Tibetan Army
Tibetan Army
Tibetan Army
Photographs 1895–1959
Alice Travers
Alice Travers
Marching into View:
the Tibetan Army in Historic Photographs
(1895–1959)
edition tethys
edition tethys
Alice Travers
Marching into View:
the Tibetan Army in Historic Photographs
(1895–1959)
Impressum Alice Travers
Table of contents
Marching into View: the Tibetan Army in Historic Photographs (1895–1959)
This publication is issued in conjunction with the travelling exhibition Acknowledgements 7
“Marching into View: The Tibetan Army in Historic Photographs (1895–1959)”
curated by Alice Travers (CNRS, CRCAO) and first shown at the University of Prague (Czech Republic) Introduction 9
during the 16th Seminar of the International Association for Tibetan Studies (July 2022).
Chapter 1 19
This publication is part of the TibArmy project, which has received funding from Camouflaged: looking for Tibetan soldiers and militia in early photographs (1890–1913)
the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research
and innovation programme (Grant agreement no 677952). Chapter 2 55
The TibArmy project is hosted by the East Asian Civilisations Research Centre (CRCAO, Paris), A new visual identity: the modernisation of the Tibetan army under British influence (1913–1938)
a joint research team (UMR 8155) of the French National Centre for Scientific Research (CNRS),
the École Pratique des Hautes Études (EPHE), Université PSL, the Collège de France and the Université Paris Cité. Chapter 3 101
The re-Tibetanisation of the Ganden Phodrang army (1939–1950)
Cover photo The Bodyguard regiment and its band marching in the annual procession
to accompany the Dalai Lama from the Potala to the Norbulingka palace (1948–1950) Chapter 4 131
Detail / full photo see page 6 Towards Sinicisation: the aftermaths of the 17-Point Agreement (1951–1959)
Photograph by Heinrich Harrer
Cellulose nitrate negative or cellulose acetate negative Chapter 5 155
Ethnographic Museum at the University of Zurich The lion and the vajra: the history of Tibetan military flags through film and photography
Inv.-No.VMZ.400.08.01.160
Chapter 6 181
Cover, typesetting and layout Jons Vukorep “God Save the Queen” in Tibet: the military bands of the Ganden Phodrang army
Conclusion 193
Photography and image editing Alice Travers and Estelle Car
Appendix 1 195
Printing and binding winterwork, Borsdorf, Germany
Archival photographs related to the Tibetan army consulted for this project
© 2022 Alice Travers / edition tethys Appendix 2 196
First edition, edition tethys: wissenschaft/science, Volume 5, Potsdam 2022. Archival footage related to the Tibetan army consulted for this project
All rights reserved.
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrival system, or transmitted in any form, Appendix 3 197
or by any means, electronic or otherwise, without the permission of the publisher. Original titles of the photographs from public collections included in this volume
All rights remain with the respective authors and photographers.
A catalogue record for this book is available from Deutsche Nationalbibliothek / www.dnb.de Bibliography 200
The Ganden
territory Phodrang
(1895–1950)
territory (1895–1950) Xining
Lanzhou
Golmud AMDO
Repkong
Labrang
PAKISTAN ng tse
Ya
ua
H
Leh nghe
The significance of archival both it is a sensitive issue. In the People’s Republic of itself (1839), but from its appearance in Tibet, towards
Ngaba
In
us Mek Jyekundo China (PRC), the fact that Tibet had its own army for the end of the 19th century—the first photograph of a
d
on
Ruthog
g
photographs and films in the centuries is a strong indication of the existence of a militiaman or of a soldier found to date was taken by
HOR
Derge Kandze historical study of the Tibetan sovereign Tibetan state, which contradicts the PRC’s the Prince Henri d’Orléans (1867–1901) and is dated
NGARI CHINA official narrative, in which Tibet has always been an 1890—up to the end of an independent army in Tibet
Dharamshala
Namru Nagchu Chamdo KHAM Chengdu army (1895–1959) integral part of China. In the Central Tibetan Admin- in 1959, dates which correspond to the reigns of the
Salween
Gartok
Sutlej Shentsa Bathang Dhartsendo The present volume seeks to shed light on Tibet’s mil- istration (formerly the Tibetan Government-in-Exile) Thirteenth (r. 1895–1933) and Fourteenth Dalai Lamas
(Nagtshang)
KONGPO Lithang itary in the modern era prior to 1959, a little-studied based in India, a preference to emphasise a policy of (r. 1950–1959) and the intervening period of regency
Ü ich u
Ya rl u Ky Gyamda chapter of Tibetan history, by utilising archival pho- non-violence has until recently made this difficult to of Reting (Rwa sgreng, r. 1934–1941) and Tagtra (Stag
ng TSANG PO Markham
Ts
an Lhasa tographs, a largely neglected historical source. Public reconcile with the memory of Tibet’s former army and brag, r. 1941–1950 ).
