from teachers, parents and other significant adult. They tend to become passive or inactive
learners and they fail to demonstrate initiative in the learning process (Gargiulo, 2009).
It was noted that students with learning disability have low social competency. This
may be attributed to poor social cognition and lack of understanding and interpreting social cues
(Gargiulo, 2009).

TYPES OF LEARNING DISABILITY

• Dyslexia
It is also known as developmental reading disorder. It is characterized by delay and
difficulty in reading even with good eye sight and normal or above-average intelligence. The
person has a problem in any part of the reading process such as identifying speech sounds, oral
reading comprehension. It can also hinder a person's ability to write, spell, and sometimes speak.
Dyslexia is the most common learning disability in children and one cannot outgrow it.
It persists throughout life. The severity of dyslexia can vary from mild to severe.

Signs and Symptoms

Before School
Late talking
Slow in learning new words
Struggles to match letters to sounds
Has difficulty learning nursery rhymes
Has difficulty blending sounds into words
Has trouble recognizing the letters of the alphabet
Has trouble learning to count or say the days of the week and other common word sequences

School Age
Reads slowly
Has difficulty in spelling
Letter reversal or mirror writing
Has trouble learning a foreign language
Has difficulty comprehending rapid instruction
Has problems remembering the sequence of things
Has difficulty knowing left from right and difficulty with direction
Inability to sound out the pronunciation of an unfamiliar word
Has a problem in processing and understanding what he or she hears
Has difficulty seeing (and occasionally hearing) similarities and differences in letters and words

Teens and Adult

Has difficulty in memorizing
Has difficulty in reading aloud
Has difficulty summarizing a story
Has difficulty doing math problems
Has difficulty with time management
Has trouble learning a foreign language

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Has trouble understanding jokes or idioms
Has difficulty in organizing and managing time

• Dyscalculia
According to the American Psychiatric Association, dyscalculia is a specific learning
disorder that is characterized by impairments in learning basic arithmetic facts, processing
numerical magnitude and performing accurate calculations. These difficulties are not caused by
poor education, uncorrected vision and hearing problems, intellectual impairments or adverse
conditions such as lack of language proficiency and economic status. The student with
dyscalculia has poor capacity in mathematics that is not at par with his age.
Students with dyscalculia struggle to learn mathematics despite having good home and
school environment. This condition is assumed to be the result of different brain function.
Dyscalculia is less known than dyslexia. Researchers suggest that an individual may experience
both dyslexia and dyscalculia at the same time. Also, these two conditions can exist even without
the other being present.
According to the National Center for Learning Disability British Dyslexia Association
and Understood.org the following are some of the common signs and symptoms of a child with
dyscalculia.

Before School
Has trouble recognizing groups and patterns
Has difficulty learning the meaning of numbers
Has difficulty sorting objects by size or shape
Has difficulty recognizing numbers and matching numbers with the amount
Has difficulty in comparing and contrasting using concepts like smaller/bigger or shorter/taller
Has trouble recognizing number symbols, such as making the connection between "7" and the
word seven
Struggles to connect a number to a real-life situation, such as knowing that "3" can apply to any
group that has three things in it-3 cookies, 3 cars, 3 kids, etc.

School Age
Has difficulty when counting backwards
Has poor sense of numbers and estimation
Tends to be slower in performing calculations
Has no sense of whether any answers are right or wrong
Has difficulty remembering phone numbers and game scores
Forgets mathematical procedures specially when they become complex
Has difficulty remembering basic math facts despite hours of practice
Has difficulty in understanding place value and zero in the umber system
May still use fingers to count instead of using more sophisticated strategies
Struggles to understand words related to math, such as greater than and less than
Has trouble telling his left from this right, and has a poor sense of direction

Teens and Adult

Has difficulty in remembering schedule
Shows high level of mathematics anxiety
Has trouble with approximating how long something will take
Has hard time grasping information shown on graphs or charts
Has trouble measuring things, like ingredients in a simple recipe
Has difficulty keeping score when playing board and card games
Has poor sense of direction and easily disoriented by changes in routine
Has trouble finding different approaches to the same math problem
Has difficulty playing strategy games like chess, bridge or hole playing video games
Has poor mental math ability like estimating grocery costs or making exact change
Lacks confidence in activities that require estimating speed and distance, such as playing sports
and learning to drive

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• Dysgraphia
The term comes from the Greek word. Dys means impaired and graphia means
handwriting. The person who has this condition has a messy handwriting and they struggle with
spelling. It is difficult for them to put their ideas into a written form.
Aside from the ones mentioned above, Understood.org listed signs and symptoms of this
condition:

Visual-Spatial Difficulty
Copies text slowly
Has hard time writing on a line and inside margins
Has trouble organizing words on the page from left to right
Writes letters that go in all directions, and letters and words that run together on the
page

Fine Motor Difficulties

Is unable to use scissors well or to color inside the lines
Holds his wrist, arm, body or paper in an awkward position when writing
Has trouble holding a pencil correctly, tracing, cutting food, tying shoes, doing puzzles,
texting and keyboarding

Grammar and Usage Problems

Doesn't know how to use punctuation
Writes sentences that “run on forever"
Doesn't start sentences with a capital letter
Overuses commas and mixes up verb tenses
Doesn't write in complete sentences but writes in a list format

Handwriting Issues
Erases a lot
Avoids writing
Blends printing and cursive
Mixes upper- and lowercase letters
Has trouble reading his own writing
Gets tired or cramp on his hand when he writes

Spelling Issues
Has trouble telling if a word is misspelled
Has a hard time understanding spelling rules
Spells words incorrectly and in many different ways
Can spell correctly orally but makes spelling errors in writing
Has trouble using spell-check-and when he does, he doesn't recognize the correct word

BEST PRACTICES AT SCHOOL

Content Enhancement
It is a general term for a wide range of techniques teachers use to enhance the
organization and delivery of curriculum content so that students can better access, interact,
comprehend and retain information (Heward, 2009).

• Mnemonics Strategy
The persisting problem of students with learning disability is to recall and use the given
information presented to them either verbally or in written form. To address this, one can use a
strategy known as mnemonic device.
The word mnemonic has an interesting origin. This term came from the name of a Greek
goddess of memory named Mnemon. Now mnemonic device refers to any memory-enhancing
strategy. It is an instructional strategy used to improve the memory and it aids the retention of
certain information. This technique helps the learner connect new knowledge from the previous
learning through the use of verbal and visual cues.

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 There are three mnemonic strategies that are known to be effective. These are the
keyword technique, the pegword technique and letter technique.
In keyword technique, students are taught how to transform an unfamiliar word to a
familiar word. In this technique, the teacher can use familiar words that sound alike with the
new.
In pegword technique, students learn to associate numbers with familiar rhyming
words. These rhyming words are used to stand for numbers. It is helpful for students who need
to remember the order of information and when there is a number association with the fact.
In letter technique, one can use acronyms or acrostics. Acronyms are new word
formed from the first letter of each word that needs to be remembered. One example of this is
ROY G. BIV. Each letter represents the color of the rainbow namely red, orange, yellow, green,
blue, indigo and violet.
Acrostic on the other hand helps the learner recall by creating a sentence with the first
letter of the words that need to be recalled. "Every Good Boy Does Fine" is one the most popular
among schoolchildren. It represents the line of the treble clef: E, G, B, D and F. In Science class,
"My Very Educated Mother Served Us Nine Pizzas" is commonly used. It represents the planets
in order: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune and Pluto.

• Graphic Organizer
Teachers can help their students express knowledge, concept or ideas by using graphic
organizer. These are visual aids to help the students see the classification or the relationship
between concepts. Story board, fishbone or the Ishikawa diagram, cause and effect web, concept
map, KWL table, Venn diagram, story web and flow chart are some of the examples of graphic
organizer.

• Note-taking Strategies
It is important for the schoolchildren to learn an effective way to take down notes while
the teacher is giving a lecture. These lecture notes can aid them during a review for the test.
Through note-taking, the students learn to organize the information they hear and see.
The first method of note-taking is the strategic note taking. The teacher will give a
note paper to the class with cues that help the students organize information and combine
knowledge with prior knowledge (Heward, 2009).
The second method is the guided notes. The teacher provides specific questions or
vocabulary word. The students can now anticipate the information that they need to write down
while listening to the teacher or viewing a video about the given topic. Another variation of this
is the structured reading worksheets. These are guide questions to help the students jot down
important events or information in the selection read.

COGNITIVE TRAINING STRATEGY

This technique helps exercise or trains the way the brain learns. Through this training,
the cognitive skills are enhanced. It strengthens the thought pattern and promotes faster and
more efficient learning. Additionally, this technique is helpful for students with learning
disability because it teaches self-initiative and provides strategy for learning.

• Self-Instruction
Self-instruction is one example of cognitive training. In this technique the students
are required to verbalize or to talk aloud to themselves prior and during the time they perform
the tasks. The teacher can teach the students in groups then eventually let them work
independently with her supervision. It is important to identify first the target behaviour or
action that needs to be addressed. While most kids can do the tasks even without visual or verbal
cues, children with learning disability need assistance. It would be helpful if the teacher
demonstrate the use of verbal routine. The teacher can also give pictures and verbal cues as the
student performs the task for the first time.
For example, Roxy will practice adding decimals. Along the way, she encounters a
problem. The child will have the opportunity to think of an appropriate solution. She can say the
following while she is completing the tasks:
• Write in vertical column. Align the decimal points.

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• Add each column, starting to the right.
• Where will I place the decimal point in the sum?
• I will place the decimal point directly below the decimal point of the given numbers.
• Oh, there it is! I did a great job!

• Self-monitoring
Self-monitoring is another category of cognitive training. This approach requires the
student to evaluate and record behaviour. For example, Roxy answered several drills in adding
decimals, she may be allowed by her teacher to check her work and record her score in a score
sheet. In this manner, Roxy and her teacher can observe if there is an improvement in her skills
in adding decimals after several days. This approach is also helpful in monitoring on and off task
behaviour.

