Clean Techn Environ Policy (2010) 12:291–299

DOI 10.1007/s10098-009-0209-4

ORIGINAL PAPER

Air pollution assessment in urban areas and its impact on human

health in the city of Quetta, Pakistan
Syed Zafar Ilyas Æ Azmat Iqbal Khattak Æ
S. M. Nasir Æ Tabnak Qurashi Æ Rehana Durrani

Received: 7 November 2008 / Accepted: 18 February 2009 / Published online: 1 April 2009
Ó Springer-Verlag 2009

Abstract Nowadays, air over major cities throughout the questionnaire survey was conducted to estimate the allergic
world has become overburdened with gases produced by symptoms and exposure to assess the respiratory disorders.
automobiles. The death rate due to automobile pollution is The data are analyzed to evaluate the critical situation
increasing rapidly in the metropolitan areas. With passage arising out of the emission of air pollutants and the impact
of time, people realized that polluted air has serious effects on human health due to respirable diseases (RDs) in middle
on their health, climate and economics. Weather and cli- class sub-population (activity-wise) in the area assessed. A
mate have integrated impact on human activities resulting strategic air quality management plan has been proposed.
in worldwide concentration of the particulates of environ- For the mitigation of air pollution problems in the city,
mental pollution, viz., chlorofluorocarbons, carbon dioxide, different measures to be adopted to maintain the balance
methane, nitrogen oxide, lead and several other dust and between sustainable development and environmental
gaseous particles. Like many other mega cities in the world management have been discussed. Air pollution has sig-
the ambient air quality of Quetta, Pakistan is also deteri- nificant effects on exacerbation of asthma, allergy and
orating nowadays. Automobile exhausts and certain other respiratory diseases.
industrial pollutants produce O3 by photochemical reac-
tions. The particulate matter, particularly less than 10 lm Keywords Vehicular emission
Respiratory diseases

in size, can pass through the natural protective mechanism Inhalable dust
Small-scale industries
of human respiratory system and plays an important role in
genesis and augmentation of allergic disorders. Sources of
air pollution in the area and the unique problem arising out Introduction
of the emission from the vehicles, industries, etc. have been
described. Ambient air quality was monitored along with In developing countries, the air quality crisis in cities is
micrometeorological data and the results are discussed. The often attributed in large measures (40–80%) to vehicular
status of air pollution in the area has been evaluated and a emission. Because of the source emissions of CO, O3,
toxicants and particulates (Davis 1998) the public health
implications (Anon 1997a, b; Utell et al. 1998) are sub-
S. Z. Ilyas (&) stantial. An improved understanding of the association of
Department of Environmental Sciences, the particulates with morbidity suggests the importance of
University of Balochistan, Quetta, Pakistan sub-micron particles (PM10) to which motor vehicles are
e-mail: szilyas@yahoo.com
major contributors (Anon 1995).
A. I. Khattak Most of the cities in Pakistan are growing at a faster rate
Agriculture Department Government of Balochistan, than the national average, as subsistence workers migrate
Quetta, Pakistan from rural areas to cities in search of disposable income.
Existing cities are expanding, new urban areas are being
S. M. Nasir
T. Qurashi
R. Durrani
Department of Physics, University of Balochistan, created, and adjacent cities are merging. Urban Pakistan
Quetta, Pakistan depicts a picture of metamorphosis. Feudal towns have

