CHAPTER 15

Acid-Base
Titration
and pH
BIG IDEA
A solution’s pH is a
measure of its hydronium
ion concentration and is
used to rate its acidity.

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Acids and Bases
 Section 1

Aqueous Solutions Main Ideas

and the Concept

Self-ionization of water forms
hydronium and hydroxide ions.

The concentrations of

of pH hydronium and hydroxide ions

determine pH and pOH.

The sum of a solution’s pH and

Key Terms pOH is always 14.
self-ionization of water
pH
pOH

Main Idea
Self-ionization of water forms hydronium and
hydroxide ions.
You have already seen that acids and bases form hydronium ions and
hydroxide ions, respectively, in aqueous solutions. However, these ions
formed from the solute are not the only such ions present in an aqueous
solution. Hydronium ions and hydroxide ions are also provided by the
solvent, water.

Self-Ionization of Water
Careful electrical conductivity experiments have shown that pure water is
an extremely weak electrolyte. Water undergoes self-ionization, as shown
in the model in Figure 1.1. In the self-ionization of water, two water molecules
produce a hydronium ion and a hydroxide ion by transfer of a proton. The
following equilibrium takes place.
H O(l) + H O(l)   → ​ H O+(aq) + OH-(aq)
​  ←
2 2 3

Conductivity measurements show that concentrations of H3O+ and

OH- in pure water are each only 1.0 × 10-7 mol/L of water at 25°C.

Figure 1.1

Self-Ionization of Water  Water undergoes self-ionization to a slight extent.

A proton is transferred from one water molecule to another. A hydronium ion, H3O+,
and a hydroxide ion, OH‑, are produced.

+ +

H
H 22OO +
+ HH22O
O ――→ 
 ​   
←――  ​   HH + +
3O O
3 +
+ OH
OH ––

Acid-Base Titration and pH 479

 Figure 1.2 There is a standard notation to show concentration in moles per liter.
The formula of the particular ion or molecule is enclosed in brackets, [ ].
Kw at Selected For example, the symbol [H3O+] means “hydronium ion concentration in
Temperatures moles per liter,” or “molar hydronium ion concentration.” In water at 25°C,
Temperature [H3O+] = 1.0 × 10-7 M, and [OH-] = 1.0 × 10-7 M.
(°C) Kw The mathematical product of [H3O+] and [OH-] remains constant in
0 1.2 × 10-15 water and dilute aqueous solutions at constant temperature. This ­constant
mathematical product is called the ionization constant of water, Kw, and is
10 3.0 × 10-15 expressed by the following equation.
25 1.0 × 10-14 Kw = [H3O+][OH-]
50 5.3 × 10-14 For example, in water and dilute aqueous solutions at 25°C, the following
relationship is valid.
Kw = [H3O+][OH-] = (1.0 × 10-7)(1.0 × 10-7) = 1.0 × 10-14
The ionization of water increases as temperature increases. Therefore,
the ion product, Kw, also increases as temperature increases, as shown in
Figure 1.2. However, at any given temperature, Kw is always a constant value.
The value 1.0 × 10-14 is assumed to be constant within the ordinary range
of room temperatures. In this chapter, you can assume that these conditions
are present unless otherwise stated.

Neutral, Acidic, and Basic Solutions

Because the hydronium ion and hydroxide ion concentrations are the same
in pure water, it is neutral. In fact, any solution in which [H3O+] = [OH-] is
neutral. Recall that acids increase the concentration of H3O+ in aqueous
solutions, as shown in Figure 1.3a. Solutions in which the [H3O+] is greater
than the [OH-] are acidic. Bases increase the concentration of OH- in
aqueous solutions, as shown in Figure 1.3b. In basic solutions, the [OH-] is
greater than the [H3O+].

Figure 1.3

Identifying Acids and Bases 

(a) Addition of dry ice, carbon dioxide,

to water increases the [H3O+], which
is shown by the color change of
the indicator bromthymol blue to
yellow. The white mist is formed by
condensation of water vapor because
(bl), (br) ©Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs

the dry ice is cold.

(b) Addition of sodium peroxide to water

increases the [OH-], which is shown
by the color change of the indicator
phenolphthalein to pink.

(a) (b)

480 Chapter 15
 As stated earlier, the [H3O+] and the [OH-] of a neutral solution at 25°C Figure 1.4
both equal 1.0 × 10-7 M. Therefore, if the [H3O+] is increased to greater
Common Strong
than 1.0 × 10-7 M, the solution becomes acidic. A solution containing
Acids and Bases
1.0 × 10‑5 mol H3O+ ion/L at 25°C is acidic because 1.0 × 10‑5 is greater
than 1.0 × 10‑7. If the [OH-] is increased to greater than 1.0 × 10‑7 M, the Strong Acids Strong Bases
solution becomes basic. A solution containing 1.0 × 10‑4 mol OH‑ ions/L
HCl LiOH
at 25°C is basic because 1.0 × 10‑4 is greater than 1.0 × 10‑7.
HBr NaOH

Calculating [H3O+] and [OH–] HI KOH

Recall that strong acids and bases are considered completely ionized or HClO4 RbOH
dissociated in weak aqueous solutions. A review of strong acids and bases HClO3 CsOH
is given in Figure 1.4. Because NaOH is a strong base, 1 mol of it will yield
1 mol of OH- in an aqueous solution. HNO3 Ca(OH)2
HO H2SO4 Sr(OH)2
NaOH(s)   
​ ―⟶
2
Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)
   ​ 
1 mol 1 mol 1 mol Ba(OH)2
Therefore, a 1.0 × 10-2 M NaOH ­solution has an [OH-] of 1.0 × 10-2 M,
as shown by the following.
__
   10–2 mol NaOH
​  1.0 ×    ​ × __
–
​  1 mol OH   ​  ​  1.0 ×
__
=      10–2 mol OH –
 ​
1 L solution 1 mol NaOH 1 L solution
= 1.0 × 10-2 M OH-
Notice that the [OH-] is greater than 1.0 × 10-7 M. This solution is basic.
Because the Kw of an aqueous solution is a relatively constant
1.0 × 10-14 at ordinary room temperatures, the concentration of either
ion can be determined if the concentration of the other ion is known.
The [H3O+] of this solution is calculated as follows.
Kw = [H3O+][OH-] = 1.0 × 10-14
–14 –14
​  1.0 × 10
[H3O+] = __ -
 ​    ​  1.0 × 10 –2 ​ 
= __ = 1.0 × 10-12 M
 
[OH ] 1.0 × 10
The [OH-], 1.0 × 10-2 M, is greater than the [H3O+], 1.0 × 10-12 M, as is
true for all basic solutions.
Now consider a 2.0 × 10-4 M HCl solution. Because HCl is a strong
acid, the [H3O+] is 2.0 × 10-4 M, as shown by the following.
HCl(g) + H2O(l) → H3O+(aq) + Cl‑(aq)
1 mol 1 mol 1 mol 1 mol
10–4 mol HCl 1 mol H3O+ __ 2.0 × 10–4 mol H3O+
​  2.0 ×
__
       ​ × __
​   ​ 
=   
  ​      ​
1 L solution 1 mol HCl 1 L solution
= 2.0 × 10-4 M H3O+

Notice that the [H3O+] is greater than 1.0 × 10-7 M. This solution is
acidic. The [OH-] of this solution is calculated as follows.
Kw = [H3O+][OH-] = 1.0 × 10-14
–14 –14
​  1.0 × 10
[OH-] = __ +
 ​   ​  1.0 × 10 –4 ​ 
= __ = 5.0 × 10-11 M
 
[H3O ] 2.0 × 10

The [H3O+] is greater than the [OH-] for all acidic solutions.