• Scaffolded Instruction
Scaffolded Instruction originated from the work of Vygotsky. He suggested that
children will learn better if there is an adult assistance. It is an approach wherein the teacher
assists or guides the students to master a learning goal. The teacher will allow the students to
complete most of tasks unassisted. If the tasks are beyond the capability of the students that is
the only time the teacher gives her assistance to them. The teacher gradually fades or reduces
the assistance until the students can do the tasks independently.
For example, the Math teacher of Roxy explains and demonstrates how to multiply
decimals several times. After the modelling is complete, Roxy and her classmates were given
exercises to apply the concept learned. At this point, the teacher is guiding the children in
answering the math problems. She also answers questions and gives feedback to them. Through
this guided practice, the Math teacher can assess whether the children need additional
instructions and modelling. Once the class shows mastery, the teacher fades or removes the
intervention used.

• Reciprocal Teaching
Reciprocal teaching was developed by Palincsar and Brown in 1986. This was
established to address the problems of some learners who have difficulty in decoding and
comprehending text presented to them.
In this approach, there is an interactive dialogue between the teacher and the students.
The teacher assumes the role of the expert and student assumes the role of apprentice or co-
instructor. The teacher models the action to show the class how to guide a conversation about
the book.
After showing the class how it works, the teacher will group the class into a small group
of five. During the process, the teacher encourages and prompts the students to help each other
in discussing and answering guide questions which involves assuming a special role of facilitator,
summarizer, questioner, clarifier and predictor.
The facilitator will assume the role of the teacher. This person will be the one to read
the selection. The summarizer will be responsible in giving important details about the story.
The questioner will ask question about the selection. The clarifier will try to answer the
questions and explains the confusing parts of the story. The predictor will give his predictions
about the possible events that can happen next.
For the next selection to be discussed, the students will switch roles. The group will
repeat the process using their new roles.

DIRECT INSTRUCTIONS
In the 1960's, Siegfried Englemann, developed direct instruction, this approach in
teaching focuses on the academics. An explicit or direct instruction is a systematic method of
teaching with emphasis on proceedings in small steps, checking for student understanding and
achieving active and successful participation by all students (Rosenshine as cited by Heward,
2009).
In short, direct instruction is clear, direct and specific teaching wherein the teacher can
help the learners link between knowledge and application. Typically, the direct instruction

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includes reviewing of the previous lessons or correcting the homework, explaining the learning
objectives, modelling of the new skill to be learned, guided practice and independent practice.

OTHER PRACTICAL TEACHING TECHNIQUES:

• Focusing Problems
Remove the unnecessary materials on top of the desk.
The blackboard should be free from irrelevant information.
Stand close to the child during lectures.
Separate the child from other students who may be distracting

• Memory Problems
Pace the instruction and the lesson carefully to ensure the clarity of the lesson
Use plenty of examples and props to make the narrative situation more vivid in their mind.
Use straight forward instruction and it should be presented one at time.
Give short but frequent written tasks and gradually lengthen them as the student begins to cope.
Guide the child to use the highlighter pen to underline important facts in the material read.
Use a peer assistant
Allow the child to use dictionaries or multiplication table.
Encourage the students to ask questions during or after class.
Ask questions and let the child describe his understanding of the question being asked of him.

• Test Inconsistency
Allow for untimed testing
Add more variety to tasks
Give typewritten test paper
Allow extra time for responses
Give credit to attempted responses
Underline or highlight keywords in test directions
Allow students to submit complex homework due in two or three days rather than the next day.
Give individual conferences to guide students with learning disabilities to monitor progress and
understanding of the assignment and of the course content.
Consider alternate activities or other forms of testing that can be utilized with less difficulty for
the student who has a learning disability, but has the same or similar learning
objectives. Examples are video-taped reports, audio-taped reports, hands-on
demonstration, etc.
Check the student's work as soon as possible to allow immediate feedback.

• Poor handwriting
Model good penmanship
Encourage the use of word processor
Allow the use of tape-recorder for lectures
Reduce written work and increase oral response
Allow the use of wide rule paper or graphing paper
Give activities to strengthen the child's fine motor skills.
Allow use of print or cursive - whichever is more comfortable.
Encourage proper grip, posture and paper positioning for writing.
Use pencil in writing. Try different pens and pencils to find one that's most comfortable.
Give writing warm up exercise such as playing with clay, using scissors and tearing paper.

Boyle and Scanlon (2010) explains the definition of specific learning disability stressing
on the significant limitation in acquiring and/or expressing information in one or more of the
following areas of using language: listening, speaking, reading, writing, spelling, mathematical
calculations, or reasoning, with approximately 80 percent of those with LD having difficulty with
reading.
In this connection, the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2014
(cited by Greg, 2009) explains that Specific learning disability means a disorder in one or more
of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or in using language, spoken or

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written, that may manifest itself in the imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell,
or do the mathematical calculations. The term includes conditions such as perceptual
disabilities, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia. The
term does not include learning problems that are primarily the result of visual, hearing, or motor
disabilities, of mental retardation, of emotional disturbance, or of environmental, cultural, or
economic disadvantage.
In this regard, Kauffman and Hallahan (2005) discussed that students with one or more
learning disability at one time was called minimally brain injured, slow learner, dyslexic, or
perceptually disabled. In the past years, a student was identified as having LD when he or she
failed to learn at the expected level in a particular academic area. As time passed, the term,
"focus" was accepted recently, instead of the student's inability to respond successfully during
classroom instructions. Therefore, a child with LD is found not to progress at the same rate and
level as his or her peers when taught using proper instruction.
It is therefore recommended that those students with LD can be taught in general
educational classes considering that teachers went through special trainings. However, for
students diagnosed with severe level of LDs, they need special teaching in a special setting aside
from the general classroom. (Kauffman and Hallahan, 2005)
Students with LD have great difficulty processing information as they learn. This is
evident in their poor academic performance such as in reading, written language and math. They
also lack self control of the cognitive skills they need when exposed to reading activities.
Moreover, students with learning disabilities have difficulty in having focus. They have
concerns when it comes to attention and concentration. They get easily distracted and have
difficulty attending to a task. Aside from these difficulties in terms of Academics, children with
LD also experience social skills difficulties. They are considered to be socially fragile since they
have few friends.
Based on the views of Filipino Professional specialists, the following were observed from
a child who has a learning disability:
1. Difficult to read sentences
2. It may occur within the life span
3. May have difficulty among all the subjects
4. Academic performance in all areas is well except in either maths/ reading
5. Can develop defense mechanisms due to their inability to read or solve math problems

The children with learning disabilities are dealt through the following:
1. Referral to a special education teacher who would be able to handle the child.
2. Instruction plan depending on need
3. All activities must be task-analyzed to ensure that pre requisite skills are present before the
next skill is taught.
4. Academic intervention must focus on error analysis to determine the specific skill that the
student needs to master in order to have a good foundation before more complicated skills will
be taught.

CHAPTER 4 EMOTIONAL AND BEHAVIORAL DISORDERS

Medina is getting worse every day. He actively defies school rules and consistently
refuses to follow instructions given by his teachers. He deliberately annoys his teachers and
classmates by jabbering non-sense words. He can also get ugly and mean. One time, he was
caught possessing cigarettes. When the boy was reprimanded by his teacher for his behaviour,
he burst outside the room in anger. He slammed the door of the classroom loudly. He cursed and
shouted through his clenched fist. He is ready to attack his teacher. He is only 12 years old.
One of the biggest problems parents and teachers encounter every day is managing
challenging behaviour of children and teens. Whether displaying angry outbursts, pushing
siblings, consistently refusing to follow instructions, ignoring rules or throwing a full-blown
tantrum can really be overwhelming. If not properly addressed, these disruptive behaviors tend
to worsen overtime.

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 The person's behaviour can be severe that they may impact his daily functioning and
his relationship with other people. This disturbed behaviour may evoke the feeling of
helplessness, frustrations, fear, resentment and anger in parents, teachers and other significant
adult.
Emotional-Behavioral Disorder has no exact definition since it is difficult to
measure emotion and behaviour. Aside from that, determining what behaviour is acceptable and
what is not vary across different culture. Nevertheless, there are many terms to describe this
condition: emotionally disturbed, emotionally conflicted, socially handicapped, socially impaired
are just some to name the few.
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) define emotional-behavioural
disorder as a condition exhibiting one or more of the following characteristics over a long period
of time and to a marked degree that adversely affect the ability to learn.
• An inability to learn that cannot be explained in terms of intellectual, sensory or health
factors.
• An inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with peers and
teachers.
• Inappropriate type of behaviour or feelings under normal circumstances.
• A general, pervasive mood of unhappiness or diagnosed depression.
• A tendency to develop physical symptoms of fears associated with personal or school
problems.

CHARACTERISTICS
• Externalizing Behaviour
Aggressiveness
Temper-tantrums
Acting out
Noncompliant behaviour
Inappropriate crying
Learning difficulties
Fighting
Bullying

• Internalizing Behaviour
Social withdrawal
Depression
Excessive fear or anxiety
Poor coping skills
Lack of interest in different activities
Briefly explained below are the common types of behavior and emotional disorder that you may
encounter in the classroom.

TYPES OF BEHAVIOUR DISORDER

Disruptive Behaviour Disorder
There are two types of disruptive behaviour. The first one is the Oppositional Defiant
Disorder (ODD). It is characterized by negative, hostile and defiant behaviour towards
authority such as parents and teachers. The other one is the Conduct Disorder (CD). It is a
more serious than the oppositional defiant disorder wherein the person is showing aggression,
destruction and violation of basic human rights of others without fear or concern about the
result.

Oppositional Defiant Disorder

The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorder (DSM IV, 2000) has the
following guidelines:
• The behavior persists for 6 months.
• The behavior causes impairments in social, academic or occupational functions.
• The behavior does not occur only during the course of a psychotic or mood disorder.

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• The onset is 18 years old and below.
• The symptoms are more intense and serious compared to other children of the same age.
• Four or more of the signs and symptoms of ODD listed below must be manifested.