Purang gp Shigatse
o
Ga dang regiment Samye Dechen imagination still associates Tibetan civilisation almost the historical significance of Tibetan martial culture.2 This relatively recent and short historical period
Dingri Sakya Chonggye DAKPO exclusively with its large monastic population, the pre- Photography, for its part, has been little used as (spanning only around sixty-five years) should be un-
Ca dang regiment
Gyantse LHODRAK dominantly religious form of its government, and the a source by historians, despite their evident fascina- derstood as being part of a longer history, in particular
INDIA NEPAL Nga dang regiment
LHOKA spiritual achievements of Tibetan Buddhism. That an tion with it.3 Historians often lament the absence of the key period during which this army was first created,
Khyirong
Phari organised army (bod dmag) existed in pre-1959 Tibet re- photography before the 19th century, but still rarely i.e. the period of a government based in Lhasa, inau-
Gangtok
Yatung
BHUTAN mains little known outside the inner circle of Tibetolo- use it as a source even when it is available.4 As About gurated by the Fifth Dalai Lama (1617–1682) with the
Kalimpong gists, as too does the fact that Tibet was heir to a great and Chéroux note, this is partly due to the difficulty military support of the Qoshot Mongols, and called the
BURMA military tradition dating back to the Tibetan Empire of any kind of critical analysis of such a source, but Ganden Phodrang (Dga’ ldan pho brang, 1642–1959).
(7th-9th centuries CE), when Tibet was one of the main also because of the very strong “effect of reality” (as During the three centuries of its existence, this gov-
© Alice Travers and Alexandra Grandjacques
Central Eurasian powers, able to shape the geopolitics formulated by Roland Barthes)5 produced by photo- ernment presided over the first appearance of a corps
of the region and rival Tang China. Several reasons for graphs, which leads historians to simply illustrate his- of permanent troops, in the 18th century, who worked
BANGLADESH these facts being now almost completely forgotten are tory through photographs rather than compiling his- alongside various types of temporary soldiers, the most
related to past and present trends in Tibetan studies tory through them. The present book is thus not an important of which were the regional militias, who
(from which the wider collective knowledge of Tibetan attempt to illustrate the Tibetan army’s history through guarded the borders and were summoned by the Lha-
Ganden Phodrang territory until 1950 civilisation derives), where there has always been more photography,6 but rather to focus on archival photo- sa government alongside the regular troops whenever
Headquarters of a regiment of regular troops
Tibetan cultural areas or of the military escort of a Province Governor interest in religious aspects of Tibetan culture and his- graphs as an important historical source, and to show circumstances dictated. Since the Ganden Phodrang
tory than in any secular features.1 Contemporary geo- some of the unique lessons afforded by photography was based on a unique alliance of religious and polit-
political issues also play a part: the history of the Tibet- in uncovering the Tibetan army’s history. Sources are ical (chos srid zung ’brel) constituents, its army operated
Borderline between Tibet and China in 1933-1950 Capital city of the Ganden Phodrang territory and
(the border has shifted several times towards the headquarters of the Bodyguard/Kusung Ka dang 0 500 km an army has been discreetly set aside in both Chinese taken, of course, from when they became available in with the express aim of defending the Buddhist gov-
West or the East between 1912 and 1933) regiment and Trapchi Kha dang regiment Tibet and the Tibetan community in exile because for the region, i.e. not from the invention of photography ernment. Despite the gradual integration of Tibetan
As shown by Clare Harris, the first photographs ever “border photographs” include not only nomads but and function was also to be affected by the military re-
taken in Tibet show desolate, rocky and icy landscapes also Tibetan guards from the militia as well as regular organisation in 1913, was in these early times (accord-
in Western Tibet, captured by Philip Egerton in 1863.1 soldiers, both forming the army of the Ganden Pho- ing to Sarat Chandra Das) levied both in central areas
It would be another forty years, i.e. until the beginning drang government.3 Both the militiamen and regular of Tibet, where they served as an additional reserve of
of the larger-scale British presence in Tibet, inaugurat- soldiers are therefore among the very first Tibetans 3,000 for the regular troops,7 and also in border areas,
ed by the Younghusband Mission in 1903–1904, before ever to be photographed on Tibetan soil. These pho- where they were in charge of the border defence and
we see a drastic increase in the number of photographs tographs were taken in the 1890s by foreign explorers could be summoned when needed by Tibetan govern-
taken by the British of Tibet, and in particular of Ti- who were travelling without official authorisation, as ment officials appointed there as District Commission-
betans. Most British photographs of so-called “Tibet- the country was practically closed to Westerners during er (rdzong dpon)8 or Province Governor (spyi khyab). Thus,
ans” taken before this were actually shot in India.2 This the second half of the 19th century. regular soldiers photographed in these fareaway places
being said, a number of individual travellers from vari- Given the circumstances, research into the first were either serving as escorts to these Tibetan officials,
ous Western countries did manage to enter the country photographs showing the Tibetan army before the or had arrived in response to notification of the pres-
in the late 19th century and, if they were unsuccessful in opening of Tibet to British photography in 1903–1904 ence of intruders. As we shall see, those first encoun-
reaching the capital of Lhasa, they did at least manage is intrinsically related to the photographic collections ters of the Western camera with Tibetan militia and
to bring back rare photographs of the border areas. left by the early explorers of Tibet. In the late 19th cen- soldiers took place in sometimes quite tense contexts.
