γνῶθι σεαυτόν transliterated: gnōthi seauton

Know thyself

The Ancient Greek aphorism "know thyself" were inscribed above the entrance to the temple of Apollo
at Delphi, site of the sacred oracle. It was said to have been inscribed along with the words μηδὲν ἄγαν
(transliterated as mēden agan, meaning “nothing to excess”) in the forecourt of the Temple of Apollo at Delph.
The maxim may be interpreted in numerous ways.
Prins (2014) mentions that:
You could think of it (know thyself) in terms of limitations, of understanding your various strengths and
weaknesses; what you are capable of and what you are not. You can look at it in terms of mortality, in
knowing and accepting that as a human you are not immortal and will die. You may see it in terms of
knowing your place, in your family, work, and social networks. You may interpret “know thyself” as
Socrates did, as a process of questioning and testing one’s most fundamental beliefs.
Kagan in an Open Yale Course interprets the two maxims as:
“Know your own limitations as a fallible mortal and then exercise moderation because you are not
divine, you are mortal.”
This has been a subject of myriad of interpretation by philosophers since then. However the interpretation
is, the maxim is generally believed to invite people of self-reflection – to discern. Gregory of Nissa suggests that
“turning one’s gaze inward is the only way to bring to light one’s real essence, while looking to the outside makes
such task impossible” (Berolini, 2018). By taking the opportunity to gain knowledge to take responsibility for our
actions and how we live life.
To know thyself is first an imperative and then a requirement. It being imperative means that it is
necessary and must not be avoided. It is imperative to know the limits of the self so that one knows what one
is capable of doing and what one is not. One who does not know his limitations and strengths only has least
power to make change in his actions and his life in general. Thus, we can also say that it a requirement.
To know one’s self is a requirement for self-moderation, prudence, good judgment, and excellence of
the soul (Ortiz de Landazuri,2014). “Anything excessive is not good. Thus, it is prudent to strike the balance of
things. Too much power might lead to abuse; too many friends might decrease the quality of relationships; too
many problems might bring about depression; too much knowledge might make one think, as in the ancient
rulers, that there is nothing else to know about (Villafuerte, et.al, 2019)”, too much generosity might make one
financially stable, too much kindness might be taken advantage by other people. The list goes on. To know one
self makes one capable of understanding whether he is need of moderation so that he is able to desire what is
good and avoid those that will bring him harm. Through moderation one is able to have better control and create
sound judgment in his life.

PHILOSOPHICAL PERSPECTIVE OF THE SELF

SOCRATES
“The unexamined is life not worth living”

He is the first philosopher who ever engaged in a systematic questioning of

the self. According to him, the true task of the philosopher is to know oneself. He
affirmed that “the unexamined life is not worth living.”
According to Socrates, most people never consciously contemplate the
question: What is the way we ought to live? Instead the course of their lives is
largely determined by their cultural values and norms which they unquestionably
adhere to. One of the reasons why most them refuse to contemplate on this matter
is because one must strive after self-knowledge and such knowledge is most
difficult to obtain. It requires one to gaze inward to understand the nature of their
true self.
 An examined life is a life that is duty bound to develop self-knowledge and a self-dignified with values
and integrity. The unexamined life is no better than animal life, the worst that can happen to anyone: to live but
die inside. He distinguished the “examined life” as having the wisdom to distinguish right from wrong, only in
recognizing your ignorance can a person truly know oneself. Once we know ourselves we may learn how to care
for ourselves, but otherwise we never shall (Socrates)

This only means that when we become readily contented with the information we receive from the social
media, for example, and submit to how virtual reality defines life, develop needs and wants, classify morality,
delineate universal values, and mystify human reason, we are not better off than the dogs who become
contented with the crumbs provided by their “masters.”

THE EXAMINED LIFE: 7 QUESTIONS

But what does the statement “unexamined life is not worth living” mean for us today? In order to
facilitate our reflection, I want you to read the following questions provided by Taibbi (2018) and reflect on
your answers:

1. How is my life going?

On an average day, is it good enough that you want to live it over? If you had to pick one emotion to
describe your overall state of mind, your everyday mood, what would it be?
2. When I look over the past 6 months, year, what have I learned from my mistakes?
Successfully running your life is a process of elimination where mistakes are opportunities to learn a
lesson so you don’t make the same mistakes again.
3. What is my one conflict?
Everyone is essentially grabbling with one core issue that your life is trying to resolve, one problem
that your life is circling around. When you look back over past 5, 10, 20 years and the problems
you've faced, is there something that links them all together? If you were to see your past played out
as movie, what would the title of that movie be?
4. Does my life reflect my values?
Take some time to consider and write down what your values may be — defining what is important
in life and what it means to you to be a good human being. The next part is evaluating whether there
is a gap between your values and the way they are reflected in your everyday life.
5. Do I have integrity?
Integrity comes from the Latin, integritas, meaning unified, whole. Do you think that what you believe
and what you present to others are the same? Is there a gap between them? What do you need to
do bring them back in line?
6. Has my vision of the future changed?
Have your current priorities and goals changed since the last time you checked in? Time to upgrade
who you are and what you want?
7. What do you need to change in the next 6 months, next year, to make your life better, be who you
want to be, have the future you envision?
Begin to think in terms of concrete behavioral change — bad habits you want to give up, new ones
to develop, parts of your personality that have been pushed to the sideline of your life that you want
to reclaim or expand. It's time to come up with a plan to begin this process.

Taibbi, R. (2018), The Examined Life: 7 Questions, Psychology Today,

https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/fixing-families/201806/the-examined-life-7-questions

DID YOU KNOW THAT…

Socrates is called the gadfly of the Athenian State?
A gadfly is a person who disrupts with the status quo of a society or community by posing novel, potentially upsetting
questions, usually directed at authorities. In this case, Socrates was a gadfly to the Athenian state because he wanted to
remind the people of Athens of their real duties and obligations and to focus on something greater than respite and comfort.

What is the nature of the true self?

He believed that every man is dualistic. This means that human person is composed of two important
aspects of his personhood. Body which refers to imperfect, impermanent aspect that is vulnerable to basic
emotions and actions, whereas soul refers to the perfect and permanent aspect that controls the body and
prevents it from falling into fallacy and inadequate behavior.
One’s true self according to Socrates is not to be identified with what we own, our social status or our
body. He maintained that our true self is our soul*. According to Socrates, the state of your soul refers to the
quality of our life thus it is only appropriate and necessary that we put considerable amount of time in making
our soul as good and beautiful as possible.
* the soul in the context of Ancient philosophers, as with Socrates did not have a religious connotation but rather
the thinking and willing subject

SOMETHING TO THINK ABOUT…

What do you think is good and what is considered to be evil?

But what is good and what is evil?

A typical person would say that wealth, popularity, status or social acceptance are considered good and
poverty, death, pain and social rejection as evil. Socrates disagreed with these answers and viewed these as
extremely harmful. It is natural that we aspire for happiness and everything that we do, we do because it will
make us happy. Thus, it follows that what we think will make us happy are considered good and those will make
us suffer are considered evil. So if we have a mistaken perception of what is good, then whatever we chase as
aspire will eventually not bring us happiness even if we attain them.
There is only one supreme good that will bring us happiness according to Socrates and that is virtue. A
virtuous person is one whose character is made up of the moral qualities accepted as virtues. In Ancient Greece
commonly accepted virtues included courage, temperance, prudence, and justice. Since virtue leads to
happiness, it is necessary that one arrives of the true definition of virtue.
Knowledge = Virtue = Happiness
The individual person can have a meaningful and happy life only if he becomes virtuous and knows the
value of himself that can be achieved through incessant soul-searching. Socratic-Method or “Introspection” – is
a method of carefully examining one’s thoughts and emotions – to gain self-knowledge.
If it is only by becoming virtuous that one can attain happiness, why has so much evil been committed
throughout history?

Evil is a result of ignorance. An individual who commits an evil act is one who is ignorant of the fact that
virtue alone is the one true good. Such an individual instead falsely assumes that wealth, power, and pleasure
are the greatest goods in life, and therefore if necessary will use evil means to attain these goods. In other
words, they are ignorant of the fact that by committing such evil acts they are tarnishing their soul and thus
condemning themselves to a perpetual unhappiness. As A.E. Taylor explains:
“Evil doing always rests upon a false estimate of goods. A man does the evil deed because he falsely
expects to gain good by it, to get wealth, or power, or enjoyment, and does not reckon with the fact that
the guilt of soul contracted immeasurably outweighs the supposed gains.” (Socrates, A.E. Taylor)

Let’s take a break:

After appreciating the core of knowing oneself as explained by Socrates in his philosophy or the concept
of virtue and knowledge, could you recognize the virtues you think you currently have or lack? How will your
knowledge of your won virtues affect your relationship with other people?

PLATO
“Self is an immortal soul”

He is a follower of Socrates who also believes that self is soul. His philosophy
focuses on a process of self-knowledge and purification of the soul. Plato devoted his
life to one goal: helping people to reach a state called:
εὐδαιμονία
eudaimonia

He believes that genuine happiness can only be achieved by people who

consistently make sure that their Reason is in control of their Spirits and Appetites. He
believes that it is the responsibility of Reason to sort things out and exert control,
restoring harmonious relationship among the three elements of our selves:

The appetitive soul also termed as “physical appetite” that is in charge of

effortless craving required to stay alive like eating, drinking, sleeping, and having sex
that is only intended for married couples and must be controlled as well. The spirited soul is in charge of basic
emotions such as love, anger, and empathy. It is also termed as “Spirit or passion” that produces desires that
love victory and honor. This means that it is a part of psyche or mind that is excited when given challenges, or
fights back when agitated, or fights for justice when unjust practices are evident. In a way for example, this is
the hot-blooded part of the psyche. The rational soul also known as “reason” is forged by reason and intellect,
has to govern the affairs of the human person. Plato emphasizes that justice in the human person can only be
attained if the three parts of the soul are harmoniously with one another.
He conceptualized Psyche as core of the self that is composed of three elements mentioned above.
Nous which means the conscious awareness of the self. It is the super power that controls the affairs of the self.
One has to develop the nous and fill it with the understanding of the limits of the self, and the correct ethical
standards.
To enrich these three ideas of Plato, we take as an example - college life. College students want to hang
out with their friends, spend time on computer games, eat the favorite food, do thrilling activities that will excite
the whole gang. These satisfy the appetitive element of the psyche. However, when professors throw challenging
projects and assignments that would require tremendous amount of time and effort, the spirited psyche kicks in
to face the challenges head on. All these are going on because the mind or the nous is orchestrating these
pursuits according to the quality of the nous a person has. In other words, in order to have a good life, one has
to develop the nous, and fill it with the understanding of the limits of the self, and the correct ethical standards.

Let’s have a break:

What experiences do you have in the past that you can relate to desire of the appetitive soul? Did reason
affect your attain or avoidance of the desire?

LESSONS FROM PLATO

1. Think Harder
Plato proposed that our lives go wrong in large part because we almost never give ourselves
time to think carefully and logically enough about our plans. And so we end up with the wrong
values, careers and relationships. Plato wanted to bring order and clarity to our minds.
2. Love More Wisely
In Plato’s eyes, love is in essence a kind of education: you couldn’t really love someone if
you didn’t want to be improved by them. Love should be two people trying to grow together – and
helping each other to do so. Which means you need to get together with the person who contains
a key missing bit of your evolution: the virtues you don’t have. A good relationship has to mean we
won’t love the other person exactly as they are. It means committing to helping them become a
better version of themselves – and to endure the stormy passages this inevitably involves – while
also not resisting their attempts to improve us.

3. The Importance of beauty

Plato had asked the key question: why do we like
beautiful things? He found a fascinating reason: we recognise
in them a part of ‘the good’. There are lots of good things we
aspire to be: kind, gentle, harmonious, balanced, peaceful,
strong, dignified. These are qualities in people. But they are
also qualities in objects. We get moved and excited when we
find in objects the qualities we need but are missing in our lives.
Beautiful objects therefore have a really important function. They invite us to evolve in their
direction, to become as they are. Beauty can educate our souls. Plato sees art as therapeutic: it is
the duty of poets and painters (and nowadays, novelists, television producers and designers) to
help us live good lives.

4. Changing society
Plato spent a lot of time thinking how the government and society should ideally be. He was
the world’s first utopian thinker.
In his book, The Republic, Plato identifies a number of changes that should be made:
a. We need new heroes.
Plato was not impressed with the pre-occupation of the society with rich and
other sports celebrities during their time. For him, it matters who we look up to and admire
because they influence our ideas, values and behaviour. Bad heroes model unfavourable
character.
 Plato therefore wanted to give Athens new celebrities who are wise and good
people he called Guardians: models for everyone’s development. These people would
be distinguished by their record of public service, their modesty and simple habits, their
dislike of the limelight and their wide and deep experience. They would be the most
honoured and admired people in society.

b. We need censorship
Today censorship makes us
anxious. But Plato was worried about
the wrong sort of freedom. Then,
crazy religious notions and sweet
sounding, but dangerous, ideas
sucked up mass enthusiasm and lead
Athens to disastrous governments
and misguided wars.
Plato thought that continuous
exposure to numerous bewildering
voices was detrimental for us, so he
wanted to limit the activities of public
orators and dangerous preachers. He
would – nowadays – have been very
sceptical about the power of mass media.

c. Better Education
Plato believed passionately in education, but wanted to refocus the curriculum.
The primary thing we need to learn is not just maths or spelling, but how to be good: we
need to learn about courage, self-control, reasonableness, independence and calm.

d. Better Childhoods
Plato thought that bringing up children well was one of the most difficult (and
most needed) skills. He was acutely sympathetic to the child who is held back by the
wrong home environment.
So he proposed that many children would in fact be better off if they could take
their vision of life not from their parents but from wise guardians, paid for by the state. He
proposed that a sizeable share of the next generation would be brought up by people
more qualified than their own parents.

School Of Life(n.d), Plato, https://www.theschooloflife.com/thebookoflife/the-great-philosophers-plato/

ST. AUGUSTINE
“You have made us for yourself., O Lord, and our heart is restless until it finds rest in You.”

He believed that the development of the self is achieved through self-

presentation which leads to self-realization. Through his book, Confessions,
Augustine creates a literary character out of the self where he plays the lead role in
the story of his own life. By telling this tale he transforms himself into a metaphor of
the struggle of both body and soul to find happiness, which exists only in God’s love.
All autobiography needs an audience, and Augustine’s audience is not his readers,
but God. Augustine transforms himself into a literary character to present himself
to God. Augustine presents it to teach a very pertinent lesson: only in the presence
of the Omnipotent and the Omniscient can the self attain happiness and
completeness. The Confessions is a work of prayer and repentance as well as
praise.

Following the ancient view of Plato and infusing it with the newfound doctrine of Christianity, Augustine
agreed that man is of a bifurcated (split/branched) nature: body dwells in the world and is imperfect and
continuously yearns to be with the Divine; is bound to die on earth and the soul is capable of reaching
immortality. Augustine argues that the soul must be a reality because of its capacity to reason (freewill) He
believed that we are eternal and the body is not. The soul is immortal because God created them and intended
them to be immortal. It bears the very image of God.
 He believes that man’s goal is happiness, however, most people, during his time, focused on earthly
happiness. They believed in the power to master themselves and in their ability to control nature and plot for
their own happiness and satisfaction – with goal of being perfected. He also thought their view on social order
and justice was problematic because it held the notion that wealth shows a degree of inner virtue and fame and
popularity was deemed ideal.

Augustine distinguished between what he called two cities, the City of Men and the City of God. The
latter was an ideal, a heavenly paradise, where the good would finally dominate, where power would be properly
allied to justice and where virtue would reign. But men could never build such a city, and should never believe
themselves capable of doing so. They were condemned to dwell only in the City of Men, which was a pervasively
flawed society, where money could never accurately track virtue. In Augustine’s formulation: ‘True justice has
no existence save in that republic whose founder and ruler is Christ.’ That is, the fully fair distribution of reward
is not something we can or should expect on earth.

Human beings alone, without God, is bound to fail. Only in God can man attain true and eternal
happiness, made possible in his contemplation of the truth and divine wisdom that refers to God himself. The
goal of every human person therefore is to attain this communion and bliss with the Divine by living his life on
earth in virtue
**Note that St. Augustine’s concept is largely religious because it through his spiritual conversation from sinfulness
that he was able to formulate his understanding of the self.

ST. THOMAS AQUINAS

“Experiencing that something exists doesn’t tell us what it is.”

Adapting some ideas from Aristotle, St. Aquinas contended man is

composed of two parts: matter comes from the Greek word “hyle” which means the
common stuff that makes up everything in the universe that includes man's body
while form come from the Greek word “morphe which means the essence of a
substance or thing that makes it what it is. In the case of the human person, the body
is something that he shares even with animals; what makes a human person a
human person is his soul, his essence.

It only means that the cells in man’s bod for example are more or less akin
to the cells of any other living, organic being in the world. However, what makes a
human person a human person and not a dog, or tiger for example is his soul, his
essence. For him, we don’t encounter ourselves as isolated minds or selves, but always an agent interacting
with our environment. Therefore, the soul is what animates the body, it is what makes us humans.

LET’S TAKE A BREAK:

What is it that you can never doubt?... It is the fact that you are thinking (doubting)…
I doubt therefore, I exist

RENE DESCARTES
“Cogito, Ergo Sum”

He is the father of Modern Philosophy, a rationalist (a person who bases his

opinions and actions on reason and knowledge not beliefs). He conceived of the
human person as having a body and a mind. In his famous treatise, The Meditations
of First Philosophy, he claims that there is so much that we should doubt.

The Act of thinking about the self- of being conscious – is in itself proof that
there is a self. If man reflects thoughtfully, he will realize that there are two
dimensions of human self: The self as Thinking Entity and The self as a physical
body.

“Cogito,ergo Sum” translated as “ I think therefore I am” or “ I doubt therefore I exist.” The discovery of
the cogito revolutionizes the way we view ourselves and the world around us. Human rationality which includes
the need of reason in order to evaluate our thoughts and actions. One should only believe that since which can
pass the test of doubt; if something is so clear and lucid as not to be even doubted, then that is the only time
when one should actually buy a proposition. According to him, everything must be subjected to doubts- our
existence, our world. The only thing that one cannot doubt is the existence of the self for even if one doubts
oneself, that only proves that there is a doubting self, a thing that thinks and therefore, that cannot be doubted.
He quoted: “But what then am I? A thinking thing. It has been said. But what is a thinking thing? It is a
thing that doubts, understands, affirms, denies, wills, refuses; that imagines also, and perceives.”
The self, then, is also a combination of two distinct entities: the cogito refers to the thing that thinks,
which is the mind the extenza refers to the extension of the mind, which is the body. In Descartes view, the body
is nothing else but a machine that is attached to the mind; it is the mind that makes man a man.

The concept of Descartes will best explain through human rationality. For example, human being needs
a reason in order to evaluate his thoughts and actions.

If you would be a real seeker after truth, it is necessary that at least once in your life you doubt, as far
as possible, all things. ~Rene Descartes

JOHN LOCKE
“Tabula Rasa”

Self is comparable to an empty space (tabula rasa) where everyday

experiences contribute to the pile of knowledge that is put forth on that empty
space. Experience is an important requirement to developing a sense of self

Arguing against both the Augustinian view of man as originally sinful and
the Cartesian position, which holds that man innately knows basic logical
propositions, Locke posits an “empty” mind, a tabula rasa, which is shaped by
experience, and sensations and reflections being the two sources of all our ideas.
Self- is compared to an empty space where everyday experiences contribute to the
pile of knowledge that is put forth on that empty space

Locke assets that “consciousness can be extended backwards to any past action or thought, so far
reaches the identity of that person; it is the same self now as it was then; and it is by the same self with this
present one that now reflects on it, that that action was done” (Locke). More explicitly stated, if one can remember
some experience, Locke’s says that one in fact had that experience. Personal identity is a matter of psychological
continuity requiring memory. It means that it is not in the brain that makes up the self, but in the consciousness.

This means to say that who you are now is largely based on your experiences and self-reflection. It
also implies that who you are is based on what you did in the past, regardless whether you are proud or you
cringe when you look back, and what you learned from that experience.

No man's knowledge here can go beyond his experience. ~John Locke

DAVID HUME
“The ego is a fictional idea”

He is an empiricist who believes that one can know only what

comes from the senses and experiences and argues that the self is nothing else
but a bundle of impressions. If one tries to examine his experiences, he finds that
they can all be categorized into two:
(1) impressions refers to the basic objects of our experience or sensation; they
form the core of our thoughts; they are the products of our direct experience
with the world, yet they are temporary while
(2) ideas refers to the copies of impressions and are thus not as lively and vivid
as our impressions.

He quoted: “Self is simply a bundle or collection of different perceptions, which succeeded

each other with an inconceivable rapidity, and are in a perpetual flux and movement." In short, he believes that
the self is nothing but a bundle of impressions and since impressions are subjective, temporary, provisional,
prejudicial and even skewed – then they cannot be persisting, thus, he claims, there is not self. The ego is merely
a fictional idea.

IMMANUEL KANT
“It is beyond a doubt that all our knowledge that begins with experience.”

Kant recognizes the veracity of Hume's account that everything

starts with perception and sensation of impressions; however, he believes that the
things that men perceive around them are not just randomly infused into the
human person without an organizing principle that regulates the relationship of
these impressions.
For him, there is necessarily a mind that organizes the impressions
that men get from the external world (e.g., time and space are ideas that one
cannot find in the world but is built in our minds). Kant calls this the apparatuses
of the mind.
Along with the apparatuses of the mind goes the "self". Without the
self, one cannot organize the different impressions that one gets in relation to his
own existence.

Kant therefore suggests that it is an actively engaged intelligence in man that synthesizes all knowledge
and experience Thus, the self is not just what gives one his personality; in addition, it is also the seat of
knowledge acquisition for all human persons Our rationality makes sense the perceptions we have in our
experiences. He also believes that perception does not belong to the world, but to the self.

It only means that our rationality unifies and makes sense the perceptions we have in our experiences
and make sensible ideas about ourselves and the world. For example, we have the capacity to solve the problem
of the ability of the self to perceive the world.

SIGMUND FREUD
“Early childhood experiences that create high levels of anxiety are repressed into unconscious, where they
may influence behavior, emotions, and attitudes for years.”
The psyche is structured into three parts (i.e., tripartite), the id, ego, and superego, all developing at
different stages in our lives (also known as three layers of the self). These are systems, not parts of the brain,
or in any way physical.
ID (Pleasure Principle) is the primitive and instinctive component of
personality consists of all the inherited (i.e., biological) components of personality
present at birth, including the sex (life) instinct – Eros (which contains the libido), and
the aggressive (death) instinct - Thanatos. It is the impulsive (and unconscious) part
of our psyche which responds directly and immediately to the instincts. It remains
infantile in its function throughout a person’s life and does not change with time or
experience, as it is not in touch with the external world; it is not affected by reality,
logic or the everyday world, as it operates within the unconscious part of the mind. It
operates on the pleasure principle which is the idea that every wishful impulse should
be satisfied immediately, regardless of the consequences. When the id achieves its
demands, we experience pleasure when it is denied we experience ‘unpleasure’ or
tension.
EGO (Reality Principle) refers to the part of the id which has been modified by the direct influence of
the external world. It develops to mediate between the unrealistic id and the external real world. It is the decision-
making component of personality, it operates according to the reality principle, working out realistic ways of
satisfying the id’s demands, often compromising or postponing satisfaction to avoid negative consequences of
society. The ego considers social realities and norms, etiquette and rules in deciding how to behave. Like the
id, the ego seeks pleasure (i.e., tension reduction) and avoids pain, but unlike the id, the ego is concerned with
devising a realistic strategy to obtain pleasure. The ego has no concept of right or wrong; something is good
simply if it achieves its end of satisfying without causing harm to itself or the id. If the ego fails in its attempt to
use the reality principle, and anxiety is experienced, unconscious defense mechanisms are employed, to help
ward off unpleasant feelings (i.e., anxiety) or make good things feel better for the individual. The ego engages
in secondary process thinking, which is rational, realistic, and orientated towards problem-solving. If a plan of
action does not work, then it is thought through again until a solution is found. This is known as reality testing
and enables the person to control their impulses and demonstrate self-control, via mastery of the ego.

SUPEREGO (Moral and Idealistic Principle) refers to the incorporation of the values and morals of
society which are learned from one's parents and others. It develops around the age of 3 – 5 during the phallic
stage of psychosexual development. Its function is to control the id's impulses, especially those which society
forbids, such as sex and aggression; it also has the function of persuading the ego to turn to moralistic goals
rather than simply realistic ones and to strive for perfection. It consists of two systems: conscience - can punish
the ego through causing feelings of guilt, ego-ideal - is an imaginary picture of how one ought to be, and
represents career aspirations, how to treat other people, and how to behave as a member of society. Behavior
which falls short of the ideal self may be punished by the superego through guilt. The super-ego can also reward
through the ideal self when one behaves ‘properly’ by making him feel proud.

We are certain about the many wrong things that may be bought about by our actions, but we never
understand why there is something somewhere inside us that makes many of us do what we know is wrong.

GILBERT RYLE
“Man need not to be degraded to a machine by being denied to be a ghost in a machine. He might, after all, be
a sort of animal, namely, a higher mammal.”
This means to solve the mind-body dichotomy that has been running for
a long time in the history of thought by blatantly denying the concept of an internal, non-
physical self. For him, what truly matters is the behavior that a person manifests in his
day-to-day life. Mind is not separated from the body (contradict with Descartes’ dualism)
mind-ghost in the machine. He suggests that the "self" is not an entity one can locate
and analyze but simply the convenient name that people use to refer to all the behaviors
that people make. It simply says that mental processes are merely intelligent acts. There
is no internal, non-physical self.
Ryle said that the “thinking I” will never be found because it is just a “ghost in
the machine”. The mind is never separate from the body. The physical actions or
behaviors are dispositions of the self. The mind is a disposition of the self.
This only means that all manifestation in physical activities or behavior for example are the dispositions
of the self, the basis of the statement; “I act therefore I am” or “You are what you do”.

PAUL AND PATRICIA CHURCHLAND

“Our behavior appears to have its basic cause in neural activity”

Paul and Patricia Churchland promoted the position called

“eliminative materialism” which bring forth neuroscience into the fore of
understanding the self. It simply means that Philosophy and Psychology
has failed to provide satisfactory position in understanding the self. They
tossed aside the concept of dualism and the brain and adhered to
materialism - the belief that nothing but matter exist, if it cannot be
recognized by the senses, then it is akin to a fairytale in his identity
theory, the minds are identical to a particular brain state. Our mind and
individuality are based upon unique neurological assemblies of one type
of brain function.

According to Churchland our behavior appears to have its basic cause in neural activity. It is not remotely
impossible that the folk psychology will be replaced by neurobiology. As the Churchland’s wanted to predict,
when people wanted to ask what is going on with themselves, they might as well go for MRI scan or CT scan to
understand the present condition of the brain and how it currently works.

Let’s take the idea that why should we believe in a mind when science is proving that mental health is
connected to the physical brain? For example, depression is strongly linked to irregular amounts of brain
chemicals. Yes, some people still say things like, 'She's lost her mind.' However, neuroscience says, No, it's a
physical problem and we aim to fix it.

Adding to this, Churchland challenges the concept of the mind by using the misfortune of traumatic brain
injury. With this, for example, eliminative materialism asks 'if the mind is the seat of self, why does brain injury
alter a person's personality?' If the mind was a real separate entity, wouldn't it retain a person's sense of self
despite damage to a physical organ? Since brain damage alters a person's personality, Churchland asserts that
the concept of self originates in the physical brain, not an invented mind.

MAURICE MERLEAU-PONTY
“The world and I are within one another”

A phenomenologist who asserts that the mind-body bifurcation is a

futile endeavor and an invalid problem. Unlike Ryle who simply denies the "self," he
instead says that the mind and body are intertwined that they cannot be separated
from one another.

For him, the living body, his thoughts, emotions, and experiences are all
one. He proposes treating perception as a causal process. It means that our
perceptions are caused by the intricate experiences the self, and processed
intellectually while distinguishing truthful perceptions from illusory. Therefore, the
self is taken as a phenomenon of the world. He also believes that perception does
not belong to the world, but to the self.
Here is a summary of the philosophers and their viewpoints:
PHILOSOPHICAL STANDPOINTS
PHILOSOPHER ORIENTATION PHILOSOPHY DESCRIPTION
Classical Antiquity
Socrates Idealism Socratic  Knowledge is the personation of good while ignorance is
Philosophy that of evil.
 Self-knowledge is the ultimate virtue. As the ultimate
virtue, it will lead to ultimate happiness.
Plato Idealism Dualism and  Moral virtue is rooted in the intellect and leads to
Idealism happiness.
 Wisdom and knowledge lead to virtue which will lead to
happiness.
Aristotle Empiricist Aristotelian  Ideal is found inside phenomena and the universals
Philosophy inside the particulars.
 Ideas are essence and phenomena is matter.
 Matter and essence need each other.
Middle Ages
St. Platonism Neo-platonism  All knowledge leads to God.
Augustine  Only the pure in hear can see God.
 Love of God, faith in him, and understanding of His
Gospel will ultimately lead to happiness
Renaissance
Rene Rationalist Mind-Body  I think, therefore, I am.
Descartes Dualism  The mind and soul can exist without the body.
 Establishing the distinction of soul from the body can
make people believe in the afterlife and the soul’s
immortality.
John Locke Empiricist Theory of  It is in consciousness along that identity exists, not in the
Personal Identity body and soul.
 There is a distinction between man and person.
 The soul may change, but consciousness remains intact.
David Hume Empiricist Skeptical  All knowledge passes through the senses.
Philosophy  Separate ideas can be joined in the mind.
 There is no self, only a bundle of perceptions.
Immanuel Rationalist/ Metaphysics of  Reason is the final authority of morality.
Kant Empiricist the Self  There is inner self and outer self.
 The inner self includes rational reasoning and
psychological state.
 The outer self includes the body and physical mind,
where representation occurs.
Modern Times
Gilbert Ryle Empiricist The Concept of  I act, therefore, I am.
Mind  The mind is not the seat of the self. It is not a separate
parallel thing to our physical body.
 The mind is a category mistake, brought about by
habitual use. The only way it can affect the other is
through the external world.
Patricia Empiricist Neurophilosophy  A fully matured neuroscience will eliminate the need for
Churchland beliefs since “they are not real.”
 The physical brain gives us a sense of self.
Maurice Existentialist/ Phenomenology  Both empiricism and intellectualism are flawed in nature.
Merleau- Empiricist of Perception  We are our bodies.
Ponty  Our bodily experiences of not detach the subject/object,
mind/body, rational/irrational.
From:
Macayan, J., Pinugu, J. and Castillo, C. (2018), Understanding the Self Outcome-Based Module, C & E Publishing,
Quezon City, Philippines
PRINTED REFERENCES

Alata, E. e. (2019). Understanding the self. sampaloc manila: Rex Book Store, Inc.

Brawner, D. A. (2018). Understanding the Self. C & E Punblication Inc.