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changed into industrial cities, cities into metropolis and profound effect on urban air pollution. Widespread use of
metros into megalopolis. Owing to the expanding eco- solid fuels in slums and busty-like areas, consisting of a
nomic base, there is an influx of population migrating from substantial portion in Quetta city, have allowed indoor air
the rural areas and urban fringe to the core city for the pollution to threaten human health and life. Widespread
better quality of life. Pakistan is an agricultural country, malnutrition, poor hygiene sense and indifferent attitude
more than 70% of the population is involved in agriculture among the population exacerbate and complicate the impact
and per capita income is about US$ 480. Agriculture on human health due to multiple environmental risks.
accounts for more than 35% of the GDP. The economic Children are the worst effected groups in Quetta.
statistics reveals the increased contribution of urban areas Quetta is in the grip of serious air pollution problem.
to GDP. The influx of population of the existing cities in Suspended particulate matter (SPM), respirable particulate
Pakistan stresses the overstretched infrastructure of the matter (RPM), SO2, NOx, Pb, CO2 are not only the main
urban areas and is unable to cater to the ever-growing contribution of air pollution but are also always present in a
needs of immigrants. Transportation systems are increasing much higher concentration than the permissible limit. The
everywhere. The improved performance of technology is use of leaded petrol fuel is high in Quetta than any other
presently insufficient to balance the growth of vehicles city because of smuggled petrol from Iran and Iraq.
(Anon 1980). Projections, therefore, consistently show Comparative studies showed that the Pb in the blood level
worsening air quality in the cities of Pakistan. Rapid was 28.3 lg/dL in Quetta and in Tokyo it was 6.0 lg/dL
technological advancement represents the real hope of (Misra and Khandekar 1994). Approximately, 70% of the
fulfilling the legitimate aspiration of the people of Pakistan total pollution load of the city is contributed by automobile
for a higher standard of living without severe deterioration exhaust. Unplanned increases in vehicles especially by
of the urban environment (Streets et al. 1999). Overex- two-stroke engine vehicles have brought the ambient air to
ploitation of nature in the name of urbanization and an alarming level. These petrol-driven three wheelers emit
development is causing degradation of our environment. At large quantities of unburnt hydrocarbons beside carbon
the same time, we do realize that we cannot stop devel- monoxide and particulate (Ferguson 1990).
opment in the name of saving environment. A balance The mode of public transport system of Quetta city
between sustainable developments is the need of the hour comprises buses, taxis and autorickshaws. The main mode
(Ghose and Majee 2001). Environment impact assessment of public transport is bus, especially private bus. Most of
(EIA) plays a crucial role in resolving the conflicts (Canter these buses are very old and the exhaust emission level of
1977). Thus, it is necessary to evaluate the status of urban these buses is much higher than the permissible limit.
air pollution and to assess its impact on human health so Approximately, 755,000 vehicles ply in the city streets and
that proper mitigative measures can be implemented. To 3,550 new vehicles are added every month. Because of
evaluate such impacts a fact finding survey is essential. In very little road space (only 10%) and unplanned traffic, the
this study, attempts have been made to evaluate the status normal vehicular movements get restricted, increasing the
of urban air pollution in the city of Quetta, Pakistan and fuel consumption as well as exhaust emission.
assess its impacts on human health. There are two thermal power plants within Quetta city
area under Water and Power Development Authority
(WAPDA). There are 25 brick kilns in Quetta city area. A
Description of the study area number of small-scale industries are also located in the
Quetta city area, although the exact figure is not known.
Balochistan is Pakistan’s largest province. Quetta is the Leather processing industries and a number of gold pro-
capital city of Balochistan. Quetta is one of the largest cessing industries are also emitting pollutants. Coal is the
mega cities in Pakistan and its ambient air quality is being major fuel used by the families of middle-to-low income
deteriorated day by day. A ‘no care’ attitude and gross groups and by those people who live in slums, roadside
negligence coupled with ever-increasing needs and shops and tea stalls. LPG is used as fuel by about 80% of
demands over the years have taken the problem to a population. Kerosene is also used as standby or permanent
threatening dimension. Rapid and unplanned urbanization, fuel for cooking. Cigarette smoking is another source of air
enhanced potential for industrialization, continued growth pollution, which has serious adverse effect on health.
of metropolis are some of them and impact of Afghan war.
Uncontrolled and awfully mixed vehicular density on
insufficient and badly cared road space, lack of adequate Methodology adopted
parking facilities, low turnover of old vehicles with frequent
breakdowns, indisciplined drivers, indifferent pedestrians Seven ambient air quality monitoring stations were selec-
together with a bad traffic management strategy have ted in the area starting from Siryab and one at Manan