Not surprisingly, the Tibetans featured in these earliest tury, Tibet found itself caught in the turmoil of the In such moments, it would not have been safe to set up
“Great Game”, the commercial and political rivalries a camera, it being better for hands to rest on guns. In
between the British, Russian and Manchu Empires. general, drawings were made after the fact from mem-
Russian, Indian and British explorers attempted incur- ory to illustrate these remarkable encounters (this is the
sions into Tibetan territory in an effort to create maps usual course of events recounted in most travellers’ ac-
Pl. 3. The armed cavalrymen who stopped Gabriel of it. Travellers would usually enter Tibetan territory counts described in this chapter). However, sometimes
Bonvalot and Prince Henri d’Orléans near Namtso Lake from either the West or the North and were able to these encounters would take place in peaceful contexts,
January 1890 cover some distance until they reached populated ar- in which case a camera could be set up and photo-
Photograph by Henri d’Orléans
eas, where they would be spotted by the local people, graphs taken. We can say that this first set of early pho-
Archives de la Maison de France administrées par la Fondation
Saint-Louis, Archives nationales, Pierrefitte, AP/300(III)277 border guards or spies,4 and ultimately stopped or tographs was taken during a period of shift in the pow-
sometimes even arrested, thanks to the intervention of er balance between Western photographers on the one
Pl. 4. Gabriel Bonvalot and Prince Henri d’Orléans militia and regular soldiers sent by local authorities or side and the Tibetan “subjects” of their photographic
in discussion with the armed cavalrymen who stopped directly sent from Lhasa, as we shall see in this chapter. enterprise on the other. Indeed, before the Younghus-
them near Namtso Lake
January 1890
Since at least the 18th century and up to 1912, the band Mission, unauthorised travellers to Tibet were in
Unknown author main corps of Tibetan regular troops amounted to a sensitive position and had to negotiate with great del-
Engraved drawing published in Bonvalot’s 1892 account 3,000 soldiers.5 In addition, the militia,6 whose nature icacy any opportunities to photograph members of the
Pl. 43. Officers’ badge for a General (Dapön) with his Pl. 44. Commander-in-Chief of the armies and
Pl. 41. Diamond-shaped silver badge for Pl. 42. Diamond-shaped badge for numbered identification “8” spelled out in the centre Minister Dasang Dadul Tsarong (1888–1959) in full dress
a high officer of the Chadang regiment a high officer of the Dadang regiment of the crossed vajra (brgyad) and below between Undated; 1916–1924
Undated Undated the two lions (ang 8) Unknown photographer
Size: 120.5 x 129.2 mm Size: 90 x 90 mm Undated Collection Alexandra David-Neel © Ville de Digne-les-Bains,
Wolfgang Bertsch Private Collection Wolfgang Bertsch Private Collection Danny Wong Private Collection Dn472
Pl. 47. Cross-shaped identification badge for soldier Pl. 48. Angular-shaped identification badge for soldier
Undated Undated
Danny Wong Private Collection Danny Wong Private Collection
All badges are decorated with Tibetan national symbols: These angular badges were worn on the shoulder only by Sergeant
the snow lion, the mountains and the sun. (Chupön) and junior Sergeant, in addition to another cross-shaped
Pl. 45. Medals awarded by the 13th Dalai Lama to Pl. 46. Medals awarded by the 13th Dalai Lama to This badge is for soldier 408 (below) of the seventh lding badge on the cap (while ordinary soldiers wore only the cross-
Dasang Dadul Tsarong in 1916 - recto Dasang Dadul Tsarong in 1916 - verso (right) of the second ru (left) of the Gadang regiment shaped badge on the cap). This badge is for soldier 525 of the first
George Tsarong Private Collection, N7 front George Tsarong Private Collection, N7 back (above: the letter ga and the number 1 (dang po) = ga dang). lding of the third ru in the Gadang regiment.
Pl. 59. Local Tibetan militia Pl. 60. Alexandra David-Neel surrounded by Pl. 61. Tibetan soldiers of the Lhasa army
in Tsawarong (Khampas) Tibetan soldiers of the Lhasa troops, Kham in Kham
1919 –1921 September 1921 September 1921
Photograph by Eric Teichman Unknown Photographer Photograph by Alexandra David-Neel?
Royal Geographical Society, Collection Alexandra David-Neel © Ville de Digne-les-Bains, Collection Alexandra David-Neel © Ville de Digne-les-Bains,
London, rgs075649 Dn100a Dn720
Pl. 77. Brigadier Neame inspects Tibetan soldiers Pl. 78. Tibetan Lewis Gun section
7th September 1936 7th September 1936
Photograph by Frederick Spencer Chapman Photograph by Frederick Spencer Chapman
Collection Evan Yorke Nepean Collection Frederick Spencer Chapman
106 x 72 mm 119 x 170 mm
Copyright Pitt Rivers Museum, Copyright Pitt Rivers Museum,
University of Oxford, 2001.35.370.1 University of Oxford, 1998.131.505
This period saw quite radical changes in the external that in 1936, at the time of Neame’s report, the Brit- planned to translate them into Tibetan
appearance of Tibetan regular troops. The Tibetan ish Mission did not understand the occasional occur- gradually. It was also planned to Tibetan-
government implemented new reforms to resume the rence of the Tibetan-style uniform as anything other ise the uniform of the Tibetan army. […]
modernisation of its army, but this time it expressed its than an apparently unplanned resurgence of an “old However, the idea of translation of the
plan to depart from the English model and re-Tibet- uniform” (see Chapter 2), it is most probable that the English military terms into Tibetan could
anise the army in several ways. Two main innovations decision to introduce the Tibetan chuba as a new and not be put into practice at that time.”5
were decided upon. First, to translate all British drill systematic uniform had not yet been fully agreed upon
orders into Tibetan, because Army Headquarters were in 1936. According to Schäfer’s photographs, taken in Second, and of more significance for our present study:
aware that it had become rather awkward to have all 1939, there was still only one regiment (apparently the
orders and military terms in English. Second, to change Trapchi) wearing this new Tibetan-style uniform. It is “As regards how the Tibetan army uni-
the British-style uniform of the Tibetan army into a Ti- thus most probable that the change was only gradually form was Tibetanised, the Tibetan Army
betan-style one, by establishing the traditional Tibetan being implemented in the years 1936–1939 and would Headquarters purchased white nambu
dress or chuba made of a khaki nambu cloth, a change be generalised to the rest of the army only in 1945, as cloths [snam bu dkar po]. They decided to
which, according to Gyaltse Namgyal Wangdue, only proposed by Gyaltse Namgyal Wangdue. Nornangpa make the army uniform grey [sa mdog, i.e.