Acid-Base Titration and pH 481

 You may have realized that in order for Kw to remain constant, an
increase in either the [H3O+] or the [OH-] in an aqueous solution causes
a decrease in the concentration of the other ion. Sample Problem A also
shows calculation of the [H3O+] and [OH-] of an acidic solution.

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Sample Problem A  A 1.0 × 10–4 M solution of HNO3 has been Solve It! Cards
prepared for a laboratory experiment. a. Calculate the [H3O+] of this HMHScience.com
solution.   b. Calculate the [OH–].

Analyze Given: Concentration of the solution

= 1.0 × 10-4 M HNO3
Unknown: a. [H3O+]  b. [OH-]

PLAN HNO3 is a strong acid, which means that it is essentially 100% ionized in dilute
solutions. One molecule of acid produces one hydronium ion. The concentra-
tion of the hydronium ions thus equals the concentration of the acid. Because
the ion product, [H3O+] [OH-], is a constant, [OH-] can easily be determined
by using the value for [H3O+].

a.  HNO3(l) + H2O(l) → H3O+(aq) + ​NO  -

3​ ​ ​(aq) (assuming 100% ionization)
1 mol 1 mol 1 mol 1 mol

mol HNO3
molarity of HNO3 = __
​   
 ​ 
1 L solution

mol HNO 1 mol H3O+ _ mol H3O+

​ _3 ​  × __
  ​    = ​ 
 ​  = molarity of H3O+
 ​ 
 
L solution 1 mol HNO3 L solution

b.  [H3O+] [OH-] = 1.0 × 10-14

​1.0 × 10-14
[OH-] =​ __  ​  
[H3O+]

1.0 × 10–4 mol HNO3 __ 1 mol H3O+ __ 1.0 × 10-4 M H3O+

Solve a.  __
  
​      ​ × ​    =   
 ​  ​      ​ = 1.0 × 10-4 M H3O+
1 L solution 1 mol HNO3 1 L solution
–14  –14
​  1.0 × 10
b.  [OH-] = __ +
 ​   ​  1.0 × 10  – 4 ​ 
= __ = 1.0 × 10-10 M
 
[H3O ] 1.0 × 10

CHECK YOUR Because the [H3O+], 1.0 × 10-4, is greater than 1.0 × 10-7, the [OH-] must be less than
WORK 1.0 × 10-7. The answers are correctly expressed to two significant digits.

Answers in Appendix E

1. Determine the hydronium and hydroxide ion concentrations in a solution that is:
a.  1 × 10-4 M HCl.
b.  1.0 × 10-3 M HNO3.
c.  3.0 × 10-2 M NaOH.
d.  1.0 × 10-4 M Ca(OH)2.

482 Chapter 15
 Main Idea 
The concentrations of hydronium and hydroxide ions
determine pH and pOH.
Expressing acidity or basicity in terms of the concentration of H3O+ or
OH- can be cumbersome because the values tend to be very small. A
more convenient quantity, called pH, also indicates the hydronium ion
concentration of a solution. The letters pH stand for the French words
pouvoir hydrogène, meaning “hydrogen power.” The pH of a solution is
defined as the negative of the common logarithm of the hydronium ion concen-
tration, [H3O+]. The pH is expressed by the following equation.

pH pH = -log [H3O+]

The common logarithm of a number is the power to which 10 must be

raised to equal the number. A neutral solution at 25°C has a [H3O+] of
1 × 10-7 M. The logarithm of 1 × 10-7 is -7.0. The pH is determined as
follows.
pH = -log [H3O+] = -log (1 × 10-7) = -(-7.0) = 7.0
The relationship between pH and [H3O+] is shown on the scale in Figure 1.5.
Likewise, the pOH of a solution is defined as the negative of the common
logarithm of the hydroxide ion concentration, [OH-].

pOH pOH = -log [OH-]

A neutral solution at 25°C has a [OH-] of 1 × 10-7 M and a pOH of 7.0.

Remember that the values of [H3O+] and [OH-] are related by Kw. The
negative logarithm of Kw at 25°C, 1 × 10-14, is 14.0. Notice that the sum of critical thinking
the pH and the pOH of a neutral solution at 25°C is also equal to 14.0. The Explain  Figure 1.5 shows the pH
following relationship is true at 25°C. scale with which most people are
familiar. Can there be pH measure-
pH + pOH = 14.0
ments greater than 14 or less than
zero? Explain.
Figure 1.5

The pH Scale  As the concentration of hydronium ions increases, concentration of hydronium ions decreases, the solution becomes more
the solution becomes more acidic, and the pH decreases. As the basic, and the pH increases.

pH 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

100 10-1 10-2 10-3 10-4 10-5 10-6 10-7 10-8 10-9 10-10 10-11 10-12 10-13 10-14
+
[H3O ]
Increasing acidity NEUTRAL Increasing basicity
pH<7 pH>7

Acid-Base Titration and pH 483

 Figure 1.6

Approximate pH Range of Some Common Materials (at 25°C)

Material pH Material pH

Gastric juice 1.0–3.0 Bread 5.0–6.0

Lemons 1.8–2.4 Rainwater 5.5–5.8

Vinegar 2.4–3.4 Potatoes 5.6–6.0

Soft drinks 2.0–4.0 Milk 6.3–6.6

Apples 2.9–3.3 Saliva 6.5–7.5

Grapefruit 2.9–3.4 Pure water (25 °C) 7.0

Oranges 3.0–4.0 Blood 7.3–7.5

Cherries 3.2–4.7 Eggs 7.6–8.0

Tomatoes 4.0–4.4 Seawater 8.0–8.5

Bananas 4.5–5.7 Milk of magnesia 10.5

At 25°C, the range of pH values of aqueous solutions generally falls

between 0 and 14, as shown in Figure 1.6.
Suppose the [H3O+] in a solution is greater than the [OH-], as is true
for acidic solutions. For example, the pH of an acidic solution at 25°C with
a [H3O+] of 1 × 10-6 M is 6.0.
pH = -log [H3O+] = -log (1 × 10-6) = -(-6.0) = 6.0

Figure 1.7

[H3O+], [OH–], pH, and pOH of Solutions

Solution General condition At 25°C

Neutral [H3O+] = [OH-] [H3O+] = [OH-] = 1 × 10-7 M

pH = pOH pH = pOH = 7.0
Acidic [H3O+] > [OH-] [H3O+] > 1 × 10-7 M
pH < pOH [OH-] < 1 × 10-7 M
pH < 7.0
pOH > 7.0
Basic [H3O+] < [OH-] [H3O+] < 1 × 10-7 M
pH > pOH [OH-] > 1 × 10-7 M
pH > 7.0
pOH < 7.0

484 Chapter 15
 The pH of this solution is less than 7. This is the case for all acidic solu-
tions at 25°C. The following calculation shows that the pOH is greater
than 7.0, as is true for all acidic solutions at 25°C.
pOH = 14.0 - pH = 14.0 - 6.0 = 8.0
Similar calculations show that the pH of a basic solution at 25°C is
more than 7.0 and the pOH is less than 7.0. These and other relationships
are listed in Figure 1.7 (on the previous page). As the temperature changes,
the exact values will change because the value of Kw changes. However,
the relationship pH + pOH = pKw will remain the same.