Signs and Symptoms of Oppositional Defiant Disorder

• Often loses temper
• Often argues with adults
• Actively defies or refuses to comply with adult requests or rules.
• Deliberately annoys other people
• Blames others for his or her mistakes or misbehavior
• Often touchy or easily annoyed by others
• Often angry and resentful
• Often spiteful or vindictive
• Has low frustration tolerance
• Low sense of confidence

Conduct Disorder
The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorder (DSM IV, 2000) has the
following guidelines:
• The behavior causes impairments in social, academic or occupational functions.
• Onset
• Conduct Disorder, Childhood-Onset Type 10 years and below
• Conduct Disorder, Adolescent-Onset Type 10 years onward
• Conduct Disorder, Unspecified Onset Type Age at unknown onset
• Severity
• Mild
Conduct problem cause minor harm to others
• Moderate
Conduct problem increasing harm to others
• Severe
Conduct problem cause grave harm to others
• Categories
• Solitary Aggressive Type
Aggressive behavior toward peers and adult
• Group Type
Act with peers
• Undifferentiated Type
Those not classified in either above group
• Three or more of the signs and symptoms of CD listed below must be manifested in the past
12 months with at least 1 criterion present in the past 6 months.

Signs and Symptoms of Oppositional Defiant Disorder

Aggression to people and animal
• Bullies, threatens or intimidates others.
• Initiates physical fights.
• Used a weapon that can cause serious physical harm.
• Physically cruel to people and animals.
• Has stolen while confronting a victim like snatching, mugging etc.
• Forced someone to sexual activity.

Destruction of Property
• Deliberately engaged in fire setting with the intention of causing serious damage.
• Deliberately destroyed property other than fire setting.
• Impatient and cannot wait for his turn.

Deceitfulness or theft
• Has broken to someone else's house, building or car.

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• Often lies to get favor and avoid obligations.
• Has stolen items of nontrivial value without confronting the victim like forgery, shop lifting
etc.

Serious Violation of Rules

• Stays out at night despite parental prohibitions.
• Has run away from home at least twice or once without retuning for a lengthy period.
• Often truant at school

TYPES OF EMOTIONAL DISORDER

Personality Disorder
▪ Passive-Aggressive Personality Disorder
It is the power developed by children to gain control over their parents, teachers and
other significant adult by resisting them. This is the opposite of aggression. The child will not
shout or throw tantrums but instead he will pretend that he does not hear or see you. They will
ignore you and they will not answer you when you talk to them. Their aggression can also be
expressed through mean faces, name-calling or blaming others. When the parent or the teacher
start yelling because of annoyance and frustration, he wins because he knows that he gain
control over the situation.
Youngsters developed this kind of behaviour when they start to associate anger with
punishments or shame in the situation at home. To avoid such, they will mask their anger or
frustration with socially acceptable behaviour yet subtly in an infuriating way. They can get
revenge when the adult loses control.
According to Signe Whitson of Psychology Today (2014), Passive-Aggressive behaviour
ranges from different level. The first level is temporary compliance. This is common in our
everyday lives. It usually goes unnoticed. The person may appear to comply or to follow with
requests and needs of others but in reality, they passively resist it by claiming to forget the
responsibility, procrastinating, resisting other person's suggestions, complaining, acting sullen
and having unexpressed hostility or anger to other people.
The second level is the intentional inefficiency. The person will do the work but he will
do it in a sub-standard way or being inefficient by purpose. The third level is letting the problem
escalate. The child will not do anything even though there is a problem at hand.
The fourth level is the hidden but conscious revenge. The person plans and acts out
deliberately to get back at someone. For example, throwing the Science experiment of classmate
who he feels mistreated him. The last one is the self-depreciation. The person will resort to self-
destruction just to get revenge, for instance, shaving the head just before the graduation.

▪ Antisocial Personality Disorder

This disorder is characterized by aggressive behaviour against siblings, peers, parents,
teachers and other adult. They usually defy those who are older than them. This aggressive
behaviour may be exhibited through temper tantrums, bullying, hitting, lying and use of
profanity. Drug and alcohol abuse is often associated with antisocial behaviour.
The aggression may also be-expressed to objects or properties such as theft, vandalism,
destruction of property and fire-setting. These people usually fail to conform to social norms.
They show no remorse in hurting other people. They don't have consideration and disregard the
safety of others.
Antisocial behaviour can be recognized in a child as young as four years old. If not given
proper intervention it may lead to a more chronic behavioural disorder.

Anxiety Disorder of Childhood

▪ Separation Anxiety Disorder
Anxiety due to separation from parents and other significant adult is common among
children during the first day of school but if the disturbances continue after 4 weeks indicates
that there is a problem that should be addressed. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of
Mental Disorder (DSM IV, 2000) listed the following signs and symptoms.

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Signs and Symptoms of Separation Anxiety Disorder
• Extreme anxiety associated with separation from home or the attachment figures.
• Excessive worry about losing or possible harm that will lead to separation from a major
attachment figures.
• Refusal to go to school or elsewhere
• Fearful to be alone at home without the major attachment figures.
• Refusal to sleep away from home or to sleep without the major attachment figures.
• Repeated nightmares about separation
• Experience body pain when separation occurs or is anticipated.

▪ Avoidant Disorder of Childhood or Adolescence

It is typical for a shy youngster to be reluctant to get involved into a new situation where
there are people whom he hardly knew. But for some, they will completely withdraw or avoid
any social interaction with unfamiliar peer or adult for fear of being criticized, shamed or
ridiculed. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorder (DSM IV, 2000) describe
the following signs and symptoms of a person with this kind of personality.

Signs and Symptoms of Separation Anxiety Disorder

• Avoids any activity that involves interpersonal contact for fear of disapproval and rejection.
• Unwilling to get involved with people unless he is well liked by them.
• Preoccupied with being criticized or rejected in front of a crowd.
• Has a poor self-image, seeing oneself as ugly, not good enough
• Reluctant to try new things to avoid embarrassment.

▪ Selective Mutism
This condition is characterized by refusal of the person to talk for a long period of time
even if he knows how to speak and can understand the language used by the person talking to
him. Usually this occurs in selective social setting wherein the person feels threatened.
This consistent failure to speak can interfere with his interaction with other people in
different social situations. This avoidance to speak is not due to communication disorder or the
lack of knowledge of language. The person has an actual fear of speaking in social situation.
Some never speak and others will just speak to selected people usually in a whisper.

Elimination Disorder
• Encropesis
According to the Mayo Clinic, encopresis, also called stool holding or soiling, is the
repeated voluntary or involuntary passage of feces into underwear or floor. It occurs when the
child resists having bowel movements, causing impacted stool to collect in the colon and rectum.
When the child's colon is full of impacted stool, liquid stool can leak around the impacted stool
and out of the anus, staining the child's underwear. This is common among children 4 years old
and above when the child has already learned to use, the toilet. This condition is the result of
constipation or other emotional stress experienced by the child. For the diagnosis to take place,
the condition must be present for at least once a month for three consecutive months.

• Enuresis
This condition is most commonly known as bed-wetting. There are two types of enuresis,
the diurnal enuresis or daytime bed-wetting and nocturnal enuresis or bed-wetting, which is the
most common type of elimination disorder. But some children experience the combination of
both.
The major symptom of this disorder is the repeated voluntary or involuntary
elimination of urine during the day or night into bed or clothes. This condition is often associated
with children who are heavy sleeper who cannot wake when their bladders are full. It may be
the result of early toilet training wherein the child is forced to use the toilet. In addition, enuresis
seems to run in families and it often associated to behaviour or emotional disorder.
This is usually diagnosed at the age of 5 at which the child is expected to have a bladder
control. The behaviour should manifest twice a week for at least 3 consecutive months.

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Eating Disorder
• Anorexia Nervosa
It is a complex eating disorder characterized by an extremely distorted body image,
refusal to maintain a healthy body weight and an intense fear of getting fat or gaining weight.
They resort to significant reduction of food intake, intensify their exercise routine, using of
laxatives, diet pills and enemas. This condition affects men and women of all ages but it is more
common among women.

• Bulimia Nervosa
This condition is somewhat similar to Anorexia Nervosa wherein the person has an
obsessive preoccupation of gaining weight or being fat. But in this condition, the person have
episode of binge eating. This is the uncontrolled eating of large quantities of food. Usually, the
person felt guilty and she is overwhelmed with feelings of lack of control during her binge eating.
As a result, she will resort to self-induced vomiting.

Mood Disorder
Dysthymic Disorder
This is the persistent feeling of depression or irritable mood for most of the day for the
period of one year. While feeling depressed, the person may also experience fatigue, low self-
esteem, poor concentration, hopelessness, poor appetite or overeating and insomnia or
hypersomnia.

BEST PRACTICES AT SCHOOL

Physical Environment Intervention

Preparing the Classroom Lay-out

Assign a seating and grouping arrangements. Use rows for direct instruction, round
table for discussions and clustered arrangements for group work.
Place the student with EBD in the front center aisle of the classroom. Since they are
easily distracted, they should be seated away from the door, window, cabinets or trash bin. Their
place should be within the proximity or at eye sight of the teacher.
Divide the classroom into different areas with a definite purpose. Assign a work space,
a quiet space, mini library and the like.
Control the visual and auditory stimulus in the classroom to avoid destruction. Keep
the classroom displays organized, cover storage area and remove objects that are tempting,
distracting and dangerous.

Setting the Rules and Expectations

Classroom rules should be stated in a direct and clear behavioral terms at the start of
the school year. For example, "Listen when someone is talking”.
Encourage the students to suggest rules to help them feel the sense of responsibility
and accountability.
Post the rules and reminders on the board for the children to see.
Explain the consequences for breaking the rules to the students. When a student breaks
the rule ask him to explain the consequences of his actions. The consequences for breaking the
rules must be fairly and consistently executed.

Establishing the Routines and Procedures

Give students specific directions about how to move from one activity to another like
passing the book, notebooks or test paper, going outside the classroom, doing the morning routine
and the cleanliness campaign.
Rehearse the routines until the students are familiar with it. Use verbal, visual or
auditory cues such as hand signals, bell and whistle to direct students' attention.
Give a notice or a warning to students before the end of each activity to prepare them
for the movement to the next activity.

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 Provide peer assistant for those students who are having a hard time following the
routines.
Creating a Positive Ambiance
Show interest toward the students. Maintain eye contact and paraphrase what the
student says to show that you are actively listening to them.
Use open-ended questions to allow the students to express themselves.
Use what or how questions instead of asking why questions. What and how questions
are easier to answer than the why questions which threatens the student. For example, "What
went through your mind before you stabbed your seatmate with a pencil?" or "How did your
classmate's shoes end up in the trash bin?" can be a good start to allow the student to explain
his actions.
Communicate with respect to the students. Let the students realize that it is their
behavior that is difficult and not them as an individual.