happened in 1945.1 recalls: khaki] to make it distinct from their civil
However, photographic evidence, in particular the dress. They sent the nambu cloths to the
photographs of Ernst Schäfer, as we will see, suggests “One thing I remember is that during the Nepalese Dry House to colour them. From
that these changes had already started to take place by time of Khenchung Tenpa Jamyang and the cloths were made two kinds of chupa,
1939. This is also confirmed by the oral testimony of Nangkarwa as the Commanders-in-Chief, one with a multicoloured collar [gong khra]
the former secretary (dmag drung) of Army Headquar- it was decided to ‘Tibetanise’ all the English and one with a single coloured collar, two
ters (dmag spyi khang) Nornang Ngawang Norbu (Nor military commands (skad brda) and terms different hats and shoes. The Two Com-
nang Ngag dbang nor bu, c. 1911–1989), who writes of the Tibetan army. Though initially the manders-in-Chief dressed the gatekeepers
that they started during the tenure of “Khenchung English military commands seemed impres- [go srung dmag mi] in the new uniforms and
Tenpa Jamyang and Nangkarwa as the Command- sive, gradually the pronunciation of the En- took them to the Regent Reting at his resi-
ers-in-Chief ”.2 Tenpa Jamyang (Bstan pa ’jam db- glish words degenerated and sounded very dence to show him the uniforms. He chose
yangs, 1888–1944)3 was in charge between 1933 and funny when used by the troops. If people the chupa with the coloured collar [gong par
1944 and Nangkarwa or Changra Wangchuk Tharchin who knew English heard them, they would rgya khra] as the army uniform. As for the
(Snang dkar ba/Lcang ra Dbang phyug mthar phyin, laugh. If they were in Tibetan and both the uniform hats, the summer hat was grey [sa
1878–1939)4 between 1934 and 1939 as Command- speakers and the listeners were Tibetan, mdog, i.e. khaki; also made of nambu cloth]
ers-in-Chief, thus these changes must have taken place they would find it easy to understand and with a conical shape resembling the mouth
at some point between 1934 and 1939. Given the fact learn them. Therefore, the Headquarters of a big clarinet [dung chen kha lta bu], and
Pl. 101. Troops parading in the Barkor Pl. 103. Deployment of soldiers with
before going to the front, Lhasa flagbearers in the Shöl area, Lhasa
1950 1948–1950
Photograph by Heinrich Harrer Photograph by Heinrich Harrer
Cellulose nitrate negative or cellulose acetate negative Cellulose nitrate negative or cellulose acetate negative
Ethnographic Museum at the University of Zurich, Ethnographic Museum at the University of Zurich,
Inv.-No VMZ.400.08.01.559 Inv.-No VMZ.400.08.01.550
Towards Sinicisation:
the aftermaths of the 17-Point Agreement
(1951–1959)
Article 8 of the 17-Point Agreement, signed in May leading to the second period, identified by Goldstein
1951, stated that the Tibetan Army would gradually as lasting from 1955 to 1957, examined in The Storm
be incorporated into the People’s Liberation Army of Clouds Descend, and the third from 1957–1959, In the Eye
China. However, an appendix clause allowed 3,000 of the Storm, ultimately resulting in the Tibetan upris-
to 4,000 soldiers (depending on the source), i.e. a few ing on 10th March 1959, its military suppression by the
regiments from among the old (so-called gyajong) reg- Chinese authorities and the eventual flight of the Four-
iments,1 plus the Bodyguard regiment, to be main- teenth Dalai Lama into exile in India.
tained. The Tibetan regular troops thus almost shrank From the photographic point of view only, the
to their former size before the Thirteenth Dalai Lama’s period from 1951 to 1959 is not as thoroughly docu-
reforms. The rest of the Tibetan forces disbanded, and mented as previous ones. With a few exceptions, most
this reduced army entered the last phase of its exist- foreign observers had left Tibet in the aftermath of
ence before ceasing to exist entirely in March 1959,2 the Chinese occupation in the autumn of 1950. As a
after the flight into exile of the Fourteenth Dalai Lama. result, photographs of this period are quite rare and
In the period from 1951 until 1959, the fact that there are significant gaps in the chronology. The ar-
Tibet had signed the 17-Point Agreement, and formal- chival photographs assembled for this period are the
ly recognised it in the autumn of 1951, meant that the work of a Sikkimese photographer, Tse Ten Tashi
country had “grudgingly accepted Chinese sovereignty (1912–1972), the Tsarongs (Tibetan father and son),5
for the first time in history”.3 This new political situa- and three Czech photographers, who were invited by
tion in Tibet, now involving Chinese and Tibetan sides, the Chinese authorities to visit Tibet in 1954–1958.
has been examined and analysed in great detail by the The images can be split into two periods: a brief first
historians Tsering Shalya and Melvyn Goldstein.4 The one, during which signs of changes are entirely absent,
latter divides the period into three key phases, and his and a second, where signs of the Chinese presence and
analysis into three volumes, the titles of which charac- of the ongoing Sinicisation of the Tibetan army start
terise the changes in the general political situation. A to become visible in a number of images, though not
first period, from 1951 to 1955, is covered in the book in all of them.