Buford, T.O. (2011) Know Thyself: An Essay in Social Personalism. Plymouth, UK: Lexington Books.
Copruz, R. E. (2019 ). Understanding the Self. C & E Punblication Inc.

E., B. (2007). Man in the Context of His Nature, The Human Person: Not Real, But Existing 2e, pg 29-130. C &
E Publication Inc.

Macayan, J., Pinugu, J. and Castillo, C. (2018), Understanding the Self Outcome-Based Module, C & E
Publishing, Quezon City, Philippines

Villafuerte S., Q. T. (2018). Understanding the Self pg 1-11. Nieme Publising House Co.ltd.

ONLINE REFERENCES:

Acedemy of Ideas (2013), The Ideas of Socrates, https://academyofideas.com/2013/04/the-ideas-of-socrates/

Bell, D (2013), Gnothi Seauton: On Being Human, https://www.snsociety.org/gnothi-seauton-on-being-human/

Bertolini, S (2018), Know thyself, https://ancientgreekcourses.com/anthropology/know-thyself/

Piccirillo, R. (2010), The Lockean Memory Theory of Personal Identity: Definition, Objection, Response,
http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/1683/the-lockean-memory-theory-of-personal-identity-definition-
objection-response

Prins, L (2014), Gnothi Seauton, Delphi, and the Center of the Self, http://lauraprins.com/gnothi-seauton-
delphi-center-self/

School Of Life(n.d), Plato, https://www.theschooloflife.com/thebookoflife/the-great-philosophers-plato/

SparkNotes, Saint Augustine (A.D. 354–430): The Confessions,

https://www.sparknotes.com/philosophy/augustine/section1/

Taibbi, R. (2018), The Examined Life: 7 Questions, Psychology Today,

https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/fixing-families/201806/the-examined-life-7-questions
Code A88: PDEV 1013: Understanding the Self
Module 2: Sociological and Anthropological Perspectives of the Self

Sociological Perspective of the Self

INTRODUCTION

“Man is by nature a social animal; an individual who is unsocial naturally and not accidentally is either beneath our notice or more than human. Society is
something that precedes the individual. Anyone who either cannot lead the common life or is so self-sufficient as not to need to, and therefore does not

partake of society, is either a beast or a god. ” ― Aristotle, Politics

We often hear the quotation: Man is a social animal, but what does it mean?

No human person can live alone. In order to survive, he must be able to satisfy certain natural basic needs. In order to effectively do this, he must
enter into a relationship with his fellowmen in order to create mutual dependence. Mutual dependence is said to begin between an embryo and the mother
and continues ‘till his last breath – from womb to tomb as they say. The need can be physical, socio-emotional, mental, or financial even, and many others.
Let’s take your dependence from your parents as an example. For now, you may be dependent in your parents in terms of food, shelter, finances or may be
in terms of emotional support. It may not seem apparent, but your parents also gain something from you like when you are able to help in the household
chores, a sense of purpose even! There is mutuality.

What is sociology?

The American Sociological Association defines sociology as:

…the study of social life, social change, and the social causes and consequences of human behavior. Sociologists investigate the structure of groups,
organizations, and societies, and how people interact within these contexts

From a sociological perspective, the self is a relatively stable set of perceptions of who we are in relation to ourselves, others, and to social systems
that shaped through interaction with other people (Crossman, 2018). When asked to introduce our selves, we would often say traits such being thrifty,
altruistic, generous, fun to be with, competitive, quiet, shy, frank and so on. These traits, although unique for a particular individual and are psychological in a
sense, can be understood in a sociological perspective. When someone says he is generous, he is actually describing himself in relation to other people.
What he means to say is that he is liberal in giving what he has to other people. The same also applies when someone says he is quiet or shy, for one
cannot say he has no basis for comparison. Thus, a person is said to be shy because, unlike other people, he may have the tendency to be hesitant in
approaching or mingling with other people.   

The Self as Product of Modern Society

Because of modernization, there is said to be the “destruction of the traditional way of life” that has “delocalized” the self (Mannheim, 1950). The self
has been “dislocated and deracinated” (David, 2004). This means to say that modernization has disrupted and disturbed the conventions on how people live
or has isolated us from our native or customary culture. What seemed to be the usual way of doing things are now being consistently modified to adapt to the
changing needs and possibilities that modernization has brought. People are now presented, not only with the traditional way of doing this within their
culture, but also to the culture of others from societies. The stability of one's self-identity is no longer anchored on pre-given tradition-bound definition of the
self - it is now freely chosen (David, 2004)

Let’s take the traditional wardrobe as an example. We would think that traditional Filipinos would wear rather conservative but ornate and embroidered
rich outfit but today, options are almost unlimited. We are influence, not only by the US, Spanish, and Japanese culture (as with colonial period) but
also by the culture of Koreans, Thais, and Chinese among others. We see a rise of concept stores and online shops that offers numerous varieties of
outfits. We are no longer duty-bound to wear conventional outfits even when we are invited to attend weddings or other celebrations!

            However, more choices often do not equate to a better or a meaningful life. Sometimes it often results to decision paralysis and even decreased
satisfaction (Schwartz, 2004). In this sense, the ability to choose who we want to be no longer liberates but debilitates. Simmel (1971) tells us that the
struggle for one’s individuality is only possible in modern society where religio-theological traditions are gradually replaced by rational and scientific
calculations; and the intimate personal affiliations are replaced by exceedingly impersonal associations brought about by urbanized way of life.

            How many “friends” do you have? You would probably think of the number of friends you have accepted or invited on Facebook or the number of
people you have in all the group chats you have in messenger… but how many friends do you really have? Modernization has allowed us to communicate
with people in numerous ways. Then, you can only meet a friend in person or maybe through phone and you can only expect to be able to deepen your
relationship by physically hanging out or by sending out a snail-mail. Today, connecting with some people you know is almost always possible at any time of
the day and anywhere you are. Although this can be beneficial for many, we cannot discount the fact that this possibility has also changed how we value our
relationships. We have formed more impersonal relationships than meaningful ones. Some have been pre-occupied in gaining more “followers” with hopes of
improving their esteem – a misconception on how we put worth or recognize the value of our selves. 

Something to think about: How you think modernization changed the way courtship is being done? Do you think it has improved or worsened?

 The delocalized self poses the following problems:

1. The newfound freedom threatens the very authenticity of the self

As we consistently create ourselves from the limitless possibilities and options, we ask ourselves the question: Is this really me? Is this what I
want?

2. Alienation

Derived from Marx, alienation refers to an “unhappy condition” and is the the process whereby the worker is made to feel foreign to the
products of his/her own labor.

Purdue University (2002) explains that

In capitalism, the worker is exploited insofar as he does not work to create a product that he then sells to a real person; instead, the
proletariat works in order to live, in order to obtain the very means of life, which he can only achieve by selling his labor to a capitalist for
a wage (as if his labor were itself a property that can be bought and sold). The worker is alienated from his/her product precisely
because s/he no longer owns that product, which now belongs to the capitalist who has purchased the proletariat's labor-power in
exchange for exclusive ownership over the proletariat's products and all profit accrued by the sale of those products.  

3. Objectification of the body

In social philosophy, objectification is the act of treating a person as an object or a thing (Arluke, 1988). As presented in the essay Life in the
Medicalized Society:

“These days, nothing strikes more fear in me than a doctor who no longer looks at patients as total human beings, but from the narrow
prism of specialization, sees only disembodied hearts, lungs, livers or kidneys”.

4. Dehumanization of the self

The birth of modern society allows infinite possibilities for self-cultivation but it also simultaneously suggests dehumanization of the self. In
Herbert Kelman's work on dehumanization, humanness has two features: 

"identity" (i.e., a perception of the person "as an individual, independent and distinguishable from others, capable of making choices")
and
"community" (i.e., a perception of the person as "part of an interconnected network of individuals who care for each other").

When a target's agency and embeddedness in a community are denied, they no longer elicit compassion or other moral responses.

 
Solution: For the individual to discover the “true” and “authentic” part of himself/herself to realize his/her potentials, there is a need to abolish repressive
social constraints. What does being authentic mean then? Brené Brown in her book: The Gifts of Imperfection states that “Authenticity is the daily practice of
letting go of who we think we are supposed to be and embracing who we actually are.” Choosing authenticity means:

cultivating the ability to be imperfect

allowing ourselves to be vulnerable, and
setting boundaries.

The concept of social constraints enters when society sets its own standards on how you should look, behave and sometimes even feel. Being authentic
means letting go of these standards to follow your passion regardless of who you disappoint and how you may be perceived by others. “When we are being
authentic, we are being vulnerable; we are showing all parts of us, the good with the bad. When we do this, we allow for more intimate and honest
relationships, and we allow for true acceptance and unconditional love.( The Center for Growth)”

Self as Necessary Fiction

Some modern philosophers do not believe that the self is a solid or metaphysical entity having a continuous identity given that
there is nothing in the self that persists or endures through time. For instance, it possible for individuals to remember something they
have not experienced or the possibility the individuals have the tendency to acquire amnesia and experience psychological
disorientation due to brain injury.

Self for Nietzsche is the sum of individual’s action, thoughts and feelings and is nothing more than a metaphor –a representation of something
abstract. Nietzsche contends that all belief systems are ‘necessary fictions.’  Necessary fictions are beliefs that cannot be proven to be true and sometimes
can be proven false, but are, nonetheless, necessary to sustain life.  They are fictions because they cannot be proven. They are necessary because without
them we would be rudderless in a world of chaos. Thus, they are convictions that satisfy the need for stability.

Tenbusch (2015)  states that necessary fictions

….are necessary because people need some sense of certainty in a world of constant change. Necessary fictions create meaning out of the chaos of
lived experiences. They are formulations about what feelings and behaviors mean at a given time.  One’s experiences can be organized into a
coherent and inclusive story, but that story cannot be proven. Hence it is illusory and temporary.

Did you know that the quote “That which does not kill us makes us stronger” is associated with Nietzsche?

Post-Modern view of the Self

The self is a narrative, a text written and rewritten. The self is a story and therefore dynamic, bound to change every now and then. Self in post

modernity is c omplicated by electronic mediated virtual interaction of cyber self in cyberspace. This means that our identity is
now created not merely by our physical interaction with other people but is complicated our interactions in the digital world.

Nicola Green states:

"Every little piece of information that you post on the internet - the messages you write, the  website you visit, the files you download, the  e-mail
addresses you contact, the books, tapes, CDs, and airplane tickets you order on the Internet, and the credit card numbers you give - all become the
raw data from which someone out there can piece together an identity, a virtual version of who you are."

This is called digital footprints. Your digital footprint is the “data that’s created through your activities and communication online. This can include more
passive activities, such as if a website collects your IP address, as well as more active digital activities, such as sharing images on social media”
(Athanasiadis, 2018)

The following are manifestations of the self in post modernity:

 1. Information technology “dislocates” the self, thus, the self is said to be “digitalized” in cyberspace

We are not able to present and express ourselves online.

 

2. Global migration produced multicultural identities

It has produced a mixture of cultures that may be a combination of country of origin and the new country where one resides. We can expect for
example a Filipino migrant who is living in Canada combine the staple food, rice, or a variety of pansit with other cuisines there.

3. Post-modern selves are “protean selves”

A protean self refers to a “mutable form of human personality that changes fluidly from situation to situation (IGI Global)”. *

*In other resources such as that of David (2004), it is also called “pluralized” self. This implies that because post-modernity, we are able to create
different versions of our selves particularly if we are dealing with various social media sites. For example, if you have a Twitter or Instagram account,
you would probably agree that what you post in those accounts are quite different in Facebook. The same concept can be likened to what Anderson
(1997) mentioned as multiphrenia.

Rewriting the Self as an Artistic Creation

One thing is needful. -- To "give style" to one’s character-- a great and rare art! It is practiced by those who survey all the strengths and weaknesses of their
nature and then fit them into an artistic plan until every one of them appears as art and reason and even weaknesses delight the eye. Here a large mass of
second nature has been added; there a piece of original nature has been removed -- both times through long practice and daily work at it. Here the ugly that
could not be removed is concealed; there it has been reinterpreted and made sublime…

-Nietzsche, Gay Science

Nietzsche contends that the unity of the self is not pre-given but accomplished through conscious effort. Individuals therefore must fashion, care for

and cultivate themselves in order to transform self through beautiful work of art.

Concealing the “ugly” does not refer to rewriting the narrative (as that would be impossible) but rather redescribing one’s self by reinterpreting the
past. For example, one might have experienced having a failing grade in his academic history. This event might be used by someone to describe himself as
a student, probably thinking that he might not be able to do well in schooling particularly in a certain program to a point that he/she would label him/herself as
inferior to his colleagues. But one might also get the idea that the failure was the event, a turning point that have led him to where is right now –say a wake-
up call to pursue something that he is passionate about. Life is about creating ourself even if it means re-interpreting our experiences. As Nietzsche would
put it: There are no facts, only interpretations.

Self Creation and Collective Identity

The self is a "body moving in space" and time (Kempen, 1998). The self is unthinkable apart from its physical body. It is through the body that the self
takes different spatial positions and expressions in social interaction. This implies that an individual's identity is largely associated with its position in space
and its corresponding historical dimension. Simply put, the identity is influenced by the community from it belongs and its collective memory. Collective
memory refers to the shared pool of memories, knowledge and information of a social group that is significantly associated with the group's identity.
(Roediger and Abel, 2015)
 What we mean to say here is that an essential aspect of self-creation is formed within “imagined communities”. Imagined communities

is a term coined by Benedict Anderson (1983)  Anderson famously defines the nation as
imagined “because the members of even the smallest nation will never know most of their fellow‐members, meet them, or even hear of them, yet in the
minds of each lives the image of their communion” (p. 6). The nation is defined as a community because “regardless of the actual inequality and exploitation
that may prevail in each, the nation is always conceived as a deep, horizontal comradeship” (p. 7). “Therefore, the concept of imagined community assumes
that nations, national identities, and nationalism are socially constructed; “imagined” in this context then does not mean false, but instead points to the socio‐
cognitive element in the construction of the nation (Jones, 2007)” It is an idea that is being recognized by a group of people paving the way for its existence.

How are Filipinos such as the OFWs and immigrants able to create Filipino communities even if they are from other countries? What makes them
a community? What is the basis of membership? What does being a Filipino mean?

MEAD'S THEORY OF THEN

SELF                                                                                                                                                                                                             
ARTICLE READING!

Victor of Aveyron: A feral child who supposedly lived in the French wilderness until he was 12
Jun 21, 2017 Domagoj  Valjak

“Feral child” is a term used to describe youngsters who grew up isolated from human communities and have never been accustomed to fundamental conventions
such as language, education and rules for socially acceptable behavior. Throughout history, cases of feral children have been documented. In many such instances, the
children were raised by wild animals, people believed. However, in recent times, the authenticity of many of these cases has been challenged.

An illustration of Victor of Aveyron

Stories of feral children appear in folklore and fiction. In 1894, Rudyard Kipling published a famous collection of stories named The Jungle Book. It follows the
adventures of Mowgli, a feral child raised by wolves who learns the languages of various wild animals and establishes personal connections with them. By the end, Mowgli
learns to abide by conventions and becomes a functioning member of civilized society. The Jungle Book popularized the motif of feral children in literature and pop culture,
and Mowgli became a beloved children’s character known for his compassion, kindness, and adaptiveness.

In reality, “feral children” rarely integrated fully into society. The lack of proper care, emotional stimulation, and education hindered their social progress and delayed
their mental development. Feral children often became the subjects of scientific studies and debates that stigmatized them and turned them into lab subjects, used to prove
scientific theories.

Such was the case of Victor of Aveyron, a French feral boy who lived in the woods of the Aveyron region in the late 1790s and was allegedly raised by wolves.
Victor had reportedly been sighted by local villagers as early as 1794, and in 1797, he was caught by local hunters and brought to a town. A young widow cared for him
there for several months, but he managed to escape and return to the woods. He voluntarily emerged from the woods in 1800.

The boy was then around 12 years old and couldn’t speak any language. The physicians who first examined him thought that he might have been deaf and mute.
After he was examined at the National Institute of the Deaf in Paris, it was determined that he was completely healthy but had never come into contact with any language.
He was comfortable being naked and had no problem with roaming around in cold weather, which led the researchers of the time to conclude that he was well accustomed
to the harsh conditions of the wilderness.

When Victor of Aveyron was found, the Enlightenment movement was in full swing; many prominent scientists of the time believed that the ability to learn and abide
by conventions is the only feature which differentiates humans from animals. Several researchers, including a famous instructor of the deaf named Roch-Ambroise
Cucurron Sicard, attempted to teach Victor French and the basics of communication to prove that the development of one’s language and social abilities depends on one’s
surroundings.
 An illustration of Victor of Aveyron published in a German newspaper. The title says “The Wilding from Aveyron.”

Although Victor showed some signs of progress, he was aggressive, hyperactive, and uninterested in learning. This eventually led researchers to the conclusion
that he would never be able to adapt to any social convention, so they mostly gave up on his future. He was left to roam the corridors of the National Institute of the Deaf
and become a kind of local attraction.

Fortunately, he was adopted by a medical student named Jean Marc Gaspard Itard, who arranged for him to move into his own home. Itard was the one who gave
him the name “Victor”; up to that point, he was known only as the “Wolf Child.” Under Itard’s close supervision, Victor managed to learn several phrases and accept some
social conventions, but never became a fully functional member of society. Still, he received proper care and led a peaceful life until 1828, when he died of pneumonia at
an estimated age of 40.

A portrait of Jean Marc Gaspard Itard.

Although Itard failed in his efforts to educate Victor, he is praised for founding an oral education program for the deaf and introducing new methods of
pedagogy that include the use of behavior modification with severely impaired children

Valjak, D (2017), Victor of Aveyron: A feral child who supposedly lived in the French wilderness until he was 1, The Vintage News,
https://www.thevintagenews.com/2017/06/21/victor-of-aveyron-a-feral-child-who-supposedly-lived-in-the-french-wilderness-until-he-was-12/ 

END OF ARTICLE

MEAD’S THEORY OF THE SELF

According to Mead, the self emerges from social interaction. This lies contradictory to the argument of biological determinism “because it holds that

the se lf is neither initially there at birth nor necessarily at the beginning of a social interaction, but is constructed, and re-constructed
in the process of social experience and activity” (Villafuerte, etal 2018). This means to say, Mead contends that the self is not inborn and that the self is
developed as one ages and accumulate more experiences.

In the perspective of Mead, Victor had not developed normally according to his age. He had not developed his “self” because of his isolation from the
world. It was also mentioned in the article because of Victor’s isolation, there was already a lack of proper care, emotional stimulation, and education that
hindered his social progress and delayed their mental development.

Three Stages of Development according to Mead

The self is learned during childhood which comes in three stages of development:
 As our self gradually develops, we internalize the expectations of more and more people. Our ability to take the role of others eventually extends to
being able to take the role of “the group as a whole.” Existence of the community, therefore, comes before individual consciousness.

Phases of Self according to Mead

For Mead, all human experience internal conversation. This conversation involves the I and me which he called the phases of self.

The “me” refer the organized set of attitudes and expectation of others which one assumes. It represents learned behaviors, attitudes and
expectations of others and society that arouse from the social interactions of the individual. It is the socialized aspect of the individual. Because of this, the
“me” is said to be the mechanism by which community exercises control over the conduct of its individual members.

The “I” is the response to the “me” or the person’s individuality. It is the active, spontaneous, creative part of the self. It is the part of you that’s acting
being spontaneous and doing things on your own. Because of this the “I” is said to be the subject while the “me” is the object. Object

Let’s try to relate it to grammar. As a basic rule: The subject is the person or thing doing something. The object is having something done to it.(IELTS)
In formulating sentences, we usually use the term “I” when we are the doer of the action and use “me” when we are the receiver. We say I like you, to mean
that “I” is the doer of the action like. We do not say me likes you. We say “You like me”, to mean that “me” is the receiver of the action like. In the context of
Mead, the “me” is the object? Object of what? Receiver of what? The receiver of norms society, thus it is the me that adheres to the expectations of other
people.

Let’s suppose that you would like to watch your favourite series in Netflix but you have other assessments due in the said week. The “me” is that
aspect of you that would tell you to read your lesson and answer the learning tasks given by your teacher. These are the expectations of society from you
given your role as a student. Your “I” is that aspect of you that will tell what you will do.

Remember:  “The action of the 'I' is revealed only in the action itself; specific prediction of the action of 'I' is not possible. The individual is determined to respond but the
specific character of the response is not fully determined. The individual's response are conditioned but not determined by the situation in which he acts.(SociologyGuide)”

Cooley's Looking Glass Self

The concept of looking-glass self states that part of how we see ourselves comes from our perception of how others see us (Cooley, 1902). Charles
Horton Cooley contends proposed that the self is developed as a result of perceptions of other people’s opinion. “People are the way they are at least partly
because of other people’s reactions to them and to what they do. They are constantly picking up feedback and incorporating it into their sense of self
(Corpuz, Estoque and Tabotabo (2019). For instance, if parents praise a child for being diligent in terms of doing his or her chores, then the child might think
that he is responsible. 

It generally involves three process:

            This implies that our view of our selves comes from the contemplation of personal qualities and impressions of how others perceive us. This means
that we are not what others think we are, it is what we believe others see us. REMEMBER:

Development of the self does not depend on accurate evaluations.

Although the self-concept begins in childhood, its development is an ongoing, lifelong process

There are certain things we have to watch out for that are related to this concept.

Labeling Bias

The labeling bias occurs when we are labeled, and others’ views and expectations of us are affected by that labeling (Fox & Stinnett, 1996).

Labeling can be beneficial or detrimental.

A typical example of labelling bias is when a teacher perceives a certain class, say Class A, as a “bunch of troublemakers”. When this
happens, the teacher’s behaviour towards the students in that certain class changes and may be made to think that any behavior (even
those that are neutral) may be misinterpreted as a result of their misdemeanour. A likely scenario can also be seen if a teacher will view
one her classes, Class B, as a “model class”. Let’s imagine a situation: A student got absent one day in both classes. The teacher might
think that the one who got absent in Class A is uninterested with schooling, not motivated and more likely wont be successful in life. The
student in Class B might make the teacher think that the child might not be feeling well or have some sort of a problem. As you can see
from this example, the teacher’s perception affected her attitude towards his or her student.

Because of labelling bias, people’s behavior or reaction towards us also change. This is called self-fulfilling prophecy. A self-fulfilling

prophecy is a belief that comes true because we are acting as if it is already true.

For example, a student might think that he will not be able to do well in an examination. Since he already has this expectation, the
student might not review since he might think that his efforts will all go to waste. When the examination results were released, he found
himself getting a failing score.

If we are repeatedly labelled and evaluated by others, then self-labeling may occur. Self-labeling happens when we adopt what others’ labels
explicitly into our self-concept. The effects of this self-labeling on our self-esteem appear to depend very much on the nature of the labels.
Labels used in relation to diagnosis of psychological disorders can be detrimental to people who then internalize them. A particular study
(Moses, 2009) found that adolescents who self-labelled according to diagnoses they had received were found to have higher levels of self-
stigma in their self-concepts along with higher levels of depression compared with those who described their challenges in non-psychological
terms.

For this part, I think it’s important to be guided by the words of Yehuda Berg:

“Words are singularly the most powerful force available to humanity. We can choose to use this force constructively with words of
encouragement, or destructively using words of despair. Words have energy and power with the ability to help, to heal, to hinder, to hurt, to
 harm, to humiliate and to humble.”

SOCIAL COMPARISON THEORY

We constantly evaluate ourselves, and others, in domains like attractiveness, intelligence, skills and success through social comparison. Social
comparison theory is the idea that individuals determine their own social and personal worth based on how they stack up against others (Psychology Today)
These comparisons can be with people who we know and interact with or even those whom we read about or watch on television or online. However, the
most meaningful comparisons we make tend to be with those we see as similar to ourselves (Festinger, 1954.) “Later research has shown that people who
regularly compare themselves to others may find motivation to improve, but may also experience feelings of deep dissatisfaction, guilt, or remorse, and
engage in destructive behaviors like lying or disordered eating (PsychologyToday)”

Here’s an article from Psychology Today to help us better understand Social Comparison:

THE BENEFITS OF COMPARISON

When individuals compare themselves to others as a way of measuring their personal development or to motivate themselves to improve and, in the
process, develop a more positive self-image, comparisons can be beneficial. It takes discipline, however, to avoid the pitfalls of negative comparison. In
large part, how we react to comparisons depends on who we compare ourselves to: When we just want to feel better about ourselves, we tend to engage
in comparisons to people worse off than we are, although this can become an unhealthy habit. When we want to improve, though, we may compare
ourselves to people roughly similar to us but higher achieving in one trait or another.

How can comparison help you?

Social comparison can be highly beneficial when people use social networks to push themselves. In a study, friendly competition was highly effective in pushing people
to exercise more, as peers pushed each other to keep up and do more. In such a "social ratchet effect," each person’s activity generates more activity among
others. Social networks in which people simply offered each other positive encouragement were far less helpful.
 
Is it better to compare yourself to those doing better or worse than you are?

People generally engage in either upward or downward comparisons. In upward comparisons, we compare ourselves with those we believe are better than us in some
way; in downward comparisons, we do the opposite. Research, unsurprisingly, finds that downward comparisons make us feel better about ourselves, but that there are
dangers to each approach—insecurity and jealousy, or overconfidence and arrogance.
 
Can envy ever be a positive emotion?

Envy is usually an unpleasant feeling that can lead to brooding, resentment, or even violence. Some psychologists, however, have suggested that people can
experience “benign” envy, in which they use envious feelings as motivation to improve themselves. Benign envy could lead someone, for example, to try to emulate the
best qualities of a person who has what they want.
 
 
  
THE DANGERS OF COMPARISON
Theodore Roosevelt called comparison “the thief of joy,” and he may have been right. Social comparison can motivate people to improve, but it can also promote
judgmental, biased, and overly competitive or superior attitudes. Most people have the social skills and impulse control to keep their standards for social comparison to
themselves, and not to act on any envy or resentment spurred by comparison-making. But their true feelings may manifest in other ways.
 
 
Why can comparisons make people feel bad?

Comparisons are likelier to make us feel bad when we make the error of only comparing ourselves to paragons of certain traits. For example, many people believe they
have a less active social life than others. But when making such comparisons, people tend to compare themselves only to the most social people they know.
Understanding this bias can help us make more realistic and motivating comparisons.
 
 
 
Is social media harmful to self-esteem?

Constantly checking social-media feeds full of images from parties, concerts, or other aspirational events can diminish self-esteem and contribute to depression. But
some studies have found that such risks primarily affect those high in the trait of neuroticism, and others suggest that social-media use can reinforce self-esteem; for
example, when people review their own images of good times with friends.
 
How can I stop comparing myself to others?

To be less vulnerable to painful comparisons, notice the people or events that prompt the behavior. Commit to being deeply grateful for what’s good in your own life. And
remember that the human propensity to want what others have is such a waste of time, unless what you see and “covet” in another is something of deep worth, such as
their generosity or kindness. 

Here’s a cartoon to end the lesson:

The ice cream and the popsicle are cool until they melt.

REFERENCES:
Books:
Ariola, M. (2018), Understanding the Self, Unlimited Books Library Services, Manila, PH

Brown, B (2010), The Gifts of Imperfection

Corpuz, R., Estoque, R. and Tabotabo, C. (2019), Understanding the Self, C & E Publishing Inc, Quezon City, PH
David, R (2004), Nation, Self and Citizenship: An Invitation to Philippine Sociology,  Anvil Publishing Ic, , Mandaluyong City, PH

Villafuerte, S et.al (2018), Understanding the Self, Nieme Publishing House Co. Ltd. Quezon City, PH
 
 

Journals
Code A88: PDEV 1013: Understanding the Self
Module 2: Sociological and Anthropological Perspectives of the Self

Anthropological Perspectives of the Self

What does it mean to be Filipino?

“In most dictionaries, the term “Filipino” is defines as belonging or relating to the Philippines, or to its people and culture. In the context of citizenship,
“Filipino” simply means membership in a nation-state. In the constitution a citizen is someone who legally resides in a country. Anthropologically, however, it
is different. To belong to a people is not necessarily implying a legal association to a country’s cherished values. To belong and relate to a culture means to
adopt, accept and treasure its entire way of life. Therefore, in order to be called Filipino, you have to belong to the Filipino people and adopt to their culture.
In this perspective, the self must  be embedded in the culture”. (Corpuz, Estoque & Tabotabo, 2019)

What is anthropology?

It is a study of all aspects of human condition. This includes human history, the present human condition and even the future possibilities.  (Kottak,
2009) It explores the interconnectedness and interdependence of human cultural experiences in all places and age. (Havilland, et.al, 2014)  

The key difference between the two social sciences is that sociology concentrates on society while anthropology focuses on culture.

            In the perspective of anthropology, the self is both a biological and a cultural entity. The traditional anthropological understanding of the self is that the
self is an animal species which underwent the process of biological evolution and has shared characteristics with other living animals, the hominids, in
particular. Since the self has better development in terms of the brain and adaptation in the environment for survival, the self develops a culture resulting in
behavioural changes.

            It is said that the self is a living animal but superior to other animals in the following factors:

Physical aspect – Humans are the only animal with a larger brain capacity making him/her a rational animal; the only animal that can stand straight
allowing him/her to have better mobility in doing things etc.
Social aspect – Humans uses language and symbol in dynamic, complicated yet systematic manner allowing him/her to communicate, and preserve
history, knowledge, culture etc; can operate with others in a systematic manner in larger cooperation and invests new things for survival

What is culture?

Cultures are those complex structures of knowledge, beliefs, arts, religion, morals, law, language, traditional practices, and all other aspects needed
by humans to function in a society. The way you dress, the way and the food you prepare, the things your value, the language you speak, the way we
celebrate Christmas, everything else around us and everything we do (and even avoid) is culture.

Material culture refers to the physical objects, resources, and spaces that people use to define their culture. These include homes, neighborhoods,
cities, schools, churches, synagogues, temples, mosques, offices, factories and plants, tools, means of production, goods and products, stores, and so forth.

Non‐material culture refers to the nonphysical ideas that people have about their culture, including beliefs, values, rules, norms, morals, language,
organizations, and institutions. For instance, the non‐material cultural concept of religion consists of a set of ideas and beliefs about God, worship, morals,
and ethics. These beliefs, then, determine how the culture responds to its religious topics, issues, and events.

Characteristics of Culture

Culture is learned. It is not biological; we do not inherit it. Much of learning culture is unconscious. We learn culture from families, peers, institutions,
and media. The process of learning culture is known as enculturation. While all humans have basic biological needs such as food, sleep, and sex, the
way we fulfill those needs varies cross-culturally.
Enculturation is the transmission of culture from one generation to the next. Unlike biological hereditary transmission, cultural transmission
is done through observation, use of language, adaption to environment, rituals, and formal and informal education.

Culture is shared. Because we share culture with other members of our group, we are able to act in socially appropriate ways as well as predict how
others will act. Despite the shared nature of culture, that doesn’t mean that culture is homogenous (the same). The multiple cultural worlds that exist in
any society are discussed in detail below.