BEHAVIOR MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUE

Self-Management
The student with EBD is trained to manage or control his behavior to avoid disruptive
outburst through this technique. The students are trained to be more reflective of their action
before making any response. The following are the two types of self-management:
• Self-monitoring
The student observes his behavior and records the occurrence and non-occurrence of the
target behavior.
• Self-evaluation
The student will compare his performance to a given standard or goal. Sometimes, the
student will compare his self-rating with his teacher's rating of the same target behavior. He can
gain points if his self evaluation matches the teacher's evaluation.

Peer Mediation and Support

• Peer Monitoring
The classmate of the student with EBD will observe and record his behavior and give
him feedback whenever necessary.
• Positive Peer Reporting
The student will report all the positive behavior of each other.
• Peer Tutoring
The classmate or a friend can assist the student with EBD with his academic and social
skills.
• Peer support and confrontation
Every time a good behavior is displayed, the peer will recognize and encourage his
classmate to continue with his appropriate behavior. When undesirable behavior occurs or
about to occur, peers will explain why the behavior is inappropriate and suggest other
alternatives for appropriate response.

Positive Reinforcement
This technique was based from the operant conditioning of B.F. Skinner which states
that behavior can be shaped by giving or delaying reinforcements. The following are examples
of positive reinforcements:
• Praise
This can be in the form of social praise, personal notes and positive or corrective
feedback. Such things can provide encouragement from the students. Always be on the lookout
for student behavior that are worthy of praise. Give the low-achieving and shy students
opportunity to succeed just so you can give the approval. Try asking simple questions and let
them be the one to answer.
• Group Contingencies or Token Economy
The students are asked to perform a target behavior or skill, when done successfully, they
will be given tokens or points to be exchanged for a reward after they reached the goal.

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 The reward can be a homework pass, perfect quiz, bonus points, free time, movie time,
computer time, book, stickers, food and alike Create a visual chart to represent the progress in
token economies or pointing system. Explain what behavior is being rewarded so the student
knows what good behavior leads to a reward.
• Awards
Giving certificates or symbolic object for a good behavior or for completing the task can
motivate even the low performing and disturbed child to do well in class.

Negative Reinforcement
This theory states that a student will perform the appropriate behavior to avoid or
escape negative consequences (Quinn et.al, 2000). The following are examples of negative
reinforcement:
• Planned Ignoring
Teachers, parents and other significant adult ignore all inappropriate behavior that is
used to gain attention.
The behavior will not decrease or become extinct if the student still gets attention from
his peers. His peers should also ignore the undesired behavior.
If the behavior is harmful, this technique is not recommended.
Initially, the undesirable behavior that is being ignored gets worse before it becomes
better.
• Overcorrection
The student is engaged in repetitive behavior as a penalty for his inappropriate
behavior. The following! are the three types of overcorrection:
In the restitutional, the student must bring back the environment to its previous
condition and make it even better. For instance, a student throws trash on the floor. He should
pick the trash that he threw and the other trash that he can see on the floor.
In positive practice, the student should repeatedly practice the correct behavior. Using
the same example above, the student throws trash on the floor. He is now required to pick up
the paper, walk to the trash bin and drop the paper into it repeatedly many times until he is
able to master it.
In negative practice, the student should repeatedly practice the wrongly displayed
behavior. For instance, the student is always out of his seat. His chair will be removed from him.
• Time Out
The student is being removed to a positive reinforcement because of his undesirable
behavior. For example, the student blurts out answers during group game, he will be disqualified
to participate in the next round. If the student continues to disrupt the group at the next level,
the teacher will remove him from his group. If the disruptive behavior still persists, the teacher
will place him in a separate location.
Before implementing the time-out, consult the school administrators and inform the
parents about the procedures and policies at the start of the school year.
Specify the behavior that may lead to time-out. Explain the rules to the class and post
it in the classroom.
Give warnings to the students before giving the time-out.
Explain directions for going to time-out, proper behavior during the time-out and
procedures for returning from time-out.
Begin timing the time-out only when the student begins to demonstrate proper
behavior.
Talk to the student in private after returning from the time-out about appropriate
behavior.
Keep a time-out log book to monitor the student's behavior.
• Punishment
According to Quinn et al (2000), the theory behind punishment is that the negative
behavior will decrease if it is followed by something the student perceives as negative like losing
points in token economy. Punishment focuses on what the student should not do rather than on
what he should do.
Punishment should only be used for the following instances:
When the behavior is dangerous to the student or others.

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 When every other intervention has been appropriately implemented and failed.
When the student is so noxious that it prevents them from learning or forming
meaningful social relationships.
In federal laws and regulations, Kauffman and Hallahan (2005) referred Emotional or
Behavioral Disorder as an emotional disturbance. It is in general described as a behavior that
significantly disturbs adults and peers. Some students with EBD have conditions usually
classified as mental illness, such as schizophrenia or bipolar disorder which was formerly called
manic depression which is defined as the mood swings from unnatural elation and overactivity
of depression. Other sample conditions include obsessions, compulsions, extreme anxiety and so
on.
Boyle and Scanlon (2010) stressed that people with emotional and behavioral disorders
may have emotional problems that manifest as behavioral problems. In this case, an appropriate
response would address the emotional needs and behavioral needs of the person. In this
connection, most professionals explained that students with EBD have chronic difficulties in one
or more areas involving socialization with others, unusual behaviors or emotions under normal
circumstances, a general mood of unhappiness and depression, and physical or emotional
reactions such as fearful responses to school or personal problems. In this regard, these chronic
problems adversely affect educational performance and are often not easily treated.
Moreover, the above authors cited examples of the common externalized and
internalized behaviors of students with EBD. The common externalized behaviors include the
following:
- violent outbursts
- angered reactions
- emotional mood swings
- physical or aggressive actions
- tantrums
- destructiveness
- disrespectfulness and non compliance
- sexual promiscuity

The internalized behaviors, on the other hand, include:

- isolated play
- frequent claims of being ill
- depression
- cutting or mutilation of self
- extreme shyness
- disregard by peers
- anorexia
- panic attacks

Moreover, students with EBD have cognitive processing difficulties. This affects their
academic performance in class. They are not able to focus and concentrate on their academic
tasks because of their mood swings. They also often get below average scores in intelligence and
achievement tests. In this light, students with EBD have problems in some skills areas. There
would be cases as well whereby students with EBD are removed from the classroom because
they appear to destruct other students, and they need to deal privately with their emotions.
Aside from Cognitive processing and academic skill difficulties, students with EBD
experience social skills difficulties.
Most likely, those students with EBD are the ones removed in the regular education
classroom because they are considered to be among the most challenging students to teach. It is
recommended for teachers to collaborate with other educators, service providers, and parents
and use the student's individualized education program, (IEP) to guide them. By these means,
they may be successful in including students with EBD in the general education classroom and,
in the process, help those students manage their disability.
Based on the Filipino Professional specialists interviewed, the following were observed
from children who have emotional and behavioral disorders:
1. They are aggressive and would disrupt classes

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2. Display tantrums and would often cry and shout
3. They are withdrawn and distant
4. They show signs of depression
5. They tend to bully others
6. Some of them cannot pass competency examinations
7. Sometimes characterized to have anti social behavior
8. Manipulative, have aggressive tendencies as they cannot control their emotions
9. Defiant 10. May use abusive language (when exposed to it)
10. May be unpredictable at first but they display certain patterns which may trigger
misbehavior

Children with emotional and behavioral disorders can be dealt through the following:
1. Administration of psychological tests to assess present emotional state
2. Observe the child using behavioral checklist
3. Conference with parents, teachers
4. Preparation and implementation of counseling treatment plan
5. Referral to psychologist or psychiatrist
6. Reinforcements (positive, negative extinction)
7. Application of a cognitive model
8. All activities must be task-analyzed to ensure that pre requisite skills are present before the
next skill is taught.

Rules must be set in the classroom but consistency in implementing the rules is critical
as it will either make or break the intervention.

INTERVIEW
Emotional and Behavioral Disability
This disability depends on how parents handle the condition of the children. If adults
show to young children that they are hurting someone for no reason, the young ones will think
that the actions manifested is correct. The child will think that it's okay to hurt someone not
knowing that it is not a good behavior. In some cases when young children exemplify bad
behavior, some adults would laugh at them, leading the children to believe that their bad
behavior is acceptable. The Persons with Disability Office (PDAO's) head shared the case of a
child who usually hurt others in the classroom and is often reprimanded in school. The boy was
handled one on one at the PDAO office. They found out that the child would display unfavorable
behavior to get the attention of the teacher or parents. Parents and teachers are advised to give
proper advices to their children and serve as good role models. They should not say hurting words
to children with emotional and behavioral disorders. Parents are often called for counseling to
make them realize the need to accept their child's disability. Extra attention should be given to
the child, since perhaps the child was just seeking for the parents' attention. Parents should
learn to accept the disability of their children and give them the attention that they need.

Interview:
Child's Name: Anna
No of Children: 3
Note: Middle

Question 1:
How do you describe your child?
Answer:
She is good but sometimes naughty
Sometimes she is confusing but most of the time she is helpful
She is taking care of her sibling
She loves to sing
Gets easily irritated
Sometimes obedient

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Question 2:
What can you say about the education of your child?
Answer:
The school of my child is beautiful
Improved the behavior of the child
Our child is into therapy
The teacher is good

Question 3:
What advices can you give to parents of children with special needs?
Answer:
The parents should try their best to be knowledgeable about the condition of the child
and try their best to help the child

EMOTIONAL AND BEHAVIORAL DISORDER

(EDUCATOR'S PERSPECTIVE)
o Set rules at home.
Example rules at home:
▪ Tell Papa and Mama about your day.
▪ Always say thank you and smile.
▪ Do not hit anything or anyone.
▪ Do not lie.
▪ Respect the elderly.
▪ If you're angry talk first to Papa and Mama.
This sample rules are similar to the common rules of a regular family but the rules can
make a big impact to children with EBD.
o Do not expose the child to too much TV.
o Properly process their emotions and direct it to be positive.
o Set boundaries.
o Teach the child proper manners.
o Do not show negative emotions.
o Always be calm in handling the child whenever he is showing tantrums.
o Say only good words.
o Practice a reward system/ positive reinforcement,
o Give household chores.
o No fighting at home.
o Treat the child equally.