entitled The Calm before the Storm and finishes when the Next page
Fourteenth Dalai Lama comes back to Lhasa after a Pl. 108. The Bodyguard regiment and
year-long trip to China, where he had tried to find its General Phala Dorje Wangdu (1915–?)
in Yatung at the border with India
a way for the maintenance of an autonomous Tibet 1951
within China. However, shortly after his return, the Photograph by Tse Ten Tashi
political situation began to worsen drastically in Tibet, LTWA, Dharamshala, P302445
Chapter 4 | 147
Pl. 122. The four Tibetan ministers inspecting Pl. 123. Minister Ragashar Phuntsok Rabgye (1903–1957) Pl. 124. Soldiers from the Police regiment in Lhasa Pl. 125. A soldier from the Police regiment in Lhasa
the troops at Nagthey field, Lhasa (2) in Chinese military uniform 23rd December 1954 23rd December 1954
1st August 1952 1952–1957 Photograph by Josef Vaniš Photograph by Josef Vaniš
Photograph by Tsarong Dasang Dadul or George Tsarong Photograph by Tsarong Dasang Dadul or George Tsarong Josef Vaniš Private Collection Josef Vaniš Private Collection
George Tsarong Private Collection, Slide S38-8 George Tsarong Private Collection, F7-204 CD 180 CD 169
2 Shakya 1999: 451. 14 Goldstein [1989] 1993: 798. 27 Goldstein 2007: 537–538.
3 Goldstein 2012: xi. 15 As seen above, gorget patches or collar tabs 28 I am very grateful to Luboš Bělka of Masaryk
are insignia in the form of paired patches of University, who provided photographs of this
4 Shakya 1999; Goldstein 2007, 2014 and cloth or metal on the collar of a uniform. collection, and gave me all possible details on
2019. the dating.
16 Who’s Who in Tibet 1948: 77.
5 Another Tibetan photographer was the 29 The single stripe on the shoulder straps of his
Tenth Demo Rinpoche (De mo rin po che, 17 On his life, see Tsarong 2021. George Chinese uniform corresponds to the Chinese
1911–1973), a nephew of the Thirteenth Tsarong features, as a young recruit in the army rank of Second Lieutenant (shao wei)
Dalai Lama and a reincarnate monk. He had Tibetan government, in Pl. 72. Films of the (Private communication with Luboš Bělka,
apparently practised photography with the Dalai Lama’s journey to Beijing in 1954 were whom I also thank for this information).
help of a Nepalese friend in a photo studio shot by Jigme Taring, and were included in
in Lhasa (Harris 2012: 137 and 2016: 131). the film Tibet, the Bamboo Curtain Falls. 30 Goldstein 2019: 79, 124.
Six photographs of the Tibetan army in this
period taken by Demo Rinpoche have been 18 For a history of indigenous Tibetan photog- 31 Goldstein 2019: 135.
published (Gao 1998). I am very grateful to raphers from the 1910s onwards, see Harris
Kunsang Namgyal Lama for indicating their 2016: Chapter 3 “Tibetan Encounters with 32 Goldstein 2019: 305.
existence to me. the Camera”. For a famous image showing
Tsarong Dasang Dadul taking a photograph, 33 Goldstein 2019: 306 and 420.
6 In a collection given in 2000 by the family of see Harrer 1991: 72.
34 Goldstein 2019: 307.
former CIA agent Bruce Walker, who was in
charge of training Tibetan resistance fighters. 19 A number of which images have been repro-
duced in several publications, chiefly Tsarong 35 Goldstein 2019: 282–285.
7 Another part of the collection remains in the 1996, 2000 and 2021.
36 Goldstein 2019: 483.
hands of his family.
20 Therefore, the photograph was taken at some
8 On the Fourteenth Dalai Lama’s stay in Ya- point between this appointment, in 1952, and
tung and the events leading to that decision, his death in 1957.
see Goldstein [1989] 1993: 798.
21 Goldstein 2007: 304.
9 Harris 2016: 134–135.
22 Goldstein 2019: 237.
10 Harris highlights that, for this reason, his por-
traits, including those of the Dalai Lama, are 23 The trip is recounted in their book Der Weg
usually less formal than those taken by foreign nach Lhasa, published in 1956 by Sís and
photographers (Harris 2016: 135). Vaniš, in which, probably for political reasons,