Main Idea
The sum of a solution’s pH and pOH is always 14.
If either the [H3O+] or pH of a solution is known, the other can be
­calculated. Because pH represents a logarithm, the number to the left of
the decimal only locates the decimal point. It isn’t included when counting
significant figures. So there must be as many significant figures to the right
of the decimal as there are in the number whose logarithm was found.
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Sample Problem B  What is the pH of a 1.0 × 10–5 M LiOH solution? Learn It! Video
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Analyze Given: Identity and concentration of solution = 1.0 × 10-5 M LiOH

Unknown: pH of solution

PLAN concentration of base → concentration of OH-

→ concentration of H3O+ → pH
LiOH is completely dissociated when it is dissolved in water. A 1.0 × 10-5 M
LiOH solution therefore produces a [OH-] equal to 1.0 × 10-5 M. The ion
product of [H3O+] and [OH-] is a constant, 1.0 × 10-14. By substitution, the
[H3O+] can be determined. The pH can then be calculated.

Solve [H3O+] [OH-] = 1.0 × 10-14

–14 1.0 × 10–14 ​ 
​  1.0 × 10
[H3O+] ­= __ –
 ​  = ​ __
  = 1.0 × 10-9 M
 
[OH ] 1.0 × 10–5
pH = -log [H3O+] = -log (1.0 × 10-9) = 9.00

CHECK YOUR The answer correctly indicates that NaOH forms a basic solution, pH > 7.
WORK There are 2 significant figures in the answer, to the right of the decimal point.

Answers in Appendix E

1.  Determine the pH of the following solutions:

a. 1 × 10-6 M HClO4
b. 1.0 × 10-5 M HNO3
c. 1 × 10-3 M RbOH
d. 1.0 × 10-2 M KOH

Acid-Base Titration and pH 485

 For example, a [H3O+] value of 1 × 10-7 has one significant figure.
Therefore, the pH, or -log, of this value must have one digit to the right of
the decimal. Thus, pH = 7.0 has the correct number of significant figures.

Calculating pH from [H3O+]

You have already seen the simplest pH problems. In these problems, the
[H3O+] of the solution is an integral power of 10, such as 1 M or 0.01 M.
The pH of this type of solution is the exponent of the hydronium ion
concentration with the sign changed. For example, the pH of a solution
in which [H3O+] is 1 × 10-5 M is 5.0.

Using a Calculator to Calculate pH from [H3O+]

Most problems involve hydronium ion concentrations that are not equal
to integral powers of 10. These problems require a calculator. Most
scientific calculators have a “log” key. Consult the instructions for your
particular calculator.
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Calculating pH
Sample Problem C  What is the pH of a solution if the [H3O+] HMHScience.com
is 3.4 × 10–5 M?

Analyze Given: [H3O+] = 3.4 × 10-5 M

Unknown: pH of solution

PLAN [H3O+] → pH
The only difference between this problem and previous pH problems is that
you will determine the logarithm of 3.4 × 10-5 using your calculator. You can
convert numbers to logarithms on most calculators by using the “log” key.

Solve pH = -log [H3O+]

= -log (3.4 × 10-5)
= 4.47
On most calculators, this problem is entered in the following steps.

CHECK YOUR The pH of a 1 × 10-5 M H3O+ solution is 5.0. A solution that has a greater
WORK concentration of hydronium ions will be more acidic and will have a pH less
than 5. Because the concentration has two significant figures, the pH will have
two figures following the decimal point.

Answers in Appendix E

1.  What is the pH of a solution if the [H3O+] is 6.7 × 10-4 M?

2.  What is the pH of a solution with a hydronium ion concentration of 2.5 × 10-2 M?
3.  Determine the pH of a 2.5 × 10-6 M HNO3 solution.
4.  Determine the pH of a 2.0 × 10-2 M Sr(OH)2 solution.

486 Chapter 15
 An estimate of pH can be used to check your calculations. For example,
suppose the [H3O+] of a solution is 3.4 × 10-5 M. Because 3.4 × 10-5 lies
between 1 × 10-4 and 1 × 10-5, the pH of the solution must be between
4 and 5. Sample Problem C (on the previous page) shows the actual
calculation of the pH value for a solution with [H3O+] = 3.4 × 10-5 M.

Calculating [H3O+] and [OH–] from pH

You have now learned to calculate the pH of a solution given its [H3O+].
Suppose you are given the pH of a solution instead. How can you deter-
mine its hydronium ion c­ oncentration?
You already know the following equation.
pH = -log [H3O+]
Remember that the base of common logarithms is 10. Therefore, the
antilog of a common logarithm is 10 raised to that number.
log [H3O+] = -pH
[H3O+] = antilog (-pH)
[H3O+] = 10-pH
The simplest cases are those in which pH values are integers.
The exponent of 10 that gives the [H3O+] is the negative of the pH.
For an aqueous solution that has a pH of 2.0, for example, the [H3O+] is
equal to 1 × 10-2 M. Likewise, when the pH is 0, the [H3O+] is 1 M
because 100 = 1. Sample Problem D shows how to convert a pH value
that is a positive integer. Sample Problem E shows how to use a calculator
to convert a pH that is not an integral number.
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Sample Problem D  Determine the hydronium ion concentration of
an aqueous solution that has a pH of 4.0.

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Analyze Given: pH = 4.0
Unknown: [H3O+]

PLAN pH → [H3O+]
This problem requires that you rearrange the pH equation and solve for the
[H3O+]. Because 4.0 has one digit to the right of the decimal, the answer must
have one significant figure.
pH = -log [H3O+]
log [H3O+] = -pH
[H3O+] = antilog (-pH)
[H3O+] = 1 × 10-pH

Solve [H3O+] = 1 × 10-pH = 1 × 10-4 M

CHECK YOUR A solution with a pH of 4.0 is acidic. The answer, 1 × 10-4 M, is greater than
WORK 1.0 × 10-7 M, which is correct for an acidic solution.

Acid-Base Titration and pH 487

 Calculating Hydronium and Hydroxide Concentrations

Sample Problem E  The pH of a solution is measured and determined to be 8.43.

a. What is the hydronium ion concentration?
b. What is the hydroxide ion concentration?
c. Is the solution acidic or basic?

Analyze Given: pH of the solution = 8.43

Unknown: a. [H3O+]   b. [OH-]   c. Is the solution acidic or basic?

PLAN pH → [H3O+] → [OH-]

This problem is very similar to previous pH problems. You will need to substi-
tute values into the pH = -log [H3O+] equation and use a calculator. Once the
[H3O+] is determined, the ion-product constant [H3O+] [OH-] = 1.0 × 10-14
may be used to calculate [OH-].

Solve a. pH = -log [H3O+]

log [H3O+] = -pH
[H3O+] = antilog (-pH) = antilog (-8.43) = 1.0 × 10-8.43 = 3.7 × 10-9 M H3O+
On most calculators, this is entered in one of the following two ways.
or

b. [H3O+] [OH-] = 1.0 × 10-14

-14
​  1.0 × 10+  ​
[OH-] ­= __   
[H3O ]
-14
1.0 × 10  ​ 
= ​ __ = 2.7 × 10-6 M OH-
 
3.7 × 10–9

c. A pH of 8.43 is slightly greater than a pH of 7. This means that the solution is
slightly basic.

CHECK YOUR Because the solution is slightly basic, a hydroxide ion concentration slightly
WORK greater than 10-7 M is predicted. A hydronium ion concentration slightly less
than 10-7 M is also pre­dicted. The answers agree with these predictions.

1.  The pH of a solution is determined to be 5.0. What is the hydronium ion concentration
of this solution?
2.  The pH of a solution is determined to be 11.0. What is the hydronium ion concentration
of this solution?
3.  The pH of an aqueous solution is measured as 2.60. Cal­cu­late the [H3O+] and the [OH-].
4.  The pH of an aqueous solution is 3.67. Determine [H3O+].