CHAPTER 5 AUTISM

The word "autism" comes from the Greek word "autos” was originally coined by Blueber
in 1911 (Damian, 2003). Autism is a developmental disability caused by neurological
dysfunction. It is characterized by difficulties in communication, social, cognitive, sensory
processing and behaviour skills.
The term "autistic" which means to escape from reality was first used by Leo Kanner in
1943 when he identified the symptoms characterized by autism.
According to his research and observations, these individuals have the inability to relate
themselves in the ordinary way to people and situations, disregard, ignore or shut out anything
that comes to the child from the outside. Researchers also describe them as individuals with an
excellent rote memory, delays in the acquisition of speech and language and have obsessive
desire for sameness.
Before Leo Kanner coined the term autism, many people used different names to
describe this condition including feebleminded, idiot, mentally retarded, imbecile and childhood
schizophrenia. Because of this, Leo Kanner differentiates autism and schizophrenia in three
aspects. According to him, individuals with autism are characterized by wanting to be alone

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starting from childhood, shows an extreme attachment to objects and have a desire for routine
or sameness.
Autism is a life-long disability that occurs in all ethnic and socio-economic groups. This
condition is most common among boys. Males are four times more likely to have autism than
females.
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) define autism as:
• A pervasive developmental disorder significantly affecting verbal and nonverbal
communication and social interactions.
• The onset is before 3 years old.
• Adversely affects a child's educational performance.
• Characterized by repetitive activities, stereotype movements, resisting to environmental
change or routines and unusual responses to sensory experience.

CLASSIFICATION
Autism is classified into mild, moderate and severe. Those who are classified as mild
and moderate are called high functioning. Only few of this population have special skills in
numbers, memory, arts, music and reading.
In the past they were described in a French term “idiot savants" which means unlearned
skills. But today we describe these skills as autistic savant or savant skill. One example of
savant skill is hyperlexia. This is the ability to read without someone teaching the person to
read. Though the person with autism can read the written word, they often don't understand
what they are reading.

CHARACTERISTICS
The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorder (DSM IV, 2000) has the
following description for autism:
• Impairment in Social Interaction
Prefers to play or to spend time alone
Shows little interests in making friends
Has difficulty keeping friends
Lack eye contact, facial expression or gestures
May not respond when name is called
Dislike being touched and resists cuddling
Does not seek or accept comfort when hurt
Unaware or disinterested in what is going on around them.
Lack of make believe or social imitative play

• Impairments in Communication
Delay in or total lack of spoken language
In individuals with adequate speech, there is inability to initiate or sustain a conversation
with others
Repeats the same word or phrase over and over
Repeats exactly what was said to him (echolalic)
Repeats words, phrases or sentences heard in the past
Cannot express clearly what he wants
Has difficulty to initiate and sustain conversation
Makes verbal sounds while listening
Rarely asks questions and has difficulty in answering questions
Appears deaf

• Impairments in Behavior
Preoccupation and attachment with a particular object
Repetitive movements such as arm flapping, head banging, twirling, spinning, running
around circles and twisting of fingers
Likes monotony or routine activities
Feels the need to fix or rearrange ways
Extreme fear with no apparent reason

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 Causes injury to self or others
Difficulty waiting for their turn
Displays frequent temper tantrums
Hyperactive or lethargic

• Impairments in Sensory Processing

Oversensitivity to touch
No reaction to pain, sight, hearing, touch, smell or taste
Excessive focus on details
Very good in observing minute details

CAUSES OF AUTISM
Theories on Autism
In the past, many researchers attribute autism to different causes. Gargiulo (2009)
discussed several of these theories. One of the most popular is the "bad mothering". This is
known as psychogenic theories of autism. According to the theory, the parents especially the
mothers are causing their child's autism. It also explained that if certain psychological bonds
were not established between parent and child, the child would not be able to establish
relationships with others and would fail to progress.
Another theory assumes autism is organically based and that mother's behaviour was
a reaction to the child's condition. Lastly, some researchers believe that children with autism
were not conditioned properly by their parents. These theories have long been disproven and
there is no enough evidence to test their previous hypothesis.

Genetic Factor
At present, scientists and researchers still are not certain what causes autism but many
of them believe that genetics and environment are the culprit for this condition.
In the website of National Institute of Neurology Disorder and Stroke, they discuss a
strong link between autism and genetics. Researchers believe that some people have a strong
genetic predisposition to autism. It means that they are more prone to develop this condition
and it can be passed on from parents to children. Still, scientists and researchers have yet to
identify the specific gene causing autism or the precise trigger factor in the gene that can cause
autism to develop.
In the same website, researchers found out that in the identical twin studies, if one twin
is affected, there is a 90% chance the other twin will be affected. They also explained in families
with one child with ASD, the risk of having a second child with the disorder is approximately 5
percent, or one in 20. In some cases, parents and other relatives of a child with ASD show mild
impairments in social and communicative skills or engage in repetitive behaviors. Evidence also
suggests that some emotional disorders, such as bipolar disorder, occur more frequently than
average in the families of people with ASD.
Based on the result of the research study of Raznahan et.al (2009), autism may also be
attributed to the abnormalities in several regions of the brain, particularly the serotonergic
system. The evidence may suggest that autism results from a disruption of early brain
development.
This finding supports the view of the researchers in WebMD. According to the said
website, children with autism have abnormal timing of the growth of their brains. Early in
childhood, the brains of children with autism grow faster and larger than those of normal
children. Later, when normal children's brains get bigger and better organized, the brains of
kids with autism grow more slowly.

Environmental Factor
In the website of The National Autism Association, they discuss several environmental
factors that they believe may cause autism. They explained that vaccinations may trigger or
worsen autism in some children especially those who have a strong genetic predisposition to
autism. This is contrary to other research results which claim that there is no direct link between
autism and vaccination.

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 Additionally, the National Autism Association believed that parental age can cause
autism. They explained that when a woman reaches the age of 40, she has a greater chance of
conceiving a baby with this condition compared to her younger counterpart. This organization
also believes that babies that have been exposed to cigarettes, alcohol and medicines such as
valproic acid and thalidomide during pregnancy have the higher risk of autism. They also
suggest that children born to mothers who live within a 1000 feet of freeways have twice the risk
of autism. But there is no concrete evidence found linking pollution and autism. Other
environmental factors that this group believes that may cause autism pesticide and chemical
exposure such as lead and mercury. Eating too much canned good, processed meats, carbonated
drinks, roasted food and limited vitamin intake during pregnancy may risk the unborn baby.

BEST PRACTICES AT SCHOOL

Educational or School Model

TEACCH
Susan Stokes, an autism consultant, mentioned in her website the Structured
Teaching Intervention as one of the teaching techniques in this model. It is developed by Eric
Schopler in the late 1970s in the University of North Carolina TEACCH Division (Treatment
and Education of Autistic and related Communication Handicapped Children).
Based on this philosophy, children with autism can benefit if adults will give a special
attention to the physical environment where they interact. The four main components of this
model are physical organization, scheduling, work systems and task organization.

Physical organization
The physical layout of the classroom is important. Most children with autism have
sensory problems. By setting a physical organization, such as providing clear areas and
boundaries for specific activities inside the classroom can help the students remember the
activities that take place in each place. Also, a clear physical organization can also help minimize
the visual and auditory distractions.
The following are some of the suggestions on how to make the physical environment
more structured:
Provide clear and physical boundaries inside the classroom by using boundary markers
such as carpet squares and floor tape. Making boundaries can also be done by arranging the
furniture such as room divider, office panel, cabinet, shelving units, bookcases and tables.
Since children with autism have difficulty understanding wide-open areas, visual
boundaries will decrease the child's tendency to randomly wander or run from area to area.
These visual cues can help children with autism better understand their environment. For
instance, color coded placements during meal time can visually and physically define each child's
"space" (and food items) on the table.
Structure the room to fit the child's age. For younger children, provide areas to develop
play, independent and group work, self-help skills and time out room or cubicle. For older
student, include areas for prevocational and domestic skills training, grooming areas and leisure
areas.
Provide furniture in the classroom that is child friendly and age appropriate.
Make materials needed easily accessible to the child.
Limit the amount of visual clutter such as projects and seasonal decorations. Store or
cover the unnecessary equipment and materials.
Paint the wall of the classroom with muted colors such as white or beige.
Control the amount of light inside the classroom by using curtains and blinds.
Control the amount of auditory distractions by turning off the paging system, using
carpet or covering the wall with foam to mute the sound.

Scheduling
Schopler et. al (1995) as cited in Texas Guide for Effective Teaching explained other
components of TEACCH aside from organizing the physical structure. He also mentioned about
scheduling. To lessen the anxiety of children with autism, it is important to provide a visual

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schedule for them so they know what to expect within the day. Schedules accommodate
difficulties with the concept of when and what activity will be given. This explains which activity
will occur and in what sequence. It helps the students predict and anticipate the activities.
There are two types of schedules. The first one is the general time schedule. It
outlines the work and break time of the entire class. Whereas, individual schedule, gives the
specific activities of the student listed on the general schedule.

Work systems
Likewise, Schopler and his colleagues explained the importance of work systems for
children with autism. Through this technique, the student will be guided by visual cues what
and how much activities should be done independently. It also helps the student to monitor when
each task and the work session are complete.
Furthermore, work systems help children know what is expected of them, ways to
organize systematically and how to complete their tasks. Pictures, symbols and numbers can be
used for the activity.

Task Organization
Last component is the task organization. Schopler and his associates further discussed
that task organization determines what work students do independently, what needs to be done
within a task, how many items must be completed, and final outcomes.