not a single photograph out of the 223 com-
11 A beautiful portrait of General Phala with prised in the book features the Tibetan army.
his wife, not reproduced in this volume, was See also Vaniš et al. 1997, in which Pl. 125 is
Pl. 128. Bodyguard General Takla Phuntsok Tashi also taken by Tse Ten Tashi in 1951 and is reproduced (Vaniš et al. 1997: 125), as well as
(1922–1999) in Chinese military uniform part of his collection at Newark Museum a colour photograph taken at almost the exact
(2000.36.1.3). same moment as Pl. 124 (Vaniš et al. 1997:
Undated; c. 1955–1959
124), and colour portraits of two junior
Unknown photographer
LTWA, Dharamshala, P302448
When considering the history of Tibetan military flags, one single snow lion (seng ge) or two facing lions (seng ge
the contribution of visual sources is certainly vital. By kha spros) are chronologically related. In the same way
Tibetan “military flags”, we mean all types of flags and as the study of uniforms and emblems, the analysis
banners, as seen in photographs and in films, carried by of images and their comparison with written sources
the Ganden Phodrang troops between 1913 and 1959. does not answer all of the existing questions, but it does
They comprise the regimental banners (ru dar),1 i.e. flags show what stands on firm ground and what lacunae
that were specific to particular regiments; the Tibetan remain. We will not discuss here again the small flags
army flags (dmag dar) that were uniformly carried by all attached to the matchlocks of militia and soldiers in
regiments; as well as the national flag (rgyal dar). Indeed, pre-1912 Tibet, which have been described in the first
the national flag and the military flags are intrinsically chapter of this volume, except to say in summary that
related: the national flag being, as in any nation, carried they came either in white or plain colours (yellow or
by soldiers in parades. In Tibet moreover, the national red) (Pl. 15) or with a grid design (the field appears to
flag was personalised for each regiment by the appli- be quartered, that is, divided into four compartments
cation of the letter of a given regiment, which per se or four equal quarters by one horizontal and one ver-
transformed the national flag also in a regimental flag. tical line) (close-up of Pl. 129), probably only before
The present chapter builds on prior work on this the military reforms. Also, there existed, during the
topic,2 and tries to complement missing information, period under scrutiny after the military reforms, signal-
take the discussion further, and propose a new chronol- ling flags of small size,3 usually in two colours, either
ogy for the history of these flags, by using photographic with two adjacent strips, white and dark strip (Pl. 130),
evidence as well as evidence from film footage, and by or white with a central blue strip (Pl. 131). The men
comparing them with available written sources. Anal- holding them were usually standing or marching next
ysis of the images significantly enhances our under- to the army band and would, during parades, perform
standing of the diversity and evolution of these flags. It signalling movements with their flags to the sound of
sheds light, in particular, on the early history of Tibet- the music.4
an military flags and on their striking variety through- We will thus focus only on the larger flags fixed
Pl. 129. Close-up of Pl. 11. out the period. Specifically, it also allows us to better on poles, described in written sources as being extant
Flag with a quartered design (troops of understand how the various versions of flags featuring at least from 1912–1913 onwards and appearing for
the Nagtshang District Commissioner)
1907
Photograph by Sven Hedin
Sven Hedin Foundation at the Museum of Ethnography,
Stockholm, 1027.0067
Chapter 5 | 159
The painted photograph of the flag in Bodard’s it confirms that Kalön Lama Jampa Tendar’s flag was the single lion device continued to be used in army and of the Wheel of Joy. Whether this flag was considered the mountains behind and a blue sky and which has in films taken in the 1950s by the Tibetan aristocrat
1920 letter was accompanied by “explanations given by not just a personal creation or a local and unique ver- regimental flags. Indeed, three other flags also featur- as a “national flag” when carried by the Shigatse reg- yet to be attested in a historic source, could be among Jigme Taring (1908/12–1991, see also Pl. 70) when the
the living Buddha on the new Tibetan flag”, in French sion of a particular Tibetan regiment posted in Cham- ing single snow lions are known from photographic evi- iment (as will be the final version of the national flag) the flags that cannot be seen well enough in this pho- Fourteenth Dalai Lama came back from Beijing and
(Pl. 133), that are worded in colourful terms, not impos- do under his orders (as we will see below, regiments also dence, but in a much simpler setting. The first two seem or whether it was a specific emblem of the Shigatse tograph, but in any case, the photograph attests to the was escorted by Chinese and Tibetan troops to the
sibly being the result of a somewhat fanciful translation had particular banners). to be related to particular regiments: the Shigatse and regiment is impossible to say. continued use of the single lion flag as a regimental Norbulingka.21 This red “army flag” does not appear
from Tibetan: In addition, an account written by Alexandra Gyantse regiments. One flag has reached us as material The second piece of photographic evidence is an banner in the early 1930s.19 in films taken earlier in 1930 by the Sikkimese S.W.
David-Neel attests to the fact that in 1921, while the evidence and is here shown in a photograph (Pl. 135): image (Pl. 136) taken by F. Williamson in July 1931, Lastly, a large red flag with a single white snow Laden La or in 1940 by Basil Gould (1883–1956), the
“No country in the universe has the French traveller was trying to enter Tibet, the flag it belonged to General Tethong Gyurme Gyatso (on which shows the standard bearers of the Gyantse regi- lion in its centre starts to appear in films of military British Political Officer in Sikkim, Bhutan and Tibet
privilege, like Tibet, to be surrounded by flown by the Tibetan soldiers at the border checkpoint which see Chapter 2), who was commanding the Shi- ment, around their marching band. Out of the eleven parades in Lhasa in the mid-1940s and 1950s. Because (1935–1945). However, since the film does not feature
mountains as high as impassable. These of the Ganden Phodrang territory in Jyekundo was de- gatse Gadang regiment (1913–1932) that was posted flags, three are draped in a more or less visible manner of its size and pervasiveness in military parades of this the military parade in its entirety, but only edited ex-
mountains constitute the natural border of scribed by her as “the Tibetan flag” featuring a single for years on the eastern border in Kham. It features a in the photograph and they all seem to feature a single time, this flag might very well have become by that tracts, it is not possible to be certain that this specific
the kingdom. The lion, king of the moun- lion in a “crimson-coloured field”.16 snow lion on a plain orange field, with no mountains, lion on a plain background, each flag having its own time an emblem of the Tibetan army in general and flag did not already exist. Interestingly, in these extracts
tains, represents the power of the Dalai It seems thus that the version mentioned by Shaka- but above it to either side the sun and the moon; in different colour. The biggest flag is seen unfurled in not only of one specific regiment: it is seen for instance from 1930 and 1940 only the flag that has become to
Lama. Above him are only the sun, the bpa could have been a military flag that served as mod- the middle of the moon there sits a rabbit (Rebong another photograph and has a large white single snow in a scene (Pl. 137) from the films taken in 1945 by be known as Tibet’s national flag is seen being carried
moon and the stars. The lion looks at these el for the new national flag. The fate of what seems to Loden Sherap).17 The lion holds a Flaming Circle in lion too.18 It is very well possible that the “single” lion James Guthrie, then a Major, with the moon and sun, by the Tibetan troops parading in Lhasa.
heavenly bodies in order to implore their be the earliest version of a national flag is unclear, but its right forepaw, which may be an alternate version flag that is drawn in Gyaltse Namgyal Wangdue, with shining above the single white snow lion,20 as well as
light: indeed, the Dalai Lama’s hope rests
in the sky, of which he is the incarnation.