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Air pollution assessment in urban areas 293

Chock covering Cantt, Airport and Municipality areas. For the determination of CO in air, samples were col-
Ambient monitoring stations were selected at a height of lected in a glass tube with stopcocks at either end. The air
10 m from the ground and placed on the roof of nearby sample was collected by HVS at the rate of 2 L/min for
domestic houses, which were about 200 m from the traffic 5 min in vacuum (700 cc of Hg) sausage tube. From the
intersections. Locations of the air monitors were selected tube, a syringe drew air sample and a known volume of air
on a random basis. The details of the monitoring stations sample was injected into the injector of Gas chromotograph
are given in Table 1. column (for CO Porapack-Q with mithanizer and for HC
The sampling was conducted twice in a week from only Porapack-Q) using a carrier gas. The Gas chromoto-
October to December. Air samples were collected for 24 h graph column separated methane from CO. The methane
in three 8 h sifts corresponding to day (8–16 h), evening was eluted first from the Gas chromotographic column
(16–24 h) and night (24–8 h). Micrometeorological data through a catalytic reduction tube to a flame ionizer
were collected on the roof of the Department of Physics, detector. The CO is next eluted into the catalytic reduction
University of Balochistan main building continuously tube and was reduced to methane before entering the
during the air monitoring period with respect to wind detector. The response of the detector is directly propor-
direction, wind velocity, humidity and temperature (Ilyas tional to the weight of hydrocarbon in the carried gas
2005). stream. The concentration of the CO and HC was deter-
For the collection of samples of SPM, glass fiber mined from the peak height or the area recorded on the
ambient (GF/A) filter paper was used in a high-volume chart paper and comparing them with those of the standard
sampler (HVS) and for respirable dust particulate matter. gas. For determination of Pb in SPM, four circles of 18 cm2
GF/A was used in respirable dust sampler (RDS) at a flow were cut from the filter paper on which SPM sample was
rate of 1.1–1.5 m3/min that allows the SPM to deposit on collected. These were digested in hot 1:1 HNO3. The
the filter paper. Particulate with size range of 0.1–100 lm solution was then analyzed by atomic absorption spectro-
was collected by HVS (Ghose and Majee 2000). The cut- photometer (AAS) to determine Pb.
point diameter of RDS was less than 10 lm. HVS, having
impingers (bubbler trains) in series with sodium tetra-
chloromercurate as absorbing solution, was operated at an Results
average flow rate of 0.5 L/min for collection of SO2 (as
per IS: 5182, Part II, 1969) for 24 h. In the case of col- The mean SPM concentration of ambient air monitoring
lection of NOx, sodium hydroxide was used as absorbing station varied from 170 lg/m3 (at station Qta-2) to 500 lg/
solution and collected at an average flow rate of 0.5 L/ m3 (at Qta-1) with an overall mean concentration of
min for 24 h (as per IS: 5182, Part IV, 1976). The imp- 370.52 lg/m3. The SPM concentration exceeded the per-
inger samples were put in ice boxes immediately after missible limit of 200 lg/m3 stipulated by National Air
sampling and transferred to a refrigerator prior to analyses Quality Standard (NAQS) at all the locations except Qta-2
(Ghose and Banerjee 1995). The samples were analyzed and Qta-4. From the results of SPM concentration, it is
spectrophotometrically using West and Gake methods and evident that vehicular traffic, a cluster of industries and
Jackob and Hocheiser modified methods for the analysis brick kilns surrounding the Quetta city area were respon-
of SO2 and NOx, respectively (APHA 1977). SPM and sible for this. The shiftwise mean SPM concentration
RPM were computed after weighing the filter paper results are given in Fig. 1. RPM concentration found to be
before and after sampling. The filter paper was condi- minimum at Qta-2 (75 lg/m3) and maximum at Qta-1 with
tioned in a dry atmosphere before weighing (Ghose et al. an overall average 160.28 lg/m3. Mean RPM concentra-
1999). tion results are shown in Fig. 2.