488 Chapter 15
Figure 1.8

Relationship of [H3O+] to [OH–] and pH (at 25°C)

Solution [H3O+] [OH–] pH

1.0 × 10-2 M KOH 1.0 × 10-12 1.0 × 10-2 12.00

1.0 × 10-2 M NH3 2.4 × 10-11 4.2 × 10-4 10.63

Pure H2O 1.0 × 10-7 1.0 × 10-7 7.00

1.0 × 10-3 M HCl 1.0 × 10-3 1.0 × 10-11 3.00

1.0 × 10-1 M CH3COOH 1.3 × 10-3 7.5 × 10-12 2.87

pH Calculations and the Strength of Acids and Bases

So far, we have discussed the pH of solutions that contain only strong
acids or strong bases. We must also consider weak acids and weak bases.
Figure 1.8 lists the [H3O+], the [OH-], and the pH for several solutions.

KOH, the solute in the first solution listed, is a soluble ionic compound
and a strong base. The molarity of a KOH solution directly indicates the
[OH-], and the [H3O+] can be calculated. Once the [H3O+] is known, the
pH can be calculated as in Sample Problem C. If the pH of this solution
is measured experimentally, it will be the same as this calculated value.
Methods for experimentally determining the pH of solutions will be
presented in Section 2. Hydrochloric acid, HCl, is a strong acid, and
similar calculations can be made for solutions that contain HCl.
Solutions of weak acids, such as acetic acid, CH3COOH, present a
different problem. The [H3O+] cannot be calculated directly from the molar
concentration because not all of the acetic acid molecules are ionized. The
same problem occurs for weak bases such as ammonia, NH3. The pH of
these solutions must be measured experimentally. The [H3O+] and [OH-]
can then be calculated from the measured pH values.

Section 1 Formative ASSESSMENT

Reviewing Main Ideas 5. A Ca(OH)2 solution has a pH of 8.0. Determine
the following for the solution:
1. What is the concentration of hydronium and
a. [H3O+] b. [OH-] c. [Ca(OH)2]
hydroxide ions in pure water at 25°C?
2. Why does the pH scale generally range from 0 to Critical Thinking
14 in aqueous solutions?
6. predicting outcomes  Arrange the
3. Why does a pH of 7 represent a neutral solution following solutions in order from lowest to
at 25°C? highest pH: 0.10 M HCl, 0.10 M H2SO4, and
4. A solution contains 4.5 × 10-3 M HCl. 0.10 M HF.
Determine the following:  
a. [H3O+] b. [OH-] c. pH

Acid-Base Titration and pH 489

Cross-Disciplinary Connection
Liming Streams

limestone dissolves, it produces calcium and carbonate ions.

Calcium ions are a nutrient for many organisms. Carbonate
ions react with acid, forming bicarbonate to neutralize the
acid and raise the pH. The change in pH converts aluminum,
also harmful to fish, in the water to an inert compound that
is not toxic to fish. Some lakes and streams, however, are
located in geological environments with few natural basic
components. In these places, acid rain and runoff have a
greater effect on the water.
One way to counter acidification is liming, a method of
treating acid in streams and lakes that have pH levels above

S
cientists have documented many examples of the normal due to acid rain and other human activities. Liming
effects of increased acidity on freshwater lakes and involves adding a base, such as calcium carbonate (CaCO3)
streams. Although natural rainwater is slightly acidic, in a form such as limestone, to counteract acidification in
most natural lakes and streams have a pH between 6 and 8. lakes and streams. Limestone is often used because it is a
This is because other factors, like the underlying geology natural material, can be ground into sand-sized grains, and
and soils, help keep pH within reasonable values. Some gives a long-lasting treatment by dissolving slowly.
lakes and streams, however, have become acidified due to Calcium carbonate can also be applied to the surface of
human activities that cause acid rain and from leaching from soil to improve its buffering capacity against sudden
soils and rock strata and runoff from agriculture and mining. changes in pH. An issue to be decided for each location is
Acid rain is precipitation with higher than natural levels of whether to use a one-time, one-place application of calcium
acid caused by human activities, often containing a mixture carbonate or a system that continuously adds calcium
of nitrous, nitric, sulfurous, and sulfuric acids. These acids carbonate to multiple sites. But any solution has its
come from reactions of sulfur compounds from industrial drawbacks. Just as a lake or stream can become too acidic,
and mining pollution, from reactions of nitrogen compounds overliming can cause the water to become too alkaline.
from fertilizer, and from the emissions from power plants
and motor vehicles burning fossil fuels. Acid rain has a pH of Activity
5.6 or lower. Runoff and rock leaching can have even lower
Design a method to counteract the acidification of lakes and
pH. In areas where soil and rock strata lack the buffering
streams. As part of your design, explain the overall
capacity to neutralize the pH of runoff or acid rain, lakes and
neutralization reaction of the acid in the water, what
streams can become so acidic that fish and other aquatic
substances could be used for the treatment, how the
organisms die.
proposed treatment could be delivered or distributed, and
There are several natural mechanisms that help regulate what factors should be monitored to support your method.
the acidity of streams and lakes. Some streams flow over Also consider if liming is an effective, long-term solution to
limestone deposits, which are alkaline and tend to naturally the problem of the acidification of freshwater sources.
©Bo Jansson/Alamy

neutralize the acid in the water. This process increases a Describe what would be necessary for a more permanent
lake or stream’s acid neutralizing capacity, or ANC. When solution.

490
 SECTION 2

Determining pH Main Ideas

and Titrations
Indicators can determine pH,
pOH, and strength.

Titration is used to determine

exact concentrations.
Key Terms
acid-base indicators end point A standard solution is used to
transition interval standard solution titrate unknowns.
pH meter primary standard
titration
equivalence point

MAIN IDEA
Indicators can determine pH, pOH, and strength.
An approximate value for the pH of a solution can be obtained using
acid-base indicators. Acid-base indicators are compounds whose colors are
sensitive to pH. In other words, the color of an indicator changes as the pH
of a solution changes.
Indicators change colors because they are either weak acids or weak
bases. A weak-acid indicator (HIn) can be represented by the equation
below, which is modeled in Figure 2.1.
HIn  H+ + In-
(In⁻ is the symbol of the anion part of
the indicator.) The colors displayed
result from the fact that HIn and
FIGURE 2.1
In⁻ are different colors.
A strip of neutral litmus paper Acid-Base Indicators When placed in an acidic solution, the nonionized
contains both the weak acid and its form, HIn, predominates, and the litmus paper turns red. When placed in a basic
solution, the ionized form, In-, predominates and the litmus paper turns blue.
conjugate base. When placed in an
acidic solution, the indicator acts as a
Brønsted base and accepts protons
from the acid to produce more of the In basic solution + –
weak acid, HIn. HIn has a red color, as H In H + In
shown in Figure 2.1. In acidic solution

When placed in a basic solution, Non-ionized form Ionized form

the OH- ions combine with H+ ions
that come from the indicator. In the
affected area of the strip, the indicator
is now present largely in the form of
©GIPhotoStock/Science Source

its anion, In-. The anion has a bluish

color, and so the litmus turns blue.

Nonionized form Ionized form

Acid-Base Titration and pH 491

 FIGURE 2.2

pH of Common Materials The pH of a solution can be the paper. The colors of pH paper at various pH values are shown, as
determined by comparing the color it turns pH paper with the scale of are the pH values for some common materials.