The lion also watches over the mountain,
so that no foreigner can pass them without
his authorisation. The ball circled by flames
and placed under the lion’s paws shows that
the Dalai Lama has claws strong enough
to crush the revolutionaries and disrupters
who would like to harm Tibet.”15
Pl. 151. Two standard-bearers in the flight Pl. 152. Flag with a protective deity carried
caravan of the 14th Dalai Lama by the Trapchi regiment
December 1950 December 1950
Photograph by Heinrich Harrer Photograph by Heinrich Harrer
Ethnographic Museum at the University of Zurich, Ethnographic Museum at the University of Zurich,
Inv.-No VMZ.400.08.01.239 Inv.-No VMZ.400.07.13.006
Ten years later, Hugh Richardson, the head of the Brit- Pl. 157. The Gadang regiment’s bugles, snares and bass
ish Permanent Mission in Lhasa, also wrote in one of drums during the troops’ parade in front of the fortress
his weekly letters that “God Save the Queen” was not of Shigatse
1939
recognisable as such when the band played it, because Photograph by Ernst Schäfer
the interpretation had become so far removed from 180 x 240 mm
the original,23 and was apparently a source of much Bundesarchiv, Koblenz, Bild 135-S-17-14-24
NB: This list of original titles (i.e. as they appear in the collections) Pl. 105. “Fluchtkarawane: Reiter mit Fahnen” Pl. 165. “Leibgarde des Dalai Lama: Trompeter; Original-Liste
British Film Institute Laden La (1930), J. Guthrie (1935), Sir B. Gould (1936 and 1940), G. Sherriff (1943), London, UK
is provided for the sake of accuracy, since new captions have (Inv.-No VMZ.400.07.08.026) von Heinrich Harrer: Trompetenbläser der Leibgarde des D.L.
Tsien-Lien Shun (1942–1945), Jigme Taring (1954)
been created where needed for a number of photographs in this am Tschagpori, der Signal gibt, wenn D.L.’s Sänfte den Potala
Marist Archives Lowell Thomas Jr. (1949) Poughkeepsie, New York, USA volume, featuring updated information regarding their content Pl. 130. “Soldaten bei der Truppenrekrutierung; Original-Liste verlässt. [Legende 2]: Der Trompeter auf dem Tschagpori, der
and sometimes dates. However, for complete information related von Heinrich Harrer: Die neu-rekrutierten Soldaten” den Beginn der Prozession anzeigt” (Inv.-No VMZ.400.03.307)
Cambridge University Archaeology FF. Williamson (1933–1935), reels 7, 8, 9, 14, 18, 20 and 23 Cambridge, UK, available online to the images (copyright, dates, size, technique used), the reader (Inv.-No VMZ.400.07.50.008)
and Ethnology Museum should refer to the captions next to each photograph. Still im- Pl. 166. “Musikgruppe der Armee; Original-Liste von Heinrich
ages and images from private collections (which usually had no Pl. 140. “Truppen; Original-Liste von Heinrich Harrer: dito Harrer: dito [Soldaten marschieren aus Lhasa hinaus, um an
Pitt Rivers Museum F.S. Chapman (1936–1937), films 8 and 11 Oxford, UK, available online [Soldaten marschieren aus Lhasa hinaus, um an die Front
titles) have not been included. die Front zu gehen.] Vor Verlassen von Lhasa marschieren
zu gehen.] Vor Verlassen von Lhasa marschieren die Truppen die Truppen in den Sommergarten, um vom D.L. gesegnet zu
Other online resources Geheimnis Tibet (1938–1938), 1943, E. Schäfer available online in den Sommergarten, um vom D.L. gesegnet zu werden”
Photographs by Heinrich Harrer, werden” (Inv.-No VMZ.400.07.50.002)
Ethnographic Museum at the University of Zurich: (Inv.-No VMZ.400.03.50.012)
Inside Tibet, 1943 (I. Tolstoy and B. Dolan) available online
Pl. 167. “Trommler der tibetischen Armee; Original-Liste von
Cover photograph: “Prozession Dalai Lama Musikkappelle; Pl. 141. “Soldaten; Original-Liste von Heinrich Harrer: Defilieren Heinrich Harrer: dito [Neurekrutierte Soldaten im Sommergar-
High Adventure Tibet, 1949 (L. Thomas) available online
Original-Liste von Heinrich Harrer: Die Musikkappelle der Soldaten nach dem tägl. Theater am Abend im Sommer- ten], die Trommler” (Inv.-No VMZ.400.07.04.006)
der Leibgarde des D.L. in europäischen Uniformen” garten” (Inv.-No VMZ.400.08.01.645)
(Inv. No VMZ.400.08.01.160) Photographs by Peter Aufschnaiter,
Pl. 142. “Zwei tibetische Nationalfahnen; Original-Liste Ethnographic Museum at the University of Zurich:
Pl. 94. “Polizisten der Stadt Lhasa; Original-Liste von Heinrich von Heinrich Harrer: Die Nationalfahne von Tibet”
Harrer: Moderne Armee [handschriftlicher Übertitel]” (Inv.-No VMZ.400.07.50.006) Pl. 102. “Gye Si Choe Si, Truppenaufmarsch Kusunga in Shol;
(Inv.-No. VMZ.400.07.02.023) Original-Liste von Peter Aufschnaiter: Gye Si Choe Si,
Pl. 144. “Soldaten; Original-Liste von Heinrich Harrer: Truppenaufmarsch Kusunga in Shol. Leica Film no 10 Plus X
Pl. 95. “Truppeninspektion; Original-Liste von Heinrich Harrer: dito [Die neu-rekrutierten Soldaten]” Dez 1950” (Inv.-No VMZ.401.10.005)
‘Amt im Freien’ der OKW in Uniform spricht mit Sergeanten. (Inv.-No VMZ.400.03.50.037)
Die Mönche sind Vertreter des Regenten u. des D.L.” Pl. 104. “Armenzelte bei Ponsho Simsha; Original-Liste von
(Inv.-No VMZ.400.07.04.004) Pl. 151. “Fahnenträger der Fluchtkarawane; Original-Liste von Peter Aufschnaiter: Armenzelte bei Ponsho Simsha mit Blumen.