Culture is based on symbols. A symbol is something that stands for something else. Symbols vary cross-culturally and are arbitrary. They only have
meaning when people in a culture agree on their use. Language, money and art are all symbols. Language is the most important symbolic component
of culture.

Culture is integrated. This is known as holism, or the various parts of a culture being interconnected. All aspects of a culture are related to one
another and to truly understand a culture, one must learn about all of its parts, not only a few.

Culture is dynamic. This simply means that cultures interact and change. Because most cultures are in contact with other cultures, they exchange
ideas and symbols. All cultures change, otherwise, they would have problems adapting to changing environments. And because cultures are
integrated, if one component in the system changes, it is likely that the entire system must adjust.

What is identity?

              Identity refers to “who a person is” or the qualities and traits an individual that make him or her different from others. We can distinguish a person
according to their geographical context or based on where they come from. It can be a membership in a particular group or institution (such as being a
Louisian). It can also refer to how one person sees and expresses himself

              Cultural identity refers to the identity or feeling of belongings to a certain cultural group. It is an individual’s perception about himself or herself
anchored on race, gender, nationality, religion, ethnicity and language that eventually influences his behavior. One may identify himself or herself as Filipino
because he or she embodies Filipino cultural ways and traditions to which he or she has been exposed while growing up. While being a Filipino, one may
also identify as a Catholic because it is his or her religious background. He or she may likewise identify himself or herself as Ybanag. The cultural categories
that shape one’s overall cultural identity prove that one’s cultural identity is multidimensional.
How do you identify yourself in terms of your own culture?

In Anthropology, self-awareness is that which permits one to assume responsibility for one’s own conduct, to learn how to react to others,

and to assum e a variety of roles (Haviland, 2003). Self-awareness allows us to distinguish ourselves from others. It
has been observed that the child starts to conceptualize self-awareness at age two. However, studies also show that self-awareness is conceptualize much
earlier by children sleeping with parent’s and are exposed to variety of stimuli like touch and the like. Stimulation is maximized when the child is in close
contact with the mother or carer and all the other members of the family. This develops the neural circuitry or hard wiring of the brain faster than with children
with less stimulation. This is particularly advantageous for us Filipinos because most of the time our cultural practice is to sleep with our parents until at least
school age.

Following the faster process of enculturation and self-awareness is the importance of attachment of positive values to one’s self. The child must be
able to get the culturally correct values necessary for adult life. What the child observes from what the adults are doing or thinking will more likely be adapted
and imitated by the child, however, he will later develop his own identity.

The identity is further intensified by a practice common to all cultures – the naming ritual. Naming individualizes a person. It gives a person his/her
own unique traits, experience, personality and identity. The person’s name is also a symbol of one’s status in the c ommunity that can either give the person
honor or stigma. This is fairly demonstrated among families of politicians and famous businessmen. It is important to remember however, that a person’s
name is at the same time a project in progress –an identity you wish to establish in the community. For example, you are now at the process of adding the
titles like CPA, RN, Engr, Atty, Ar, LPT, RPsy, or Honorable and many others, who knows what the future holds?

Do you know why you were given the name you currently have right now? If not, you can ask your parents about it! It might reveal some
expectations they have for you as their child.

MOI and PERSONNE

According to Mauss, every self has two faces: personne and moi.

MOI refers to a person’s sense of who he is, his body and his basic identity. Moi is a person’s basic identity, his biological givenness. It is stable and
static.
PERSONNE refers to what to what is means to live in a particular institution, family, religion, nationality and how to behave. It is culturally specific. This
refers to certain behaviors that are dependent on the circumstances and contexts.

The self (especially the personne) morphs according to different circumstances and contexts. For example, Rico, a certain Filipino who is currently living in the Philippines,
has the tendency to be disobedient to local policies. He would usually spit anywhere he likes or would even cross highways even if the pedestrian signals are still on red
(moi). Then, Rico went to Singapore to work. It was noticeable that while he was there, Rico was no longer doing the behaviors he usually did in the Philippines. He was
not spitting on the streets and he was even more compliant and obedient to traffic rules there (personne)

THE SELF AND THE BEHAVIORAL ENVIRONMENT

Behavioral environment model emphasizes the importance of perception in human geography, the significance of subjective experience and the potential of
man as an active agent in the environment. This suggests that our worldview towards the different orientations affects our values and therefore our
behaviour.

Object orientation positions the self in relation to the surroundings. The self should be able to act responsively to the cultural objects around.
T’boli, an indigenous group in South Cotabato, respects the trees, lakes, falls and animals in the forests.
 Spatial orientation provides the self with personal space in relation to other people or things.
Individualistic society where independence is of utmost importance, personal space is emphasized.

Temporal orientation endows the self with sense of time.

In Filipino philosophy, time is spherical where life events are repeated but may not necessarily be the same (this will be elaborated
further in the next module)

Normative orientation provides the self with the grasp of accepted norms in the community.
Being on time is a generally accepted norm in the society.  In communities where punctuality is considered a value, being on time is
already a charitable gesture.

 CULTURAL DEGRADATION

Cultural degradation or more horribly cultural genocide means the loss of a particular culture due to assimilation or loss of interest. Assimilation
happens when a dominant culture overshadows an inferior culture. For instance, some culture of the Tagalogs or even those coming from Urban Manila is
largely influencing the culture of the Ybanags. You might notice that many children are no longer speaking their own dialect, or performing other religious and
celebratory rituals commonly performed by the folks.

In a larger scale, culture is also lost through violent, genocide, inability to respect traditions, religions, beliefs and the cultural community’s sense of
pride, which are largely the result of globalization. For many decades, the Moros of Mindanao, for example are continuously striving for the recognition of
their cultural identity and self-realization. However, history tells us that both the Moros and the dominant culture living in Mindanao are constantly victimized
by the unending violence perpetrated by various groups, In the end many of the cultural landmarks, which are part of the identity of the people are either
prejudiced or lost forever.(Villafuerte, 2018)

Another classic example is the Bikini Atoll.

In the late 1940s the US government wanted the island for use as a nuclear test site and relocated the island’s population. The government made the
decision, the move was to a totally new environment, it occurred in a very short period of time, and the Bikinians had no choice in the immediate or
subsequent attempts to ameliorate the ensuing problems.

The result was a substantial loss of the original culture, serious demoralization among the people, and a great deal of stress with which individuals
continue to cope with varying success.

Do you think some forms of cultural degradation is seen nowadays?

Ending quotation:

A nation's culture resides in the hearts and in the soul of its people.
Mahatma Gandhi

REFERENCES:

Books:

Ariola, M. (2018), Understanding the Self, Unlimited Books Library Services, Manila, PH

Brown, B (2010), The Gifts of Imperfection

Corpuz, R., Estoque, R. and Tabotabo, C. (2019), Understanding the Self, C & E Publishing Inc, Quezon City, PH

David, R (2004), Nation, Self and Citizenship: An Invitation to Philippine Sociology,  Anvil Publishing Ic, , Mandaluyong City, PH

Villafuerte, S et.al (2018), Understanding the Self, Nieme Publishing House Co. Ltd. Quezon City, PH

Online references:

Chapter 8: The Characteristics of Culture, http://nideffer.net/classes/GCT_RPI_S14/readings/Chap8CharacteristicsofCulture.htm

CliffNotes (n.d) Material and Non‐Material Culture, https://www.cliffsnotes.com/study-guides/sociology/culture-and-societies/material-and-nonmaterial-culture

Divina Law, Naturalization, Pathway to Filipino Citizenship, https://www.divinalaw.com/naturalization-pathway-filipino-citizenship

Spector, N (2019), What is self-awareness? And how can you cultivate it? https://www.nbcnews.com/better/lifestyle/what-self-awareness-how-can-you-
cultivate-it-ncna1067721

UNESCO, Bikini Atoll Nuclear Test Site, https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/133

Code A88: PDEV 1013: Understanding the Self
Module 3: Eastern & Western Thoughts and Psychological Perspective of the Self

The Self in Western and Eastern Thoughts

Different cultures and varying environment tend to create different perceptions of the “self” and one of the most common distinctions between cultures and people is
the Eastern vs. Western dichotomy wherein Eastern represents Asia and Western represents Europe and Northern America.

Besides a general observation of cultural/artistic/principal differences showing the distinction between western and eastern concepts of ‘self’, in this lesson, we will
look at religious beliefs and political philosophies that greatly influenced the mindset of each nation or culture.

Are we all different and independent, or are all people part of one whole?

THE NATURE OF THE SELF

Ashley has been watching the news and the way everyone is at each other's throats, and though it's painful and sad to watch, she also thinks it's inevitable. After all,
people are all independent and very different from one another.

Her friend Tan isn't so sure though. He believes that everyone is connected to each other and to the world. To Tan, we are all one, so no one should be fighting.

Ashley and Tan are thinking about the nature of the self. When philosophers talk about the nature of the self, what they are really asking is:

In Western philosophy, people tend to think like Ashley people are separate and unique from each other. What one person does or experiences is completely
independent of other people and the world at large. In the western understanding of the self there is a heavy emphasis on your recognition that you are a separate entity
that even you belong to a certain group of people what is important for them is for you to realize that you have your own identity. That you have the capacity to make
choices hence what is important is for you to become a unique person.

However, in Eastern philosophy, the self is often treated as an illusion. That is, the idea that people are separate entities from each other and the world is not considered
a reality in Eastern thought.

There are many differences between individualistic and collective cultures. In general, individualistic cultures emphasize individual actions. In this culture, people are
encouraged to prioritize their own needs and their independence over the group’s needs. In collective cultures, people are encouraged to prioritize the needs and harmony
of the group over their own success. These core differences in values impact the ways these cultures communicate, celebrate, and cultivate the economy.

 
WESTERN

The concept of the psyche is a western' model of the soul. Western traditions are always preoccupied by the duality of the body and soul.

Plato started with the idea that the soul inhabited the world of ideas, while the body descended to the world of the sensible. The ideal self is there up
above the heavens while the bodily self, or the soul imprisoned in a finite material body, by which we know today is only thrown into the oblivion of
remembering what the soul used to know while still living in the world of ideas.

Even Aristotle did not solve this problem of duality. He proposed the hylemorphic theory, meaning that the human person is composed of matter or the
body and form or the soul. Matter is changeable while the form remains. This means that the body will grow and eventually die and decompose and will be
transformed into something else. The form however remains unchanged. But unlike Plato, Aristotle asserted that the body is equally important as the soul,
because the former will give the latter the knowledge it ought to have through senses.

This is very much similar to the duality of body and soul of Descartes. The body is the one gathering information through the senses, although he never
always trusted the information coming from the senses. It is the reason that processes all information and makes sense with experiences of the body. In
an attempt to solve the issue of duality, Descartes proposed that the body and the soul fused in one very important part of the brain – the pineal gland.

Still, the western concept of the self is very much anchored on the individuality of the psyche. The individual self is always in a struggle to reconcile the
connection between the ideal self or perfect soul and the limited self or sinful body. This dichotomy drives us in the understanding of the self as lifetime toil
for self-perfection. What is important in this concept of the self is the development of the self from conception to death.

This will normally be in order to correspond with some determined ideal, depending on the social and historical conditions under which a person lives. Once
an individual has reached a sufficiently high level of consciousness and self-knowledge, he or she has the capacity both for self-analysis and observation,
and for understanding the actions of others. Motivated by the wish for acceptance and authority in a peer group, an individual develops personal qualities by
self-perfecting.

In other words, from the moment of conception, the self is molded and prepared to live a good and happy life.

A daughter, for example will be provided with the best possible upbringing by the parents. She will be sent to the best school in town in view of
bestowing on her the necessary knowledge and skills to be independent and successful professional in adult years. She is expected to compete with
other professionals in her field and become the best in her line of work. She will eventually find a partner and raise children the way she was raised.
This is such an example of an ideal self that manifests the perfection of the soul.

When, on the contrary, the self did not have the opportunity to be raised, and to grow, and to die a good and happy life, the self becomes a waste as it did
not live the ideals of the soul. The lone purpose of the self, therefore is:

To live according to the ideals of the soul.

The Greeks call this aréte -the ultimate goodness, perfection, excellence. All of life’s directions, in as much as the western individualistic self is concerned,
are geared towards self-perfection.

EASTERN

Although the self in the eastern perspective also wants to attain perfection in meditation and enlightenment, there has never been an issue of dualism.
Easterners do not have the notion of the separation of the body and soul.

It is always one self.

A. The Atman - An Indian philosophy which is considered to be the seat of consciousness.

The atman may have different levels of consciousness but there is always one self. Even death is considered to be just another level of consciousness
but the atman continues to exist because it is not dependent on the body. This in fact is also the concept of the non-self in Buddhism. In this concept the self
is considered as nothing but an evolution and transformation of inner consciousness.

B. The Confucian – A philosophy from China that emphasized the relational self and the social understanding of the self.

Scholars read Confucius’ philosophy in two ways.

1. The ideal moral self is always able to forego individual interest in view of prioritizing the social interest.

In a way, the self is the ideal of a selfless person who is willing to forget about his self-interest in favor of the interest of the community. In this conception, there
is still the individual self and the self is mutually exclusive as the social self. However, the individual self is subsumed in the interest of the social self.

2. The individual self and the social self are not mutually exclusive but are metaphysically and profoundly related.

The individual character of the ideal self cannot be separated from the social character of the self. It means that the self is constructively
connected with the pursuit of the social self.

Let us take as an example many family dynamics in which, when in dire poverty one or the other sibling will be asked to stop going to school so
that the family will be able to send the rest of the children to school to continue with their education. Here, the self is willing to sacrifice and may
forget to assert self-interest in order to pursue the resolve of the whole family. The same self-sacrifice may be manifested in groups, communities
and nation.
 Features of Individualism Features of Collectivism

·         “I” identity

·                Promotes individual goals, initiative and ·                Each person is encouraged to be an

achievement. active player in society, to do what is best
for society as a whole rather than in
·                Individual rights are seen as being the themselves.
most important. Rules attempt to ensure
self-importance and individualism. ·                The rights of families, communities, and
the collective supersede those of the:
·                Independence is valued; there is much individual
less of a drive to help other citizens or
communities than' in collectivism. ·                Rules promote unity, brotherhood, and
selflessness.
·                Relying or being dependent on others is
frequently seen as shameful. ·         Working with others and cooperating is the
norm; everyone supports each other.
·                People are encouraged to do things on
their own; to rely on themselves people ·                as a community, family or nation more
strive for their own successes than as an individual

Social construction is a shared assumption or perception of the people in society. The western social construct of the self can be characterized in three
ways.

1. Individualistic self - At a very young age, the child is already taught to pursue what is best for self. Thus, later in adult life, the measure of a
successful life is when the self is able to fulfil the life-goals set for and by the self.

The individualistic self is always conceived as the autonomous bounded entity. For one to be autonomous, one must be able to show independence.

2. Self-sufficiency - This construct presumes that a successful self must be able to supply one’s needs without external assistance.

Being self-sufficient also implies confidence in one’s capacity to provide what the self needs from one’s own resources and authority. Therefore, it is
important for the self to establish one’s power and accumulate the needed knowledge and resources so that one will be able to provide one’s needs.

3. The self being rational - In the western practice, there is no time for the self to be weak and emotional. The self must not waste resources on
meditation and other metaphysical cognitions but to be constantly rational and reasonable.

The self masters the causal relationships of things. Everything must be explained by logic and reason. Phenomenon outside the logical realm are simply
discredited and rejected. This explains the western logical positivist movement. It contends that what is rational and reasonable are only those which can
be logically viable. The successful self therefore, is grounded on one’s investment on reason and logical thinking.

It also necessarily follows that. when the self adapts the rational-logical conception of things, one must be scientific. The self marvels at the safety measures
of scientific procedures. Scientific researches ascertain the cause and effect relationship of things and phenomena. Safety is derived from the mastery of the
phenomena concerning the self.

This brings about the ideals of self-efficacy in which everything can be explained by science, and everything can be provided for by science. The successful
self embraces the scientific conception of things that affect one’s growth, psycho-physical development, intellectual capacity, interaction with others and
involvement in societal institutions and infrastructures.

 Self-Efficacy is a person’s belief in their ability to succeed in a particular situation. Psychologist Albert Bandura described these beliefs as determinants of
how people think, behave, and feel.

Eastern social infrastructures are mostly seen as contrary to the western individualistic construct. The eastern social construct is primarily viewed as
collectivistic and is always grounded on nature. There were many eastern traditions that flourished in the history of thought that were firmly based on how the
self relates to others, to the Divine Being and to nature.

Confucius or Kung Fu Zi ascertained the ancient Chinese civilization by establishing social order. The society will be led by wise leaders who guaranteed
peace, prosperity and harmony. Here in the Confucian system we can immediately notice the primacy of the society over the individual person. In fact,
Confucius believed that the threat to social order is only caused by the unchecked selfish desires of individuals.

The self therefore in the Confucian system is:

 A person within the society who exhibits refinement and compassion.

Junzi - It is the new self formed in the right education under the virtuous teacher as the role model.

Central in the educational formation of junzi are humanistic learning, refined personal manners and the capacity to govern the community wisely and with
compassion. In principle, the new self of junzi the sage king brings to life the virtues of the ancestors to the new order of society. The self therefore is the
transmitter of the ancient virtues to the new world.

Li – It is a refined manner of spiritual rituals and sacrifices, and protocols in honoring the ancestors.

To carry out the transmission, one must have the correct procedures and protocol, In Chinese philosophy, religious rituals are of great importance. The word
li originally means sacrifice. Li is both the restraining and the refinement of the self. The virtuous self must be able to practice the correct customary
procedures and protocols governing all of life.

Ren – It is the character of the self that sincerely shows compassion for others.

The self must embody human-heartedness by prioritizing the self-interest of others. The sage king - jenzi - is characterized by his practice of ren in putting
others first before the self.

Although Confucius was not given the opportunity to become the leader of China, his principles of jenzi, li and ren became influential all throughout China
even unto many other modern civilizations of the world.

To conclude, we commonly hear the dichotomy between the east and the west. The eastern traditions are known for their communal and spiritual
constructs. On the other hand, the western traditions developed a construct of being individualistic, self-reliant, rational and scientific. In this
chapter we were able to distinguish between the individualistic and collective self. We clarified the many western constructs of the self vis-a-vis
the relational and spiritual construct of the east.

Here's an article that also presents the difference between major cultures of the East and West :)

Differences Between Eastern And Western Cultures, http://www.fubiz.net/en/2015/04/02/differences-between-eastern-and-western-cultures-2/

REFERENCES:

Books:

Ariola, M. (2018), Understanding the Self, Unlimited Books Library Services, Manila, PH

Corpuz, R., Estoque, R. and Tabotabo, C. (2019), Understanding the Self, C & E Publishing Inc, Quezon City, PH

Villafuerte, S et.al (2018), Understanding the Self,Nieme Publishing House Co. Ltd. Quezon City, PH

Online references:

Self – Perfection, THE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD PROBLEMS & HUMAN POTENTIAL

http://encyclopedia.uia.org/en/development/11805190

Existence & Nature of the Self in Eastern Philosophy. (2018, January 24). Retrieved from

https://study.com/academy/lesson/existence-nature-of-the-self-in-eastern-philosophy.html.

Pictures:

Plato | Real Life Heroes Wiki | Fandom

https://vignette.wikia.nocookie.net/reallifeheroes/images/6/64/Plato300px.jpg/revision/latest/topcrop/width/360/height/450?cb=20190427012956

Optimize.me Aristotle - Authors | Optimize

https://optimizehq.imgix.net/authors/headshots/aristotle.jpg

Rene Descartes - Quotes, Life & Discoveries – Biography

Code A88: PDEV 1013: Understanding the Self
Module 3: Eastern & Western Thoughts and Psychological Perspective of the Self

Psychological Perspective of the Self

We may only have one physical body but at times, it may feel like having several selves all at once. In our own little corner, this might not be bothersome. But, to be
asked in public “Who are you?” could be stressful. This question seems to force us to come up with an interesting answer that we might begin to feel unsatisfied with right
after saying it.

If a picture, still and stagnant, paints a thousand words what more a moving living, complex, dynamic, breathing human being? We may be able to figure out who
we are to a certain aspects but no answer might be enough to really articulate who we really are. Questioning who we are and engaging in self-reflection to figure out and
understand why we behave in a certain way is normal and is actually beneficial in increasing self-awareness.

Most of the time, we are too hard on ourselves because of the many expectations we have. We always want to be stable, in control and pleasing to others. As
mentioned by Weiten (2014), “possible selves are developed from past experiences, current behavior and future expectations.

Who we are, though not easily changed, might be likened to liquid, able to take many forms, depending on the factors and context affecting it.

SELF/SELF-CONCEPT

According to Carl Rogers, the self or our self-concept “is an organized, consistent of perceptions of and beliefs about oneself”. These perceptions and beliefs that
comprise our self-concepts are called self-schemas. Self-schemas are formed by numerous factors that may be aware or unaware of, some of which are: (1) past
experiences, (2) personality traits, (3) abilities, (4) physical features, (5) values, (6) goals, (7) social roles, (8) own observations and (9) feedback from others.

Real and Ideal Self-Concepts

CARL ROGERS

“Carl Rogers (1959) believed that humans have one basic motive, that is the tendency to self-actualize - i.e., to fulfill one's potential and achieve the
highest level of 'human-beingness' we can.  Like a flower that will grow to its full potential if the conditions are right, but which is constrained by its
environment, so people will flourish and reach their potential if their environment is good enough. (McLeod, 2014)”

Real self – includes all those aspects of one’s being and one’s experiences that are perceived in awareness by the individual. It is the part of
ourselves where we feel, think, look and act involving our self-image.
Ideal self – revolves around ambitions in life and is dynamic, the idealized image that we have developed over time (what we admire in others,
what our society promotes, what we think in our best interest)
 Who is your ideal and real self?

Our notion of both selves are results of our self-schemas. Our ideal self is essential in guiding and motivating us to behave in a way that would
lead us to the best version of who we want to be – a guide to the real self to continue improving.

How aligned is you ideal self from your real self?

When we feel good about ourselves, it is said that there is congruence or alignment or there is a small gap between our real and ideal self. This
gives us confidence, satisfaction, and a sense of self-actualization or fulfilment leading to a high self-esteem.

However, when we are disappointed or frustrated about ourselves, it is said that there is incongruence or misalignment or disparity or a huge
gap between our real and ideal self. This results to us being distressed, anxious, leading to a low self-esteem or self-worth and be defensive in our
actions. In cases where in the gap between the real and ideal self is immense, this may cause instability to one’s psychological well-being.

Summary: If the way that I am (real self) is aligned with the way that I want to be (ideal self), then I will feel a sense of mental well-being or
peace of mind. If the way that I am is not aligned with hot I want to be, the incongruence, or lack of alignment, will result in mental distress or anxiety.
The greater the level of incongruence between the ideal self and the real self, the greater the resulting distress.

If the level of incongruence is too much to handle, causing a person’s self-worth to be questionable, it is best to seek help through counselling or
seeking advice from people who can help.

Experiencing incongruence may happen from time to time, most especially in cases or contexts that are new or extreme. In circumstances like
these, we need to reflect, evaluate our behaviour, and be reminded of our ideal self to put us back on track. We have to learn to separate behaviors
from the totality of one’s being. We may have behaved badly but it does not mean that we are automatically a bad person. Changing our way of
thing may take a bit of getting used to since most of us may have been exposed to people who might be given us negative labels such as “bad, stupid,
weak, fat, ugly etc.” Negative labels could come from a single failure or blunder. Sadly, a single unintentional mistake is used to judge a person
holistically. We might have been victim of this or we might also be guilty of doing this to other people.

Whether we feel it or not, we have to understand and accept that we are very capable to help ourselves and attain the ideal self we intend to
become. Ideal does not always have to mean perfect. Life may be imperfect but we can work with that and use it to our advantage. We need to decide
and choose to stop comparing ourselves with other people especially to those we see on social media.

The curious paradox is that when I accept myself just as I am, then I can change.

~Carl Rogers
 A similar concept

KAREN HORNEY believed that everyone experiences basic anxiety through which we experience conflict and strive to cope and employ tension
reduction approaches.

Because people feel inferior, they develop an idealized self-image – an imaginary picture of the self as the possessor of unlimited powers and
superlative qualities. The actual self – the person one is in everyday life – is often despised because it fails to fulfil the requirement of the idealized
image. Underlying both the idealized and actual self is the real self, which is revealed only as a person begins to shed the various techniques
developed to deal with basic anxiety and to find ways of resolving conflicts.

Multiple versus Unified Selves

KENNETH GERGEN, in the view of postmodern psychology contends that man has an identity that shifts and morphs in different social situations and
in response to different stimuli. Having a flexible sense of self in different context is more socially adaptable than force oneself to stick to one concept.

Multiple selves are the capacities we carry within us from multiple relationships. These are not ‘discovered’ but ’created’ in our relationships with our
people

Unified selves, as pointed out in Traditional psychology, emphasizes that well-being comes when our personality dynamics are congruent, cohesive
and consistent.

True versus False Selves

DONALD WINNICOTT believes that a person is in his true self if he has a sense of integrity and of connected wholeness. When the person has to
comply with external rules, such as being polite or otherwise following social codes, then a false self is used.

Healthy false self is functional both for the person and for society then it is considered healthy.

Unhealthy false self fits in but through a feeling of forced compliance rather than loving adaptation.

False selves can lead towards narcissistic personality (Kohut, 1971)

To supplement the topic on True or False Selves, here is a video from SchoolofLife:

THE SCORPION AND THE OLD MAN

by: Author Unknown, Source Unknown

There was this old man who saw a scorpion floundering around in the water.

He decided to save it by stretching out his finger, but the scorpion stung him.

The man still tried to get the scorpion out of the water, but the scorpion stung him again.

A man nearby told him to stop saving the scorpion that kept stinging him.

But the man said: "It is the nature of the scorpion to sting. It is my nature to love.

Why should I give up my nature to love just because it is the nature of the scorpion to sting?"

Lesson:

Don't give up loving.

Don't give up your goodness.

Even if people around you sting.

Global versus Differentiated Needs

Self-esteem refers to a person’s overall self-evaluation or sense of self-worth

Global Self-esteem (a.k.a Trait self-esteem) is a personality variable that represents the way people generally feel about themselves. It is
relatively enduring across time and situations.
State Self-esteem (a.k.a Feelings of self-worth) refers to temporary feelings or momentary emotional reactions to positive and negative events
when we feel good or bad about ourselves during certain situations or experiences.
Domain Specific Self-esteem (a.k.a Self evaluations) is focused on how people evaluate their various abilities and attributes.