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

Stomach Black Drain

acid coffee Antacid Hand soap cleaner
Battery Apple Pure Baking Household
acid juice water soda ammonia

NEUTRAL
more acidic more basic

Indicators come in many different colors. The exact pH range over

which an indicator changes color also varies. The pH range over which an
FIGURE 2.3 indicator changes color is called its transition interval. Figure 2.4 gives the
color changes and transition intervals for a number of common indicators.
pH Meters A pH meter precisely
measures the pH of a solution. Different indicators change color at different pH values. The color
depends on the relative amounts of HIn and In- at a given pH. Methyl red
changes from red to yellow between pH 4.4 and 6.2. At pH 4.4, the indica-
tor exists mostly as HIn molecules, which appear red in the solution.
Above pH 6.2, the indicator exists mostly as In- ions, which appear
yellow. A similar situation exists with other indicators. Phenol red at 6.4
or below is yellow as HIn. Above 8.0, it is in the In- form, which is red. In
the transition interval, significant amounts of both forms are present, so
the color is due to the mixture of HIn and In-.
Universal indicators are made by mixing several different indicators.
Paper soaked in universal indicator solution is called pH paper. This
paper can turn almost any color of the rainbow and provides a fairly
accurate way of distinguishing the pH of solutions, as shown in Figure 2.2.
If a more precise value for the pH of a solution is needed, a pH meter,
©Photo Researchers, Inc

shown in Figure 2.3, should be used. A pH meter determines the pH of a

solution by measuring the voltage between the two electrodes that are placed
in the solution. The voltage changes as the hydronium ion concentration in
the solution changes.

492 Chapter 15
FIGURE 2.4

COLOR RANGES OF VARIOUS INDICATORS USED IN TITRATIONS

Titration type Indicator Acid color Transition color Base color

Strong acid/ methyl red

strong base (4.4–6.2)

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

bromthymol blue
(6.2–7.6)

Strong acid/ methyl orange

weak base (3.1–4.4)

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

bromphenol blue
(3.0–4.6)

Weak acid/ phenolphthalein

strong base (8.0–10.0)

4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

phenol red
(6.4–8.0)

Acid-Base Titration and pH 493

 TESTING THE pH OF RAINWATER

QUESTION 4. Find the average pH of each

Do you have acid precipitation in collection that you have made MATERIALS
your area? for each rainfall, and record it • rainwater
in the data table. • distilled water
PROCEDURE • 500 mL jars
Record all of your results in a data 5. Collect samples on at least five
• thin, transparent metric ruler
table. different days. The more
(± 0.1 cm)
samples you collect, the more
1. Each time it rains, set out five • pH test paper: narrow range,
informative your data will be.
clean jars to collect the rain- ± 0.2–0.3, or pH meter
water. If the rain continues for 6. For comparison, determine the
more than 24 hours, put out pH of pure water by testing five
new containers at the end of samples of distilled water with
pH paper. Record your results 3. What are the drawbacks of
each 24-hour period until the
in a separate data table, and using a ruler to measure the
rain stops. (The same pro-
then calculate an average pH depth of collected water? How
cedure can be used with snow
for distilled water. could you increase the preci-
if the snow is allowed to melt
sion of your measurement?
before measurements are
taken. You may need to use DISCUSSION 4. Does the amount of rainfall or
larger containers if a heavy 1. What is the pH of distilled the time of day the sample is
snowfall is expected.) water? taken have an effect on its pH?
2. What is the pH of normal Try to explain any variability
2. After the rain stops or at the
rainwater? How do you explain among samples.
end of each 24-hour period,
use a thin, plastic ruler to any differences between the 5. What conclusion can you draw
measure the depth of the water pH readings? from this investigation? Explain
to the nearest 0.1 cm. Using how your data support your
the pH paper, test the water to conclusion.
determine its pH to the nearest
0.2 to 0.3.
3. Record the following:
a. the date and time the
collection started
b. the date and time the
collection ended
c. the location where the
collection was made
(town and state)
d. the amount of rainfall in
centimeters
e. the pH of the rainwater

494 Chapter 15
 MAIN IDEA GO ONLINE

Titration is used to determine exact concentrations. Chemistry

As you know, neutralization reactions occur between acids and bases. HMHScience.com
The OH- ion acquires a proton from the H3O+ ion, forming two mol-
Titration
ecules of water. The following equation summarizes this reaction.
H3O+(aq) + OH-(aq)  2H2O(l)
This equation shows that one mol of hydronium ions and one mol of
hydroxide ions are chemically equivalent amounts. They combine in a
one-to-one mole ratio. Neutralization occurs when hydronium ions and
hydroxide ions are supplied in equal numbers by reactants, as shown in
Figure 2.5.

One liter of a 0.10 M HCl solution contains 0.10 mol of hydronium ions.
Now suppose that 0.10 mol of solid NaOH is added to 1 L of 0.10 M HCl
solution. The NaOH dissolves and supplies 0.10 mol of hydroxide ions to
the solution. HCl and NaOH are present in chemically equivalent amounts.
Hydronium and hydroxide ions, which are present in equal numbers,
combine to form water. NaCl, the salt produced in the reaction, is the CRITICAL THINKING
product of this neutralization of a strong acid and a strong base. The result- Assess From your own
ing solution is neutral. experiences, describe three
Because acids and bases react, the progressive addition of an acid to a everyday reasons to test for pH.
base (or a base to an acid) can be used to compare the concentrations of
the acid and the base. Titration is the controlled addition and measurement of
the amount of a solution of known concentration required to react completely
with a measured amount of a solution of unknown concentration. Titration
provides a sensitive means of determining the chemically equivalent
amounts of acid and base.

FIGURE 2.5

Neutralization The solution on

the left turns pH paper red because it
is acidic. The solution on the right turns
pH paper blue because it is basic. When
equal numbers of H3O+ and OH- from
the acidic and basic solutions react, the
resulting solution is neutral. The neutral
solution turns pH paper green.

Acid-Base Titration and pH 495

 Equivalence Point
The point at which the two solutions used in a titration are present in chemically
equivalent amounts is the equivalence point. Indicators and pH meters can
Analytical Chemist be used to determine the equivalence point. The pH will change rapidly
as the equivalence point is approached. If an indicator is used, it must
The primary job of an analytical
change color over a range that includes the pH of the equivalence point,
chemist is to obtain information
as shown in Figure 2.6. The point in a titration at which an indicator changes
by making precise measurements.
color is called the end point of the indicator.
Analytical chemists often use
sophisticated, state-of-the-art Some indicators, such as litmus, change color at about pH 7. However,
instruments to analyze for barely the color-change interval for litmus is broad, pH 5.5–8.0. This broad range
detectable amounts of materials. In makes it difficult to determine an accurate pH. Bromthymol blue is better
addition to collecting data, analytical because it has a smaller transition interval, pH 6.2–7.6 (see Figure 2.4).
chemists must process the data and Indicators that undergo transition at about pH 7 are used to determine
communicate their findings with the equivalence point of strong-acid/strong-base titrations because the
others. These findings must be the neutralization of strong acids with strong bases produces a salt solution
result of careful and reproducible with a pH of 7.
work, strict accountability, and
Indicators that change color at pH lower than 7 are useful in deter-
control of the samples. Although
mining the equivalence point of strong-acid/weak-base titrations. Methyl
analytical chemists work in all areas
orange is an example of this type. The equivalence point of a strong-acid/
of chemistry, one important area
is environmental chemistry, which
weak-base titration is acidic because the salt formed is itself a weak acid.
involves analyzing air, water, and soil Thus the salt solution has a pH lower than 7 at the equivalence point.
samples. The results of these tests are Indicators that change color at pH higher than 7 are useful in deter-
used by regulatory agencies such as mining the equivalence point of weak-acid/strong-base titrations. Phenol-
the Environmental Protection Agency. phthalein is an example. These reactions produce salt solutions whose pH
is greater than 7. This occurs because the salt formed is a weak base.
You may be wondering what type of indicator is used to determine the
equivalence point of weak-acid/weak-base titrations. The surprising
answer is “none at all.” The pH at the equivalence point of a weak-acid/
weak-base titration could be acidic, basic, or neutral, depending on the
relative acid-base strengths. Because the pH value does not change
dramatically as the equivalence point is approached, it is not practical to
carry out weak-acid/weak-base titrations.