Table 1 Locations of ambient

Location Monitoring Position Height from the
air monitoring stations
station no. ground level (m)

Siryab road Qta-1 At the rooftop of a residential house at Siryab road 10

Manan Chock Qta-2 At the rooftop of a residential house at Manan Chock 10
Cantt area Qta-3 At the rooftop of a residential house at Cantt area 10
Airport area Qta-4 At the rooftop of a residential house at Airport area 10
Alamdar road Qta-5 At the rooftop of a residential house at Alamdar road 10
Barori road Qta-6 At the rooftop of a residential house at Barori road 10
Sirki road Qta-7 At the rooftop of a residential house at Sirki road 10

123
294 S. Z. Ilyas et al.

600 160
Shift-1 Shift-2 Shift-3 Shift-1 Shift-2 Shift-3

140
500

120
400
100
ug/m3

ug/m3
300
80

60
200

40
100
20

0
Qta-1 Qta-2 Qta-3 Qta-4 Qta-5 Qta-6 Qta-7
0
Qta-1 Qta-2 Qta-3 Qta-4 Qta-5 Qta-6 Qta-7
Stations
Stations

Fig. 1 Shiftwise SPM concentration at ambient stations

Fig. 3 Shiftwise NOx concentration at ambient stations

300 60
Shift-1 Shift-2 Shift-3 Shift-1 Shift-2 Shift-3

250
50

200
40
ug/m3

150
ug/m3

30
100

20
50

0 10
Qta-1 Qta-2 Qta-3 Qta-4 Qta-5 Qta-6 Qta-7
Stations
0
Fig. 2 Shiftwise RPM concentration at ambient stations Qta-1 Qta-2 Qta-3 Qta-4 Qta-5 Qta-6 Qta-7
Stations
NOx concentration was found to be minimum at Qta-7
Fig. 4 Shiftwise SO2 concentration at ambient stations
(62 lg/m3) and maximum at Qta-3 (142 lg/m3) with
overall average of 97.05 lg/m3. Except at the location Qta-
7, NOx exceeded the permissible limit of 80 lg/m3 stipu- to NAQS of 0.5 lg/m3. Shiftwise Pd concentration is given
lated by NAQS. Shiftwise variation of NOx is given in in Fig. 6.
Fig. 3. SO2 concentration ranged between 15 lg/m3 (at The temperature varied from 0 to 28.0°C with an
Qta-6) and 50 lg/m3 (at Qta-2) with respect to the per- average of 14.0°C, average humidity was found to be
missible limit of 80 lg/m3. Shiftwise SO2 concentration is 10.2%, average wind speed was 3.8 m/s. No rain fall was
given in Fig. 4 . observed during the study period but low visibility was
The mean CO concentration was found to be minimum observed during some days due to dense fog early in the
at Qta-4 (3,000 lg/m3) and maximum at Qta-6 (5,700 lg/ morning and dust particles in the evening. Sometimes,
m3) with an overall average of 3,800.6 lg/m3 with respect altostratus clouds were visible in the sky and substantial
to the permissible limit of 2,290 lg/m3. Shiftwise CO reduction of sunshine was observed. Remarkable drop
concentration results are given in Fig. 5. The overall mean in wind speed was observed during the last week of
Pb concentration was found to be 0.8762 lg/m3 and varied November and first week of December and caused
from 0.4 lg/m3 at Qta-4 to 1.5 lg/m3 at Qta-7 with respect uncomfortable weather.