SELF-ESTEEM shall be discussed further in the topic: Physical Self

 PHYSICAL SELF finely timed machine with which we interface
with our environment and fellow beings. The
Our physical self is mostly represented by our Physical Self is the concrete dimension, the
face. It gives other people a first impression tangible aspect of a person that can be
about who we are and what we are. How we directly observed and examined.
look give initial clues about our attitudes and
the cosmetics put onto our faces may give As with William James “The self is the sum
hints about our economic status in life. It is total of all that man call his, which includes
undeniable to most of us that we give too his body, family and reputation, also his
much attention to our faces than any other clothes and his house….”
part of our body from the time we wake up to
the moment before we sleep. Our face is the Such body, family, clothes, and the like are
primary part of our body that we protect in also described by Russell W. Belk as part of
times of danger. We do not want any scars our Extended Self. But what do we mean by
inflicted on any part of our face and physical self? The concrete or tangible aspect
admittedly, many of us are willing to spend or dimension of the person which is primarily
money to make it pleasing to other people. We observed and examined through the body is
maintain a face value because we consider known as the physical self.
our face as our initial asset. Before other
people can discover our true attitude and James considered the body as the initial
capabilities, they first rely on what they can source of sensation and necessary for the
physically see. The way we take care of origin and maintenance of personality.
ourselves, especially our faces, represents the However, James considered body as
kind of personality we have. It is no wonder subservient to the mind e.g., mental
that people spend significant amounts of concentration can be so tightly focused… as
money just to make themselves beautiful, not only to banish ordinary sensations, but
even the severest pain. (James, 1890, Vol. 1,
In this module, you are going to learn about p.49). A simple example could be the
how your physical self play a role in defining numerous reports of soldiers in the battle or a
who you are. This will also help you learn boxer in the ring who suffer severe wounds
about the physical self from various sources of but were not notice of them until the intensity
information. We will talk about the physical of the fighting abates. For James, the body is
self in a way that we will see how our an expressive tool of indwelling
perception of our body affects how we think of consciousness and good physical health. It is
ourselves. an element of spiritual hygiene of supreme
significance (James, 1899. p. 103).
Now let’s begin by how taking a look at
the different conceptualizations of the Sigmund Freud's construction of self and
physical self: personality makes the physical body the core
of human experience. Freud was of the view
Through the years, the concept of physical that the ego is first and foremost a body ego.
self has gained a considerable attention in the However, in spite of Freud's recognition of the
fields of Psychology, Sociology, and centrality of body, his own writings on therapy
Anthropology, including religious and rarely discussed it.
biological or health studies. These disciplines
agree on the premise that the physical self is Erikson, on the other hand, mentioned that
an important component in the study of the experience is anchored in the ground-plan of
person's self and identity. body. According to him the role of bodily
organs is especially important in early
Sanjay Singh, the physical self refers to the developmental stages of a person's life. Later
body, a marvelous container and complex, in life, the development of physical as well as
intellectual skills help determine whether an sport, but had a strong impact on society as a
individual will achieve a sense of competency whole. The change of appreciated body color
and ability to choose demanding roles in a reversed the social-bodily distinctions
complex society. between people and classes, and nudism
became a radical expression of this
For example, healthy children derive a sense body-cultural change
of competence as their bodies become larger,
stronger, faster, and more capable of learning Well dressed, elegant, good-looking,
complex skills. However, as a stage theorist attractive! These are the words we usually
Erikson is aware of the constant interaction of associate with beauty. As Kenny and Nichols
the body, psychological processes and social describe, they are the determining factors
forces. He acknowledges the classical shaping beauty. "Attractive children, and
Freudian view of fundamental biological drives adults are treated more favorably by others in
but insists that these drives are socially the society.
modifiable.
Some people as you would agree are lucky to
Furthermore, Maurice Merleau-Ponty (1945) possess features that stick to the standardized
placed the body at the center of human ideals of beauty though nature bestows
existence, as a way of experiencing the world. less-than-perfect physical attributes upon
Such ideas make clear to us the fact that the others such as slightly misshapen noses,
body is the way through which we make protuberant chins, breasts that appear too
sense of the world and our environment. We large or too small. For the most part, people
experience life through our bodies and senses have learned to live with these inadequacies.
(sight, smell, touch, etc.), allowing us to But in some cases, there are people who are
interpret the world around us. However, the dissatisfied with their physical characteristics
body is not merely an object in the world but that they seek to alter them through surgical
we are also our bodies in that the body is the means. The process appears trouble-free, yet
vehicle for our expression in the world. The there are many unseen pitfalls.
body is the sight for the articulation of all our
identifications of gender, class, sexuality, race, THE MALE IDEAL “Adonis” body built”
ethnicity and religion. "muscular wash-board abs, powerful
legs, chiseled features.
6-pack or ripped abs shoved in the
The emergence of "body culture" face of men via famous sportsmen and
From the late 1970s to 1980s, Humanities and male fitness models, which for many is
Sociology developed a new and broader impossible to achieve without illegal
interest in the body. Sociologists, historians, steroids.”
philosophers, and anthropologists, including
scholars from sport studies and medical THE FEMALE IDEAL
studies spoke about this interest on the body "coca-cola contoured figure”
which was then called then called "body Life today sees image upon image of
culture". The sociologists, Ulrich Beck and fashionably clad women, perfect skin,
Anthony Giddens, agree in saying that the tiny waists, ample breasts, fashionably
body is the only fix-point of “self-identity”. protruding behinds (of Kardashian and
Beyonce fame) all with a weight of no
Studies also show that one of the visible and greater than 59kg.
deeper changes in relation to the modern
body concerns the dress reform and the Needless to say, this pursuit of perfection puts
appearance of the naked body. The change a huge strain on both genders but “females in
from noble pale skin to suntanned skin as a particular receive a massive amount of
"sportive" distinction was not only linked to
societal pressure to conform to conventional Body image lies at the heart of adolescence.
beauty standards.” In this concept, we think of how attractive our
body is. It is the mental representation of
People do set unrealistic images of beauty, one's own body, or somebody’s own
genetically impossible for many of us to impression of how his or her body looks which
emulate. Yet we are told that these is a very important aspect of identity.
unattainable bodies are normal, desirable, and
achievable. When we don't measure up to this This includes:
satisfaction, we develop a strong sense of How we perceive our bodies visually
dissatisfaction How we feel about our physical appearance
How we think and talk to ourselves about our
Now, let’s talk about "body image" and bodies
"identity". Popular interest in body image Our sense of how other people view our
issues has grown dramatically in recent years, bodies
due to an emphasis on individual limitless
capacities of modern medicine. Body image is determined by 4
factors:
Society shapes us in many ways, possibly 1. How you SEE your body is your
more than we realize from our interactions to perceptual body image. This is not always a
our personal development through to others correct representation of how you actually
perception of our bodies as a reflection of look. For example, a person may perceive
self-worth. We are social beings. Genetically, themselves as overweight when they are
we rely on one another for the survival of actually underweight.
humanity. That primal connection makes our
interactions physiologically and 2. The way you FEEL about your body is
psychologically important. So it is not your affective body image. This relates to the
surprising that how society perceives our amount of satisfaction or dissatisfaction you
bodies. feel about your shape, weight, and individual
body parts.
Body image is both internal (personal) and
external (society) 3. The way you THINK about your body is
your cognitive body image. This can lead to
The inner beauty which refers to the inner preoccupation with body shape and weight.
qualities of the person and the external
beauty which refers to the physical 4. BEHAVIORS in which you engage as a
characteristics of the person. External beauty result of your body image encompass your
focuses on the physical features of the body behavioral body image. When a person is
commonly defined as "a combination of dissatisfied with the way he/she looks, they
qualities, which includes shape, color, or form may isolate themselves because they feel bad
that pleases the aesthetic senses, especially about their appearance.
the sight."
How we look at our bodies has possibly never
Body image is the perception that a person held as much societal importance or reflected
has of their physical self and the thoughts and so significantly on our perceived self-worth.
feelings that result from that perception. Each one, male or female, strives to acquire
These feelings can be positive, negative or the body of his/her dream. We are in a culture
both, and are influenced by individual and in which beauty is judged by numbers. As
environmental factors. (Psych alive by Collin commonly observed, attraction to another
Mc Shirley) person’s body increases if that body is
symmetrical and in proportionate, we are
more likely to notice it and find it beautiful. We
even perceive proportional bodies to be comes with many rewards, also in fields that
healthier. at first glance have nothing to do with physical
appearance.
The promise of an “aesthetic capital”
The presence of aesthetically based cultural Beauty comes with benefits. There are the
goods and their ever- increasing influence in obvious perks, such as sexual attractiveness
modern society poses a new conceptual and a desire on the part of others to seek out
opportunity to Sociology. A new term the company of good-looking people.
“aesthetic capital”, is introduced. Such a
concept covers the privileges and wealth
people receive from aesthetic traits, such as The Role of Culture in our Understanding
their face, hair, body, clothes, grooming habits of "Body Image" and "Self-esteem"
and other markers of beauty.
CULTURE
For Samantha Lovascio, visually appealing It is commonly defined as the shared patterns
traits greatly impact our lives, in matters of of thoughts, beliefs, behaviors, and habits in
modest importance (friend selection) to great both material and symbolic realms.
importance (friend selection) (e.g. getting a
job career mobility). Thus, the promise of an "Culture includes language, technology,
aesthetic capital concept lies in enabling economic, political and educational systems,
Sociology to better understand inequality and religious and aesthetic patterns, social
the socially based forms of wealth available to structures and so on. It is widely recognized
modern society. It seems such attraction to by social scientists that the self is shaped, in
“body image” and “aesthetic capital” is part, through interaction with groups."(Harry
increasingly becoming today's preoccupation, Triandis).
especially of young people as it gradually
becomes the basis upon which one's identity Through culture, society shapes us in many
and self-esteem are built. ways. As mentioned earlier, body image is
both internal (personal) and external (society).
These include how we perceive our bodies
ADDITIONAL READ: visually, how we feel about our physical
AESTHETIC CAPITAL appearance, how we think and talk to
Authored by: Sylvia Holla , Giselinde Kuipers ourselves about our bodies, and our sense of
ROUTLEDGE INTERNATIONAL HANDBOOK how other people view our bodies.
OF THE SOCIOLOGY OF ART AND
CULTURE
We are all body-builders
People are also inclined to associate ‘good “Drawing on contemporary culture, our bodies
looks’ with other positive qualities, from moral are not only biological but also cultural in that
goodness to economic success. we say, we all shape and manipulate our
bodies. We are all body-builders as we build
Social psychologists call this the ‘halo effect’: and style our bodies on a daily basis. We
the assumption that persons with visible decide how to dress and style our bodies, we
desirable traits also have other, maybe less decide how much hair we want on our bodies,
visible, positive qualities (Nisbett and Wilson and we shave, wax, etc. We manipulate our
1977; Kaplan 1978). In present-day societies, bodies' weight through diet and exercise and
research has shown that people who are we even modify our bodies to extreme levels
deemed more attractive tend to have higher and introduce mechanical agents into our
wages, more durable relationships, higher bodies merging flesh and technology. The
grades and better assessments (Andreoni and body is enthralled to cultural regimes, telling
Petrie 2008). Thus, physical attractiveness us how we should look - especially how we
should dress and what our bodies weight (fat - The practice has no health benefits for
levels) should be". girls and women.
- FGM can cause severe bleeding and
What happens when your body doesn’t look problems urinating, and later cysts,
like how it's supposed to look like, or feel how infections, as well as complications in
it's supposed to feel, or do what it’s supposed childbirth and increased risk of
to do? newborn deaths.
Who or what defines the ideals behind these - More than 200 million girls and women
expectations? alive today have been cut in 30
How can we challenge them and live more countries in Africa, the Middle East
peacefully in our bodies? and Asia where FGM is concentrated.
- FGM is mostly carried out on young
De Mello (2014). In the ‘Encyclopedia of Body girls between infancy and age 15.
Adornment', De Mello explores these - FGM is a violation of the human rights
questions as she says: of girls and women.
- WHO is opposed to all forms of FGM,
All cultures everywhere have attempted to and is opposed to health care
change their body in an attempt to meet their providers performing FGM
cultural standards of beauty, as well as their (medicalization of FGM).
religious. In addition, people modify and - Treatment of health complications of
adorn their bodies as part of the complex or FGM in 27 high prevalence countries
process of creating and recreating their costs 1.4 billion USD per year.
personal and social identities.
POP CULTURE
Body adornment refers to the practice of Audrey Tramel (2013) mentions that the
physically enhancing the body by styling and predominance of "pop culture” in today’s
decorating the hair, painting and embellishing society definitely has some effects such as the
the fingernails, wearing makeup, painting the way teenagers think of themselves, how they
body, wearing jewelry, and the use of clothing associate with others, and how they express
Body adornments are by definition temporary. characteristics of their maturation.

Body modification, on the other hand, refers Pop culture or popular culture from a
to the physical alteration of the body through common understanding is a culture widely
the use of surgery, tattooing piercing, accepted and patronized by the public as in
scarification, branding, genital mutilation, pop music which is very appealing to the
implants, and other practices. Body youth. Pop culture influences how teens
modifications can be permanent or temporary, define themselves as in the case of a recent
although most are permanent and- alter the famous K-pop group, named "Momoland"
body forever" (Margo de Mello, 2014). which gained the admiration of millions of
Filipino teenagers.
A particular practice related to body
modification is Female Genital Mutilization Its influence on them goes to the point of
(FGM). Here are some key facts regarding imitating the way they dress and style their
FGM provided by the World Health bodies, the way they talk and express
Organization (2020). themselves. It influences the way they define
themselves. Indeed, an important
- Female genital mutilation (FGM) characteristic of every teenagers’ maturation
involves the partial or total removal of is his/her self-definition.
external female genitalia or other injury
to the female genital organs for Self-definition refers to the way a person
non-medical reasons. sees himself. For teens, that image is
influenced to a large extent by personal
choices, which are, in turn, influenced by the It seems contemporary culture is obsessed
images and associations teens glean from with the body. At any moment, we are likely to
pop culture on a daily basis. be told, from a variety of media, how the body
should act and should look; also telling us how
Recent researchers agree that pop culture we should dress, what our weight should be,
has some impact on teenagers’ self- how we should spend our leisure and even
definition. Pop culture can provide how our bodies should age. Through media,
benchmarks which become the teenagers’ campaign on the use of certain beauty
basis of their self-definition. In this way, they products, has the goal of improving the look of
see themselves adopting certain the spokes model in order to improve his/her
characteristics from the various celebrities and appearance to perfection using those
other models they see in pop culture. Lastly, cosmetics. As a result, most women are
self-definition can be intrinsically tied into dissatisfied with their appearance which,
self-esteem and confidence, two critical Annie Lennox says, is the "stuff that fuels the
components of a healthy disposition fashion and beauty industries". This results in
throughout maturation and into adulthood. women feeling insecure about their own
appearance and then conforming to the
Pop culture icons tend to extend their visibility media's perception of beauty by buying beauty
beyond culture and into brands, which they products such as make-up, creams, and hair
sell via advertisements or products carrying dyes. "Beauty has become a currency system
their name. and it assigns hierarchical value to women,
encouraging escalating consumerism.
Teenagers who see, for instance, Liza
Soberano or James Reid using beauty
products like Vicky Belo's kojic soap, may
then be influenced to patronize that label. MEDIA AND SELF-ESTEEM
Beyond fostering a certain degree of Genesis M. Javellana (2014) mentions that
commercialism, these brands have the media plays a large role in how teenagers
associations in and of themselves that tie into view themselves by shaping images or what
self- definition or social groups within a teenagers are supposed to be or do.
teenager’s life. Often, celebrity brands tie into Research findings revealed that:
an acceptance level among teenagers, such
that some teenagers feel they must own a Internet - is the most frequently used media
particular brand in order to be accepted. with the respondents using it often.
These sentiments can distract teenagers from
key aspects of their development. Magazines - have the strongest negative
relationship with the weight of the
So then, in our hyper-mediated society, we respondents, and, proposed that measures
are constantly beset with media images such as media awareness seminars and
especially advertisements representing screening and balancing or commercials and
appropriate bodies or skin, so that we advertisements on television and magazines
internalize these and either attempt to are needed to balance the effects of media on
conform to them or resist them. The media adolescents.
creates ideals, in the form of celebrities and
models, for men and women to admire. These Findings from further studies, showed
give us pressure to conform to expectations. that teenagers:
Images in the media often make us worry ● Imagine themselves being the
about our own appearance, defining what actor/actress in a movie they have
body is attractive and which one is not, seeing watched.
being fat as unattractive, etc.
 ● They copy an actor's/actress' clothes, Boys body image is generally more positive
hairstyle, and/or lines in the movie than girls, and boys are much more likely to
because it would make them look cool welcome weight gain. Simmons and Blyth's
or feel good. "Cultural ldeal Hypothesis" indicate that
● They like a movie because the actor/s puberty brings boys closer to their ideal body
and or actress/ es clothes, in that while girls shift further from theirs. A Cultural
movie look exceptionally good. ideal is that male bodies be big and strong
● They immediately try any new product while ideal female bodies in Western (and
that they saw in a commercial. Asian) culture is slim.
● They use the product endorsed by
their favorite actor/actress. The Cultural Ideal Hypothesis predicts that,
● They feel upset after seeing since the cultural ideal for the female body is
handsome/beautiful personalities on or being slim, adolescent girls should more likely
internet. to express body dissatisfaction and resort to
● They spend more than nine hours in a dieting.
week online, searching tips, advice
and/or procedures from the internet Caufmann and Steinberg say that girls in
that would improve their outward western cultures are more concerned about
appearance. appearance and express more worry and
● They edit their solo pictures to make concern about how other people respond to
them look better before posting them them than in other cultures. If body shape is
online. far from dominant cultural ideal of slimness,
● They feel handsome/beautiful when teens are more likely to develop low
their solo picture gets a lot of likes. self-esteem and negative body image.
● Similarly, teenagers follow a lot of
beauty, fashion and/or fitness advice Strikingly, today, girls exposed to images of
that they read from magazines. Barbie dolls reported lower body esteem and
● They also feel unhappy about their a greater desire for a thinner body shape.
weight after seeing a model from a Clearly, the body-image expectations of
magazine. pre-teens can be distorted with their ‘If Barbie
and Ken Were Real’ thinking. Barbie's neck
In the concepts of physical changes in the would be too long and thin to support the
body and identity of the adolescent, Davies& weight of her head, and her upper body
Furnham, found out that the average teenager proportions would make it difficult for her to
is sensitive to, and critical of, his/her physical walk upright. In Ken's case, his huge barrel
self. Constant exposure to cultural standards chest and enormously thick neck would nearly
of beauty in evaluating own body image (via preclude him from wearing a shirt. Ken would
media and social networks) may produce be 7 feet 2 inches tall while Barbie would be 5
non-normative shit in the form of dieting feet 2 inches. (Brownell and Napolitano,
practices which may lead to eating disorders 1995).
as a result of body image dissatisfaction, the
feeling of discrepancy between actual and Certainly, the exposure to the thin-ideal media
ideal body image. image on women posed a great impact on
their self-esteem. It increased body
Researchers have found body image dissatisfaction, negative mood states, and
dissatisfaction to be a strong predictor of eating disorder symptoms and decreased
depression, exercise dependence, eating self-esteem. "Exposure to thin-ideal media
disorders and steroid use among young images may contribute to the development of
people in the US (Stice and Withenton, 2002). eating disorders by causing body
dissatisfaction, negative moods, low
self-esteem, and eating disorders symptoms
among women" (Hawkins, et. al., 2010). Miller Classrooms, university dorms, and common
also speaks of the disturbing problem of very rooms are often filled with negative body talk:
young girls dieting and having negative "I wish I had her stomach" "I hate my thighs,"
thoughts about their body. "I feel fat." Listening to this tends to reinforce
the need to focus on appearance and make
Society gives us a number of reference points comparisons between us and other people's
that shape our perceptions whether positive or bodies.
negative. When it comes to our bodies there
are a number of sources that affect us more But the impact of media and society in
than the others. general, are not all bad.

The Media As with most things, with the bad comes the
The images of perfection we see in print, film, potential for good. If not for this awakening,
and television projects an unrealistic version we would not have initiatives like Live Life,
of reality that we are continually told is Get Active; where awakening ourselves to a
attainable - if we work out, eat less, and lather healthy and fulfilled life is at the core of what
our bodies in transformative, firming and we do.
tightening creams.
Live Life Get Active is a social initiative built to
The media are powerful tools that reinforces create a fitter, healthier, and happier lifestyle.
cultural beliefs and values, and while they We approach health and well-being from a fun
may not be fully responsible for determining and socially engaging perspective and the
the standards tor physical attractiveness, they importance we put on a healthy lifestyle.
make escaping the barrage of images and People nowadays exposed themselves to
attitudes almost impossible. biking, yoga, Zumba, sports and other
wellness activities.
Prejudice – Size
Intolerance of body diversity has a lot to do Self-esteem, sometimes referred to as
with prejudice of size and shape in our culture. self-worth or self-respect, is an important part
Being thin, toned, and muscular has become of success.
associated with the hard-working, successful,
popular, beautiful, strong, and the disciplined.
Being fat is associated with lazy, ugly, weak,
and lacking in will-power.

With this prejudice, fat is not a description like

tall or redhead - it's an indication of moral Too little self-esteem can leave people feeling
character and we are conditioned to think that defeated or depressed. It can also lead people
fat is bad. to make bad choices, fall into destructive
relationships, or fail to live up to their full
Those closest to us - family and potential.
friends
We learn from other people, particularly those Too much self-esteem, however, as exhibited
closest to us about the things that are in narcissistic personality disorder, can
considered important. Friendships are certainly be irritating to others and can even
particularly important in body image damage personal relationships". (Kendra
development because we place high value in Cherry)
them, spends lots of time with our friends and
develop shared experiences, values, and The Concept of Self-esteem
beliefs. Self-esteem levels at the extreme high and
low ends of the spectrum can be harmful, so
ideally, it's best to strike a balance somewhere hand, results in an irritating sense of
in the middle. A realistic yet positive view of entitlement and an inability to learn from
yourself is generally considered the ideal. But failures. It can also be a sign of clinical
what exactly is self-esteem? Where does it narcissism which is a personality disorder.”
come from and what influence does it really
have on our lives? So how can we build a strong,
positive body image?
In Psychology, the term self-esteem is used to
describe a person's overall sense of self-worth Positive body image involves understanding
or personal value. In other words, it is how that healthy attractive bodies come in many
much you appreciate and like yourself. shapes and sizes, and that physical
Self-esteem is often seen as a personality trait appearance says very little about our
which tends to be stable and enduring. character or value as a person. How we get to
Self-esteem can involve a variety of beliefs this point of acceptance often depends on our
about yourself, such as the appraisal of your individual development and self-acceptance.
own appearance, beliefs, emotions, and To get too that all important point of balance,
behaviors. there are a few steps we can take:

Why is Self-esteem important? a. Talk back to the media and speak our
Self-esteem can play a significant role in one’s dissatisfaction with the focus on appearance;
motivation and success throughout life. Low b. De-emphasize numbers as pounds,
self-esteem may hold you back from kilograms or inches, feet and meters on the
succeeding at school or work because you scale; they don't tell us anything meaningful
don't believe yourself to be capable of about the body as a whole or our health;
success. By contrast, having a healthy c. Stop comparing ourselves with others and
self-esteem can help you achieve because remember that each one is unique;
you navigate life with a positive, assertive d. We need to appreciate and enjoy our
attitude and believe you can accomplish your bodies in the uniqueness of what we have;
goals. e. Spend time with people who have a
healthy relationship with food, activity, and
Maslow suggested that people need both their bodies;
esteem from other people as well as inner f. Question the degree to which self-esteem
self-respect. Both of these needs must be depends on our appearance because basing
fulfilled in order for an individual to grow as a our happiness on how we look is likely to lead
person and achieve self-actualization. us to failure and frustration, and may therefore
Self-esteem is one of the basic human prevent us from finding true happiness;
motivations. g. Broaden our perspective about health and
beauty by reading about body image cultural
Those who consistently receive overly critical variances, or media influence and check out a
or negative assessments from caregivers, local art gallery paying particular attention to
family members, and friends, for example, will fine art collections that show a variety of body
likely experience problems with low types throughout the ages and in different
self-esteem. Additionally, your inner thinking, cultures;
age, any potential illnesses, disabilities, or h. Recognize that size prejudice is a form of
physical limitations, and your job can affect discrimination, as shape and size are not
your self-esteem. indicators of character, morality, intelligence,
or success;
“Possessing little self-regard can lead people i. Approach health and well-being from a
to become depressed, to fall short of their firm and socially engaging perspective; and
potential, or to tolerate abusive situations and put importance on a healthy lifestyle and;
relationships. Too much self-love, on the other
j. Keep in mind that the body, in whatever sociological representations of self, and
shape or size, is good and sacred, having orients a person’s attraction to others. Further,
been created in the image and likeness of it shapes the brain and body to be
god. Such body deserves love and respect. pleasure-seeking. Yet, as important as
sexuality is to being human, it is often viewed
We will have a positive body image when we as a sensitive topic for personal or scientific
have a realistic perception of our bodies, inquiry.
when we enjoy, accept and celebrate who or
what and how we are, and let go of negative This module presents an opportunity
societal or media perpetuated conditioning. for you to think openly and objectively about
sex. Without shame or sensitivity, using
Clothing and Self-Image science as a lens, we examine fundamental
By: Jill L Ferguson aspects of human sexuality— including
Your style and the clothes you choose reflect gender, sexual orientation, fantasies,
and affect your mood, health, and overall behaviors, paraphilia, and sexual consent.
confidence. Scientists call this phenomenon
"enclothed cognition.” Adam Hajo and Adam Sexuality is commonly defined as “the
D. Galinsky, both professors at the Kellogg ways people experience and express
School of Management at Northwestern themselves as sexual beings” (King, 2014, p.
University wrote in the Journal of 373).
Experimental Social Psychology that
enclothed cognition "involves the co- The World Health Organization (WHO)
occurrence of two independent factors the provides a working definition of the term
symbolic meaning of the clothes and the “sexuality” that encompasses or specifies
physical experience of wearing them.” much more.

It was further asserted that when we put on a Sexuality is a central aspect of being
piece of clothing we cannot help but adopt human throughout life encompasses sex,
some of the characteristics associated with it gender identities and roles, sexual orientation,
unconsciously. The Business Insider says that eroticism, pleasure, intimacy and
clothes don't just affect your confidence level, reproduction. Sexuality is experienced and
they can affect your success, as clothing expressed in thoughts, fantasies, desires,
significantly influences how others perceive beliefs, attitudes, values, behaviors, practices,
you and how they respond to you. roles and relationships. While sexuality can
include all of these dimensions, not all of them
Understanding the psychological dynamics of are always experienced or expressed (WHO,
why the right-for-us clothing can contribute to 2006a as cited in “Defining Sexual Health”,
our confidence, raise our self-esteem, and 2018, para. 6).
help propel us in the workplace has become
big business. So the next time you reach for Sex influences the way we dress, talk
those yoga pants or for that fiery red dress, and behave. In many ways, sex defines who
ask yourself how will that clothing item make we are. It is so important that the eminent
you feel and what is it saying to the world neuropsychologist Karl Pribram (1958)
around you today? described sex as one of four basic human
drive states. Drive states motivate us to
accomplish goals. They are linked to our
SEXUALITY survival. According to Pribram, feeding,
Sexuality is one of the fundamental drives fighting, fleeing, and sex are the four drives
behind everyone’s feelings, thoughts, and behind every thought, feeling, and behavior.
behaviors. It defines the means of biological Since these drives are so closely associated
reproduction, describes psychological and with our psychological and physical health,
you might assume people would study,
understand, and discuss them openly. Your
assumption would be generally correct for
three of the four drives (Malacane &
Beckmeyer, 2016).

Ignorance about sex and sexuality is In order to deal with the confusion, we need to
deadly and may cause serious problems. Sex know the facts of growing up, distinguish
education may not yet have been between myths and realities and come to
implemented in the country in a full blast but it terms with change. This module deals with
doesn’t mean that learning cannot take place. these issues.
If more Filipinos would continue to learn,
whether formally or informally, about proper “It’s natural for everyone to become
sex education, than it may be indirectly more sexually aware, but it doesn’t mean you
passed on to young children through teaching are ready to have sex” (Cole, 2009, p. 11).
proper hygiene or through being discerning of
a child’s actions, reactions, questions, or Puberty could have been less stressful
comments about sex. Sex education is not to if only we were properly oriented of what to
promote sexual intercourse but to promote expect physically and emotionally. Just by
good sexual health and safety from sexual reading few books on sexuality, we would be
violence. “Withholding information about sex comforted to know how normal the things and
and sexuality will not keep children safe; it will feelings we thought were abnormal. Though
only keep them ignorant” (Hauser, 2013, para. puberty is normal, it is not a one size fits all
2). experience. It could manifest in varying rates
and specific ages. Every individual “develops
and reacts in different ways” due to factors like
stress, weight, nutrition, hormonal activity, and
inherent characteristics” (Cole, 2009, p. 4).

People have been scientifically

investigating sex for only about 125 years.
The first scientific investigations of sex
employed the case study method of research.
Using this method, the English physician
As one grows up, one experiences many
Henry Havelock Ellis (1859-1939) examined
changes. There are changes in the body; in
diverse topics within sexuality. From 1897 to
the way one behaves and the way others
1923, his findings were published in a
expect one to be. There are also changes in
seven-volume set of books titled Studies in
interests and preoccupations. All of this is
the Psychology of Sex. Among his most
normal. It is part of growing up, but growing up
noteworthy findings is that transgender people
is not easy. This is a time when one has many
are distinct from homosexual people. Ellis’s
questions and hardly any answers. It is difficult
studies led him to be an advocate of equal
to talk about the things upper-most in your
rights for women and comprehensive human
mind. Why is my body changing? Why do I get
sexuality education in public schools.
an erection? Why do I feel attracted to the
opposite sex? Many older people are not
Using case studies, the Austrian
willing to discuss these issues openly. As a
neurologist Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) is
result, your friends (peer group), TV, films,
credited with being the first scientist to link sex
magazines and imagination become your
to healthy development and to recognize
sources of information.
humans as being sexual throughout their
(feeding g,
lifespans, including childhood (Freud, 1905).
) smoking,
nail
Freud believed that personality
biting,
develops during early childhood. For Freud,
chewing
childhood experiences shape our personalities
on gums,
and behavior as adults. Freud viewed
sarcasm
development as discontinuous; he believed
that each of us must pass through a serious of Ana 18 Anus Bowel Anal
stages during childhood, and that if we lack l mont movem Expulsiv
proper nurturance and parenting during a hs-3y ent e:-exces
stage, we may become stuck, or fixated, in ears sively
that stage. Freud’s stages are called the sloppy,
stages of psychosexual development. disorgani
According to Freud, children’s zed,
pleasure-seeking urges are focused on a reckless,
different area of the body, called an erogenous careless,
zone, at each of the five stages of defiantA
development: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and nal
genital. Retentiv
e:-very
FREUD’S PSYCHOSEXUAL careful,
DEVELOPMENT stingy,
obstinate
As we develop from infancy to ,
childhood, our sexual or libidinal energies meticulo
focus on different parts of the bodies us,
(erogenous zones). The primary goal of the conformi
individual at each stage is to maximize the ng,
gratification of needs associated with the passive-
center of libidinal pleasure, in a way that aggressi
conforms or is acceptable to reality. If that ve
balance is not attained, however –if needs are
not gratified or is over gratified at a certain Pha 4-5 Genit Masturb Anxiety
stage – the individual’s libidinal energies llic years al ation and guilt
remain stuck, or fixated to a particular needs and feelings
characteristic of that stage. Genital about
fondling sex, and
*Oedipu narcissis
Sta Age Erog Gratifyi Fixation s tic
ge enou ng Comple personali
s Activity x*Electr ty,
Zone a interpers
Comple onal
Oral 0-18 Mouth Nursing Gossipin x problems
mont -eating, g and ,
hs sucking talking problems
, biting too with
swallow much, authority
ing overeatin of the
 same-se
x parent,
uncertain
ty in
gender
identity

Lat 6-11 None Learnin None

enc years g and
y social
adjustm
ent

Gen 11 to Genit Masturb Normal Applying for a scholarship or filling out a job
ital adult al ation application requires your name, address, and
hood and birth-date. Additionally, applications usually
Heteros ask for your sex or gender. It’s common for us
exual to use the terms “sex” and “gender”
Relatio interchangeably. However, in modern usage,
nship these terms are distinct from one another.

While most of Freud’s ideas have not found Sex describes means of biological
support in modern research, we cannot reproduction. Sex includes sexual organs,
discount the contributions that Freud has such as ovaries— defining what it is to be a
made to the field of psychology. Psychologists female—or testes—defining what it is to be a
today dispute Freud’s psychosexual stages as male. Interestingly, biological sex is not as
a legitimate explanation for how one’s easily defined or determined as you might
personality develops, but what we can take expect (see the section on variations in sex,
away from Freud’s theory is that personality is below). By contrast, the term gender
shaped, in some part, by experiences we describes psychological (gender identity) and
have in childhood. sociological (gender role) representations of
biological sex. At an early age, we begin
According to Freud, each of these learning cultural norms for what is considered
stages could be passed through in a healthy masculine and feminine. For example,
or unhealthy manner. In unhealthy manners, children may associate long hair or dresses
people might develop psychological problems, with femininity. Later in life, as adults, we often
such as frigidity, impotence, or conform to these norms by behaving in
anal-retentiveness. gender-specific ways: as men, we build
houses; as women, we bake cookies
(Marshall, 1989; Money et al., 1955; Weinraub
et al., 1984).

Because cultures change over time, so

too do ideas about gender. For example,
European and American cultures today
associate pink with femininity and blue with
masculinity. However, less than a century ago,
these same cultures were swaddling baby
boys in pink, because of its masculine
associations with “blood and war,” and
dressing little girls in blue, because of its two percent—more than 150 million
feminine associations with the Virgin Mary people—of the world’s population (Blackless
(Kimmel, 1996). et al., 2000). There are dozens of intersex
conditions, such as Androgen Insensitivity
Syndrome and Turner’s Syndrome (Lee et al.,
2006). The term “syndrome” can be
misleading; although intersex individuals may
have physical limitations (e.g., about a third of
Turner’s individuals have heart defects;
Matura et al., 2007), they otherwise lead
relatively normal intellectual, personal, and
social lives. In any case, intersex individuals
demonstrate the diverse variations of
biological sex.
Sex and gender are important aspects of a
person’s identity. However, they do not tell us
Just as biological sex varies more
about a person’s sexual orientation (Rule &
widely than is commonly thought, so too does
Ambady, 2008). Sexual orientation refers to a
gender. Cisgender individuals’ gender
person’s sexual attraction to others. Within the
identities correspond with their birth sexes,
context of sexual orientation, sexual attraction
whereas transgender individuals’ gender
refers to a person’s capacity to arouse the
identities do not correspond with their birth
sexual interest of another, or, conversely, the
sexes. Because gender is so deeply ingrained
sexual interest one person feels toward
culturally, rates of transgender individuals vary
another.
widely around the world.
We live in an era when sex, gender,
Sexual orientation is as diverse as gender
and sexual orientation are controversial
identity. Instead of thinking of sexual
religious and political issues. Some nations
orientation as being two
have laws against homosexuality, while others
categories—homosexual and
have laws protecting same-sex marriages. At
heterosexual—Kinsey argued that it’s a
a time when there seems to be little
continuum (Kinsey, Pomeroy, & Martin, 1948).
agreement among religious and political
He measured orientation on a continuum,
groups, it makes sense to wonder, “What is
using a 7-point Likert scale called the
normal?” and, “Who decides?”
Heterosexual-Homosexual Rating Scale, in
which 0 is exclusively heterosexual, 3 is
The international scientific and medical
bisexual, and 6 is exclusively homosexual.
communities (e.g., World Health Organization,
Later researchers using this method have
World Medical Association, World Psychiatric
found 18% to 39% of Europeans and
Association, Association for Psychological
Americans identifying as somewhere between
Science) view variations of sex, gender, and
heterosexual and homosexual (Lucas et al.,
sexual orientation as normal. Furthermore,
2017; YouGov.com, 2015). Of the 39 countries
variations of sex, gender, and sexual
covered by a global survey, only 17 countries
orientation occur naturally throughout the
had majorities that accepted homosexuality,
animal kingdom. More than 500 animal
with the Philippines ranking at number 10
species have homosexual or bisexual
among the 17
orientations (Lehrer, 2006). More than 65,000
animal species are intersex—born with either
an absence or some combination of male and
female reproductive organs, sex hormones, or
sex chromosomes (Jarne & Auld, 2006). In
humans, intersex individuals make up about
 Body image—Feeling attractive and proud of
one's own body and the way it functions
influences many aspects of life. Adolescents
often choose media personalities as the
standard for how they should look, so they are
often disappointed by what they see in the
mirror. They may be especially dissatisfied
when the mainstream media does not portray
or does not positively portray physical
characteristics the teens see in the mirror,
such as color of skin, type or hair, shape of
eyes, height, or body shape.