FIGURE 2.6

End Point Indicators change color at

the end point of a titration with a base.
(br), (bl) ©Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs

(a) Phenolphthalein turns pink at (b) Methyl red turns red at the
the end point. end point.

496 Chapter 15
FIGURE 2.7 Strong Acid Titrated with Strong Base Weak Acid Titrated with Strong Base
Equivalence 14 14
Points
12 12

Equivalence
10 10
point
Equivalence
8 point 8

pH
pH

6 6

4 4

2 2

0 0
0 25 50 75 100 0 25 50 75 100
NaOH added (mL) NaOH added (mL)

(a) When a strong acid, such as 50.0 mL of 1.00 M (b) When a weak acid, such as 50.0 mL of 1.00 M
HCl, is titrated with a strong base, such as CH3COOH, is titrated with a strong base, such
1.00 M NaOH, the equivalence point occurs as 1.00 M NaOH, the initial pH is higher, and the
at pH 7.00. equivalence point occurs at a pH above 7.00.

In a titration, successive additions of an aqueous base are made to a

measured volume of an aqueous acid. As base is added, the pH changes
from a lower numerical value to a higher one. The change in pH occurs
slowly at first, then rapidly through the equivalence point, and then
slowly again as the solution becomes more basic. Near the equivalence
point, one drop can cause a pH change of 3 to 5 pH units! Typical pH
curves for strong-acid/strong-base and weak-acid/strong-base titrations
are shown in Figure 2.7.

MAIN IDEA
A standard solution is used to titrate unknowns.
Figure 2.8 on the following pages shows the proper method of carrying out
a titration. If the concentration of one solution is known precisely, the
concentration of the other solution in a titration can be calculated from
the chemically equivalent volumes. The solution that contains the precisely
known concentration of a solute is known as a standard solution. It is often
called simply the “known” solution.
To be certain of the concentration of the known solution, that solution
must first be compared with a solution of a primary standard. A
primary standard is a highly purified solid compound used to check the
concentration of the known solution in a titration. The known solution is
prepared first to give approximately the desired concentration. The
known solution concentration is then determined precisely by titrating
a carefully measured quantity of the primary standard.

Acid-Base Titration and pH 497

 FIGURE 2.8

Titration Techniques Following is the 1

proper method for carrying out an acid-base First set up two clean burets
titration. To be sure you have an accurate as shown. Decide which buret
value, you should repeat the titration until to use for the acid and which
you have three results that agree within 0.05 to use for the base. Rinse the
acid buret three times with the
mL. A standardized base solution is used in
acid that will be used in the
this procedure to determine the unknown titration. Then, rinse the base
concentration of an acid. buret three times with the base
solution to be used.

2 3 4

Fill the first buret to a point above Release some acid from the buret Record the volume of the acid in the
the 0 mL calibration mark with the to remove any air bubbles from the buret to the nearest 0.01 mL as the
acid of unknown concentration. tip and to lower the volume to the initial volume. Remember to read the
calibrated portion of the buret. volume at the bottom of the meniscus.

5 6 7

Allow the approximate volume of Subtract the initial volume reading on Add three drops of the appropriate
acid that was determined by your the buret from the final reading. This is indicator (in this case
teacher or lab procedure to flow the exact volume of the acid released phenolphthalein) to the flask.
into a clean Erlenmeyer flask. into the flask. Record it to the nearest
0.01 mL.

498 Chapter 15
8 9
Fill the other buret with the Release some base
standard base solution to a from the buret to
point above the calibration remove any air
mark. The concentration of bubbles and to lower
the standard base is known the volume to the
to a certain degree of calibrated portion of
precision because the base the buret.
was previously titrated with
an exact mass of solid acid,
which is the primary
standard.

10 11 12

Record the volume of the base to the Place the Erlenmeyer flask under the Slowly release base from the buret into
nearest 0.01 mL as your initial volume. base buret as shown. Notice that the the flask while constantly swirling the
Remember to read the volume at the tip of the buret extends into the contents of the flask. The pink color of
bottom of the meniscus. mouth of the flask. the indicator should fade with swirling.

13 14 15

The titration is nearing the end point The equivalence point is reached Subtract the initial volume reading on the
when the pink color stays for longer when a very light pink color remains buret from the final reading. This is the
periods of time. At this point, add after 30 seconds of swirling. exact volume of the base released into the
base drop by drop. flask. Record it to the nearest 0.01 mL.

Acid-Base Titration and pH 499

 The known solution can be used to determine the molarity of another
solution by titration. Suppose 20.00 mL of 5.00 × 10-3 M NaOH is re-
quired to reach the end point in the titration of 10.00 mL of HCl of un-
known concentration. How can these titration data be used to determine
the molarity of the acidic solution?
Begin with the balanced neutralization reaction equation. From the
equation, determine the chemically equivalent amounts of HCl and
NaOH.
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
1 mol 1 mol 1 mol 1 mol

Calculate the number of moles of NaOH used in the titration.

5.00 × 10-3 mol NaOH ×_
___ 1 L × 20.00 mL = 1.00 × 10-4 mol
1L 1000 mL
NaOH used

Because 1 mol of NaOH is needed to neutralize 1 mol of HCl, the amount

of HCl in the titration must be 1.00 × 10-4 mol. This is confirmed by the
following equation.

1.00 × 10-4 mol NaOH × __ 1 mol HCl = 1.00 × 10-4 mol HCl
1 mol NaOH
This amount of acid must be in the 10.0 mL of the HCl solution used for
the titration. The molarity of the HCl solution can now be calculated.
1.00 × 10-4 mol HCl × _
__ 1.00 × 10-2 mol HCl
1000 mL = __
10.00 mL 1L 1L
= 1.00 × 10-2 M HCl
Sample Problem F illustrates the following four steps.

1. Start with the balanced equation for the neutralization reaction,

and determine the chemically equivalent amounts of the acid
and base.

2. Determine the moles of acid (or base) from the known solution
used during the titration.

3. Determine the moles of solute of the unknown solution used

during the titration.

4. Determine the molarity of the unknown solution.

GO ONLINE

SolveIt! Cards
Calculating the Molarity of an Acid Solution HMHScience.com

Sample Problem F In a titration, 27.4 mL of 0.0154 M Ba(OH)2 is added to a 20.0 mL

sample of HCl solution of unknown concentration until the equivalence point is reached.
What is the molarity of the acid solution?

ANALYZE Given: volume and concentration of known solution = 27.4 mL of 0.0154 M

Ba(OH)2; volume of unknown HCl solution = 20.0 mL
Unknown: molarity of acid solution

Continued
500 Chapter 15
Calculating the Molarity of an Acid Solution (continued)

PLAN 1. balanced neutralization equation → chemically equivalent amounts

Ba(OH)2 + 2HCl → BaCl2 + 2H2O

1 mol 2 mol 1 mol 2 mol
2. volume of known basic solution used (mL) → amount of base used (mol)

mol Ba(OH)2
__ 1 L = mol Ba(OH)
× mL of Ba(OH)2 solution × _ 2
1L 1000 mL
3. moles of base used, mole ratio → moles of acid used from unknown solution

mol Ba(OH)2 × __2 mol HCl in known solution = mol HCl in

1 mol Ba(OH)2
unknown solution
4. volume of unknown, moles of solute in unknown → molarity of unknown

amount of solute in unknown solution (mol) _

_____ × 1000 mL = molarity of unknown
volume of unknown solution (mL) 1L
solution

SOLVE 1. The mole ratio from the equation is 1 mol Ba(OH)2 for every 2 mol HCl.
0.0154 mol Ba(OH) 1 L × 27.4 mL = 4.22 × 10-4 mol Ba(OH)
2. __2 × _ 2
1L 1000 mL
3. 4.22 × 10-4 mol Ba(OH)2 × __2 mol HCl = 8.44 × 10-4 mol HCl
1 mol Ba(OH)2

8.44 × 10-4 mol HCl ×_

4. __ 4.22 × 10-2 mol HCl = 4.22 × 10-2 M HCl
1000 mL = __
20.0 mL 1L 1L

Answers in Appendix E

1. A 15.5 mL sample of 0.215 M KOH solution required 21.2 mL of aqueous acetic acid
solution in a titration experiment. Calculate the molarity of the acetic acid solution.
2. By titration, 17.6 mL of aqueous H2SO4 neutralized 27.4 mL of 0.0165 M LiOH solution.
What was the molarity of the aqueous acid solution?