Alternative and Augmentative Communication

According to National Autistic Society and Research Autism, alternative and
augmentative communication is a form of communication used by people who are unable to use
the standard form of communications. Alternative Communication is a replacement for
standard communication while the Augmented Communication enhances the communication
that the person knew.
Facilitated communication or supported typing is a form of alternative and
augmentative communication. In this strategy, a facilitator or the communication buddy will
physically support the person with autism demonstrate what he likes to communicate by
pointing the pictures, symbols, letters or words for him. This form of communication is usually
combined with sign language.
Another form of alternative and augmentative communication is the Picture
Exchange Communication System (PECS). In this strategy, the child who cannot talk or
write can be trained to communicate using pictures. The teacher can teach the child with autism
to exchange a picture of an item he wants.
For instance, the child with autism is hungry, he will give a picture of a food. As the
child progress with this strategy, the teacher can move to teaching him more complex skills like
composing a sentence using the picture card.

Behavioral Interventions
The National Autistic Society and Research Autism differentiate behavioral and
developmental Interventions. They explained that behavioral intervention encourages
appropriate behavior and discourage inappropriate behavior. Some examples of appropriate
behavior are sitting properly, waiting for ones turn or greeting someone good morning. While
inappropriate behaviors are screaming, inflicting harm to self or others.
The teacher can use task analysis and teach the tasks in achievable pattern in a
structured environment. Task analysis is breaking complex skills into a series of small steps.
Likewise, backward chaining method is useful method to the child with autism. In this
process, the teacher or the therapist prompts the child through the entire process, leaving the
last part or parts for him to complete.

Applied Behavioral Analysis

Applied Behavioral Analysis (ABA) focuses on objectively defined and observable
behaviors. The teacher assesses the current skills and behavioral deficits of the child in his
environment. ABA teaching focuses on the priority skills that the child needs. Based on these
needs, the teacher will develop a teaching strategy that is appropriate for him. After every

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instruction, the teacher will give the evaluation for her to determine if the instruction is working
or not.
If the teaching strategy is working, the teacher must find ways to strengthen the
frequency of the appropriate behavior by giving rewards or reinforcers. The reward or the
reinforcers are based on the child's preference. But if the teaching strategy is not working, the
teacher must modify her instructions.
Another goal of ABA is to determine the function of the inappropriate behavior. For
instance, the child with autism throws objects because he likes to get the attention of the people
around him. Once the teacher knows why he exhibits such behavior, she can now train the child
to replace the challenging behavior with appropriate one such as moving closer to the person or
tapping the person's shoulder.

Incidental Teaching
In incidental teaching the teacher is keen on different learning opportunities that may
arise naturally in their environment. When the children start to show interest in a particular
object or activity, the teacher will take the opportunity to teach the child based on his interest.
Anderson and Romanczyk as cited in Lovaas Institute website explain incidental
teaching further. They said, "In incidental teaching the instructor assesses the child's ongoing
interests, follows the child's lead, restricts access to high interest items, and constructs a lesson
within the natural context, with a presumably more motivated child.".
The teacher can help the child by prompting him to express or communicate what he
needs. Most professionals use incidental teaching to train children to acquire skills in language
and social awareness.
For instance, the teacher can place the child's favorite toy within his sight but out of his
reach. Prompt the child to name the toy that he likes before allowing him to play with it. If he
already knows the words, encourage him to ask politely by using the name of the toy in a simple
sentence. If the child is nonverbal, the teacher can still motivate the child to point or to use any
form of augmented communication.
Lovaas Institute also mentions that the teacher can purposefully mess up while
interacting with a child during familiar activity. During circle time, the teacher can change the
lyrics of the song, he may hide the shoes of the child when it is time to go home or he can get the
toy and walk away. The teacher has to observe the reaction of the child and grab this opportunity
to teach him how to communicate his needs or how to resolve this particular situation.

Discrete Trial Teaching (DTT)

In this teaching strategy, there is a one on one session during which a sequence of
routines of fixed or planned learning trials are presented one at a time by the teacher to the
student. The child and the teacher sit at the table together.
Smith (2001) as cited in Educate Autism website describes discrete trial teaching
vividly. He said DTT is a method of teaching in simplified and structured steps. Instead of
teaching an entire skill in one go, the skill is broken down and "built-up" using discrete trials
that teach each step one at a time.

Discrete Trial Example

• Teacher shows one circle and one triangle on the table in front of the child.
• The teacher says "Point the circle".
• The child responds by pointing the circle.
• The teacher says "Very Good!"
• A new discrete trial begins.
DTT has six parts namely antecedent, prompts, response, consequences for correct
response, consequences for incorrect response and inter trial interval.
In our previous example, the circle and triangle and the teacher's request serves as the
antecedent. Antecedent is the element in the discrete trial that leads the child to response.
Prompts are usual way to start teaching a behavior. Based on the discussion of Texas
State Wide Leadership for Autism, prompting provides learners with assistance to increase the
probability that a desired behavior will occur and successful performance of a desired behavior

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elicits positive reinforcement, therefore encouraging learning. The goal of using prompts is to
extensively shape behavior and for skill acquisition.

Types of prompts:
Full Physical Assistance - When teaching the child to pick up a cup, the teacher takes the
child's hand and guides him to pick it up.
Partial Physical Assistance - When teaching the child to pick up a cup, the teacher guides the
child's hand to the cup by tapping his elbow.
Full Model - When teaching the child how to clap, the teacher claps while telling the child to
clap.
Partial Model - When teaching the child how to clap, the teacher puts his hands in front of
himself, but does not actually clap.
Full Verbal Prompts - When the teacher expressively label "car", the teacher asks, "What is
it? Say car."
Partial Verbal Prompts - When the teacher expressively label "car", the teacher asks, "What
is it? Say c.
Gestural Prompt - When teaching the function of an object, the teacher says, “What do you
drink with?" while holding his hand to his mouth shaping it like a cup.
Positional Prompt - When teaching the child to label "toy", the teacher places the toy closest
to the child.

Response is also called the target behavior. The child's response may be successful or
not. When the child's response is correct, the teacher rewards or acknowledges the correct
response to strengthen the skill being learned. But if the child's response is incorrect, the
teacher will have to show the correct answer and continue prompting the child until he is able
to get the correct answer. The last part is the inter-trial interval. It comes after the
consequences for correct or incorrect response. It signifies the end of the discrete trial and before
starting another one.
According to the researches, DTT is an effective teaching method for students with
autism because it is short and simple. Thus, it provides many learning opportunities for the
child. Additionally, the procedures of DTT are clear, it is individualized and it maximizes the
child's success.

Pivotal Response Training

Robert Koegel, Ph.D. and Lynn Kern Koegel, Ph.D are the educational psychologists
who developed the pivotal response training in 1970s at the University of California, Santa
Barbara. Pivotal response training is a naturalistic intervention model derived from the applied
behavioral analysis (ABA).
It targets the important or the "pivotal" areas in the child's development such as
motivation, responsiveness to multiple cues, self-management and social initiation.
The first pivotal area is motivation. Doctors Koegel and colleagues explained that
improving the motivation of children with autism can increase their responsiveness in the
environmental stimuli. They suggest ways to improve the motivation of the child with autism.
• Allow the child to choose materials during activities to give them a sense of engagement.
• Combine previously learned tasks with a new one to give them a sense of success.
• Encourage the child from the moment he attempts to respond.
• Use natural and direct reinforcement. For example, the student can request for the train
model. His reward is to play with the train. He will not be given sticker or points for
requesting the toy properly.

Another salient characteristic of this technique is training the children to become

responsive to multiple cues. Once they are trained to respond with different cues, they can
generalize the skills learned and use it in various settings such as home, school and community.
During the training, the teacher should present more than one cue to which the child must
attend.

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 For example, the child is presented with different colored boxes. Then he is instructed
to sort balls in these colored boxes. Through PRT, the child is trained to differentiate the boxes
and to respond to the colors.
The third focus area is the self-management. The goal of teaching this is for the child
to be aware of his disruptive or inappropriate behaviour and to help him understand his negative
feelings especially anger and frustration. Different self-management strategies such as feeling
thermometers and emoticons can serve as visual reminder and self-monitoring device.
The last important area is the increase of self-initiation. The teacher can start training
the child by creating a teaching situation and providing the child with his preferred materials
or activities. During this situation, the teacher will now prompt the child to be curious that can
lead to asking questions or seeking assistance.
1970s, Jean Ayres, Ph.D., an occupational therapist and licensed clinical psychologist,
developed a theory she called Sensory Integration (SI).

Sensory-Based Intervention
Jean Ayres, Ph.D, a licensed clinical psychologist and an occupational therapist
developed sensory integration in 1970. In her observation, she noticed that many people with
autism are experiencing a variety of sensory deficits in the areas of tactile, visual, auditory,
olfactory, gustatory, and vestibular and proprioception. These individuals were categorized into
hyper-sensitive and hypo-sensitive. These deficits may often lead to their disruptive behaviour
and learning difficulties since there is a defective sensory integration and the brain cannot
process it normally.
In the book Asperger Syndrome and sensory issues: Practical solutions for making sense
of the world, Miles et. al (2000) as cited in the website of Texas Guide for Effective Teaching give
some examples of teaching interventions on how to address these sensory deficits.

Tactile (touch)
Weighted vests, weighted blanket, resistive putty, handheld fidgets, holding something
cold, writing in sand or salt.
Vestibular (Balance)
Jumping on a trampoline, hanging upside down on a jungle gym, sitting on a therapy
ball, rocking on a rocker, swinging on a swing, twirling and spinning.
Proprioception (body awareness)
Handing out books, running an errand, exercise, weighted backpack, pushing a cart,
wheelbarrow walk, seat cushion.
Visual (sight)
Sunglasses, cap with bill, highlighting pen, elevated slant board, lights turned off, study
carrel. Auditory (hearing) Earplugs, headphones, music, chimes, squeeze toys, books on tape,
talking calculator.
Gustatory (taste)
Eating crunchy foods, blowing bubbles, drinking cold water, playing a musical
instrument, sucking a thick liquid through a straw.
Olfactory (smell)
Scented pens or markers, scratch-and-sniff stickers, scented candles, nose plug.

Emotional or Developmental Model

National Autistic Society and Research Autism revealed that Developmental
Interventions are designed to target the core deficits within each child rather than his or her
outward behaviours. Teachers and other professionals work with the child's own interests or
actions to slowly build engagement, interaction, communication, affection, and then specific
skills such as logical reasoning, symbolic thinking etc.
One typical teaching technique in this model is the use of floor time, Floor time is a
play-based interactive intervention that was created by Greenspan and Wieder. It aims to
increase socialization, improve language and decrease repetitive behavior. Greenspan believes
that adults getting down on the flow to interact with children has a major importance.