Experiencing pleasure—Sensuality allows a

person to experience pleasure when certain
CIRCLES OF SEXUALITY parts of the body are touched. People also
experience sensual pleasure from taste,
touch, sight, hearing, and smell as part of
being alive.

Satisfying skin hunger—The need to be

touched and held by others in loving, caring
ways is often referred to as skin hunger.
Adolescents typically receive considerably
less touch from their parents than do younger
children. Many teens satisfy their skin hunger
through close physical contact with peers.
Sexual intercourse may sometimes result from
Sexuality is much more than sexual feelings a teen's need to be held, rather than from
or sexual intercourse. It is an important part of sexual desire.
who a person is and what she/he will become.
It includes all the feelings, thoughts, and Feeling physical attraction for another
behaviors associated with being female or person—The center of sensuality and
male, being attractive and being in love, as attraction to others is not in the genitals
well as being in relationships that include (despite all the jokes). The center of
sexual intimacy and sensual and sexual sensuality and attraction to others is in the
activity. It also includes enjoyment of the world brain, humans' most important "sex organ."
as we know it through the five senses: taste, The unexplained mechanism responsible for
touch, smell, hearing, and sight. sexual attraction rests in the brain, not in the
genitalia.
Circle #1—Sensuality
Sensuality is awareness and feeling about Fantasy—The brain also gives people the
your own body and other people's bodies, capacity to have fantasies about sexual
especially the body of a sexual partner. behaviors and experiences. Adolescents often
Sensuality enables us to feel good about how need help understanding that sexual fantasy
our bodies look and feel and what they can is normal and that one does not have to act
do. Sensuality also allows us to enjoy the upon sexual fantasies.
pleasure our bodies can give us and others.
This part of our sexuality affects our behavior Circle #2—Sexual Intimacy
in several ways. Sexual intimacy is the ability to be emotionally
close to another human being and to accept
closeness in return. Several aspects of
intimacy include Gender role—Identifying actions and/or
behaviors for each gender. Some things are
Sharing—Sharing intimacy is what makes determined by the way male and female
personal relationships rich. While sensuality is bodies are built or function. For example, only
about physical closeness, intimacy focuses on women menstruate and only men produce
emotional closeness. sperm. Other gender roles are culturally
determined. In some countries like the
Caring—Caring about others means feeling Philippines, it is considered appropriate for
their joy and their pain. It means being open to only women to wear dresses to work in the
emotions that may not be comfortable or business world. In other cultures, men may
convenient. Nevertheless, an intimate wear skirt-like outfits everywhere.
relationship is possible only when we care.
There are many "rules" about what men and
Liking or loving another person—Having women can/should do that have nothing to do
emotional attachment or connection to others with the way their bodies are built or function.
is a manifestation of intimacy.\ This aspect of sexuality is especially important
for young adolescents to understand, since
Emotional risk-taking—To have true peer, parent, and cultural pressures to be
intimacy with others, a person must open up "masculine" or "feminine" increase during the
and share feelings and personal information. adolescent years. Both young men and young
Sharing personal thoughts and feelings with women need help sorting out how perceptions
someone else is risky, because the other about gender roles affect whether they feel
person may not feel the same way. But it is encouraged or discouraged in their choices
not possible to be really close with another about relationships, leisure activities,
person without being honest and open with education, and career.
her/him.
Gender bias means holding stereotyped
Vulnerability—To have intimacy means that opinions about people according to their
we share and care, like or love, and take gender. Gender bias might include believing
emotional risks. That makes us that women are less intelligent or less capable
vulnerable—the person with whom we share, than men, that men suffer from "testosterone
about whom we care, and whom we like or poisoning," that men cannot raise children
love, has the power to hurt us emotionally. without the help of women, that women
Intimacy requires vulnerability, on the part of cannot be analytical, that men cannot be
each person in the relationship. sensitive. Many times, people hold fast to
these stereotyped opinions without giving
Circle #3—Sexual Identity rational thought to the subject of gender.
Sexual identity is a person's understanding of
who she/he is sexually, including the sense of Sexual orientation—Whether a person's
being male or of being female. Sexual identity primary attraction is to people of the other
consists of three "interlocking pieces" that, gender (heterosexuality) or to the same
together, affect how each person sees gender (homosexuality) or to both genders
him/herself. Each "piece" is important. (bisexuality) defines his/her sexual orientation.
Sexual orientation begins to emerge by
Gender identity—Knowing whether one is adolescence although many gay and lesbian
male or female. Most young children youth say they knew they felt same sex
determine their own gender identity by age attraction by age 10 or 11. Between three and
two. Sometime, a person's biological gender is 10—percent of the general population is
not the same as his/her gender identity—this probably exclusively homosexual in
is called being transgender. orientation. Perhaps another 10 percent of the
general population feel attracted to both sexual pleasure that often culminates in
genders. orgasm in females and in males. Sexual
Heterosexual, gay, lesbian, and bisexual youth intercourse may also result in pregnancy
can all experience same-gender sexual and/or STDs. In programs for youth,
attraction and/or activity around puberty. Such discussion of sexual intercourse is often
behavior, including sexual play with limited to the bare mention of male-female
samegender peers, crushes on same-gender (penile-vaginal) intercourse. However, youth
adults, or sexual fantasies about same-gender need accurate health information about sexual
people are normal for pre-teens and young intercourse—vaginal, oral, and anal.
teens and are not necessarily related to
sexual orientation. Reproductive and sexual anatomy—The
male and female body and the ways in which
Negative social messages and homophobic they actually function is a part of sexual
culture in the society can mean that young health. Youth can learn to protect their
adolescents who are experiencing sexual reproductive and sexual health. This means
attraction to and romantic feelings for that teens need information about all the
someone of their own gender need support so effective methods of contraception currently
they can clarify their feelings and accept their available, how they work, where to obtain
sexuality. them, their effectiveness, and their side
effects. This means that youth also need to
Circle #4—Reproduction and Sexual know how to use latex condoms to prevent
Health STD infection. Even if youth are not currently
These are a person's capacity to reproduce engaging in sexual intercourse, they probably
and the behaviors and attitudes that make will do so at some point in the future. They
sexual relationships healthy and enjoyable. must know how to prevent pregnancy and/or
disease.
Factual information about reproduction—Is
necessary so youth will understand how male Finally, youth also need to know that
and female reproductive systems function and traditional methods of preventing pregnancy
how conception and/or STD infection occur. (that may be common in that particular
Adolescents often have inadequate community and/or culture) may be ineffective
information about their own and/or their in preventing pregnancy and may, depending
partner's body. Teens need this information so on the method, even increase susceptibility to
they can make informed decisions about STDs. The leader will need to determine what
sexual expression and protect their health. those traditional methods are, their
Youth need to understand anatomy and effectiveness, and their side effects before
physiology because every adolescent needs he/she can discuss traditional methods of
the knowledge and understanding to help contraception in a culturally appropriate and
him/her appreciate the ways in which his/her informative way.
body functions.
Sexual reproduction—The actual processes
Feelings and attitudes—Are wide-ranging of conception, pregnancy, delivery, and
when it comes to sexual expression and recovery following childbirth are important
reproduction and to sexual health-related parts of sexuality. Youth need information
topics such as STD infection, HIV and AIDS, about sexual reproduction—the process
contraceptive use, abortion, pregnancy, and whereby two different individuals each
childbirth. contribute half of the genetic material to their
child. The child is, therefore, not identical to
Sexual intercourse—Is one of the most either parent. [Asexual reproduction is a
common behaviors among humans. Sexual process whereby simple one-celled organisms
intercourse is a behavior that may produce reproduce by splitting, creating two separate
one-celled organisms identical to the original harassment. Youth should know that they
[female] organism before it split.] Too many have the right to file a complaint with
programs focus exclusively on sexual appropriate authorities if they are sexually
reproduction when providing sexuality harassed and that others may complain of
education and ignore all the other aspects of their behavior if they sexually harass someone
human sexuality. else.
Rape—Means coercing or forcing someone
Circle #5—Sexualization else to have genital contact with another.
Sexualization is that aspect of sexuality in Sexual assault can include forced petting as
which people behave sexually to influence, well as forced sexual intercourse. Force, in
manipulate, or control other people. Often the case of rape, can include use of
called the "shadowy" side of human sexuality, overpowering strength, threats, and/or implied
sexualization spans behaviors that range from threats that arouse fear in the person raped.
the relatively harmless to the sadistically Youth need to know that rape is always illegal
violent, cruel, and criminal. These sexual and always cruel. Youth should know that they
behaviors include flirting, seduction, are legally entitled to the protection of the
withholding sex from an intimate partner to criminal justice system if they are the victims
punish her/him or to get something, sexual of rape and that they may be prosecuted if
harassment, sexual abuse, and rape. Teens they force anyone else to have genital contact
need to know that no one has the right to with them for any reason. Refusing to accept
exploit them sexually and that they do not no and forcing the other person to have
have the right to exploit anyone else sexually. sexual intercourse always means rape.

Flirting—Is a relatively harmless Incest—Means forcing sexual contact on any

sexualization behavior. Nevertheless, upon minor who is related to the perpetrator by birth
occasion it is an attempt to manipulate or marriage. Incest is always illegal and is
someone else, and it can cause the person extremely cruel because it betrays the trust
manipulated to feel hurt, humiliation, and that children and youth give to their families.
shame. Moreover, because the older person knows
that incest is illegal and tries to hide the crime,
Seduction—Is the act of enticing someone to he/she often blames the child/youth. The triple
engage in sexual activity. The act of seduction burden of forced sexual contact, betrayed
implies manipulation that at times may prove trust, and self-blame makes incest particularly
harmful for the one who is seduced. damaging to survivors of incest.

Sexual harassment—Is an illegal behavior. SEXUAL HEALTH

Sexual harassment means harassing BIOLOGY OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR
someone else because of her/his gender. It The change from child to adult is an especially
could mean making personal, embarrassing dangerous time for adolescents in our society.
remarks about someone's appearance, From their earliest years, children watch
especially characteristics associated with television shows and movies that insist that
sexual maturity, such as the size of a woman's "sex appeal" is a personal quality that people
breasts or of a man's testicles and penis. It need to develop to the fullest
could mean unwanted touching, such as (focusas.com/SexualBehavior-Range.html,
hugging a subordinate or patting someone's 2008). While adolescents and their parents
bottom. It could mean demands by a teacher, generally agree about many issues and
supervisor, or other person in authority for aspects of life, they hold strikingly different
sexual intercourse in exchange for grades, views on sex. Parents, based on their
promotion, hiring, raises, etc. All these perspective from greater experience, urge
behaviors are manipulative. The Philippine caution and restraint.
laws of the {provide protection against sexual
Adolescents, experiencing strong sexual leads to a lesbian, gay, or bisexual identity.
desire for the first time and eager for all For some, acknowledging this identity can
pleasures life can offer, are frequently tempted bring an end to confusion. When these young
to throw caution to the wind and indulge (Tria, people receive the support of parents and
et al., 2012). TV, movies, and music are not others, they are often able to live satisfying
the only influences the Internet provides teens and healthy lives and move through the usual
with seemingly unlimited access to information process of adolescent development. The
on sex as well as a steady supply of people younger a person is when she or he
willing to talk about sex with them. Teens may acknowledges a non-heterosexual identity, the
feel safe because they can remain fewer internal and external resources she or
anonymous while looking for information on he is likely to have. Therefore, youths who
sex. come out early are particularly in need of
support from parents and others. Young
Sexual predators know this and manipulate people who identify as lesbian, gay, or
young people into online relationships and, bisexual may be more likely to face certain
later, set up a time and place to meet. problems, including being bullied and having
(commercialexploitation.org/factsheets/ccfc-fa negative experiences in school. These
ctsmarketingsex.pdf, 2008). experiences are associated with negative
outcomes, such as suicidal thoughts, and
What about sexual orientation and coming out high-risk activities, such as unprotected sex
during adolescence? and alcohol and drug use. On the other hand,
many lesbian, gay, and bisexual youths
Adolescence is a period when people appear to experience no greater level of
separate from their parents and families begin health or mental health risks. Where problems
to develop autonomy. Adolescent can be a occur, they are closely associate with
period of experimentation and many youth experience of bias and discrimination in their
may question their sexual feelings. Becoming environments. Support from important people
aware of sexual feelings is a normal in teen’s life can provide a very helpful
developmental task of adolescence. counterpart to bias and discrimination.
Sometimes adolescent have same sex
feelings or experiences that cause confusion Below is the sexual response cycle. This
about their sexual orientation. This confusion cycle is applicable not only to teens but to
appears to decline over time, with different adults as well.
outcomes for different individuals. Some
adolescents desire and engage in same sex
behaviour but do not identify as lesbian, gay
or bisexual, sometimes because of the stigma
associated with a non-hetero sexual
orientation.

Some adolescents experience continuing

feelings of same-sex attraction but do not
engage in any sexual activity or may engage
in heterosexual behavior for varying lengths of
time. Because of the stigma associated with
same-sex attractions, many youths Sexual Health (Sexually Transmitted
experience same-sex attraction or many years Diseases Infections and Teenage
before becoming sexually active with partners Pregnancy)
of the same sex or disclosing their attractions The factual information about reproduction is
to others. For some young people, this necessary so youth will understand how male
process of exploring same-sex attractions and female reproductive systems function and
how conception and or STD infection occur.
Adolescents often have inadequate A 2014 Pew study on global morality found
information about their own and/or their that premarital sex was considered particularly
partner's body Teens need this information so unacceptable in predominantly Muslim
they can make informed decisions about nations", such as Indonesia. Jordan, Pakistan
sexual expression and protect their health. and Egypt, each having over disapproval,
Youth need to understand anatomy and while people in Western European countries
physiology because every adolescent needs were the most accepting with Spain, Germany
the knowledge and understanding to help and France expressing less than 10%
him/her appreciate the ways in which his her disapproval. People who have premarital sex
body functions are recommended by health professionals to
(advocatesforyouth.org/publications/Ipe/index. tak precautions to protect themselves against
htm, 2008). sexually transmitted infections (STIs) such as
HIV/AIDS. There is also a risk of an
Sexual intercourse unplanned pregnancy in heterosexual
Sexual intercourse is one of the most common relationships
behaviors among humans Sexual intercourse
is a behavior that may produce sexual FACTORS THAT ENCOURAGE HAVING
pleasure that often culminates in orgasm in PREMARITAL SEX
females and in males. Sexual intercourse may · Having poorly educated parents
also result in pregnancy and or STDs. ln · Unsupportive family relationships
programs for youth, discussion of sexual · Lack of Parental supervision
intercourse is often limited to the bare mention · Friends who are sexually active
of male-female (penile-vaginal) intercourse. · Poor school grades poor academic
However, youth need accurate health performance
information about sexual intercourse—vaginal, · Poor spiritual exercises (not hearing
oral, and anal. mass, lack of church involvement
· Engaged in risky leisure activities

COMMON MISCONCEPTIONS HAVING SEX Sexually Transmitted Diseases/Infections

· all teens are having sex These are also known as Venereal Diseases
· having sex makes you matured and an (VD). They are passed through sexual contact
adult or genital through vaginal intercourse, oral sex
· something is wrong with an older teen and anal sex. The term STI evolved from
(17-1() who is not having sex "venereal disease" to "sexually transmitted
· a girl can’t get pregnant when she is disease", then "sexually transmitted infection"
menstruating which has a broader range of meaning: that it
· a girl can’t get pregnant if it’s her first can be passed without disease. (You don't
time have to be ill to infect others)
· you are a virgin can't have sexual
intercourse --- oral sex doesn't count HIV/AIDS
· oral sex is not sex HIV is "Human Immunodeficiency Virus". This
is a retrovirus-genetic info @RNA than DNA.
Premarital Sex HIV is the virus that causes AIDS and it is
Is sexual activity practiced by people who are preventable and manageable but no curable.
unmarried. It can be any sexual relations a AIDS is "Acquired Immunodeficiency
person has prior to marriage. The alternative Syndrome". Since this is a syndrome, there
terms for premarital sex have been are several manifestations of the breakdown
suggested, including non-marital sex (which in body's immune system and have developed
overlaps with adultery), youthful sex, in people who have been infected by HIV.
adolescent and young adult sex.
How do people get AIDS? AIDS is developed · Having SEX isn't always a healthy choice.
through: Impulsive decisions can lead to lifelong
Bodily fluids (blood products--transfusions, problems: serious disease and infertility
semen and vaginal fluids) · Abstinence is an OPTION. Choosing not to
Intravenous (IV) Drug Abuse (sharing needles engage in sexual contact with another person
and use of unsterilized blades) can be a very powerful personal choice.
Sexual intercourse (unprotected vaginal, oral
and anal sex) Prevention of Teenage Pregnancy
Comprehensive sex education and access to
birth control appear to reduce unplanned
HIV/AIDS Situationer: teenage pregnancy. It is unclear if a single
intervention is most effective. In the United
In the Philippines, here is the number of States free access to a long acting form of
HIV/AIDS cases reported: reversible birth control along with education
2000 1 case in every 3 days decreased the rates of teen pregnancies by
2009 2 cases in each day around 80% and the rate of abortions by more
2010 5 cases in each day than 75%.
2012 1 in every 3 hours (8 cases in each
day) Education
2014 17 cases in each day The Dutch approach to preventing teenage
2015 22 cases in each day pregnancy has often been seen as a model by
other countries. The curriculum focuses on
Around the World, there are 448 million new values, attitudes, communication and
infections of curable sexually transmitted negotiation skills, as well as biological aspects
infections which occur yearly. of reproduction. The media has encouraged
open dialogue and the health care system
guarantees confidentiality and a
Teenage Pregnancy non-judgmental approach.
This is pregnancy in human females under the
age of 20 at the time that the pregnancy ends. Abstinence only education
Pregnant teenagers face many of the same Some schools provide abstinence-only sex
obstetrics issues as other women. There are, education. Evidence does not support the
however, additional medical concerns for effectiveness of abstinence-only sex
mothers aged below 15 years old. For education. It has been found to be ineffective
mothers aged 15-19, risks are associated in decreasing HIV risk in the developed world,
more with socio-economic factors than with and does not decrease rates of unplanned
the biological effects of age. In teenage pregnancy when compared to comprehensive
pregnancy, there are risks of low birth weight, sex education.
premature labor, anemia, and pre-eclampsia
are connected to the biological age itself, as it
was observed in teen births. Every day in RESPONSIBLE PARENTHOOD
developing countries, 20,000 girls under age In Philippine education, the concept of Family
18 give birth. Planning is a mandatory topic in the
curriculum. Family Planning, also called
This amounts to 73 million births a year. And if Responsible Parenthood, is as old as
all pregnancies are included, the number of humankind. It is a simple way of regulating
adolescent pregnancies is much higher and spacing the births of children. It is giving
birth according to the health and economic
THINK ABOUT THESE: conditions of the family, giving birth of the
mother according to her right age. Conception
is not left to chance. Benefits derived from condoms, spermicide, cervical cap, today
Family Planning are identified as follows: sponge, birth control patch, birth control shot,
birth control implant, intrauterine device (IUD),
For the family to promote healthy, tubal ligation/vasectomy, tubal implants and
happy family. emergency contraception pill.
For the mother - she can recover her
health and strength after delivery. The best way to avoid these infections is
For the child - a better chance of prevention. “Prevention is better than cure”.
growing healthy and well cared.
Family Planning Methods / Methods of
Contraception MONEY AND WELL-BEING

Youth also need to know that traditional MATERIAL SELF

methods of preventing pregnancy (that may A man’s self is the sum total of what he can
be common in that particular community call his (James, 1980)
and/or culture) may be ineffective in
preventing pregnancy and may, depending on CHAPTER X, The Consciousness of Self (A)
the method, even increase susceptibility to THE EMPIRICAL SELF OR ME, The
STDs. It should be determined what the Principles of Psychology (JAMES, 1890)
traditional methods are, their effectiveness,
and their side effects and know traditional The body is the innermost
methods of contraception in a culturally part of the material Self in
appropriate and informative way. each of us; and certain
parts of the body seem
A concept linked to family planning is more intimately ours than
contraception, also known as birth control and the rest.
fertility control. This is a method or device
used to prevent pregnancy. It is also defined The clothes come next.
as a deliberate prevention of conception or The old saying that the
impregnation. Family planning methods and/or human person is
contraception methods are presented as composed of three parts -
follows: soul, body and clothes - is more than a joke.
We so appropriate our clothes and identify
Natural Birth Control employs natural control ourselves with them that there are few of us
methods that people do to help prevent an who, if asked to choose between having a
unintended pregnancy are without the use of beautiful body clad in raiment perpetually
modern/artificial ways of contraception. These shabby and unclean, and having an ugly and
require commitment when you make the blemished form always spotlessly attired,
decision, discipline and self-control for it to be would not hesitate a moment before making a
effective. These include abstinence, fertility decisive reply.
awareness methods, the rhythm, calendar or
standard days method, intercourse and Next, our immediate family is a part of
continued breastfeeding, all requiring ourselves. Our father and mother, our wife
discipline and responsibility which the Catholic and babes, are bone of our bone and flesh of
Church approves. our flesh. When they die, a part of our very
selves is gone. If they do anything wrong, it is
Artificial Birth Control employs artificial control our shame. If they are insulted, our anger
methods to help prevent unintended flashes forth as readily as if we stood in their
pregnancy use modern/contemporary place.
measures such as contraceptive or birth
control pills, diaphragm, male and female
Our home comes next. Its scenes are part of B. Self Sufficiency and Service
our life; its aspects awaken the tenderest Those who are conscious of money typical
feelings of affection; and we do not easily strive to be more self-sufficient than those for
forgive the stranger who, in visiting it, finds whom money isn’t a priority. In a research that
fault with its arrangements or treats it with was conducted, it was found that when given
contempt. All these different things are the a very difficult and even impossible task, with
objects of instinctive preferences coupled with instructions that help was available, it was the
the most important practical interests of life. money-related group that seems the most
We all have a blind impulse to watch over our intent on getting the job done alone, even
body, to deck it with clothing of [p. 293] an when it was not possible to finish the task
ornamental sort, to cherish parents, wife and solo. It only means that money-conscious
babes, and to find for ourselves a home of our individuals are more self-sufficient than their
own which we may live in and 'improve.' peers, particularly when money is made the
focus.
EVIDENCES BEHIND THE IDEA THAT
MONEY TRULY CAN CHANGE PEOPLE C. Self-view
Lifted from Understanding the Self by The wealthiest people are those with the
Villafuerte, S., Quilope, A., Tunac, R. and deepest sense of class essentialism – the
Borja, E. (2018) idea that differences between classes are
based upon identity and genetics, rather than
Psychologists who study the impact of wealth circumstance. Poor people tend to believe that
and inequality on human behavior have found social class was not related to genes, that
that money can powerfully influence our essentially, anyone can be rich and anyone
thoughts and actions in ways that we’re often can be poor. Rich people were more likely to
not aware of, no matter what our believe that wealth was part of genes and
circumstances are (Greogoire, 2014) identity, that they were entitled to wealth
based upon their personal circumstances and
Curtis (2017) manifested that cash can have actions. Wealthy people also believe that
serious bearing on one’s belief regarding the more or less, life is fair and people mostly get
way a person views himself/herself. The what they deserve.
following are evidences of such idea.
D. Ethics
A. Social and Business Value Those who perceive themselves to be in a
By recognizing a task’s social value a person higher class were most likely to engage in
sees it as a worthy investment of time and a unethical behaviour, particularly when a
part of his/her social duty, and he/she is symbol of wealth is introduced. That is, people
usually happy to help out. When money is who have more tendencies to break the law.
offered as the motivation, however, people e.g. cutting off a pedestrian when in a luxury
then sat thinking less of the social aspect and car.
more about the business value.
Piff (2012) also found in his research a
For example, if a relative asked you to phenomenon he labelled as self-interest
baby-sit their kids or tend the elderly for few maximization. It is the idea that suggests that
hours, you may be more motivated to do so those who have the most money or occupy
when you will receive more in exchange of higher classes are more likely to take a
your service. You may even be more “what’s in it for me?” attitude. They actively
enthusiastic the next time around. However, if work toward the most benefit for themselves.
you will be paid less or think that you will not
gain from the activity, then you are more likely E. Addiction
to give alibis and excuses. Many addictions begin because a person gets
a positive response from a certain type of
behaviour. Whether it’s a happy feeling that people who value possessions and material
one gets from shopping or a thrill that comes wealth over other more significant life goals
from gambling, actively seeking out that are said to be less happy and are more prone
behaviour again and again for the same to depression.
outcome can trigger addiction. 2. Materialism and self-esteem show an
inverted relationship.
Behavioral or process addiction – a 3. Materialism and financial stability show
compulsive behavior not motivated by an inverted relationship.
dependency on an addictive substance, but 4. Materialism and well-being manifest
rather by the process that leads to a opposite relationship as individuals practicing
seemingly positive outcome. this principle tend to isolate themselves from
the significant others as they continue try to
● IMPULSIVE BUYING derive gratification from amassing objects
This refers to a sudden and powerful urge in rather than interacting with the people around
the consumer to buy immediately. It occurs them.
when desire for a product or brand outweighs 5. Materialism and self-concept prove how
one's willpower to resist. insecurity motivates people to work so hard
for material possessions as the same wealth
● COMPULSIVE BUYING becomes their source of security.
This is characterized by an excessive 6. Materialism and lack of engagement
preoccupation or poor impulse control with mean losing one’s ability to empathize with
shopping, with adverse consequences, like others as they become callous to other
marital conflict and financial problems. people’s needs.

ACCORDING TO GREGOIRE (2017)

MATERIALISM MAKES PEOPLE UNHAPPY
FOR THE FOLLOWING REASONS:
1. Consumer culture may be harming
MONEY AND WELL-BEING individual well-being.
Materialism as a philosophy is held by those Allegedly those who pursue more wealth and
who maintain that existence is explainable greater material possessions are less satisfied
solely in material terms, with no accounting of as they experience less positive emotions.
spirit or consciousness. Individuals who hold
to this belief see the universe as a huge 2. Materialistic values are linked to Type-A
device held together by pieces of matter behaviour.
functioning in subjection to naturalistic laws. Those who are highly ambitious are highly
(https://www.allaboutphilosophy.org/materialis competitive and materialistic. These are traits
m.htm) of a Type-A personality.