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Air pollution assessment in urban areas 295

6000 particulate deposited in human lung interferes with normal

Shift-1 Shift-2 Shift-3
functions and causes lung diseases or non-specific func-
5000
tional changes such as asthma, blood pressure, ENT (eye,
nose and throat), fatigue, gastrointestinal diseases, bron-
chitis or reduction of lung capacities and cancer. If there is
4000
a chemical reaction of the material, it may bring about
silicosis and pneumoconiosis. If it contains things such as
ug/m3

3000 hydrocarbons, etc., it may bring about fatal diseases such as

cancer. Particulate by covering the leaves’ surfaces and
plugging the stomata reduces the absorption of CO2 from
2000
the atmosphere, the intensity of sunlight and thus sup-
presses the photosynthesis and growth of plants. It also
1000 reduces visibility by absorption and scattering by solid and
liquid droplets.
0
Total exposure to an individual to a specific pollutant is
Qta-1 Qta-2 Qta-3 Qta-4 Qta-5 Qta-6 Qta-7 determined by the concentration of contaminant and the
Stations duration of its exposure (Spengler and Dockery 1981).
Fig. 5 Shiftwise CO concentration at ambient stations Exposure to indoor and outdoor air quality is different
because they always change with time and diurnal pattern
(TERI 1995). The health status and the exposure level of a
typical population have similarity in terms of habitat,
0.9
Shift-1 Shift-2 Shift-3 drinking water source, indoor microclimate, domestic fuel
0.8 consumption, movement pattern, overall living standard,
general sense of health and hygiene literacy and interaction
0.7
with locality and work place (Anon 1997a, b). Certain air-
0.6 borne particulates such as pollen, fungal spores, house dust
mite and animal dander (Tilak 1989) upon inhalation cause
0.5
ug/m3

certain allergic reaction involving respiratory system such

0.4 as allergic rhinitis, topic dermises and asthma (Arruda et al.
1992; Fernandes 1995). Secondary photolytic reactions in
0.3
the atmosphere with organic fractions and oxides of
0.2 nitrogen and sulfur further increase the PAH concentration
0.1
(Schoential 1964). These are of marked environmental
concern due to air pollution as several of them are either
0 known to be carcinogens or are suspected carcinogens and
Qta-1 Qta-2 Qta-3 Qta-4 Qta-5 Qta-6 Qta-7
Stations
mutagens (Andrews et al. 1978; Hoffman and Winder
1968).
Fig. 6 Shiftwise lead concentration at ambient stations Exposure to SPM is also an equally serious risk to
health. Inhalable SPM, particularly less than 10 lm in size,
Discussion can pass through the natural protective mechanism of
human respiratory system. The smallest particulate (2 lm
Pollutant particulate matters, which remain suspended due or less), which are coming primarily from diesel, pose a
to buoyancy, are in the sub-micron range, i.e. 10-6 m in much greater risk because of their greater ability to pass
diameter. An improved understanding of the association of through the human respiratory system and cling to inner
the particulates with morbidity suggests the importance of tissue of the lung. It has been reported that more than 2,000
sub-micron particles (PM10) to which motor vehicles are premature deaths occurred in Quetta in 2004 due to SPM.
major contributors (Japan 15whec2005 reference). They SPM includes all air-borne particles in the size range of
dispersed to a long distance and damage the mechanisms 0.5–100 lm. The actual health damage caused by dust
by chemical reaction with the molecules of respiratory particles depends upon its nature and composition (Binder
system bringing about adverse chemical changes. These et al. 1976). The effects of SPM are attributed to mild eye
may reduce the lung capacity in humans. The second irritation mortality (David 1995).
mechanism by which these react is obstructive or inter- Automobile exhausts and certain industrial pollutants
fering in nature without chemical reaction. The thinner contain NO2, which by photochemical reaction produce O3

123
296 S. Z. Ilyas et al.