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 In this technique, the child is given 20-30 minutes to get down the floor and play.
Through this manner, the child is encouraged to interact with other people. The teacher can
follow the lead of the child in his interests and motivate him to engage him with the activities.
Greenspan further explained that the primary goal of this intervention is "to enable
children to form a sense of themselves as intentional, interactive individuals and to develop
cognitive language and social capacities from this basic sense of intentionality and to progress
through the six functional emotional developmental milestones."
Texas Guide for Effective Teaching enumerate these milestones (a) self-calm and
process environmental information, (b) engage in relationships, (c) engage in two-way
communication, (d) create complex gestures and connect a series of actions into an elaborate and
deliberate problem-solving sequence, (e) create ideas, and (1) build bridges between ideas so that
they become reality-based and logical.
From these 6 milestones, Greenspan and his colleagues proposed four specific goals of
floor time: attention and intimacy, two-way communication, logical thought and expression and
use of feelings and ideas.

SOCIAL NARRATIVES
Social Stories
Students with autism lack the skills that they need in social situations. Most of them
have difficulty in carrying on a conversation, expressing their feelings and responding to their
environment. Social skills should be taught explicitly to students with autism.
Social stories were developed by Carol Gray in 1991. According to her webpage, social
stories help teach social skills, develop self-help skills, academic abilities, develop self-esteem
and help a person to cope with changes to routines and unexpected events. It is also used as
behavioral strategy and improves individual understanding of events and expectations that may
lead to more effective response.
Additionally, social story can be used as a communicative way to let the individuals
with special needs prepare their way for social interactions.
Teachers can write social stories for students with autism. Illustration can be included
to make the story interesting. A video format of the social story is also a good alternative.

Comic Strip
Comic strip is another technique developed by Carol Gray to help children with autism
to gain social understanding. It is a simple visual representation of conversation that uses stick
figure, symbols and color. It includes the dialogue during the conversation, the feelings and
intentions of the people in the conversation. This can be helpful for children with autism in
teaching how to recognize feelings and emotions in social communication.

Power Card
According to Gagnon (2001) as cited in Texas Guide in Effective Teaching, the Power
Card Strategy is designed around a student's special interest. The strategy, consisting of a brief
scenario and a visual cue, helps students learn appropriate interactions and social behaviors
through their special interests.
The power card strategy includes a short script written in the first person on a card
with colored illustration or photographs. It is also helpful to use characters that will catch the
child's interest.
Farrell (2013) discussed that Autism was found to affect the same brains systems.
Genetic and environmental factors are believed to cause autism. Childhood illness, illness during
pregnancy, food intolerance, and reaction to pollutants are some examples of environmental
factors.

SPECIAL EDUCATION
People with autism are described to experience certain difficulties in understanding
other people's emotional and mental conditions. These will then challenge their social and
communication skills. People with autism have the impairment in their language, social

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communication and theory of mind. They have dysfunctions in their ability to plan actions, and
in maintaining a cognitive focus to remain on a given task and monitor one's performance.

Farrel identified assessments of autism. It was emphasized that scientifically-based

practice for autism includes applied behavior analysis, discrete trial teaching, pivotal response
training and learning experiences.
In terms of curriculum for children with autism, it was found necessary that it should
be developmentally suitable and chronologically appropriate. Those skills that are to be
emphasized include communication, social, play and academic skills.
Structured teaching for people with autism requires a classroom that would help the
child focus and to ensure that the teaching process and styles are suitable for the pupils. The
classroom should be organized in a way whereby visual and auditory distractions are reduced.
Work stations can also be provided for the children and daily schedules should be well
planned.
In addition, the Picture Exchange Communication System was discovered in helping
children use pictures to request things from others and for other purposes.
In terms of therapy, music and art therapy are also used for children with autism. These
seek to develop the child's ability to enjoy the company of others and his understanding of how
to interact and communicate.
The roles of parents appear to be consistently significant in many behavioral programs.
The school and parents serve as co-therapists that can work together to plan for better
educational goals for their children with autism.
Based on the Filipino Professional specialists interviewed, the following were observed
from children who have autism:
1. May display inappropriate behaviors like walking on tip toe, fleeting eye contact, parroting,
spinning or strong liking of spinning objects, unnecessary laughing/talking/ crying and have
fixations.
2. Fixations may range from doing something or talking about something repeatedly despite
giving corrections or attempts to minimize. Fixations may be flushing the toilet over and
over as they find the sound of it "satisfying" or relaxing; fixations with one cartoon character,
towers, flags, TV shows that they would say or share something about it over and over.
3. May be “idiot savant" in which they have an innate talent/ ability to learn something faster
than a regular kid.
4. Talks to him/herself
5. Attached to routines; a change in the routine will trigger tantrums
6. Has overly sensitive senses in that raindrops may sound like gun shots to them.
7. In some cases, autism comes with ADHD and/or ID
8. Has high pain tolerance; self-injurious

CHAPTER 6 ATTENTION DEFICIT/HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER (ADHD)

Perry was introduced to Miss De Vera by his father during the first day of class. The
father informed the teacher about the behaviour of his child. Not long after, Miss De Vera and
the other teachers witnessed his disruptive behaviour.
Perry seems to have a limitless energy. He often dash off without a warning. He stormed
into the classroom like a tornado. It was a struggle to get him to settle down and to pay attention.
He talks non-stop and blurts unnecessary comments that can interrupt others. It was exhausting
to deal with a student like him. It seems that no activity ever held his interest. He will go out of
the classroom without permission and is often seen wandering along the corridor during class
hours.
Sometimes he sat quietly seeming to work but he does not really pay attention to what
the teacher is saying or to what he is doing. He has poor academic record because he always
failed to comply with the requirements. The teachers were having a hard time to let him complete
even the simplest tasks.
Certainly, you have met a child similar to the behaviour of Perry at one point in your
life. These children may be eligible for an evaluation for attention deficit disorder (ADHD).

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 Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder is a developmental neuropsychiatric
disorder that affects the executive system of the brain which makes it difficult for a person to
pay attention, sit still and control impulsive behaviour. The signs and symptoms begin at an
early age. They are usually present before the age of seven. According to different researches,
the boys are three times more likely to be affected than girls by this condition.

SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF ADHD

To be considered for a diagnosis of ADHD the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of
Mental Disorder (DSM IV, 2000) has the following guidelines:
• Six or more of the signs and symptoms of inattention and hyperactivity-impulsivity listed
on the next page must be manifested.
• The onset is before 7 years old.
• The behaviour is more severe than the other kids of the same age.
• The behavior persists for 6 months.
• The behavior can be observed in two or more setting (home, school or work).
• The behavior is not the result of other stressful events in the child's life such as separation
of parents, death of a love one, illness, neglect or abuse, a change in school, a move to a new
residence and a like.

Inattention
• Can't focus with details
• Can't focus with tasks or play
• Do not pay attention when spoken to
• Don't follow instructions and fail to finish schoolwork, chores or duties
• Has difficulty in organizing tasks or activities
• Avoids or dislikes tasks that require mental effort such as homework or schoolwork
• Lose things necessary for tasks or activities like toys, assignment, pencil, book etc.
• Easily distracted with other stimuli
• Forgets easily
• Daydreams, becomes easily confused, and moves slowly
• Frequent shifts from one uncompleted activity to another

Hyperactivity
• Often fidgets and squirms in seat
• Leaves seat when he is not supposed to
• Runs or climbs constantly
• Has difficulty playing quietly
• Always on the go
• Talks excessively

Impulsivity
• Blurts out answers before questions are completed
• Interrupts others
• Impatient and cannot wait for his turn

CAUSES OF ADHD
Scientists cannot say for certain what causes this condition but many researchers
suggest that it may be hereditary in nature or due to abnormal development of the brain. Others
propose that environmental factors may be the cause of the symptoms of ADHD.

Brain Structure
The National Institute of Mental Health discussed some studies that they have come
across. According to Shaw, Eckstrand, Sharp, Blumenthal, Lerch et.al. (2007), ADHD is
characterized by a delay in cortical maturation. It is revealed through brain imaging studies that
the brain of a child with ADHD matures in a normal pattern but is delayed for about 3 years.
These findings are congruent to the research study of Shaw, Watson, Sharp, Evans and
Greenstein (2012). They found out that the delay is concentrated in the brain regions that

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involved thinking, planning and attention. The study also revealed that the cortex, the outer
layer of the brain showed a delayed maturation overall.
Another study of Gilliam, Stockman, Malek, Sharp and Greenstein et.al (2011) analyze
the developmental trajectory of corpus callosum, an important brain structure that links the two
hemispheres of the brain to communicate properly. The findings showed an abnormal growth
pattern in this part of the brain of a person with ADHD.

Genes
Genes play an important part to our development. Many researchers believe that ADHD
may be a hereditary factor. They also believe that some people do not have enough
neurotransmitter in their brain. These neurotransmitters are important chemicals to help the
brain control behavior.

Environment
Aside from genetics and brain structure, researchers are also studying other possible
factors that may contribute to this condition
• Exposure to lead or insecticides
• Alcohol and cigarette use during pregnancy
• Brain injury Low birth weight
• Premature delivery
All factors that were mentioned above can greatly affect the development of the brain
of a person. Exposure to toxins or trauma can hamper the proper development of the brain and
can make a person at risk to any development disability.

Sugar
The popular beliefs that eating too much sugar and food additive can cause ADHD were
not supported by researches. Research studies did not show a strong connection between the
ADHD and sugar. For instance, in the study of Wolraich et. al (1985) they found out that there
is no difference in the behavior of children who received food containing sugar from those who
received the sugar substitute.
The result of this study back up another research findings of Wolraich et. al (1994). In
this study children were given a large amount of sugar or aspartame. The result does not support
the hypothesis that diet high in sugar can affect the behavior and cognitive functioning of the
person.