Cycle of work and spend - work more to buy 3. Money really cannot buy you happiness.
more. The level of consumption is set mainly Several studies have shown that wealthy
by people’s choices about how much to work, people are highly susceptible to depression.
and therefore how much income to earn Researches have also shown that money is
not exactly what brings about the
CORRELATES OF MATERIALISM dissatisfaction and the unhappiness but the
Lifted from Understanding the Self: extreme desire to earn more.
Developing Life Skills by Magalona, E.,
Sadsad, E., and Cruz, E (2018) 4. Materialism could ruin your relationship.
Materialistic values result to low-quality
1. Materialism and happiness reportedly do relationships and disconnectedness.
not go well together as it was shown that
5. Consumer cultures may breed for well-being as well as the risks. Intrinsic
narcissistic personalities. motivation emerges as a key to well-being.
Narcissist are highly arrogant as they are
deeply concerned with inadequacy. They work
TIGHT WITH LOOSE
a lot for power and prestige to cover up their
MONEY WITH
perceived emptiness and low self-worth. All
MONEY
these sentiments demand validation form
others through praises, compliments and HIGH Value seeker Big spender
approval. MATERI Bargain Exhibitionist
ALISM hunter Replace
6. Consumerism is fuelled by insecurity. Hold possessions
Research shows that those who are extremely possessions Price-quality
doubtful of their self-worth are highly insecure Enjoy price schema
and thus have the tendency to be more comparison Trend
materialistic. shopping conscious
Consumerism capitalizes on insecurity so their Cool Debt prone
products and services will sell and be highly involvement
demanded. Save-to-spen
d
CONSUMPTION AND EXTENDED
SELF LOW Non-spender Experiencer
THE ART OF BUYING: COMING TO TERMS MATERI Saver Spend for
WITH MONEY AND MATERIALISM ALISM Ascetic recreation,
Tatzel, M (2003), The Art of Buying: Coming to lifestyle self-develop
Terms with Money and Materialism, Journal of Price averse ment and
Happiness Studies 420-429 Quality less services
important Generous
ABSTRACT
Money and possessions hold strong
attractions, but being driven to acquire them in Here is an excerpt from Tatzel, M (2003), The
order to enhance one’s social standing is Art of Buying: Coming to Terms with Money
associated with lowered well-being. and Materialism, Journal of Happiness
Literatures on money and happiness, Studies 420-429
materialism, and cultural mediators are
reviewed. Consumer well-being is associated
with being neither very tight nor very loose
with money, with having relatively low financial
aspirations, and with being low in materialism.
Price-related behaviors – whether to spend
low, spend high, or attempt to maximize value
– are ways of responding to economic outlay Value Seeker: Tight with Money and
vis-a-vis material wants, and these Materialistic
“strategies” offer a window into broader Given the combination of high materialism and
consumer lifestyles: the Value Seeker type is tight with money, we might expect the Value
tight with money and materialistic; the Big Seeker to be especially unhappy – anxious
Spender is loose with money and materialistic; about money, other directed, dissatisfied, and
the Non-Spender is tight with money and not in conflict between material desires and
materialistic; and the Experiencer is loose with reluctance to spend.
money and not materialistic. Each of these
types is described in terms of the potentials • Value Seekers enjoy price comparison
shopping, through which they derive
knowledge and hedonic benefits (Mamorstein prestige-seeking, with its overtones of
et al., 1992). competitiveness.
• This is a “smart shopper” who can outwit the
retailer and thus save money by paying less • The Big Spender is concerned with
than the going price (Mano and Elliott, 1997). consuming in a showy manner. Thus
possessions that hold value may be of less
• Good value can be thought of as the lowest interest, and money would flow into renewable
price for a given level of quality (Bei and possessions, like cars, and into replacing
Heslin, 1997). Bargain hunters can ply their outdated possessions, such as furniture. The
skills at virtually all points along the quality Big Spender wants the latest and the best.
continuum, even for luxury goods. • The Big Spender lifestyle is especially
• Instead of the “hot” materialism of “I must treacherous for those with limited means. Low
have it now”, they can wait for the synchrony inhibitions about spending can lead to buying
of the right product at the right price. The on credit, and debt in itself is detrimental to
pleasure of delayed acquisition is sweetened well-being (Ahuvia and Friedman, 1998). If
by the triumph of the good buy. living within one’s means requires buying a
used car, the trend-conscious Big Spender
• A preference for saving for expensive may instead lease an outsized sport utility
purchases (“save-to-spend”), rather than vehicle, even if it means stretching credit to
borrowing, is also a form of delayed the limit.
gratification.
• The Value Seeker should be debt averse. • The Big Spender illustrates what is wrong
Debt is a form of loss of control over money. with consumer culture: in the elusive quest for
Not only has one not held on to money (as the the “good life”, the driven consumer overworks
tight-with-money prefer to do), not only has (Schor, 1992), overspends (Schor, 1998), and
one spent what one has, one has also spent goes into debt in order to own too many
what one does not have. Furthermore, paying possessions (Dominguez and Robin, 1992).
interest on a loan is a “waste” of money for • Making one’s possessions visible to others
which one gets nothing (no thing) in return. and being fashionable both be speak
sociability. In its positive aspect, we can find in
• Many traits of the Value Seeker can support the Big Spender a healthy extraversion, even
well-being: this is a competent consumer, who though the need for admiration hints at the
enjoys shopping, enjoys saving money, and social anxiety and competitiveness that
enjoys possessions. motivate materialism.
• Yet being tight with money and materialistic • Being overly loose with money and highly
are both associated with lowered well-being. materialistic, however, are both risk factors for
The risks to well-being for this type come from well-being. So is strong financial motivation,
being extreme in these traits plus having particularly for these ends, and it is likely that
strong financial aspirations. The Value Seeker the Big Spender will need lots of money to
could become a fretful individual, who feels support a lifestyle of free spending and
poor, agonizes over purchases, and is a endless material wants or else he will be at
compulsive bargain hunter. risk for compulsive spending, social anxiety,
guilt, low self-esteem, and dissatisfaction with
Big Spender: Loose with Money and life.
Materialistic
The Big Spender enjoys spending money and Non-Spender: Tight with Money and Not
displaying high status possessions. The Materialistic
price-seeking Big Spender feels successful The Non-Spender is unmoved by the
with conspicuously expensive purchases. temptations of materialism.
They have attraction to spending, the belief • There is anxiety over parting with money and
that expensive things are better, and the fear over being cheated, and on the other
hand there is the enjoyment of holding money, restaurants and shopping at boutiques
tracking it, and perhaps watching it grow. and specialty stores can provide the
• The Non-Spender is probably ill-at-ease in personal attention and pleasant
the marketplace and relatively unskilled. He or surroundings that are hard to come by
she suspects that prices do not reflect quality, in serve-yourself supermarkets and in
and this suspicion strengthens the resolve to stark, impersonal discount stores.
buy “low” and spend as little as possible (Rao
and Sieben, 1992). • When money is spent on material objects,
the value for the Experiencer lies more in
• Not spending is an adaptation to being poor, using the possessions than in showcasing
a strategy for survival in constrained them (Holt, 1995).
circumstances. In less constrained • It seems that of all the types, the
circumstances, such self-restraint can be a Experiencer, who spends for personal growth
route to financial independence and may even and pleasure and is low in materialism, is the
be the road to riches. The “millionaire next most attuned to intrinsic motivation and is
door” (Stanley and Danko, 1996) lives therefore the most likely to enjoy wellbeing.
modestly while amassing a fortune through Yet for the Experiencer, too, there are risk
scrimping, saving and investing. factors, and one lies in the motive when
• The Non-Spender, free from the lures of spending for experience. Just as objects can
consumer culture and free from the needs for satisfy intrinsic or extrinsic motives, so can
social approval that induce consumer experiences.
conformity, may be particularly individualistic,
self-reliant, and self-controlled. Tourism is one such example: it can be a way
of authentically participating in the spirit of
• The Non-Spender is also prone to the other cultures, or it can be a source of ego
drawbacks of being overly tight with money – gratification, especially when the tourist
worried, suspicious, stingy, withholding. destination has been fashioned so as to flatter
Although low materialism is mostly a positive the tourist (MacCannell, 2002). Is the motive
force for well-being, one can imagine that a for travel to savor the experience or to boast
life of severe material denial would be bleak about having been to the in-spots and thereby
and unstimulating with little to nourish growth. enhance one’s social standing? When
If the motive to hoard money supercedes experiences are valued as status symbols
other life values, there would be little to (and certainly one can spend conspicuously
counter the barrenness for experiences as well as for things), the
Experiencer has moved toward the Big
The Experiencer: Loose with Money and Spender type.
Not Materialistic
The Experiencer is someone who is relaxed • A risk factor is being overly loose with
about spending money and lacks material money. A lack of concern about spending, or a
motives, and so likely to spend on the lack of self-control, can eventuate in the
transitory intangibles that enhance life. money problems and debt associated with
compulsive spending. When a large inflow of
• Spending for experience can take various money is required in order to feed the stream
forms. of spending, the pressure to acquire more
● Activities is one category. Examples money, which can strengthen financial drives,
include recreation, travel, can have negative consequences for
self-improvement workshops, well-being.
entertainment.
● Another category is service, the Let us consider how the same consumer
willingness to pay to have someone choice may be assessed in the four money
tend to one’s needs. Dining at good worlds. Given a choice between replacing old,
shabby furniture and going on vacation, the Example: In situations that deliberately such
Value Seeker might shop around for furniture as mental hospitals, prisons, concentration
sales or else refurbish the old furniture, the camps or military training camps, the firsts
Big Spender might upgrade and update the step in receiving members is to systematically
furniture in the latest style, the Non-Spender deprive them of all personal possessions
might neither go on a vacation nor do anything including clothing, money or even names.
about the furniture, and the Experiencer is Their bodies may be standardized to some
likely to opt for the vacation and make do with degree (e.g. military haircuts, standard
the shabby furniture for a while longer. wardrobe) and their behaviors and
conversations may be strictly prohibited. The
VARIOUS WAY TO APPRECIATE OUR OWN result of this systematic substitution of
UNIQUENESS AND BE GENUINELY standardize “identity kits” for former
JOYOUS ABOUT IT. possessions is an elimination of uniqueness
Lifted from Understanding the Self: (Snyder and Fromkin, 1981) and a
Developing Life Skills by Magalona, E., corresponding and often traumatic lessening
Sadsad, E., and Cruz, E (2018) of the individual’s sense of self.
1. Learn to share your blessings no matter
how simple it is. Another instance of non-voluntary loss of
2. Improve your self-esteem and self-worth by possession that bring about a diminished
engaging in worthwhile activities. sense of self is when possessions are lost due
3. Learn to communicate and relate with to theft or casualty. Rosenblatt, Walsh and
people around you. Jackson (1976) suggest that a process of grief
4. Take time to appreciate the beauty of life and mourning may follow the discovery of
and God’s creations. theft just as one might grieve and mourn the
5. Be grateful to those who compliment you by death of a loved one who had been part of
returning the favour. one’s life.
6. Focus on your strengths and not on your
flaws. Handbag snatching can produce not only a
7. Stop projecting on media accounts about financial but also emotional, long term effects
what you have and others do not. on victims.
8. Learn to let go of things that are not Losing photographs of loved ones that are
significantly needed, often carried in a purse may cause victims
9. Develop a mantra to counter the sense of security impaired
negativities entering your thoughts. Those who lost possessions to a natural
10. Stop brewing on negativities and on hurtful disasters went through a process of grief
past. Focus on the future and what you can do similar to that of losing a loved one.
to be productive and happy.

SHAPING THE WAY WE SEE OURSELVES: SPECIAL CASES OF EXTENDED SELF

The Roles of Consumer Culture on Our Sense 1. Collections (I shop, therefore, I am)
of Self and Identity Lifted from Understanding a. Humans and animals once primarily
the Self by Villafuerte, S., Quilope, A., Tunac, assemble collections of necessities for future
R. and Borja, E. (2018) security, but today humans more often
assemble collection of non-necessities for
POSSESSIONS AND THE distinction and self-definition. The cultivation
EXTENDED SELF of a collection is a purposeful self-defining act.
If possessions are viewed as part of the self, it Collecting has become a significant activity in
follows that an unintentional loss of our consumer society as it has become more
possessions should be regarded as loss or widely affordable through the discretionary
lessening of self time and money available to the general
population rather than just to the wealthy elite normally central to conceptions of self, the
(Mason, 1981) loss of body parts is tantamount to losing
one’s identity and one’s very being. Indeed the
b. Many collectors who are inhibited and loss of limb is often viewed by those from
uncomfortable in social interaction, surround whom it has been severed in just this way.
themselves with favoured objects upon which
they project human-like qualities. They
practically talk to these objects; they find
comfort in being with them and regard them
as friends (Goldberg & Lewis, 1978). Note that
not all collectors are inhibited and
uncomfortable in social interaction.

c. Collections may be seen as transition

objects or security blankets for adults.

2. Pets
a. Pets are regarded as family members
(Cain, 1985; Friedman & Thomas, 1985 etc).
b. It is significant that we name our pets, feed
them, sleep and play with them, and mourn
their death (Hickrod & Schmitt 1982; Meer
1984)
c. In some cases, the mourning that comes
with the death of the pet is similar to the loss
of a home or the loss of a limb (Carmack,
1985; Cowles; 1985 & Keddie 1977)
d. Pets are so instrumental to self-identity that
they are often useful as transition objects
(surrogate parents) for children and as
surrogate children for adults (Levinson, 1972;
Robin & Bensel, 1985)

3. Body Parts
a. In psychology, cathexis is defined as the
process of allocation of mental or emotional
energy to a person, object, or idea. Body
cathexis is defined as the degree of
satisfaction reported by an individual for the
parts of his body. (Jourard and Secord, 1955).
This refers to the feelings (positive or
negative) one feels towards his own body.
When a body a body is highly cathected, there
is greater use of grooming products to care for
this part of the body.

b. Since we are permanently attached to out

body parts, these body parts are expected to
be more strongly cathected than material
possessions that can be more easily acquired
and discarded. And since body parts are
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Code A88 - PDEV 1013: Understanding the Self

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Introduction to the Spiritual Self

In search of his true identity, man can never do away from considering his spiritual well-being. For one thing, he is composed of both body and soul.
The body points to his relationship with the material world and the soul his relationship with the spiritual world, which is the transcendental dimension of life.
Man's spirituality is the focus of our discussion in this section. 

In the search for meaning in life, one of the major concerns is the development of a balanced spirituality of the human being which integrates well with
his/her psychological maturation. This psycho-spiritual integration or development can be of help in bringing about social transformation since it exposes the
individual to different situations or cases that awaken in him/her the desire to make a difference in his/her life as he/she searches for the meaning of his/her
life.

Such integration leads to a better understanding of oneself with the questions: Who am I? What are my big aims in life? How clear are they? How truly
Christian am I? It seeks answers to the basic existential questions in life. It leads to self-introspection, a journey into the core of the human being.

We are not human beings having a spiritual experience. We are spiritual beings having a human experience.

Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

SPIRITUAL SELF

Spiritual self is who we are at our core. It is more permanent than the other selves -material self and social self. The spiritual self is our
subjective and most intimate self. It is the aspect of self which develops a certain level of spirituality which is deemed as man's way of seeking as well
as expressing the meaning and purpose of his life. It speaks of the quality of one's relationships - with God, self, others, institutions and God's
entire creation, marked by respect, forgiveness, generous service and prayer. It is showing great refinement or high level of Christian maturity and concern
with the higher things in life such as the Sacred or the Divine. This spirituality is specified more concretely in deepening the faith. Spirituality leads man to a
deeper communion with the Divine. It is a path of direct and personal connection with the Divine. It embraces all faiths, social and political ideologies. It aids
persons in spiritual, emotional or physical distress, crisis or discomfort as well as those seeking to make a significant change in their lives through self-
awareness. This can be a healing process that leads to personal development.
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Code A88 - PDEV 1013: Understanding the Self

Finals Week 1 and 2

The Concept of Spirituality

Religion and spirituality are often mistakenly understood as synonymous terms. Although they have many similarities and there is a relationship
between the two, there are differences between religion and spirituality.

Religion: By definition, religion is a personal set or institutionalized system of religious attitudes, beliefs, and practices; the service and worship of
God or the supernatural.

Spirituality: Spirituality, on the other hand, connotes an experience of connection to something larger than you; living everyday life in a reverent and
sacred manner. Or as Christina Puchalski, MD (leader in trying to incorporate spirituality into healthcare), puts it, “Spirituality is the aspect of humanity that
refers to the way individuals seek and express meaning and purpose and the way they experience their connectedness to the moment, to self, to others, to
nature, and to the significant or sacred."

Religion vs. Spirituality: What Is the Difference?

from Brady(2020)

RELIGION SPIRITUALITY

Subjective Experience. Spirituality is an inward journey that involves a shift in awareness

Objective Experience. There is usually a greater focus on the externals (Houses of
rather than some form of external activity. As such, spirituality is much more about inner
worship, books of scripture, eternal rituals and observances)
understanding than outer worship.

Organization. It is a structured, frequently rule-based construct that to some degree Formless. Spirituality though, breaks free from the restrictions and rigid structure
governs the behavior of its members. Moral rules, laws, and doctrines, as well as specific sometimes associated with traditional religion. The spiritual aspirant recognizes that he or
codes and criteria, create the organized structure that contains the religion’s specific belief she is on a “pathless path” of self-discovery. They are following not a set of external rules,
system. but their own inner call to spirit.

Evolutionary Approach. Spirituality often favors an evolutionary mentality. This refers to

Traditional Approach. Religions are by nature often deeply rooted in tradition, ritual,
both a more flexible and adaptive mindset toward core teachings of the great wisdom
creed, and doctrine. Religious institutions conservatively guard their practices and values,
traditions but also reflects the understanding that spiritual growth is an evolutionary
holding rigidly to the past and the original interpretations of the founder’s teachings.
process. Spirituality embraces change and the evolution of consciousness.

Exclusive. Traditional religious beliefs, sometimes based upon rigid interpretations of key Inclusive. Spirituality makes no such distinctions. Instead, it favors an inclusive approach.
teachings, can create an exclusive worldview that isolates those who may not share their In the recognition that pure spirit is a unifying force, no one is left out. You are part of the
views or interpretations. Sadly, this religious “in-group” mentality can be used to justify the universal hologram, all gods and goddesses in disguise. In other words, from a spiritual
exclusion of minorities or those deemed unworthy of God’s favor. perspective, no one has a monopoly on the truth. All are welcome in God’s eyes.

Belief. At its core, religion is about faith. That is to say, belief in something based upon Spiritual Experience. Spirituality doesn’t dismiss faith; however, it often leans more
unconditional acceptance of the religion’s teachings. Through religion, you are taught to heavily on direct experience of the soul or divinity. Spiritual practices such as meditation,
have faith in God or the scriptures as being the infallible and ultimate truth of reality. yoga, silence, and contemplation allow you to make conscious contact with more expanded
Acceptance and surrender to the divine are taught as the path that leads to ultimate states of consciousness, thus helping to experientially validate the teachings rather than
salvation. accepting them on faith alone. You know something because you have tasted the
experience yourself and have allowed it to resonate, as opposed to taking the word of
  another.

As Giovanni (n.d) would present it:

Religion asks you to believe. Spirituality asks you to look.

 Religion has dogmas. Spirituality has wisdom teachings.

Religion wants obedience. Spirituality wants experimentation.

Religion speaks of sin and hell. Spirituality speaks of karma.

Religion wants to comfort you. Spirituality wants to liberate you.

Religion is external. Spirituality is internal.

Religion is the form. Spirituality is the essence.

Religion wants to convert you. Spirituality wants to inspire you.

Religion is an institution. Spirituality is a journey.

Spirituality in Higher Education

The study reported in the book Cultivating the Spirit: How College Can Enhance Students' Inner Lives authored by Dr. Helen Astin, Dr. Alexander
Astin, and Dr. Jennifer Lindholm of UCLA surveyed (in 2004) more than 112,000 freshmen as they enrolled in 236 public and private (religiously affiliated and
non-religiously affiliated) colleges and universities, and then followed up (in 2007) 14,527 of these students (at 136 institutions) as they were completing their
junior year. Here are the findings:

They found religious engagement among students declines somewhat during college, but their spirituality shows substantial growth. Students
become more caring, more tolerant, more connected with others, and more actively engaged in a spiritual quest.
Also found spiritual growth enhances academic performance, psychological well-being, leadership development, and satisfaction with college.
The study also identified a number of college activities that contribute to students' spiritual growth. Some of these--study abroad, interdisciplinary
studies, and service learning--appear to be effective because they expose students to new and diverse people, cultures, and ideas.
Spiritual development is also enhanced if students engage in "inner work" through activities such as meditation or self-reflection, or if their
professors actively encourage them to explore questions of meaning and purpose.
Spiritual development is impeded when students engage in activities that distract them from the ordinary experience of campus life--activities such as
watching television and playing video games.

Spiritual Questions to Ponder

1. Who are the most important people in my life?

2. Where would I like to be in 10 years?
3. How can I avoid a stagnant life?
4. What qualities must I possess to be a good person?
5. Do things happen for a reason?
6. What are the values that guide my life?
7. When do I feel the most alive or real?
8. What gifts can I give of myself to the world?
9. How would I like others to see me?
10. What are my beliefs on life purpose?

Here's a graphic organizer for a simple summary:

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Code A88 - PDEV 1013: Understanding the Self

Finals Week 1 and 2

The Spirit and the Soul

The interconnection of two important terms in our discussion needs to be considered, which is that of the spirit and the soul. Though these are
sometimes used interchangeably, they have distinctions which need to be recognized.

As mentioned by L. Mercado (1994), "the spirit in the Hebrew language is ruach or pneuma in Greek which means breath (esp. the breath of life).
The spirit is described as the disposition of an individual, a person's habitual attitudes, as man's supernatural power which comes from God. It is
the part of us through which all life and power of God flow. It is the "life-giving part of man" (Jas. 2:26).

  Soul on the other hand, is in Hebrew, nephesh or in Greek, psyche, originally meaning 'throat' or 'neck', which means 'human life, the animating
principle of human nature.’ Here, the Hebrew concept of man is holistic, not a trichotomy of body (Mesh), soul, and spirit, but one totality. However, the
Hebrew sees the distinction between the natural and the supernatural, in respect to the soul and spirit.

Both soul and spirit mean life. But soul (nephesh-psyche) stands for natural man, while spirit is the ethical factor which adds the new dimension of
relationship with God. Spirit enables man to serve God and to participate in the supernatural order.

Dy (2020) simplifies this by stating that:

While the soul is the source of our expression through our humanity, it has its limitations and the only way we can experience God is through our
spirit. The soul is merely a channel.

The body is the outer level, followed by the soul and the spirit is the core. The expression of love to God paved the way through the soul. We first
magnify God’s power and grace, and then we express and experience it fully through our spirit.

The function of the spirit is spiritual. The spirit is the only way to connect with God, and we can only use the spirit if we believe in God and
receive Him through our Lord Jesus Christ’s salvation.

The Spirit gives life; the flesh counts for nothing. The words I have spoken to you—they are full of the Spirit and life. (John 6:63)

The term used by the Filipinos for spirit is a loan word, "espirito" or "espiritu", which is in Visayan term, "ginhawa" in Tagalog, "hininga" and in
Ilocano, "anges". The concept of soul is very familiar to the Filipinos. It is the person's emotional and moral nature, where the most private thoughts and
feelings are hidden. In some systems of religious belief, the soul is the spiritual part of a human being that is believed to continue to exist after the body dies.
The soul is also regarded as subject to future reward and punishment. The Bible further speaks of the soul as the innermost aspect of the person which
signifies the spiritual principle in him, "the breath of life". It is because of this spiritual soul that the body becomes alive.

How is the soul perceived by our ancestors?

Below is a translated excerpt from one of the historians of the Philippines, Michael Charlestone Chua:

The ancient Filipinos also had a belief in the soul. For our ancestors, man was made up of two parts — external and internal. The outer is the body
while the inner also has two parts — the life force called "ginahawa" which carries the intestine or liver, and the "kalulwa" which carries the brain which gives
life, mind and human initiative. They believe that souls come out of the body even though they are still alive in the holes of the human body and in the hands
and feet so they protect it by wearing gold. The release of the soul is reflected in the instructions of our elders, do not sleep hungry and the soul may come
out, look for food and be locked in a pot.

Sa mga pintados ng Bisaya, ang kanilang tatoo ang kanilang anting-anting o proteksyon sa kaluluwa.

Larawan mula sa Boxer Codex.

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Code A88 - PDEV 1013: Understanding the Self

Finals Week 1 and 2

The Soul according to the Ethnolinguistic Groups of the Philippines

Gaverza (2017) summarized how the soul is viewed in various groups in the Philippines. Below is the list.

IFUGAO – ‘LINNAWA’

The soul (linnawa) of a child floats around in the heavens, awaiting its entry into the human world. During sexual intercourse the soul/spirit enters the female
through the male, resulting in pregnancy. If a woman cannot conceive, shamans conduct sacrifices to see if the couple is compatible. If they are, shamans offer other
sacrifices to enhance fertility.
The soul is believed to continue in existence in the world of its ancestors. In time the soul of the new-dead becomes one of the callading or ancestral spirits. The
callading are considered man’s benefactors.
In some sources (The Soul Book) the Ifugao believe there are two souls, one in the eyes and one in the breath. Illness is the withdrawal of the soul in the eyes.
Death is the withdrawal of the soul in the breath.
 

IBALOI

The Ibaloi afterlife is populated by ancestral spirits, and explains animal sacrifices. In that spiritual world, when the soul arrives with physical treasures, it receives a
great welcome. An empty-handed soul finds himself the object of scorn. He is unwelcome and unaccepted in his new world and this feeling of insecurity may cause the
spirit to bring evil, disease and even death among his relatives. In the light of all those beliefs, relatives of the dead person bring donation of cash or animals.
 
ISNEG – ‘KADUWA’

The Isneg believed that dead exist in other world, the Aglalanawan, where the earthly tasks of planting, harvesting and communal living are functions common to
them. The kaduwa, soul, is believed to cross the pond in a ferry piloted by the spirit, Kutaw(A psychopomp). In a bid to please kutaw, who could facilitate the spirit’s entry
to aglalanawan, the appropriate customary death rituals would be the key.
 

KANKANA-EY – ‘AB-ABIIK’

Ab-Abiik is the spiritual self as oppsed to the physical self (Awak). The Ab-abiik can also apply to inanimate objects such as mountains, trees or rivers. It can also
mean ‘inspiration’ in some contexts.
 

BIKOL

No one should miss their dinner and go to bed hungry or their spirit will roam for food. If a pot of food is covered while the spirit is eating inside, the person who is
sleeping will now wake up until the lid is lifted.
 

TAGALOG – ‘KALULUWA AND KAKAMBAL’

The Tagalog soul, the kaluluwa can leave the body involuntarily. The kaluluwa refers more to the soul of the deceased. The soul of a living person is called
kakambal (meaning twin or double). The kakambal may travel around at night and some particularly bad encounters are the cause of nightmares (bangungut). The
kakambal becomes a kaluluwa after death.
 
ILOKANO – ‘KARARUA, KARKARMA, ANIWAAS AND ARARIA’
The first soul of the Ilokanos is called the kararua, or the soul proper. This is the term used for the equivalent of the Christian soul that can only leave after death.
The Ilokano have a four soul system. In addition to the kararua there are three other souls.
 

Karkarma is the name of the second soul. It can leave the physical body when one is frightened, or may be stolen. If this soul fails to return the owner
becomes insane, sacrificial ceremonies may be held to lure back a lost karkarma. Karkarma stands for natural vigor, mind and reason.
Aniwaas is the name of the third soul. It can leave the body during sleep and visits places familiar to the body. If one wakes up while the aniwaas is
visiting these places, they may lose the aniwaas and become insane.
Araria is the name of the fourth soul. This is the liberated soul of the dead, the soul that visits relatives and friends in the earthworld asking them to pray
for it or perform a duty it failed to do in life. Its presence can be heralded by the howling of dogs. This soul can make sounds and manipulate physical
objects usually relating to what it did in life.

 
IBANAG –  ‘IKARURUWA’

The Ibanag have a distinction between body (baggi) and soul (ikaruruwa). Ikarurua means ‘a companion of the body’. Mekararuanan (me + kararua – to be rid of
the soul) is a phenomenon where the soul can leave the body but it is without sense. The ritual Mangagaggako invites the soul to return to the body
The Ibanag believe that the soul has physical characteristics. The soul may have color and the souls of dead babies can reach adulthood in the spirit realm. The
role of the soul is to give direction and wholeness to the man, but the body can survive without the soul, and even without the body the soul experiences material wants
and needs.
MANGYAN –  ‘KARADUWA’

The Hanunoo Mangyan believe in a plurality of souls. Karaduwa tawu/tawo (human soul), karaduwa manok (Chicken soul) Karaduwa Baboy (pig soul)
karaduwa kuti (cat soul) and karaduwa hipon (shrimp soul). An individual may possess 2-5 other souls. These other souls are explanations for miraculous recoveries
from near fatal experiences, their dream life or natural reactions to startling sounds or movement.
A soul can also separate itself from the physical body. If a person is scared, his soul leaves his body causing sickness. When a person dreams the karaduwa walks
around. The dream that a person has is caused by this walk.
 Image from the Soul Book courtesy of GCF books
BISAYA –  ‘DUNGAN’
A soul can be captured by bad spirits (e.g. engkantu). Souls may be imprisoned in a spirit cave guarded by old Tan Mulong whose spirit dog has one mammary
gland and two genitals. Sickness is the temporary loss of the soul, permanent loss is death. The soul can be lured back by a skillful shaman. The dungan is ethereal,
something not weighed down by the world. Before it inhabits a human body it inhabits a region above the earth with other dungan. The dungan then takes interest in the
unborn being, usually a relative which it had chosen to inhabit.
The dungan is not located in any specific part of the body and it grows proportionately with the person’s body. Weak at birth it is vulnerable to usug or the
unintentional transfer of disturbing vapors of a strong body to a weak one by proximity. There are many rituals performed to protect and nurture the dungan.
Dungan also has a secondary meaning of willpower. A stronger dungan means that the person has a greater capacity to dominate others to their line of thought.
People living together may lead to a spiritual competition between the two dungan leading to the weaker becoming sick.
At death the dungan leaves the body via any of the orifices and goes with the air toward the upper regions. There it waits until it finds another body to enter.

Image from Tan Mulong by Leandro Geniston

 
ILONGGO –  ‘DUNGAN’

The Ilonggo soul, the dungan is not seen by the human eye. Sometimes it goes out of the body and takes on visible forms as insects or small animals. A dungan
may leave the body voluntarily while the person is sleeping. If one sees themselves in their dreams it means their dungan has left their physical body. A slumbering person
should be waken gently to give the soul a chance to return to the body.  Whatever happens to the dungan also happens to the physical body. The dungan also withdraws
from the body if said body is badly treated
 
SULOD –  ‘UMALAGAD’

Dying among the Sulod is said to be like passing through a narrow door. The experience is horrible, as if the person has to pull hard to get in the door. Once one
departs they simply disappear. No trace of them is left behind.
This soul is watched over by three brother gods Mangganghaw, Manglaegas and Patag’aes. Mangganghaw keeps track over man’s affairs immediately after
marriage. He keeps track of pregnancy. He is also the first to come to the house of a laboring mother, peeps in the house and sees the child being born, after which he
reports to Manglaegas. Manglaegas, after being reported to by Mangganghaw, enters the house to look for the child to make sure the child was born alive, then reports to
Patag’aes who waits until midnight then enters the house to have a conversation with the infant. If Patag’aes discovers anyone eavesdropping on their conversation, he
chokes the child to death. The conversation is on how long the child wants to live and how the child will eventually die. The child gets to choose. After the child has chosen,
Patag’aes takes out his measuring stick and computes the child’s life span, and then he departs.\
 
TAGBANWA – ‘KIYARALUWA’ AND OTHERS

A Tagbanwa has one ‘true soul’ the kiyaraluwa and five secondary souls. The kiyaraluwa is given to each infant by the god Magindusa as the nose of the child
emerges from the vulva.
The secondary souls are located in the extremities of both hands and feet and in the head just below the air whorl (puyo). The souls of the feet protect one while
walking and from injuries to the feet, the same functions to those in the hands. The secondary soul located by the puyo is not fixed in young children and may cause illness
if not properly aligned, some shamans specialize in realigning the soul to its proper place. This soul is said to have a material form like a round white stone.
 
BUKIDNON – ‘MAKATU’ AND ‘PIPITU HA MAKATU’

The makatu, their world for soul, exists before a child’s birth but it is separate from the body. There is a ritual in which a miniature cradle is hung over the pregnant
mother in a place where the mother sleeps. The small cradle is where the soul of the unborn baby will sleep before it joins the infant at birth. The makatu is breathed into
man at birth by Miyaw-Biyaw. If all are present in an individual, they are healthy, if one or more wanders away from the body then Illness, irritability and sadness follow. If
all makatu leave the body at the same time, the individual dies.
The Bukidnon also believe in seven souls called the ‘pipitu ha makatu’. One jumps off the cliff, one swims in the water, one puts its hand in snake holes, one sits
under a tree, one is always walking around, one is awake in the day and one is awake at night.
BAGOBO – ‘GIMOKUD’

There are two souls called gimokud. Right hand gimokud is the good soul that manifests as a shadow on the right hand side of the path while the left hand
gimokud is the bad soul that manifests as a shadow on the left side of the path.
The right hand is associated with life, health, activity and joy, remaining in the body throughout life. When death causes the right hand gimokud to leave the body, it
gives notice by visiting in the form of an insect.
The left hand soul is the cause of lethargy, pain and illness. The left hand soul also leaves the body at night and risks various dangers, if it visits the sea the
sleeping person feels shivers, the behavior it engages in leaves a physical effect on the body. After death the gimokud becomes a busaw (digging up dead bodies).
When the throbbing of the skull cap stops, the soul exits through what used to be the fontanel.
All larger animals have two souls each while smaller birds bees and insects only have one soul. Inanimate objects have a single soul which goes to the underworld
so they can serve their owners.