and affect allergic asthmatics by augmenting allergic Table 3 Imprint classification of respiratory diseases
responses (Steinberg et al. 1991). Similarly, SO2, NO, Imprint Imprint Symptoms
particulate matter and acid aerosols affect pulmonary class score
function and cause inflammation of bronchial mucous
I 0.0 No RD: healthy, free from any respiratory disease
(Giuseppe et al. 1993; Karen and Michak 1991). It has been
observed from several studies that air pollution plays an II 3.7 Mild RD: suffering from only upper track
respiratory infections (UTRI)
important role in the genesis and augmentation of allergic
III 7.4 Moderate RD: suffering from UTRI as well as
disorder and it is described as a disease of civilized society lowest track respiratory infections
(Bonai et al. 1994; Dennis 1996). Most of the developed IV 14.8 Severe RD: suffering from bronchitis, asthma,
western countries have adopted 25 and 1.5 lg/dL as the allergic rhinitis, fibrosis, asbestosis,
safe limits for blood Pb levels in adults and children, pneumoconiosis and non-malignant RDs
respectively (Neelman 1993). In view of toxicity at all
levels, options have been suggested to adopt 10 lg/dL as
blood Pb limit for general population (Boeck 1980). basis of the survey of the SPM-related RDs each disease
was recorded for indexing the imprint class I to IV. The
highest imprint score depicts the maximum severity of
Assessment of impact on human health RDs. The imprint score obtained for various age groups,
groupwise as well as activity-wise, is given in Tables 3
The basic objective of this study was to determine the and 4.
status and level of typical population (target group). The
middle class population was the target group for this study
and they were classified as per their activity. Especially, the Mitigation of urban air pollution
shopkeepers and the hawkers were identified as the main
target group as they reside in high exposure area and for a The improvement of the socioenvironmental conditions
maximum period of time. A questionnaire was prepared and reductions of health burden within Quetta city can be
and survey was conducted particularly for suspected argued not only on the public health grounds but also on
allergic population by inquiring the recurrence of the type the basis of long-term economic prosperity of the city.
of allergic symptoms. The occasions of this onset were The pollution problem has reached such an alarming
recorded with each individual to assess the allergic status. level that no soft option would help to salvage the situation.
For example, if a person exhibited severe sneezing and A strong-willed government backed by alert populace can
running nose, etc. after being exposed to house dust, and address the problem of increasing air pollution and RDs in
similarly, if was also allergic to multiple causative agents. an effective way (Shukla et al. 1997). A variety of prob-
The data generated from the survey were analyzed to assess lems need a variety of solutions. But it is equally important
the percentage of allergic population and the suspected to stress upon air quality monitoring as well as the study on
allergy causing agents. The results are shown in Table 2. the health effects. A model for the assimilation has been
The assessment of respiratory disorders (RDs) in the made and is given by a first-order dynamic function
middle class sub-population was obtained from the ques- (McEnvoy 1990). The empirical model for predicting long-
tionnaire survey from the doctors. The assessment of RDs term average SPM concentration can be utilized for ana-
was carried out for various age groups activity-wise. On the lyzing the effects of various traffic reduction strategies.
To create a strategic plan for air quality management
(AQM) program, a consultation with a wide array of
Table 2 Estimation of allergic symptoms interests is required. Figure 7 depicts the urban AQM
Complaint Total no. Condition No. of Percent of program. Epidemiological data from hospitals and other
of cases persons incidence agencies are to be considered as the starting point for
identifying linkage between ambient air quality levels and
Nose block 60 Allergic 45 89
chronic or acute heath problems. Some target groups (i.e.
Non-allergic 15 25
traffic constables, roadside hawkers, etc.) and non-target
Sneezing 70 Allergic 63 97
groups (such as people living in parts of the city where
Non-allergic 7 12
traffic congestion is less or rural people) were selected on a
Cough 87 Allergic 70 84
random basis and monitored. This phase of data collection
Non-allergic 17 40
constituted the critical phase in developing a meaningful
Hyperacidity 40 Allergic 25 71
AQM program. The benefits of reducing air pollution are to
Non-allergic 15 59
be projected. AQM program becomes successful if it