SECTION 2 FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT

3. Suppose that 20.0 mL of 0.010 M Ca(OH)2 is
Reviewing Main Ideas required to neutralize 12.0 mL of aqueous
1. Name an appropriate indicator for titrating HCl solution. What is the molarity of the HCl
the following: solution?
a. a strong acid and a weak base
b. a strong base and a weak acid Critical Thinking
2. If 20.0 mL of 0.0100 M aqueous HCl is required 4. PREDICTING OUTCOMES Sketch the
to neutralize 30.0 mL of an aqueous solution titration curve for 50.0 mL of 0.10 M NH3 that
of NaOH, determine the molarity of the NaOH is titrated with 0.10 M HCl.
solution.

Acid-Base Titration and pH 501

Math Tutor Using Logarithms and pH

When you work with acids and bases, you often need to –log (1.0 × 10-7 M) = 7.00. A solution of 0.10 M HCl has a
state the hydronium ion concentration, [H3O+], of a solution. pH of 1.00, or pH = –log (1.0 × 10-1) = 1.00. The term pOH
One common practice is to use the negative logarithm of is also used for the negative logarithm of the hydroxide ion
[H3O+]. This quantity is called pH. For example, pure water has concentration, [OH-]. The pOH of pure water is also 7.00.
a [H3O+] of 1.0 × 10-7 M. So the pH of pure water is

Problem-Solving TIPS
• For pure water at 25°C, [H3O+] = [OH-] = 1.00 × 10-7 M.
• The ionization constant of water, K w , is the product of [H3O+] and [OH-], so
Kw = [H3O+][OH-] = (1.00 × 10-7)(1.00 × 10-7) = 1.00 × 10-14 at 25°C.
• If you know either [H3O+] or [OH-], you can determine the other concentration.
• In terms of pH and pOH, pH + pOH = 14.00 for an aqueous solution at 25°C.
• Because pH calculations involve scientific notation and changes in signs, you should
always check to see if answers make sense.

Sample Problem
What is the pH of a 0.0046 M solution of KOH?

KOH is completely dissociated into equal numbers of K+(aq) and OH-(aq). The concentration of
OH- is the same as the concentration of dissolved KOH, 0.0046 M. So [OH-] = 4.6 × 10-3 M, and
pOH = -log (4.6 × 10-3 M) = 2.34.
For an aqueous solution at 25°C, pH + pOH = 14.00, so pH + 2.34 = 14.00.
Therefore, the pH of 0.0046 M KOH solution = 14.00 - 2.34 = 11.66.

What is the hydronium ion concentration, [H3O+], of a solution with a pH of 4.08?

What is the pOH of the solution?

In this solution, log [H3O+] = -4.08

[H3O+] = antilog (-4.08) = 0.000 083 M = 8.3 × 10-5 M
The pOH of the solution is 14.00 - pH = 14.00 - 4.08 = 9.92.

Answers in Appendix E

1. What is the pH of a 0.000 85 M solution of nitric acid, HNO3, which is a strong acid?
2. What is the hydroxide ion concentration of an aqueous solution that has a pH of 9.95?

502 Chapter 15
 BIG IDEA A solution’s pH is a measure of its

CHAPTER 15 Summary hydronium ion concentration and is used to

rate its acidity.

SECTION 1 Aqueous Solutions and the KEY TERMS

Concept of pH
• Pure water undergoes self-ionization to give 1.0 × 10–7 M H3O+ and self-ionization of water
1.0 × 10-7 M OH- at 25°C. pH
• pH = -log[H3O+]; pOH = -log[OH-]; at 25°C, pH + pOH = 14.0. pOH
• At 25°C, acids have a pH of less than 7, bases have a pH of greater than
7, and neutral solutions have a pH of 7.
• If a solution contains a strong acid or a strong base, the [H3O+], [OH-],
and pH can be calculated from the molarity of the solution. If a solution
contains a weak acid or a weak base, the [H3O+] and the [OH-] must be
calculated from an experimentally measured pH.

SECTION 2 Determining pH and Titrations KEY TERMS

• The pH of a solution can be measured using either a pH meter or acid-base indicators

acid-base indicators. transition interval
• Titration uses a solution of known concentration to determine the pH meter
concentration of a solution of unknown concentration.
titration
• To determine the end point of a titration, one should choose indicators equivalence point
that change color over ranges that include the pH of the equivalence
point. end point
standard solution
• When the molarity and volume of a known solution used in a titration
are known, then the molarity of a given volume of an unknown solution primary standard
can be found.

Chapter Summary 503

 Review
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CHAPTER 15 Interactive Review

HMHScience.com
Review Games
Concept Maps

SECTION 1 9. Determine the pH of each of the following solutions.

Aqueous Solutions and the (Hint: See Sample Problem B.)

a. 1.0 × 10-2 M HCl c. 1.0 × 10-5 M HI
Concept of pH b. 1.0 × 10-3 M HNO3 d. 1.0 × 10-4 M HBr

REVIEWING MAIN IDEAS 10. Given the following [OH-] values, determine the
pH of each solution.
1. Why is pure water a very weak electric conductor? a. 1.0 × 10-6 M c. 1.0 × 10-2 M
b. 1.0 × 10-9 M d. 1.0 × 10-7 M
2. What does it mean when the formula of a particular
ion or molecule is enclosed in brackets? 11. Determine the pH of each solution.
a. 1.0 × 10-2 M NaOH
3. a. What is the [H3O+] of pure water at 25°C?
b. 1.0 × 10-3 M KOH
b. Is this true at all temperatures? Why or why not?
c. 1.0 × 10-4 M LiOH
4. a. What is always true about the [H3O+] value of
12. Determine the pH of solutions with each of the
acidic solutions?
following [H3O+]. (Hint: See Sample Problem C.)
b. What is true about the [H3O+] value of acidic
a. 2.0 × 10-5 M
solutions at 25°C?
b. 4.7 × 10-7 M
5. a. Describe what is meant by the pH of a solution. c. 3.8 × 10-3 M
b. Write the equation for determining pH.
13. Given the following pH values, determine the [H3O+]
c. Explain and illustrate what is meant by the
for each solution. (Hint: See Sample Problem D.)
common logarithm of a number.
a. 3.0 c. 11.0
6. Identify each of the following solutions that are b. 7.00 d. 5.0
at 25°C as acidic, basic, or neutral:
14. Given the following pH values, determine the [OH-]
a. [H3O+] = 1.0 × 10-7 M
for each solution.
b. [H3O+] = 1.0 × 10-10 M
a. 7.00 c. 4.00
c. [OH-] = 1.0 × 10-7 M
b. 11.00 d. 6.00
d. [OH-] = 1.0 × 10-11 M
e. [H3O+] = [OH-] 15. Determine [H3O+] for solutions with the following
f. pH = 3.0 pH values. (Hint: See Sample Problem E.)
g. pH = 13.0 a. 4.23
b. 7.65
7. Arrange the following common substances in order
c. 9.48
of increasing pH:
a. eggs f. potatoes 16. A nitric acid solution is found to have a pH of 2.70.
b. apples g. lemons Determine each of the following:
c. tomatoes h. milk of magnesia a. [H3O+]
d. milk i. seawater b. [OH-]
e. bananas c. the number of moles of HNO3 required to prepare
5.50 L of this solution
PRACTICE PROBLEMS d. the mass of HNO3 in the solution in part (c)
e. the milliliters of concentrated acid needed to
8. Calculate the [H3O+] and [OH-] for each of the prepare the solution in part (c)
following. (Hint: See Sample Problem A.) (Concentrated nitric acid is 69.5% HNO3 by mass
a. 0.030 M HCl and has a density of 1.42 g/mL.)
b. 1.0 × 10-4 M NaOH
c. 5.0 × 10-3 M HNO3
d. 0.010 M Ca(OH)2