Busaw by Leandro Geniston and Mykie Concepcion

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Code A88 - PDEV 1013: Understanding the Self

Finals Week 1 and 2

The Practice of Religion

Researches speak of religion as the people's way of connecting themselves to God as they search for meaning in life. Religion is also popularly
understood as "belief and behaviors related to supernatural beings and powers.” Still others define religion as "an organized system of ideas about
the spiritual sphere, along with ceremonial practices, or way of relating with the supernatural or the divine.” It can be simplified as the bond
between God and man”

Characteristics of Religion

A belief in anthropomorphic* supernatural being

*having human characteristics.
A focus on the sacred supernatural
The presence of supernatural power or energy that is found on supernatural beings as well as physical beings and objects
Some religious traditions consider geographic places to be spiritually sacred.
The performance of ritual activities
The articulation of worldview and moral codes through narratives and other means
Provide the creation and maintenance of social bonds and mechanism of social control within a community; provide explanation for unknown and a
sense of control for individuals

THE FUNCTIONS OF RELIGION

Stability and cohesion - shared religion binds people closely together.

Religion forms a balance and cohesive moral community. It is a means of protecting individuals from anomie, alienation and the threats of
disruptive mass movements and so maximizes the individual's potential for happiness.
Shared religious experiences provide the social cement for group unity and consensus

Social identity - shared religion gives people an identity and social membership

This is achieved through special naming ceremonies, in christening and baptism in the Christian church. For Durkheim, group solidarity is
affirmed and heightened during collective ceremony and ritual
Religion represents the necessary power of the social group over the otherwise isolated, anomic individual
Religion serves to integrate the person into the society. It is functionally useful for people to grow up identifying with a particular place or nation, to
strengthen a person's sense of national commitment, especially if either religion or nation come under threat
Collective conscience - religion unites people in moral ways

The group affirms its belief in the central values through its commitment to the religious system. These sentiments produce "value consensus”.
Religion thereby generates and maintains the collective conscience. This was observable in its effects and was open to scientific study just as
other social effects could be studied and analyzed, by collecting relevant statistics, through careful observation and recording or other
experimental methods.
Durkheim saw society as a moral community, whose members were socialized into accepting appropriate patterns of behavior over time. This is
an unending process since people are always being integrated into new groups, adopting new norms, absorbing new values and adapting new
patterns of behaviour.
An orderly social life is only possible when people share moral values, in this way, society becomes embedded in the individual.

Socialization and social control - religion represents the value system of the society

It is a conservative force which contributes to moral and wider social order and stability.
Many cultural norms are given sacred legitimacy by religious beliefs, eg, the Ten Commandments provide a prescription for an orderly lifestyle. By
promoting such values through family, school and church, the process of socialization occurs.
Appropriate modes of thinking and behaving are controlled in ways which will promote the good, orderly society.

Meaning and purpose - religion gives meaning and purpose to people's lives

In the face of death, disease and the hazards of everyday living, people are vulnerable to all kinds of disasters beyond their control. Religious
beliefs offer people comfort in times of crisis
It is the institution which gives people the strength to continue and promotes the long-term maintenance of society as a result

Haviland, et.al (2007) has this to say about religion the benefits of religion:

"Therefore, the practice of religion is beneficial to individuals, families, states, and the nation. It improves health, learning, economic well-being, self-
control, self-esteem, and empathy. It reduces the incidence of social pathologies, such as out-of-wedlock births, crime, delinquency, drug and alcohol
addiction, health problems, anxieties, and prejudices, Furthermore, religion creates a moral community to which people experience a sense of
belonging. It provides rites of passage as in the case of sacraments in Christianity It provides emotional support. It serves as a means to provide
answers to ultimate questions in life. It shapes the people's views of the universe. Finally, it can be a powerful agent of social change"

Techniques of Religion
 The practice of religion pertains to the general acts followed by the laity in accordance with the religious requirements. This, points to the overt

conduct of the laity or believers performing the beliefs and feelings.

1. Prayer - This is the communication to the Supernatural Being through speech or thoughts. It simply means conversation with the Almighty.
2. Divination - It is the elevation of a person's weak state to GOD. It is a process of which a man strive to perfect his imperfection (Bernardo, 2016)
3. Ceremony - This refers to a number of interconnected rituals done at specific time and place. Examples of these are Holy Mass, solemnizing marriage,
priest's ordination and tedium.
4. Sacrifice - This is expressing reverence to GOD or any perceived spirits or supernatural powers. For instance, abstinence and fasting. For the
Catholic, abstinence is not eating meat on Lenten season and Good Friday during Holy Week. Fasting is having one full meal a day and small meals
the rest of the day. Fasting is simply a sacrifice.
5. Reverence - This pertains to the feeling of awe coupled with love and admiration a person offers to the Almighty or Supernatural Power.

6.  Duty - This tries to please the Almighty by reverent act. For instance, it is the duty of anyone to follow GOD's Ten Commandments.
7. Rituals - This is a means of sanctification. Sanctification involves act of purification, supplication and thanksgiving (Schmidt, et al. 2005) In a simple
way rituals are expected means of performing religious acts. For instance, praying, making the sign of the cross, processions, way of the cross on
Lenten Season - for the Catholics.
8. Sacred Objects - These are objects attributed to the Supernatural Power such as the Bible, rosaries, prayer books and crucifix. To the Catholic, the
bread and wine sanctified during Holy Mass is a very sacred symbolism of the life of Jesus Christ
9. Taboo - This pertains to negative presentation of propitiatory devices or action wherein a person should refrain from certain act not in conformity with
the desire of the Almighty. It refers to the thou shall not" behavior. For instance, one must not practice incest (San Juan & Centeno, 2011).

 
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Code A88 - PDEV 1013: Understanding the Self

Finals Week 1 and 2

Common Elements of Religion

One of the hallmarks of religion is a belief in supernatural beings and forces.  They can take a variety forms, not all of which are found in every
religion.  Other categories of religion is animism and animatism.

ANIMATISM

A belief in a supernatural power not part of supernatural beings is referred to as animatism.  For those who hold this belief, the power is usually
impersonal, unseen, and potentially everywhere.  It is neither good nor evil, but it is powerful and dangerous if misused.  It is something like electricity or "the
force" in the Star Wars movies.

ANIMISM

A belief that natural objects are animated by spirits is animism.  The term comes from the Latin word for soul (anima).  This belief can take diverse
forms.  Things in nature may all have within them different spirits--each rock, tree, and cloud may have its own unique spirit.  Alternatively, all things in nature
may be thought of as having the same spirit.  This latter version of animism was characteristic of many Native American cultures.  In both forms of animism,
the spirits are thought of as having identifiable personalities and other characteristics such as gender.  A belief in a powerful, mature, protective "mother
nature" is an example.  The spirits may be benevolent, malevolent, or neutral.  They can be lovable, terrifying, or even mischievous.  They can interact with
humans and can be pleased or irritated by human actions.  Therefore, people must be concerned about them and will try to avoid displeasing them.

Initially, animatism and animism may seem to be the same thing.  In fact both beliefs are often found in the same culture.

CRITERIA ANIMISM ANIMATISM

the belief that spirits exist in natural belief that there is power in all forces
Definition
objects around you

does not speak of individual spiritual

Characteristics speaks of individual spiritual beings
beings

does not speak of a singular   speaks of a supernatural force that

Supernatural Force supernatural force but various spiritual exists everywhere in both inanimate
beings and animated 

Supernatural force does not have a

Personality Supernatural forces have personalities
particular personality

 
SUPERNATURAL CREATURES IN PHILIPPINE FOLKLORE

Supernatural forces range from impersonal spirits to gods and can be all powerful or annoying
creatures that possess humans

The Philippine folklore is rich with mythical and supernatural creatures. It is not as popular as those in Western cultures since it is mostly composed of
fragmented tales of horror and wonder. Nevertheless, it has influenced the lives of Filipinos that certain customs are being practiced so to appease these
beings and to prevent them from terrorizing people. So which supernatural creatures Filipinos are most afraid of? What are their equivalents to other
cultures? And how evil are they?

Many Filipino customs are influenced by their beliefs in various supernatural creatures. Say avoiding too much noise when near old trees so as not to
disturb these unearthly beings, or beeping the vehicle when crossing bridges at nights as a permission from them. It may seem peculiar but these habits and
more have become part of the way of life for many Filipinos, even for those living in the urban areas.

Let’s review!

Aswangs are the most feared mythical creature by the Filipinos. They are Filipino ghouls and shapeshifters. They are human-like by day but transform into
monsters at night. They can change from human to an animal form like bat, bird, pig, cat, or black dog. The transformation can happen through their own will
or through the use of foul concocted oil. They also have the ability to steal cadavers secretly and replace them with the trunk of a banana tree carved in the
cadaver’s likeness.

The tiyanak is another popular name in the Philippine folklore. Also known as impakto, it is a baby who died before receiving baptism rites. After its death, it
goes into the Limbo, a certain place in Hell where unbaptized dead people fall into, and then transforms into an evil spirit. It returns to the mortal world as a
goblin or a vampire-like creature, bound to eat living victims. A tiyanak can also be the offspring of a mortal woman and a demon, or an aborted fetus which
comes to take vengeance on its mother.

The tikbalang (also tigbalang, tigbalan, tikbalan, or demon horse) is a half-man and half-horse creature. It has the head and feet of a horse, and the body of
a human. It usually appears on the night of full moon looking for a female prey and usually rapes the victim in order to bear its offspring. Tikbalangs are
playful creatures and they usually make people imagine things that are not real, sometimes to the point that they become crazy.

The Manananggal is a special type of aswang who has the ability to fly after separating itself from the lower half of its body. It resembles the Western
vampire in being an evil, man-eating monster or witch. Its name is taken from the Filipino word “tanggal” which means to “to separate” or “to remove.” Most
manananggals, like most aswangs, are females. It appears in human form during the day. At night, it finds an isolated place where she will leave her lower
torso. It separates itself by will and its upper body flies, using bat-like wings, to hunt for victims.

Kapre is the Filipino equivalent of bigfoot from the West. It is a tree demon with more human characteristics. It is described as a dirty, dark giant (around 7 to
9 ft tall) who hides and lives within and atop large trees, particularly old trees such as balete (or banyan), acacia, or mango trees. This creature loves to
smoke huge rolls of cigars or tobaccos. Unlike other supernatural beings, the kapre does not harm human; instead, it is a “friendly” creature who loves to fool
around. It may make contact with people to offer friendship, or if it is attracted to a woman. It also play pranks to people and scares away little children
playing at night. It is said that if you are stuck in a place and keep going around in circles, a kapre must have been playing with you. To escape the spell, you
must wear your shirt inside-out.

Engkantos, or engkantadas (when referring to female creatures), are nature fairies and spirits. They are said to be angels who revolted with Lucifer against
the Lord. When the angels of God drove them out of heaven, some fell on earth. Those who fell in the forest or thick woods and lived in trees are the
engkantos. Hence they will possess some extraordinary powers but are limited. They are fair skinned, blond, with blue or green eyes, and far shorter or
much taller than the average human. They are mostly beautiful, with so much grace and charm that they attract many people. The dwelling place of the
engkanto may look like a large rock or trees but to their human friends, their house can appear as beautiful palaces. They also like to live in large trees like
the balete where they can also put their belongings.

A nuno or nuno sa punso is a dwarf-like creature or goblin in Philippine folklore which lives in an anthill or termite mound. The term “nuno sa punso” means
ancestor or grandparent of the anthill. It is described as a small old man with a long beard. It is ill-tempered and easily gets angered. If someone disturbs,
especially kicks, his mound, the nuno would put curse on that person. In effect, the offender would have swollen foot or pain on any part of his body,
experience vomiting blood, urinate black liquid, inflict illness, and have excessive hair growth on the back.

RITUALS

Rituals are 'patterned forms of behavior that have something to do with the supernatural realm'. They are performed in a repetitive nature. They can
be religious or secular. "People worldwide engage in religious ritual require a considerable amount of time or personal sacrifice. A good example is the case
of the Vegans of Phuket, Thailand who perform various acts of self-torture, including bathing in hot oil, fire walking, and piercing themselves with sharp
implements during their annual vegetarian festival. "Life cycle rituals", often referred to as 'rites of passage, mark a status change from one important life
stage to another. The Christian sacraments are examples of this. Many religions encourage rituals of pilgrimage, a round trip to a place considered sacred
for the purpose of religious devotion or ritual" (Sosis, 2010).

In many cases, sacrifice as the offering of something to the supernatural beings is performed to please or to express gratitude to such deities. An
example of this is the offering ritual called 'harang'. practiced by the Visayan fishing villages. Such ritual is described as "a process of purification (tuob),
invocation (pagtawag), entreaty (pangamuyo), offering (bayad), feast (kan-on), encompassing almost every aspect of the community's existence including
good or bad harvest, the operation of fishing boats and cases of illnesses" (Kawada, M., 1956). Kanyaw in the Cordillera, which is performed as an
expression of thanksgiving to their deities as well as a means to appease them is also noteworthy. This is also an expression of solidarity among the
members of the community. Similarly, the Buklog of the Subanens in Aurora, Zamboanga is performed in their fiesta to honor the spirits and plea for favors. It
is also a symbol of the Subanens' relationship with their fellowmen, and a spiritual journey to their Creator. Rituals in this sense have the function of uniting
the people. They allay fear of crisis as they prompt collective action.

MAGIC

Magic is commonly referred to as "tricks" and "illusions" that make impossible things seem to happen, usually performed as entertainment. Stein and
Stein (2011), describe it as a special talent or skill; an act that makes impossible things happen through some sort of trickery or deception, and thereby
manipulating not the supernatural world, but rather human perception. However, magic, as anthropologists use the term, refers to activities, usually rituals, by
which a person can compel the supernatural to behave in certain ways. It is seen as the ability which gives somebody control over the forces of nature. It is
used in many cultures for healing, keeping away evil, seeking the truth, and for vengeful purposes. It is an attempt to make supernatural forces act in specific
ways for good or evil purposes by recourse to certain specified formulas.

Stein & Stein (2011), state that magic answers our need to have some control of our lives and also of others with the ability to control the supernatural
forces. Haviland (2007), also explains that like religion, magic tries to explain the unexplainable and provides comfort and a coherent view of the world. It
also reduces stress, reinforcing group norms and identity, providing sanctions for individual behavior and providing a sense of the world. It leads to
avoidance or healing of illness. In the area of entertainment, magic captivates the audience with expert showmanship. It promotes and advances the art of
staged magic. Magic exists in all cultures.

WITCHCRAFT

Witchcraft, commonly understood as 'kulam', refers to the idea that certain people have an inborn power to harness spirits or energies for specific
purposes. "It is an explanation of events based on the belief that certain individuals possess an innate psychic power capable of causing harm, including
sickness and death" (Microsoft Encarta 2009). Here, it is closely understood closely with sorcery. Witchcraft is widely considered evil. Like sorcery, it is seen
as magic or special power that is worked for illegal or antisocial ends. For example, magic that is worked to kill someone for vengeful purposes is bad. The
witch or sorcerer tends to steal food remnants, hair, nail clippings, or clothes from the victim and use these objects to inflict harm upon the victim. As stated
by Stein & Stein (2011), "Although magic is used for variety of reasons to increase success and control the uncertainties of life, magic can also be used in
antisocial ways to interfere with the economic activities of others and to bring about illness and even death. Anything that disrupts the life and happiness of
someone is evil. The use of magic in this way in abominable. But why do people still practice witchcraft?

Haviland (2007), mentions that witchcraft serves a number of functions in society. Just like religion and magic, he says that witchcraft provides
explanations of the inexplicable, like illness, or natural disasters, as well as allows a community to come together, focus their energies on something (ridding
themselves of bad witchcraft and to reassert their communal identity. It is also a way for people to explain a personal misfortune without having to shoulder
any blame to themselves. Finally, it provides an outlet for feelings of hostility and frustration without disturbing the norms of the larger group
WHAT THE BIBLE SAYS ABOUT MAGIC, RITUAL AND WITCHCRAFT

As Filipinos of today, predominantly Christians, we have the Bible as our guide in the practice of our religion. Specifically, the Book of Deuteronomy
states:

"Don't sacrifice your children in the fires on your altars, and do not let your people practice fortune-telling, or use sorcery, or interpret omens, or engage in witchcraft, or cast spells,
or function as mediums or psychics, or call forth the spirits of the dead. Anyone who does these thing is detestable to the Lord. It is because the other nation have done these
detestable things that the Lord your God will drive them out ahead of you but you must be blameless before the Lord your God" (Dr.18 10-13).

For us Christians, God alone is worthy of adoration, for He alone, is the ONE, TRUE GOD. Such acts contrary to this, such as ascribing power to
amulets, magic and others mentioned above, are considered idolatrous and therefore, unacceptable. It is a violation to the very first commandment of God,
"I am the Lord, your God who brought you out of Egypt where you were slaves; worship no god but Me" (Ex. 20:2-3). This is further made clear in
Jesus Christ's declaration of the "Great Commandment of Love when He said:

"The most important one is this: Listen, Israel! The Lord our God is the only Lord. Love the Lord your God with all your heart, with all your soul, with all your mind and with all your
strength. The second most important commandment is this: Love your neighbor as you love yourself. There is no other commandment more important than these two" (Mark 12:29-
31).

In conclusion, submission to practices such as magic, kulam, and others of their kind may not lead us to the "ONE, TRUE GOD", the source of all
power. Much discernment must be done to examine or evaluate our practices whether or not they lead us closer to the One, True God. There are indeed
Filipino traditional religious practices (popular/folk religiosity) which are not helpful to our true worship of GOD, practices which need to be purified, and this
calls for a genuine, meaningful Christian evangelization. Without careful examination, our practices may lead us away from the ultimate source of happiness,
our ultimate end. Such ultimate end is God Himself, our union with Him. Failure to examine the things that we do, the way we live our lives, results to the loss
of meaning in life. Jesus Christ Himself gave us a clear guide when He spoke about the commandment of love - love of God and love of neighbor.
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Code A88 - PDEV 1013: Understanding the Self

Finals Week 1 and 2

The Concept of Loob

In the contemporary Filipino understanding of self, we have the concept of loob and personhood. LOOB, the inner self or inner being, is the core of
one's personhood and where the true worth of the person lies. It is what makes one what he is and who he is as a person. It is a term used to describe a
person in relationship with others. Contemporary psychology has defined the person by his relationship with others and such is done by describing what sort
of loob he has such as magandang loob or mabuting loob and masamang loob. A person is said to be of magandang loob/mabuting loob if he relates well
and positively with others. He is not only well-intentioned but be also promotes the well-being of others, especially those in need. They are called people of
goodwill. On the contrary, a person is said to be of masamang loob if he is of bad character. He correlates negatively with others. This LOOB is manifested
through external behavior, and behavior in an authentic person stems from the loob.

According to Mercado (1994). "a purified kalooban is supported by prayer. This loob that has been continually purified and strengthened acquires
commitment to the cause of the individual. This happens through forms of sacrifices which include prayers, abstinence from certain kinds of food, or
comforts, and sexual abstinence. Constant prayer and religious exercises are ways to purify the loob. One of the most popular sacrifices done by some
Filipino Catholics is the penitensia during Good Friday. The penitents reenact the suffering of Jesus Christ, from the flagellation to the crucifixion. Penitents
whip themselves on the back, using whips made of bamboo or paddles to draw blood. To complete the rites, some devotees willingly allow themselves to be
nailed to the cross, reenacting Jesus crucifixion. Despite the pain, loss of blood, the penitent emerges a "new man" whose loob has been renewed, ready to
face squarely the challenges of this world. Prayer and ritual can be a source of power".

Covar, in Mercado's book, The Filipino Mind' says that "the use of amulet (anting-anting) may also be a source of power. Those who use the anting-
anting believe that the words of Christ and the things used in Catholic liturgy are a strong source of power. While Scriptures say that the Word of God is
efficacious (Heb 4:12; 1Th.2:13 f.), meaning, *has the power to produce a desired result, their belief extends to other rituals and liturgical language in the
Catholic rite. The efficacy of the anting-anting depends upon the proper execution of certain rituals and the following of strict rules." Holy Week is supposedly
the best time for obtaining, testing and recharging the powers of anting-antings".

God's Kagandahang-loob

The Filipino concept and value, kagandahang-loob (kindness, generosity, benevolence, helpfulness) can be a very appropriate description of who God
is for Filipinos. It connotes all that is good in a person which is the ideal among Filipinos. It is a quality of BEING which has its roots in the very heart of a
person and which is given expression in the totality of one's life of interrelationship. This reminds us of Jesus in whom words and deeds are true
manifestations of His kagandahang-loob. This is why God's saving activity is described as kagandahang-loob.

Loob and Prayer

Prayer is said to be the first expression of man's interior truth". Interior truth refers to the core of one's personhood, his loob, which is closely related to
man's spirit. It the ultimate organizing center of human reality. It is also the very zone of creaturehood which is the bedrock layer of ideas, feelings and
behaviors.

Prayer then is the Christian's acknowledgment and awareness of the true nature of the look and the richness or weakness of this loob as exposed by
the light of faith. This look is made "in the image and likeness of God, hence, it is constituted by being related to God.

With this, payer becomes an active receptiveness, an active listening to what God is revealing through one's loob. It is the recognition,
acknowledgment, acceptance of this relates to God of our loob in an explicit manner. Christian prayer is our conscious personal communion with God, our
Father, in Christ Jesus. It is the fruit of the Holy Spirit working in our hearts, enabling us to turn to God and with confidence, to call Him our Father. This
prayer is always a free gift of God, which leads us back to Him, pagbabalik loob (conversion) when astray, restoring the original goodness of one's kalooban.

How does this concept of loob and prayer help us find meaning in life?
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Finals Week 1 and 2

Logotherapy: Finding and Creating Meaning

Viktor Frankl's refers Human spirit in Logotherapy as that which is uniquely human. Logotherapy is
based on the premise that the human is person motivated by a "will to meaning an inner pull to find meaning in life. Here is a list of tenets or doctrine that
represents basic principles of logotherapy.

Life has meaning under all circumstances, even the most miserable ones.
People's main motivation for living is their will to find meaning in Life
People have freedom to find meaning in what they do, and what they experience or at least in the stand they take when faced with certain situation of
unchangeable suffering (Frankl,1959, Retrieved)

According to Frankl, the main motivation why men continue to live is the will to meaning A person must see meaning in his life. This meaning is unique for
every individual and it gives a talk that wily an individual alone can do at a given moment. This may vary from time to time, as well as from person to person.
It is this kind of significance that gives his own will to meaning. According to Logotherapy, we can discover this meaning in life in three different ways

1. By creating a work or doing a deed

Whenever we find value in who we are through the things we do, then we create meaning in our lives. It can be a scientist who has discovered a cure for
cancer or a book vendor whose reason for selling is to spread learning or it can also be a father taking care of his son.

2. By experiencing something or encountering someone

Finding meaning in life can also happen when one experiences positive things like goodness, truth, beauty and especially being loved. Where love means
that one is accepted for his uniqueness or that his present and that change lives other potentialities are encouraged to the fulfilment of becoming the best
person he can be. It can also be just by experiencing nature and culture where there is human flourishing

3. By the attitude people take toward unavoidable suffering

The third emphasizes that even in suffering one can find meaning in life where cm turn ones predicament into triumph. Suffering costs to be suffering at the
moment it finds a meaning, such as the meuning of a sacrifice. A good example of this would be NickVujicic who was born without limbs but has now
become an international inspirational speaker. For Vujicic, he chose to be worthy of his suffering and meet the challenge that was given him

One big emphasis from all these three is that a person can always find meaning in every situation one finds oneself.
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Code A88 - PDEV 1013: Understanding the Self

Finals Week 3 and 4

Introduction to the Digital Self

The concept of the digital self originated from the phenomenon Russell Belk (1988) call as ‘extended self’. He believed our possessions are a main
contributor to and reflection of our identities. Then, external objects, such as clothes, jewellery and cars etc. that he believed we used and considered as part
of ourselves.

Nowadays however, it isn’t merely the tangible belongings that researchers consider as part of our extended self. Our digital possessions such as
photos, videos, statuses, texts, and emails are now seen to be significantly important to shaping our digital self. Think about it, could you live without your
smartphone or laptop?

The immense progress of technology in the field of communications has greatly influenced the lifestyle, work, habits and the overall experiences of
people all over the world. The digital, mobile, and social media have become an indispensable part of everyday life. Also, the internet is also playing an ever
more important role in our lives. With the world’s internet users spending an average of 6 hours and 43 minutes online each day, the typical user now spends
more than 40 percent of their waking life (Kemp, 2020 on Digital 2020 Report.) This constant rise in the use of digital communication has irrefutably re-
defined and expanded the concept of the digital self of individuals. Online activities are no longer separable from our real lives, but an integral part of it
(Chamorro-Premuzic, 2015)
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Code A88 - PDEV 1013: Understanding the Self

Finals Week 3 and 4

Online Identity
Identity has many definitions, but we can simplify it into a few words: you are who you are and what you do. Simply put, your identity is the sum of
your characteristics, including your birthplace and birthday, the schools you attended, your shoe size, and so on. Some of those characteristics never
change, such as your birthday, and some change over time, such as your hair color.

Similarly, when you are using the Internet, your online identity is the sum of your characteristics and interactions online. Because you interact
differently with each website you visit, each of those websites will have a different picture of who you are and what you do. For example, the way you project
yourself in Facebook may be entirely different than how you express yourself in Twitter. Your audiences therefore in these two sites may have an idea about
who you are. Sometimes the different representations of you are referred to as partial identities, because none of them has the full and true picture of who
you are. Let’s just say that these partial identities reflect tidbits about an individual's personality and identity.

Your online identity is not the same as your real-world identity because the characteristics you represent online differ from the characteristics you
represent in the physical world. Every website you interact with has its own idea of your identity because each one you visit sees you and your
characteristics differently. For example, shopping sites like Shopee, Lazada and Zalora has established a partial identity for you based on the products you
prefer and buy, whether it’s you on your phone or someone else using your account. Google Finance has established a partial identity for you based on the
stocks you are following, whether you actually own those stocks or not. Spotify gives you a recommendation on the songs and playlists you like. Neither one
has your full identity, even if they were to put together your partial identities.

The result is that you have one true identity and many partial identities. Some of the information associated with a partial identity is under your control;
other information may be out of your control or even completely invisible to you. Regardless of what you can and cannot control, they all contribute to “who
you are and what you do.”

Evonomie (2018) mentions that online identity is likened to an investment. “You start out with a small amount of capital, and the way you use it over time determines how
much you end up with later on. The difference is, it’s actually a lot easier to control your online identity than it is to predict the stock or real estate markets”. Evonomie sites
the following elements of the digital self.

Concept Recall:

A digital footprint is a trail of data you create while using the Internet. It includes the websites you visit, emails you send, comments on social media, and
information you submit to online services. As we have mentioned, anything you do online, whether it is merely searching or actual interaction with other
people or companies, they form part of your online identity.

Learn more about Digital Footprint!

WATCH: Four Reasons to Care About Your Digital Footprint by Internet Society

SUMMARY:

The digital self is the persona you use when you’re online.
Online Identity is the sum of your characteristics and your interactions.
Partial Identity is a subset of characteristics that make up your identity.
A digital footprint is a trail of data you create while using the Internet.
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Code A88 - PDEV 1013: Understanding the Self

Finals Week 3 and 4

Self-presentation Online
Magalona, Sadsad and Cruz (2018) stated that the digital self is a decoy that we use to conceal our real self. As we share ourselves to the world we
try to hide our true self to cover up the issues that we have about ourselves and show the world that we are fine and perfect. As we show the significant
others our cover through the digital self we, on the other hand, expect affirmation and acceptance. The digital world has made thing happen more swiftly
which includes finding a partner or losing one through dating sites and the social media, customize a character and joining gaming tournaments worldwide;
filter or edit an image according to the physical features desired; or maybe store and transfer loads of file using our hand held gadgets.

The Dramaturgy of the Self

All the world's a stage, and all the men and women merely players. They have their exits and their entrances and one man in his time plays many parts."

~William Shakespeare

Dramaturgy is a sociological perspective that focuses on the management of everyday life proposed by Erving Goffman. Goffman compares the
human world to a theatre and drew comparisons between humans in everyday life and the actors that played roles on-stage.

As in theatrical performances, social interaction also has the front stage, back stage, and off-stage regions. At the front, factors like the performer's
consciousness that there is an audience and their expectations of him/her influence or impact the performance. As for the back stage region, this is where
the performer can relax and be himself/herself, away from the prying eyes of the crowd. Someone is then considered off-stage if he/she gets to meet
members of the audience completely independent or separate from the performance.

In the context of social media, the front stage region is when people's carefully-constructed digital selves engage in online activities, such as publicly
commenting on posts, choosing which "selfie" to upload, or even deciding on what thoughts to publish. On the other hand, the back stage region is when
someone simply logs out and momentarily abstains from social media use. Off-stage, finally, is when people actually meet up with people they only know on
the internet, or at least those they perform to online through various cues and expressions.

Furthermore, Goffman added that people, when engaged in social interactions, internalize what he calls impression management: a process wherein
each attempts to manufacture and present one’s self positively to avoid embarrassment (Crossman, 2018). He also stated that people often give out
expressions or cues that aid in the formation of an identity for others to confirm or deny later on (Rosenfeld, 2015). As examples, when a user posts
something on social media in broken English or uploads a picture of a newly purchased designer bag, others may accuse them of being a try-hard or social-
climber, respectively; but reactions can also be of the exact opposite.

SUMMARY:

According to Goffman, every individual is engaged in impression management by his conscious decision to present himself in a certain way and his
continuous performance to ensure that a particular image of himself is established. This implies that individuals wear masks, play roles and present
themselves in the ways they see themselves or in the ways they desire to be seen by others (Goffman, 1959).

Impression Management in Social Media

Impression management refers to “conscious or unconscious attempts to influence images during interaction” (Gilmore, Stevens, Harrell-Cook &
Ferris, 1999). It is how people attempt to manage or control the perceptions which others form of them. Individuals manage their impressions when they wish
to present a favourable image of themselves to others. Thus, the concept of impression management is based on the assumption that individuals have an
inherent need to be accepted and included, and therefore act accordingly.

The opportunity to manage impressions has been greatly influence by new communication technologies. In the Internet era, people can make and
remake themselves, choosing the details of their online impression. Adolescents now can manage the impression they make through social media in many
ways. These impression management opportunities come with the visual anonymity of the social media, providing users much greater degrees of freedom.
People can manipulate various characteristics online to present themselves as more humorous, friendlier, or more likable than in daily life.

The following are impression management strategies:

Through ingratiation, people try to elicit the affection of others by conforming to others' opinions, by doing favours, or by praising others' achievements.
Through intimidation, people try to elicit fear in others by projecting both the capacity and inclination to deliver negative outcomes. Typically, this
strategy is used in relationships that are non-voluntary rather than in freely formed relationships among peers.
Through self-promotion, people try to elicit the respect of others by highlighting their prior successes and excusing previous failures.
 Through supplication, people try to elicit the nurturance of others through self-deprecation and entreaties for help. This is the last resort and is typically
used by low-power persons who have little else going for them.

 Download this presentation for examples from movies!