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Air pollution assessment in urban areas 297

Table 4 Intensity of RDs in middle class sub-population (activity-wise) in the area

Sub-population No. of Mild Moderate Severe Asthma No. of Imprint
respondents RDs (%) RDs (%) RDs (%) RDs (%) RDs (%) score

Infant and school going children

0.5–4 years 20 21 34 12 3 58 255
4–12 years 80 28 16 21 5 62 250
12–18 years 150 30 10 24 10 66 213
Total 250 26 20 19 6 62 239
Adult males ([18 years)
Office working 115 31 27 29 26 50 338
Businessman 61 28 25 27 20 58 228
College student 24 27 16 25 16 68 253
Retired citizen 66 38 26 36 42 40 427
Total 266 31 24 29 26 54 310
Adult females ([18 years)
Office working 40 30 20 26 16 50 340
Housewife 126 36 29 24 40 42 350
College student 33 20 20 28 20 58 328
Total 199 29 23 26 25 50 1,018

Fig. 7 Strategic plan for urban Political

Economic pressure
air quality management pressure
program

Industrial area

Clean Air Transport sector

Domestic sector

Exploitation

Rehabilitation / Compliance

Use

Management program

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298 S. Z. Ilyas et al.

includes the assessment to justify the necessary expendi- subsidies. The number of trees per square kilometer was
tures. There are many influencing tools which are to be found to be 2 whereas ideally it should be 100. Therefore,
used for full compliance of environmental goal, i.e. clean immediate steps should be taken to increase the number of
air. trees after proper inventory of all species in Quetta. Open
Specifying is necessary in selecting the option for spaces and parks (2 ft2 per person) should not be encroa-
mitigating of air pollution. Although the main source of ched upon, and proper eco-designing of these areas should
air pollution is the transport sector, industry also plays a be done immediately.
key role. For mitigating air pollution in the city of Quetta,
limiting emissions from both stationary (industry) and
mobile (transport) will be required. A future plan is to Conclusion
shift phasewise the medium and low polluting industries
in industrial area outside the city limit. Industries should Quetta is found to be one of the most polluted cities in
be encouraged to switch over to cleaner fuels such as Pakistan. The study shows that the status of air pollution is
natural gas. Energy conservation options are to be found to be very critical and has reached threatening
encouraged. Industries should be encouraged to develop dimensions. Air pollution assessment and impact of on
methodology to tap alternative energy source. Internal human health arising out of RDs in the area showed high
control regulation should be made obligatory for all level of imprint score. The premature death due to SPM is
industrial sectors. reported to be very high and the children are the worst
Options for reducing air pollution from mobile sources affected groups in Quetta. A strategic AQM plan has been
include replacing old vehicles, maintaining in-use vehicles proposed and the mitigation measures suggested to control
more effectively, using alternative cleaner fuels, reformu- the urban air pollution would improve situation if imple-
lating fuels, improving traffic management, expanding mented properly. There is no well-defined guideline for the
mass transit systems and improving the road capacity assessment of the status of urban air pollution and its
(Calvert et al. 1993). In Quetta, the lead concentration was impact on human health. No systematic studies have been
found to be high. Therefore, the regulations mandating reported to evaluate the status of urban air pollution and its
removal of lead thus may not be of high priority. Most of impact in the cities of Pakistan and there will be immense
the vehicles are diesel driven and SPM concentration was implications of the suggested approach and the future
also found to be high. The cost of reformulating diesel oil application of such assessments is to manage the urban air
is high, but it should be high priority to reduce SPM. pollution problem. The methodology adopted may have
Liquid petroleum gas (LPG) and compressed natural gas formed a guideline for such studies and may be useful on
(CNG) should be introduced in a phase manner. Catalytic industrial scale for various sites.
converters that reduce exhaust emission and emission
standards of vehicles should be enforced strictly.
Quetta grew up so haphazardly that improving the
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Air pollution assessment in urban areas 299

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