504 Chapter 15
 CHAPTER REVIEW

SECTION 2 26. In a titration experiment, a 12.5 mL sample of

Determining pH and Titrations 1.75 × 10-2 M Ba(OH)2 just neutralized 14.5 mL of

HNO3 solution. Calculate the molarity of the HNO3
REVIEWING MAIN IDEAS solution.

17. What is meant by the transition interval of an

indicator? Mixed Review
18. Explain how changes in pH affect the color of an REVIEWING MAIN IDEAS
indicator.
27. a. What is the [OH-] of a 4.0 × 10-4 M solution of
19. a. Without using an indicator, how can you Ca(OH)2?
determine the equivalence point of a titration b. What is the [H3O+] of the solution?
experiment or the pH of a solution?
b. What can be observed about the rate of change of 28. Given the following [H3O+] values, determine the
the pH of a solution near the end point of a pH of each solution.
titration? a. 1.0 × 10-7 M c. 1.0 × 10–12 M
-3
b. 1.0 × 10 M d. 1.0 × 10-5 M
20. a. What is meant by the end point of a titration?
b. What is the role of an indicator in the titration 29. What is the [H3O+] for a solution that has a pH of 6.0?
process?
30. Suppose that a 5.0 × 10-5 M solution of Ba(OH)2 is
c. On what basis is an indicator selected for a
prepared. What is the pH of the solution?
particular titration experiment?
31. a. Calculate the pH of a solution that has an [H3O+]
21. For each of the four possible types of acid-base
of 8.4 × 10-11 M.
titration combinations (strong-strong, strong-weak,
b. Calculate the [H3O+] of a solution that has a
etc.), indicate the approximate pH at the end point.
pH of 2.50.
Also name a suitable indicator for detecting that end
point. 32. a. What is the concentration of OH- in a
5.4 × 10-5 M solution of magnesium hydroxide,
22. Use Figures 2.7a and 2.7b to sketch the pH curve of a
Mg(OH)2?
strong acid being titrated by a weak base.
b. Calculate the concentration of H3O+ for this
23. An unknown solution is colorless when tested with solution.
phenolphthalein but causes the indicator phenol red
33. a. Calculate the molarity of H3O+ in a solution that
to turn red. Use this information to find the approxi-
has a pH of 8.90.
mate pH of this solution.
b. Calculate the concentration of OH- for this
solution.
PRACTICE PROBLEMS
34. What is the pH of a solution in which [OH-] equals
24. For each of the following acid-base titration combi- 6.9 × 10-10 M?
nations, determine the number of moles of the first
substance listed that would be the chemically 35. In a titration, 25.9 mL of 3.4 × 10-3 M Ba(OH)2
equivalent amount of the second substance. neutralized 16.6 mL of HCl solution. What is the
a. NaOH with 1.0 mol HCl molarity of the HCl solution?
b. HNO3 with 0.75 mol KOH
36. Find the molarity of a Ca(OH)2 solution given that
c. Ba(OH)2 with 0.20 mol HF
428 mL of the solution is neutralized in a titration by
d. H2SO4 with 0.90 mol Mg(OH)2
115 mL of 6.7 × 10-3 M HNO3.
25. Suppose that 15.0 mL of 2.50 × 10-2 M aqueous
37. Suppose that 10.1 mL of HNO3 is neutralized by 71.4
H2SO4 is required to neutralize 10.0 mL of an
mL of a 4.2 × 10-3 M solution of KOH in a titration.
aqueous solution of KOH. What is the molarity of
Calculate the concentration of the HNO3 solution.
the KOH solution? (Hint: See Sample Problem F.)

Chapter Review 505

CHAPTER REVIEW

CRITICAL THINKING RESEARCH AND WRITING

38. Interpreting Graphics The following titration curve 40. Examine the labels of at least five brands of shampoo.
resulted from the titration of an unknown acid with Note what is written there, if anything, regarding the
0.10 M NaOH. Analyze the curve. Make inferences pH of the shampoo. Do library research to find out
related to the type of acidic solution titrated. why such pH ranges are chosen and why other ranges
might be harmful to hair or eyes.
Titration of an Unknown Acid
14 41. Acid rain is an environmental issue that crosses state
and national boundaries. Conduct library research
12 on this topic, and write a brief report. Include a
description of the areas in the United States affected
10
by acid rain and the geographical source of the sulfur
8 and nitrogen oxides that are responsible for acid rain
in each region.
pH

4 ALTERNATIVE ASSESSMENT
2 42. Performance Use pH paper to determine the approxi-
mate pH of various brands of orange juice, which
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 contains citric acid.
Volume of NaOH added (mL) 43. Performance Design and conduct an experiment to
extract possible acid-base indicators from sources
USING THE HANDBOOK such as red cabbage, berries, and flower petals. Use
known acidic, basic, and neutral solutions to test the
39. The normal pH of blood is about 7.4. When the action of each indicator that you are able to isolate.
pH shifts above or below that level, the results are
acidosis or alkalosis. Review the section on blood
pH in Group 14 of the Elements Handbook (Appendix
A), and answer the following.
a. What chemical species keep H3O+ in blood at the
appropriate pH?
b. What condition results when there is an excess of
CO2 in the blood?
c. What is hyperventilation, and how does it affect
blood pH?

506 Chapter 15
 TEST PREP

Standards-Based Assessment
Record your answers on a separate piece of paper. 5 Identify the salt that forms when a solution of H2SO4
MULTIPLE CHOICE is titrated with a solution of Ca(OH)2.
1 Distilled water contains — A calcium sulfate
B calcium hydroxide
A H2O
C calcium oxide
B H3O+
D calcium phosphate
C OH−
D all of the above
6 The pH of a solution is 6.32. What is the pOH?
2 What is the pH of a 0.0010 M solution of HNO3? A 6.32
B 4.8 × 10-7
A 1.0
C 7.68
B 3.0
D 2.1 × 10-8
C 4.0
D 5.0
7 The Kw value for water can be affected by —
3 If the pH of a solution of the strong base NaOH is A dissolving a salt in the solution
known, which property of the solution can be B changes in temperature
calculated? C changes in the hydroxide ion concentration
D the presence of a strong acid
A molar concentration
B [OH−]
C [H3O+] GRIDDED RESPONSE
D all of the above 8 The hydroxide ion concentration in a solution is
1.6 × 10-11 M. What is the pOH of the solution?
4 A neutral aqueous solution — (Express your answer to two decimal places.)
A has a 7.0 M H3O+ concentration
B contains neither hydronium ions nor
hydroxide ions
C has an equal number of hydronium ions and
hydroxide ions
D none of the above

11 12 1
Test Tip
2
9
10
3
If you are permitted to, draw a line
8 4 through each incorrect answer choice as
7 6 5
you eliminate it.

Standards-Based Assessment 507