Heinrich Harrer: Die Fahnen in der Prozession flattern im Leica Film 4 Ansco Kinofilm 33 Sch August 1950”
Pl. 96. “Truppen; Original-Liste von Heinrich Harrer: dito Sturm. [Legende 2:] Re. Banner des Dalai Lamas, li. National- (Inv.- No VMZ.401.04.019)
[Die neu-rekrutierten Soldaten]” (Inv.-No VMZ.400.07.22.019) fahne. Beachte windgebogene Fahnenstangen und zerzaustes
Haar der Pferde” (Inv.-No VMZ.400.08.01.239) Photographs by Ernst Schäfer, Bundesarchiv, Koblenz:
Pl. 97. “Soldaten bei der Truppenrekrutierung; Original-Liste von
Heinrich Harrer: Die neu-rekrutierten Soldaten” Pl. 152. “Reiter mit Fahne des Dalai Lamas; Original-Liste von Pl. 1. “Tibetexpedition, Neujahrsparade, Rta pa Reiter; Original
(Inv.-No VMZ.400.07.50.012) Heinrich Harrer: Das Banner des D.L., beachte die im Sturm caption by Ernst Schäfer: Lhasa, die große Neujahrsparade”
gebogene Fahnenstange” (Inv.-No VMZ.400.07.13.006) (Bild 135-S-11-08-32)
Pl. 98. “Soldaten bei der Truppenrekrutierung; Original-Liste
von Heinrich Harrer: Die neu-rekrutierten Soldaten” Pl. 80. “Tibetexpedition, Shigatse, Truppenparade; Original cap-
(Inv.-No VMZ.400.07.50.010) tion by Ernst Schäfer: Schigatse, tibetisches Militär mit Dzong,
Pl. 153. “Fluchtkarawane vor dem Kloster in Phari; Original-Liste Truppenparade” (Bild 135-S-17-14-34)
Pl. 99. “Truppenaufstellung der tibetischen Armee; Original-Liste von Heinrich Harrer: Das Kloster von Phari, in dem der D.L.
von Heinrich Harrer: Die neu-rekrutierten Soldaten” wohnte. Li. stehen Soldaten und Mönche Spalier. Erste Fahne Pl. 81. “Tibetexpedition, Militärparade; Original caption by Ernst
(Inv.-No VMZ.400.07.50.014) ist das Banner der DL., zweite Fahne die Nationalflagge” Schäfer: Lhasa, die Neujahrsparade des modernen Militärs vor
(Inv.-No VMZ.400.07.13.017) dem Potala” (Bild 135-S-11-07-17)
Pl. 100. “Truppen der tibetischen Armee; Original-Liste von
Heinrich Harrer: Neurekrutierte Soldaten im Sommergarten” Pl. 162. “Zwei Offiziere; Original-Liste von Heinrich Harrer: zwei
(Inv.-No VMZ.400.07.04.002) Offiziere niederen Ranges, links der Trommler mit Tigerfell
behangen” (Inv.-No VMZ.400.03.50.014) Pl. 82. “Tibetexpedition, Tibetischer Offizier; Original caption by
Pl. 101. “Soldaten gehen an die Front; Original-Liste von Heinrich Ernst Schäfer: Lhasa, die Neujahrsparade des modernen Mil-
Harrer: Soldaten gehen an die Front” Pl. 164. “Leibgarde des Dalai Lama: Trommler; Original-Liste von itärs vor dem Potalla, Soldat” (Bild 135-S-16-01-27)
(Inv.-No VMZ.400.08.01.559) Heinrich Harrer: Die Trommler des Leibregimentes des D.L.
Im Hintergrund der Potala” (Inv.-No VMZ.400.03.161) Pl. 83. “Tibetexpedition, Tibetische Soldaten, Offizier; Original
Pl. 103. “Fahnenweihe; Original-Liste von Heinrich Harrer: caption by Ernst Schäfer: Lhasa, die Neujahrsparade des
Fahnenweihe am Fuss des Potala” (Inv.-No VMZ.400.08.01.550) modernen Militärs vor dem Potala, Soldaten”
(Bild 135-S-16-01-17)