Food Additives
There is no research study that strongly supports that food additives can cause ADHD.
But some findings suggest that some children are more sensitive to food additives such as
coloring, flavouring and preservatives. In the findings of Nigg et. al (2012), the children
manifested fewer symptoms or signs of ADHD when they were given food without additives.
Whether refined sugar and food additive can cause ADHD or not, it is still important
for pregnant mothers and parents to avoid giving food to their children that are high in sugar
and preservatives. Practice a healthy lifestyle by drinking plenty of water and eating food that
are rich in protein and fiber.

BEST PRACTICES AT SCHOOL

In 1960s, William Cruickshank established an education program for children that
manifest the characteristics of a person with ADHD. The program has two categories. The first
category is the environmental modification technique (EMT) wherein we remove irrelevant
stimuli as much as possible. The second category is the structured curriculum which emphasizes
the teacher direction.

Environmental Modification Technique

Environmental modifications are preventive, whole-class approach that may
decrease chronic behavioural problems for students who are at risks and allow children with

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minimal or no problem behaviour to access learning without interruption (Guardino et. al 2010).
This is the changing of some aspect in the learning environment to fit to the needs of the child.
• Arrange the seats in rows or in U-shape facing the teacher rather than round table.
• Assign a group space for group activities.
• Have the child sit in front of or near the teacher's desk.
• Seat the child away from the door, window and other distractions.
• Create a quiet area free of distractions for test-taking and quiet study.
• Assign a specific cubicle or have the child face a blank wall if necessary.
• Provide an individual shelf or storage space to help the child organize his things.
• Explain and outline the rules, limits and expectations. Post them on the board.
• Color-code materials for each subject.
• Be consistent with the routines inside the classroom.

Structured Curriculum
The teacher must make significant adjustments in her rules, procedures, and
expectations to accommodate the unique needs of a pupil with ADHD. If the child cannot learn
in the way the teacher teach, the teacher must teach in the way he learns.
It is perfectly normal for children with ADHD not to be engaged in a curriculum that is
not interesting or challenging. The performance and motivation of a person with ADHD are
influenced by three major factors: his degree of interest in the activity, the difficulty of the
activity, and the duration of the task. These people will have significant difficulty with tasks
that require organization, planning, inhibition, self-monitoring, and sustained effort.
Avoid heavy emphasis on work sheets, independent work, long-term assignments,
extended silent reading, and multistep tasks. But instead give active, collaborative, spirited
activities that can likely motivate and inspire the child.
The child with ADD will respond more positively to a curriculum that allows him choices
and options. He will also be more likely to participate actively in tasks when there is a degree of
creativity and novelty (Dr. Edward Hallowell, 2015).
The following are helpful tips for teachers on how to deal with pupils with ADHD:
Before the lesson
• Divide the lesson into meaningful chunks.
• Provide a road map for the pupils to follow. Introduce the day's objectives and explain the
purpose and the expected outcome of the lesson.
• Give a signal to start the lesson with visual, aural or verbal cues.
• List the activities on the board.
• Establish an eye contact with the pupils.

Instruction and Modelling

• Keep the instruction simple.
• Demonstrate the concept to the pupils.
• Give plenty of examples.
• Use vivid visual aids.
• Teach note taking, outlining, and other useful study skills.
• Incorporate the children's interests into a lesson plan.
• Stand close to an inattentive child and touch him or her on the shoulder as you are teaching.

Guided Practice
• Allow the buddy system
• Give activities that allow and encourage movement such as competitive games.
• Give activities that are stimulating and relevant to the child's life experiences.
• Break up task into workable and obtainable steps.
• Allow for occasional breaks to let the child relax and reenergize. Provide feedback to the
pupils.
• Corrector reteach if necessary before giving an independent practice.

Independent Practice
• Give written and verbal instructions.

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• Remind the pupils to stay on task.
• Reduce the number of timed test.
• Give credit for partial work.
• Give performance based test.
• Lessen the number of assignments and give specific due dates.
• Explain all steps necessary to complete the assignment and post them on the board.
• Provide a model to help students. Post the model and refer to it often.
• Require that children keep a file of their completed work.

Behaviour Contract and Positive Reinforcement

Another good and helpful strategy for classroom management is the use of a behaviour
contract and with incentives of positive work and attitudes. Through these techniques, the child
can see that there is a positive benefit for behaving properly and for finishing one's work. The
following listed on the other page may be helpful in motivating students.

Functional Behavioural Assessment

In this strategy, the child is trained to reflect what causes his inappropriate behaviour.
The child needs to determine also when the inappropriate behaviour usually occurs. Then he
will predict the possible consequences of his undesired behaviour. Teachers can also use this
kind of assessment. Same process will be followed but with a little modification. The teacher will
identify first the undesired behaviour and what causes it then she will provide an intervention
to replace the undesired behaviour.

Contingency-based Self-management
This approach allows the child to monitor his own behaviour. If the child is able to
maintain the good behaviour, he will be given a reward based on the appropriate behaviour
shown.

Self-monitoring
This is a self-management technique that is a combination of functional behavioural
assessment and contingency-based self-management technique. The student monitors his
disruptive behaviour, records it and analyses why the behaviour occurs and what are the possible
consequences of his actions. Then for the second part, he evaluates his on-task behaviour by
giving himself a rate of 1-5. The teacher will also rate his behaviour and the student will be given
privileges based on the results.

Self-control Strategy
This strategy was drawn from the early works of Glynn, Thomas and Shee on self-
monitoring (1973). This requires students to stop, think and compare their behaviour to a
criterion, record the results and receive reinforcements if their behaviour meets the criterion
(Gargiulo. 2009). Boyle and Scanlon (2010) discussed that Attention Deficit/ Hyperactivity
Disorder as a cognitive disorder intrinsic to the individual. This disorder includes the difficulty
to gain and sustain attention and regulating one's behavior.
The following are the sample characteristics of students with ADHD at Different Age
Levels:
Preschool
-Accidents due to acting independently
-non compliance
-resists routines
-aggressive in play
-excessive talk -easily upset

Elementary/Middle School
-fidgeting -out of seat
-interrupting -inconsistent productivity
-dependence on adults
-poor social skills

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Middle/Senior High
-restless -substance use
-low self-concept
-procrastination
-impulsive
-difficulty following directions
Reprinted with data from M. Fowler, Ch.A.D.D. Manual, 1992

In terms of cognitive processing, students with ADHD impulsively act on the idea,
instead of assessing it whether it is appropriate or not. Barkley (2000, cited by Boyle, 2010),
suggested that people with ADHD are uninhibited specifically in the areas of time awareness
and time management. These people act spontaneously and do not regulate tasks based upon
priority. These often result to poor comprehension in their classes. In this connection, because of
these children's inattentiveness in class, they tend to miss important information discussed in
class leading them to poor quality work in class that can suffer their academic standing. There
would also be tendencies of rushing through their activities as a way to catch up with their school
activities. Children with ADHD are also socially challenged because they are sometimes resented
by their peers if their behavior brings negative consequences to the group.
Gregg (2009) emphasized that a comprehensive evaluation is necessary to determine
the type of ADHD where the child belongs to. The evaluators should only use technically sound
instruments that measure relative contributions of cognitive, language, achievement, and
behavioral factors influencing performance. It is also important that the assessment process
tools must not be racially or culturally biased.
Furthermore, Guelin and Male (2006) cited that teachers can often help parents and
physicians by monitoring a student's behavioral and academic processes in school. They will note
down the changes in student's behavior and report those changes to parents, then to the
student's physician.
Based on the observation from Filipino Professional specialists, the following were
manifested by children who were diagnosed with ADHD
1. Difficulty to stay in one place
2. Loves to move around
3. Very short attention span
4. Some with this disorder are intelligent
5. Cannot finish task at hand
6. Cannot stay for less than 10 counts
7. Fidgety (keeps moving ones hands or feet slightly or changing positions slightly because of
being nervous, bored and excited)

The following tips were shared by the Filipino Professionals when dealing with children
with ADHD
1. Request parents for a psychologist/psychiatrist assessment
2. Collaborate with parents and specialist
3. Conference with teachers regarding management of the child
4. Regular follow up of the child
5. Provision of Reinforcements
6. Designing of a Cognitive model
7. All activities must be task-analyzed
8. Main focus of intervention must be to teach them organization
9. Capitalize on their interests

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 Art work of a child with ADHD
4 years old

INTERVIEW
ADHD
The observations shared regarding children with ADHD are: they tend to always move
and are not contented in one place. They are doing something at first and later on they would
think of new things to do. They always change their decisions. So tendencies would be, adults
would always follow them wherever they may go. In dealing with them, they are just allowed to
do tantrums. It was expressed that if they are controlled, the more that they will get mad, and
display more tantrums. But, it does not necessarily mean, that it would appear that they approve
the child's behavior. At first, their needs are being addressed, but later on, necessary advices are
given to the children. Children with ADHD have thoughts and feelings, so in a way they can
understand the advices given to them.
Generally children with ADHD are smart students but tend to be impulsive (cannot
wait to answer in class/cannot wait for their turn.
Toys are usually given to them to keep them busy. These can even make them relax As
much as possible children with ADHD should not be given sweet foods because this will add up
to their hyper activity since it will raise their adrenaline.

Name: Bernard
Age: 38
Education: High School
Child's Name: Adri and Uel
No of Children: 4
Note: Middle and Youngest

Question 1:
How would you describe your children?
Answer:
They are good children
They know how to do the household chores
Like to play often what they see on television

Question 2:
What can you say about the education of your child?
Answer:
Eman likes Math
Adrian likes to play basketball
They are both grade 3 in a regular school
They are obedient to their father

Question 3:
What advices can you give to the parents of children with special needs?
Answer:
We need to understand them
We should teach them
Accept them whole heartedly

ATTENTION DEFICIT HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER/ADHD (EDUCATOR'S PERSPECTIVES)

o Give activities that will channel the child energy to good and productive use.
Examples: Sports (swimming, running and cycling) Dance, Art (painting and wood
carving), Music (playing the violin, cello, piano or singing), Academics (Solving math
problems, and doing science experiments.) and others (mountain climbing, planting/farming
and weaving)
o Set rules and give reward if rules are followed.

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o Do not expose them to too much TV.
o Set standard for the child to achieve more or scaffold the difficulty.
o Understand the child's emotional, physical and mental needs to be able to work with the
child's pace.

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