Impression_Management.pptx

Our strategies in impression management change depending on who we are interacting with or what personal information we need to be providing to
present ourselves in a way that will be acceptable to others. Thus, we can select only what we want to present and impress to others, what we view
beneficial to our personality, especially when we create a digital self. We carefully choose representation or expression of one’s real world to the online
world.

SUMMARY:

Impression Management refers to conscious efforts by people to influence how others think of them.

Why: individuals have an inherent need to be accepted and included, and therefore act accordingly
How: with the use of controlling information, photos, and videos and present them in a proper way in social media.

Impression Management strategies:

Self-Promotion -individuals point out their abilities or accomplishments in order to be seen as competent by observers
Ingratiation -individuals do favors or use flattery to elicit an attribution of likability from observers
Exemplification -people self-sacrifice or go above and beyond the call of duty in order to gain the attribution of dedication from observers
Intimidation -where people signal their power or potential to punish in order to be seen as dangerous by observers
Supplication -where individuals advertise their weaknesses or shortcomings in order to elicit an attribution of being needy from observers.
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Code A88 - PDEV 1013: Understanding the Self

Finals Week 3 and 4

The Impact of Digital Advancements to Identity

1. Disconnectedness

The increasing use of gadgets and presence in the social media results in being disconnected from the people around us. As we rush to check and
connect to the online world we neglect to interact face to face with those who demand attention from us. Often, we prefer to stay stuck on the social media
creating recent posts or stalking on someone else account for hours while being mentally insensitive to the happenings around us. Such reality is what
disconnects us from our relationships.

2. Developing and Nurturing Virtual Relationship

The progressive development in the features of social networking sites allows individuals to gain thousands of friends and even millions of followers.
This eventually leads to creating virtual relationships which satisfies the need for relationships and intimacy. However as this can provide positive impact on
the individual the same can also cause inability to maintain face to face relationships which demands more personal adjustments and understanding of
human differences. Hence, it can be concluded that relationships have become superficial as we tend to nurture the relationship only within the confines of
the digital environment which demands simple duties such as "liking' or sharing a friend's recent online post

3. Online Recklessness

The online world has provided its users the opportunity to express themselves by communicating their thoughts and responses whether in the form of
an emoticon, emoji, animated gif, meme or through traditional words. These are ways to express positive or negative feedback on a recent post seen on a
random feed in a social networking site.

The digital world provides us with the chance of expressing our thoughts and viewpoints from the confines and comforts of our room but do we really
use this freedom with a sense of responsibility? If we state an unconventional response that can trigger public outrage or collective reaction from all of those
who can see our raw reactions, are we willing to stand for the consequences? We are all liable for our acts but many have revealed the tendency is to be
reckless and irresponsible. They cannot regulate and monitor on their expression of emotions. After the damage has been done through the posting of
opinions or personal reactions online, the next step is to delete the same. This is definitely a manifestation of extreme recklessness which does not in any
way help in the development of maturity among individuals.

BUT remember, class, that whatever you post online is there forever. You may have deleted a post but people out there have a receipt of what you
posted. Receipts are evidences or proof often in the form of screenshots or saved snapshots. Case in point: Liza Soberano on rape comment

4. Distorted Identity Formation

The digital world offers the opportunity to create several identities according to our hearts' desire. An individual can change his citizenship, gender,
looks, character, and status in the online world. The desire to be someone else or to create an ideal self in this realm can be achieved instantly through the
advance features offered in the social networking sites as enhanced by open sourced applications. The identity that we desire to project Online may either
reflect our true self or our ideal self. However as we work for affirmation from our Online friends and acquaintances, we tend not to be truthful to ourselves.
Indeed, nobody wanted to be rejected, everyone desires to be loved and accepted but as the Online world offers varied ways to enhance our image then that
becomes our tool to create a 'new identity that will guarantee acceptance by the valued online friends, followers and acquaintances despite the deviation
from what is real.

5. A Significant Portion of Our lives is Being Broadcasted (OverSharing)

The online world gives its users the chance to have that 'celebrity feel'. We pose everything from food to travel to relationship status and minor or
major events in our life. If analyzed well, it shows that every detail of what we post online is for public consumption. Without considering the risks and the
hazard online world has evidently become an outlet for most of us. This is called oversharing.

Oversharing happens when people share too much personal information to the public or a stranger. It is a big problem on social media sites, which
make "putting yourself online" easy. The following are examples of oversharing:

Posting intimate details about your relationships, friendships, family matters, or personal drama including heated arguments with significant others
Using social media as a soapbox or a way to vent your emotions.
Posting photos or videos of things meant to be private including embarrassing photos or videos of yourself or others.
Regularly posting your meals.
"Checking In" to everywhere you go.
Posting about whatever you are doing at a given moment, multiple times a day.
Sharing too much info about and photos of your children.

 
Bu why do we overshare?

Social Media Encourages It

Social media sites invite users to share everything about their personal lives. It's easy to post a status update, a photo, an event, or a "check-in" with
the click of a button. Unfortunately, this can lead to FOMO, or fear of missing out. FOMO, according to JWTIntelligence, is “the uneasy and
sometimes all-consuming feeling that you’re missing out — that your peers are doing, in the know about, or in possession of more or something better
than you.”

Are you experiencing FOMO? Here are the signs:

You’re always on your phone, checking your Facebook or other social media notifications, and texting friends, even when you’re at a party, supposedly having a great time.
When you’re at home, you’re still constantly checking Twitter, Facebook, and text messages.
You have a hard time making a buying decision because something better might come along.
You don’t want to commit to making plans until you’ve heard from everyone and can pick the most exciting option.
You think other people are having a better time, buying better things, or living happier lives based on their profile page or tweets.
You feel anxious and inadequate after reading your friends’ Facebook updates.

To Vent Emotions And Stress

It is likely that we have seen someone's angry Facebook or Twitter rant at least once. Because social media gives everyone a voice and a
platform to express it, it can be tempting to "air your dirty laundry" there.

Venting anger was found to relax people (in the short-run). In a study by Martin, Coyier, Van Sistine, & Schroeder (2013), 100 percent of frequent
internet ranters reported feeling calm and relaxed after posting on a rant-site like justrage.com. They concluded that benefits are only short-term and, in
the long run, people who rant online (or in person) suffer for it. In fact, in this same study, they found that frequent ranters were angrier than the
average person and expressed their anger in a more negative way than the average person. So, even though it relaxes people in the short-run, it’s bad
for you in the long-run.

For Attention

Getting likes, comments, shares, and that little boost of attention can give them the feeling of being famous. This can lead to a desire to post
things they know will get them noticed, even if they're "too much."

 
In an article published by the Association for Psychological Science (2016), they presented that:
The same brain circuits that are activated by eating chocolate and winning money are activated when teenagers see large numbers of “likes” on their own photos or the
photos of peers in a social network, according to findings from a study in which researchers scanned teens’ brains while they used social media.

6. Digital Self-Harm

Almost of similar degree to mutilating oneself we show how sad and problematic we are through the online space. Studies have revealed that around
6 adolescents between the ages of 12 to 17 years are practicing this so called digital self-harm," and they are done through the use of smartphones.
According to criminologist and cyberbullying researchers Justin W. Patchin, Ph.D., and Sameer Hinduja, Ph.D., digital self-harm entails the “anonymous
online posting, sending, or otherwise sharing of hurtful content about oneself.” This implies that people tend to demean themselves on public as they tend to
validate their insecurities and weaknesses among their online friends and followers.

Patchin and Hinduja (2017) note in their study that “…many who had participated in digital self-harm were looking for a response,” What kind of
response exactly? The youth in Patchin and Hinduja’s survey reported several different kinds. These included wanting others’ pity, wanting “to be validated
that someone did actually care about me,” and attempting to elicit others’ help (e.g., hoping that another person might come to the assistance of or defend
the target of the harmful statement—the individual who made the statement to begin with).

 The loneliness, emptiness and anxiety digital technology produce results in the declining mental health and the increasing rate of adolescent suicide.
As the online world has provided a means for these individuals to express themselves, it also allows the chance to post bad self-impressions about one's
looks and traits which later validates insecurities and low self-concept.

7. Contribute to a Declining Mental Health

Severe exposure and engagement in the digital world can result to extreme loneliness and anxiety especially among teens. The inability to gain
attention from the significant others results to sadness and frustration. This is contributing a lot to a declining mental health as the individual is unable to
overcome stress. Crimes arise due to this reality as they develop angst and heighten emotional issues which they cannot resolve in a more mature manner.

According to the Royal Society for Public Health, YouTube tops the table as the most positive, with Instagram and Snapchat coming out as the
most detrimental to young people’s mental health and wellbeing. Based on the ratings young people gave to each platform for each of the health and
wellbeing-related issues, the five most popular platforms were given a net average score which were used to establish the league table rankings:

1. YouTube (most positive)

2. Twitter
3. Facebook
4. Snapchat
5. Instagram (most negative)
  

8. Self-Obsession

Constant exposure to the online world has evidently increased the incidence of narcissism. Many have become self-obsessed and self-absorbed as
facilitated and promoted by the social media. As social networking sites allow escape from the daily woes of life, expectations consequently arise. Users
expect that there will be following and responses to their posts whether it is an image, a quote, an emotional post evident through likes' 'shares' and 'tweets.'
Individuals who submit themselves to the mentality propagated by these social networking sites have become preoccupied by trying to produce their best
photos and images, detailed account of their most recent activities as well as the best image of the cup of coffee they have bought from that high-end café
with a location posted on their Facebook, Instagram or Twitter accounts. All of these accounts have to do with themselves, what they are doing now, who
they are with and what they feel now. Individuals have become so engrossed with themselves.

The digital world has inspired individuals to be so amazed about the “me, myself and I” craze

Consequently the development of the social media has brought forth the introduction of intangible elements which become an extension of ourselves. Those are what we
post online and what we keep offline which become part of our digital possessions. Photos, emails, SMS, videos and the like have become vital reflections of our digital
self.
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Code A88 - PDEV 1013: Understanding the Self

Finals Week 3 and 4

Reasons for Engaging in the Digital Hype

REASONS FOR ENGAGING IN THE DIGITAL HYPE

By Magalona, Sadsad, Cruz (2018)

The digital world offers a unique experience which makes great impact on the way individuals express themselves as largely the same sentiment is driven by
the following basic reasons:

1. Every individual desires to meet the expectation of the significant others in his/her life. Many would not readily post their photos online but will edit or
filter the same to ensure that they look a lot better in their digital images. The use of several online applications (Apps) facilitates this need;
2. Online posting of objects as well as current statuses is expected to receive responses and reactions from their followers as in the form of ‘likes’ and
‘shares.’ These are gestures that boost their ego and self esteem
3. As Abraham Maslow had stated in the 'Hierarchy of Needs' (1943), each has the need to 'belong.' Everyone desires to blend in.' And so when
everyone on the social media poses photos of his/her food then all others follow the trend. Uploading of these images creates a feeling of being part of
the hype.
4. The digital web provides individual with much more freedom to express themselves in varied forms. Whether verbally or non-verbally these digital
platforms create an avenue to communicate and express ideas and views just about everything.
5. The digital world allow the individual to achieve his or her ‘ideal self’ whether it is physical such as those provided by online applications to improve
their images physically. And it could also be emotionally as platform users can express themselves by 'Vlogging' or even Blogging.' Whichever manner
results in an emotional experience that makes one feel good about his or her self.
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Code A88 - PDEV 1013: Understanding the Self

Finals Week 3 and 4

Online Disinhibition
ONLINE DISINHIBITION: THE CAUSES

By: Palean, Nazario, Valero and Descartin (2018)

The online disinhibition effect describes the loosening of social restrictions and inhibitions that are normally present in face-to-face interactions that takes
place in interactions on the Internet. John Suler posits six factors that often cause online disinhibition. They are as follows

1. DISSOCIATIVE ANONYMITY ("People Don't Know Me")

This is the confidence you feel every time you anonymously engage in online activities. Because you can easily disassociate your online identities
from your offline ones, you can be relatively carefree (or careless, even) in your virtual behavior, resulting in a more unfiltered, even harmful, you.
Arguing online in the comments sections, for example, emboldens you to use profanities and even hate slurs because none of them really knows you
personally.
#ANONYMITY - the act of communicating wherein the sender does not openly reveal his/her identity

2. INVISIBILITY ("People Can't See Me")

In this factor, you can sometimes intentionally misrepresent yourself to come across as an entirely different person. Unlike in real conversations,
invisibility enables you to alter your virtual avatar's personality and even appearance, sometimes to lure attractive people into taking notice of you, or
just to generally avoid scrutiny when you participate online. In hiding your true physical and personal attributes away, you are effectively freeing
yourself up from the baggage of having to present yourself as you truly are.
#PSEUDONYMITY - same as anonymity, but the sender takes on alternate personas

3. ASYNCHRONICITY ("See You When I See You")

Time is a very important element in face to face communications. This is why meetings at work are scheduled based on the attendees availability.
Conversely, you have the luxury of time delay in the virtual world. Every time you send an e-mail or even a message on Facebook, time is on your
side. You can compose, structure, and edit it in a span of several minutes, sometimes an hour or even more. Even your posts in online forums can be
made to read smarter than they are originally, thanks to web references you can access in an instant. Another plus is that you do not even need to be
physically present in your virtual engagements. In effect, this makes you more relaxed in dealing with people online with the pressures of real world
communication removed completely

4. SOLIPSISTIC INTROJECTION ("It's All in The Mind")

We essentially communicate online through typewritten words. Verbal cues, though ever-present are not the accepted norm in interacting virtually. In
this regard, you unconsciously recite in your head both the messages you send and those deployed your way. You play casting director for these
voices, imagining how the pitch or intonation would be if spoken out loud. Ultimately, you think of your voice when you read the messages. And
because the words are filtered through you, you feel less intimidated in communicating thinking it is all happening in your own personal psychic
domain. This is why acquaintances are sometimes very talkative to each other virtually but do not actually speak let alone interact much in real life.

5. DISSOCIATIVE IMAGINATION ("It's All a Play")

Simply put, this is the faulty belief that online interaction is a game, and whose rules you can easily break with no perceived implications. Buoyed by
the assumption that your real-life identity and digital avatars are separate entities and that the cyberspace is but an outlet for escape (like movies),
you sometimes resort to doing unspeakable things you normally wouldn't in real life. This notion often rationalizes criminal behavior online, particularly
identity theft or even sexual harassment

6. MINIMIZATION OF STATUS AND AUTHORITY ("Your Rules Don't Work Online")

Have you ever stumbled upon one of your professors Facebook profiles and it suddenly occurred to you how powerless he/she seems to look? If yes,
then this is because the internet, more than just providing users a disinhibited space, levels the playing field, with no one personality having unanimous
clout over others. Perhaps your professor, or even a politician for that matter, is influential outside the realm of the cyberspace, but within it, he/she,
along with the great many, still belong under the same classification: user. Take notice how ordinary individuals suddenly have the guts to engage
influential people in arguments on social media. Online, people are perceived to
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Code A88 - PDEV 1013: Understanding the Self

Finals Week 3 and 4

Summary and Prayer

CHAPTER SUMMARY:

People often engage in performance when encountering different abstractions online, sometimes to the detriment of their identity. The cyberspace, in
addition, also allows the creation of multiple personalities (the concept of multiphrenia) to cater to different sets of audience. Activities online also fit within
the broader contours of Erving Goffman’s dramaturgical framework, which outlines the relationship between an individual and how he or she interacts with
the audience. Given prominence also in digital interactions is the idea of impression management or peoples’ attempt to come across positively to others to
avoid embarrassment. On the flip side, though, not everyone wants to be readily recognizable online. As a remedy, they use anonymity and pseudonymity.
This hiding away of ones true identity in effect, allows users to become more open in freely expressing their thoughts in the virtual space, which John Suler
calls online disinhibition.

** END of LESSON on THE DIGITAL SELF***

Prayer for the Internet

- by Patti Maguire Armstrong

Dear Lord, give me your protection as I use the Internet.

Keep me from darkness,

Surround me with your light.

Help me act always in love.

In the company of your angels and saints,

Guide my path to sites that glorify You.

Be my timekeeper and filter.

Let me hear Your Divine call to my duties,

Repel me by anything against You.

Guide me to evangelizing opportunities,

And send your Holy Spirit with the words.

Let the Godly draw me stronger than the worldly

Keep me from self-indulgence and addiction.

Thank you, Lord, for the blessings of technology.

Forgive me for the times I have misused it.

And in all things, lead me closer to You.

Amen.

Copyright 2014 Patti Maguire Armstrong

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Code A88 - PDEV 1013: Understanding the Self

Finals Weeks 5-6

Well-being
INTRODUCTION                                      

         WELL-BEING

Well-being is the experience of health, happiness, and prosperity. It includes having good mental health,
high life satisfaction, a sense of meaning or purpose, and ability to manage stress. More generally, well-
being is just feeling well. 
  
                        CAN YOU ACTUALLY IMPROVE WELL-BEING?
Increasing your well-being is simple; there are tons of skills you can build. But increasing your well-being is not always easy:
Figuring out what parts of well-being are most important for you and figuring out how, exactly, to build well-being skills usually require
some extra help.

HOW LONG DOES IT TAKE TO IMPROVE WELL-BEING?

Usually, when people start consistently using science-based techniques for enhancing well-being or emotional wellness, they
begin to feel better pretty quickly. In the studies I've conducted and read, most people show significant improvements within five
weeks.

But you have to stick to it. If you are feeling better after five weeks, you can't just stop there.

Why? Well, you probably already know that if you stop eating healthy and go back to eating junk food, then you'll end up back where
you started. It turns out that the exact same thing is true for different types of well-being. If you want to maintain the benefits you gain,
you'll have to continue to engage in well-being-boosting practices to maintain your skills. So it's really helpful to have strategies and
tools that help you stick to your long-term goals — for example, a happiness and well-being plan or a well-being boosting activity that
you can continue to use throughout your life.

Here's what you need to know:

WHERE DOES WELL-BEING COME FROM?

Well-being emerges from your thoughts, actions, and experiences — most of which you have control over. For example, when
we think positive, we tend to have greater emotional well-being. When we pursue meaningful relationships, we tend to have better
social well-being. And when we lose our job — or just hate it — we tend to have lower workplace well-being. These examples start to
reveal how broad well-being is, and how many different types of well-being there are.

Because well-being is such a broad experience, let's break it down into its different types.

5 MAJOR TYPES OF WELL-BEING

EMOTIONAL WELL-BEING. The ability to practice stress-management and relaxation techniques, be resilient, boost self-love, and ge
to good feelings.
 PHYSICAL WELL-BEING.  The ability to improve the functioning of your body through healthy living and good exercise habits.

SOCIAL WELL-BEING.  The ability to communicate, develop meaningful relationships with others, and maintain a support network tha
overcome loneliness.

WORKPLACE WELL-BEING. The ability to pursue your interests, values, and life purpose in order to gain meaning, happiness, and enrichment profes

SOCIETAL WELL-BEING. The ability to actively participate in a thriving community, culture, and environment.
 
To build your overall well-being, you have to make sure all of these types are functioning to an extent.
 
Think of it like this: Imagine you are in a car. Your engine works great, and maybe your transmission works pretty well, too, but your
brakes don't work. Because your brakes don't work, it doesn't really matter how well your engine works; you're still going to have
trouble going about your life.
The same is true for your well-being. If everything else in your life is going great, but you feel lonely, or you're eating unhealthfully,
other areas of your life will be affected, and you likely won't feel as well as you want to.
 
Because each part of well-being is important to your overall sense of well-being, let's talk about how to build each type of
well-being:
 
EMOTIONAL WELL-BEING. To develop emotional well-being, we need to build emotional skills — skills like  positivity,  emotion
regulation, and mindfulness, for example. Often, we need to build a
variety of these skills to cope with the wide variety of situations we encounter in our lives. When we have built these emotional well-
being skills, we can better cope with stress, handle our emotions in the face of challenges, and quickly recover from disappointments.
As a result, we can enjoy our lives a bit more, be happier and pursue our goals a bit more effectively.
Here are some of the skills that research suggests contribute
         to emotional well-being:

-HappinessSkills

-MindfulnessSkills

-Positive ThinkingSkills

-ResilienceSkills 

                                      

PHYSICAL WELL-BEING. To develop our physical well-being, we need to know what a healthy diet and exercise routine looks like, so
that we can implement effective strategies in our daily lives. When we improve our physical well-being, not only do we feel better, our
newfound health can also help prevent many diseases, heal our guts, boost our emotional well-being, and limit the number of health
challenges we have to deal with in our lives.

Here are some of the things that can help you boost your
        physical well-being:

Eating for Health

Detoxing Your Body
Correcting Nutritional Deficiencies      
Removing Plastic From Your Home    

                                     ​

Unfortunately, it's possible to eat healthy but still be unhealthy. We can accidentally miss important foods or nutrients. Or we can
overburden ourselves with toxins from plastic or processed food. As a result, we may need to eat additional foods, detox our bodies, or
prevent these toxins from entering our bodies again. This is why it's essential to learn about health, so that we can make the right
changes — those that lead to long-term health and well-being.

SOCIAL WELL-BEING. To develop social well-being,we need to build our social skills, like gratitude, kindness, and communication.
Social skills make it easier for us to have positive interactions with others, helping us to feel less lonely, angry, or disconnected. When
we have developed our social well-being, we feel more meaningfully connected to others.

Here are some of the skills that research suggests contribute to better social well-being:

Practicing gratitude (for example with a gratitude journal?

Building Meaningful Social Connections

Managing Your Relationship with Technology                                                           

 

It's important to know that building social well-being is one the  best  ways to build emotional well-being. When we feel socially
connected, we also tend to just feel better, have more positive emotions, and we are able to cope better with challenges. This is why
it's essential to build our social well-being.

WORKPLACE WELL-BEING. To develop our workplace well-being, we need to build skills that help us pursue what really matters to
us. This can include building professional skills which help us to meet our life goalsand help us manifest things, but it also includes
things like living our values and maintaining work-life balance. These skills let us enjoy our work more, helping us to stay focused,
motivated, and successful at work. When we have developed workplace well-being, our work, and therefore each day, feels
more meaningful.

Here are some of the key skills you need for workplace well-being:

 Maintaining Work-Life Balance

Finding Your Purpose

Because we spend so much time at work, building our workplace well-being has a big impact on our overall well-being.

 
 SOCIETAL WELL-BEING. To develop societal well-being, we need to build skills that make us feel interconnected with all things. We
need to know how to support our environment, build stronger local communities, and foster a culture of compassion, fairness,
and kindness. These skills help us feel like we're part of a thriving community that really supports one another and the world at large.
When we cultivate societal well-being, we feel like we are a part of something bigger than just ourselves and live happily.
Although each of us only makes up a tiny fraction of a society, it takes all of us to create societal well-being. If each of us did one kind
act for someone else in our community, then we would live in a very kind community. Or if all of us decide we are going to recycle,
then suddenly we create a world with significantly less waste. In order to live in a healthy society, we too need to contribute to making
a healthy society.

 
  

 
Here are some of the skills you can build for greater societal well-being:

Living Your Values

Creating a Plastic-Free Home
Making Positive Impacts in Other People's Lives​
Kindness 

There Is No Magic About Building Well-Being

Keep in mind, it takes time and effort to build any new skill set — that includes well-being skills. It's important to be realistic with y
what you can reasonably accomplish in a given amount of time. Having unrealistic expectations can lead you to give up before you've
well-being goals. So it's key to create a realistic plan for your well-being, stick to it, and take small actions every day that add up to big
up over time.
 
GROWING YOUR WELL-BEING IS A LIFELONG PURSUIT, BUT IT IS TOTALLY WORTH IT.
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Code A88 - PDEV 1013: Understanding the Self

Finals Weeks 5-6

Theories of well-being
THEORIES OF WELL-BEING

HEDONISTIC THEORY-this theory pertains to experiences of pleasure and pain. In other words, our lives go best when they have the greatest amount of happiness. An
example to this as cited in the works of Jeremy Bentham (1789), suggests that the value of experience depends on their duration and the intensity of pleasure or pain

present in them.

In the study of Ryan and Deci (2001), Pavot and Diener (2008), and Ryan et al., (2008) as cited by Gomez-Lopez, Viejo and Ortega-Ruiz (2019), the hedonic view
reflects the notion of well-being as an outcome, consisting of an internal state of pleasure or happiness, and focuses on subjective well-being. Deci and Ryan (2008)
defined hedonistic well-being in terms of experiencing high levels of positive affect, low levels of negative affect, and a high degree of satisfaction with life. On the other
hand, according to the eudaimonic view, well-being consists of more than just happiness.  This theory considers that not all desires – outcomes that a person might value –
would lead to well-being when they are achieved (Ryan and Deci, 2001).  According to Deci and Ryan (2008) as cited by Gomez-Lopez, Viejo and Ortega-Ruiz (2019),
well-being is not an outcome or final state, but a process of fulfilling human potentials.

DESIRE FULFILLMENT THEORY is a theory of welfare which help to determine what is good or bad for us in life. This holds the idea on well-being which is attributed in
desire-satisfaction. The theory tells us that one’s life goes well to the extent that a person gets what they want. This theory suggests that the higher the number of satisfied
desires, the higher the well-being. However, other versions of this theory identified some problems because not all desires are good: some desires may even have terrible

consequences for the agent.

OBJECTIVE LIST THEORY state that a person's well-being depends on a lis t of factors.   This theory holds that a
plurality of basic objective goods directly benefits people. This list may also include subjective factors like a pleasure-pain-balance or desire-satisfaction besides factors
that are independent of the subject's attitudes, like friendship or having virtues (Haybron, 2020). Some examples of these objective goods include loving relationships,
meaningful knowledge, autonomy, achievement, and pleasure.

 SOCIAL WELL-BEING THEORY 

encompasses the extent to which individuals feel they make valued social contributions. It is perceived that social contributions as
meaningful and intelligible, experience a sense of social belonging, maintain positive attitudes toward others, and believe in the potential for society to evolve positively. An
individual who contributes to the development of his or her community has the feeling of worthiness and maintain positive attitude towards his attainment of one’s purpose
and meaning of existence.

 
The PERMA model is a framework developed to help us understand the building blocks of well-being. The PERMA model is an evi

dence-based model of well-being developed by Martin Seligman. Seligman is commonly known as the founder of Positive
Psychology, and he introduced the PERMA model in his 2012 book, “Flourish”

Scientific approaches in the study of well being

There are three subdisciplines in the field of psychology related to the study of psychological aspect of well-being. These include:

1. Developmental psychology-this field tries to understand the psychological well-being of a person by analyzing the pattern of growth across the lifespan.
2. Personality psychology- a field of psychology which tries to explain the psychological well-being of an individual by applying Maslow's concept of self-actualization.
Other concepts also try to explain the relationship of well-being such as Rogers' concept of the fully functioning person, Jung's concept of individuation, and Allport's
concept of maturity to account for psychological well-being.
3. Clinical psychology which studies well-being based on biological, psychological and social needs being met. It is an integration of science, theory, and clinical
knowledge for the purpose of understanding, preventing, and relieving psychologically-based distress or dysfunction and to promote subjective  well-being and
personal development.
Home

Code A88 - PDEV 1013: Understanding the Self

Finals Weeks 5-6

Self-care

Taking Care of the Self: The Need for Self-Care and Compassion
 

Generally speaking, self-care is engaging in activities and behaviors that have a positive effect on one's mental and physical health
(Greene, 2017). She adds that there's a bit of "reverse golden rule" aspect to the practice; that is to treat yourself as compassionately as you treat others. So
basically, self-care involves any activity that a person will engage in to reach optimal physical or mental health. It can look different to anyone, so it is
important to find activities that are going to be effective for you. This includes:

activities that are going to make you feel mentally well in a long term such as:

-getting enough sleep

-eating a healthy diet

-getting exercise

-practicing mindfulness

activities you naturally find relaxing or pleasurable:

            -taking yourself to the movie

-having night in with tea and a good book

-watching Netflix at home with family

Furthermore, it is also a good idea to consider social activities you enjoy with the people you care about. Having the support of other people in your life can
go a long way.

Why is self-care necessary?

 

1. It increases sense of self-love, allowing appreciation and acceptance of who a person is.

2. It promotes feelings of calm and relaxation, serving as a way to refocus and come back to daily life refreshed and ready to take on anything.\

3. It improves both physical and mental health by reducing the effects of prolonged stress on mind and body.

Ways to engage in self-care:

    Physical self-care: eating well, exercising regularly, prioritizing sleep and taking care of health.

    Emotional self-care: managing anxiety, anger, sadness, and other emotions. Setting boundaries with people who are not positive or supportive. Spending t
Maintaining a bullet journal.

    Spiritual self-care: volunteering, connecting with nature, meditation, mindfulness.

 To take care of the self is also to delve into compassion, for the self needs to seek its deeper meaning. Everyone has had that
share of loving-kindness; meaning wishing happiness for another person. Compassion is wishing for that person to be free from suffering (Germer, 2009).
Compassion literally means "to suffer together." Among emotion researchers, compassion is defined as the feeling that arises when you are confronted with
another's suffering and feel motivated to relieve that suffering (Greater Good Science Center, 2017).

 Compassion is not the same as empathy or altruism, though the concepts are related. While empathy refers more generally to our ability to take the
perspective of and feel the emotions of another person, compassion is when those feelings and thoughts include the desire to help. Altruism, in turn, is the
kind, selfless behavior often prompted by feelings of compassion, though one can feel compassion without acting on it, and altruism isn't always motivated
by compassion (Greater Good Science Center, 2017).

There are various forms of compassion and why they are so important. Paul Ekman (2010) enumerates:

     FAMILIAL COMPASSION is the seed of compassion, planted through the caregiver-offspring bond. It raises very interesting questions about people w
without a single caregiver, or were brought up with a parent who had a very distant attachment. What is their capacity for compassion? Without the seed, the

     GLOBAL COMPASSION was exemplified by the response to the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami. People around the world extended assistance to the s
races and skin colors. Now, that not everyone has it, a lot of people acted, and a lot of people didn't. How does one cultivate global compassion? Con
children and grandchildren, because planet earth won't survive without global compassion.

        SENTIENT COMPASSION is when one extends feelings of compassion towards cockroaches, toward any living being. When people got sentient, t
sentient is the highest moral virtue

     HEROIC COMPASSION is like altruism with a risk. It has two forms: Immediate Heroic Compassion is when, without thought, one jumps onto the M
someone. It is impulsive. Considered Heroic Compassion isn't done impulsively; it is done with thought, and it can be maintained for many years.

The most significant contribution of self-compassion is the attention given to the "self," which is always associated with
the body, and the bodies are built for survival.

Self is needed to make progress on the path of self-compassion. People can cultivate a kind, gentle attitude, not rejecting, not overly prizing, toward the self
until it no longer suffers and has no reason to assert itself. The more compassion one gives to the suffering "self," the more flexible it becomes. Compassion
from others or from within oneself helps him/her accept himself in his/her discomfort (Germer, 2009).

"LOVE THE LIFE GIVEN BY GOD TO YOU. BE COMPASSIONATE TO

                                        YOURSELF AND OTHERS! YOU VE A MEANINGFUL

                                      JOURNEY OF LIFE GOD BLESS! "