Calc2e_01_15-22.

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1
L E S S O N

FUNCTIONS

C
alculus is the study of change. It is often important to know when a quantity is increasing, when it
is decreasing, and when it hits a high or low point. Much of the business of finance depends on pre-
dicting the high and low points for prices. In science and engineering, it is often essential to know pre-
cisely how fast quantities such as temperature, size, and speed are changing. Calculus is the primary tool for
calculating such changes.
Numbers, which are the focus of arithmetic, do not change. The number 5 will always be 5. It never goes
up or down. Thus, we need to introduce a new sort of mathematical object, something that can change. These
objects, the centerpiece of calculus, are functions.

Functions

A function is a way of matching up one set of numbers with another. The first set of numbers is called the
domain. For each of the numbers in the domain, the function assigns exactly one number from the other set,
the range.
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PARENTHESES HINT

It is true that in algebra, everyone is taught “parentheses mean multiplication.” This means that 5(2 + 7) =
5(9) = 45. If x is a variable, then x(2 + 7) = x(9) = 9x. However, if f is the name of a function, then f (2 + 7) =
f (9) = the number to which f takes 9. The expression f (x) is pronounced “f of x” and not “f times x.” This can
certainly be confusing. But, as you gain experience, it will become second nature. Mathematicians use paren-
theses to mean several different things and expect everyone to know the difference. Sorry!

For example, the domain of the function could f 112  1

be the set of numbers {1, 4, 9, 25, 100}, and the range f 142  2
could be {1, 2, 3, 5, 10}. Suppose the function takes 1 f 192  3
to 1, 4 to 2, 9 to 3, 25 to 5, and 100 to 10. This could be f 1252  5
illustrated by the following: f 11002  10

1S 1 However, if the domain were large, this would get

4S 2 very tedious. It is much easier to find a pattern and use
9S 3 that pattern to describe the function. Our function f
25 S 5 just happens to take each number of its domain to the
100 S 10 square root of that number. Therefore, we can describe
Because we sometimes use several functions in f by saying:
the same discussion, it makes sense to give them f(a number) = the square root of that number
names. Let us call the function we just mentioned by
Of course, anyone with experience in algebra
the name Eugene. Thus, we can ask, “Hey, what does
knows that writing “a number” over and over is a waste
Eugene do with the number 4?” The answer is “Eugene
of time. Why not just pick a variable to represent the
takes 4 to the number 2.”
number? Just as f is a typical name for a function, lit-
Mathematicians like to write as little as possible.
tle x is often used for a variable name. Using both, here
Thus, instead of writing “Eugene takes 4 to the num-
is a nice way to represent our function f:
ber 2,” we often write “Eugene(4)  2” to mean the
same thing. Similarly, we like to use names that are as f(x) = x
short as possible, such as f (for function), g (for func-
tion when f is already being used), h, and so on. The This tells us that putting a number into the func-
trigonometric functions in Lesson 4 all have three- tion f is the same as putting it into . Thus,
letter names like sin and cos, but even these are abbre- f(25) = 25 = 5 and f(f) = 4 = 2.
viations. So let us save space and use f instead of
Eugene. Example
Because the domain is small, it is easy to write Find the value of g(3) if g1x2  x2  2 .
out everything:

15
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– FUNCTIONS –

Solution 7. Suppose that after t seconds, a rock thrown off

Replace each occurrence of x with 3. a bridge has height s1t2  16t2  20t  100
g(3)  32  2 feet off the ground. What is the height above
the ground after 3 seconds?
Simplify.
g(3)  9  2  11 8. Suppose that the profit on making and selling x
x x2
cookies is P (x) = − − 10 dollars .
Example 2 10, 000
Find the value of h(4) if h(t) = t3  2t2 + 5. How much profit is made on selling 100 cookies?

Solution
Replace each occurrence of t with –4. Plugging Variables
into Functions
h(–4) = (–4)3 – 2(–4)2 + 5

Simplify. Variables can be plugged into functions just as easily as

numbers can. Often, though, the result can’t be sim-
h(–4) = –64 – 2(16) + 5 = –64 – 32 + 5 = –91 plified as much.

Example
When multiplying, an even number of negatives Simplify f(w) if f(x) = x + 2x 2 + 2.
results in a positive number, whereas an odd num-
ber of negatives results in a negative number. Solution
Replace each occurrence of x with w.
f(w) = w + 2w 2 + 2
Practice That is all we can say without knowing more about w.

1. Find the value of f 152 when f 1x2  2x  1. Example

Simplify g1a  52 if g1t2  t2  3t  1 .
2. Find the value of g132 when
g1x2  x3  x2  x  1. Solution
Replace each occurrence of t with (a  5).
g1a  52  1a  52 2  31a  52  1
3. Find the value of h a b when h1t2  t2  .
1 3
2 4
Multiply out 1a  52 2 and 31a  52 .
4. Find the value of f 172 when f 1x2  2 .
g1a  52  a2  10a  25  3a  15  1
 1
5. Find the value of m  −  when m(t) = –5t 3.
 5

6. Find the value of h1642 when (a + b)2 ≠ a2 + b2. Remember to FOIL (first, out-
3 side, inside, last) to get (a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2.
h1x2  2x  2 x.

Simplify.
g1a  52  a2  7a  11
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– FUNCTIONS –

Example 8
f 1x  a2  f 1x2 13. g (2 x) − g (x) when g (t ) = − 6t
Simplify if f 1x2  x2 . t
a
f ( x + a) − f ( x )
14. when f (x) = −x 2 + 5
a
Solution
h1x  a2  h1x2
Start with what needs to be simplified. 15. when h(x) = –2x + 1
f 1x  a2  f 1x2
a
a g (x + 2) − g (x)
16. when g (x) = x 3
2
Use f 1x2  x2 to evaluate f 1x  a2 and f 1x2 .
1x  a2 2  x2
a
Composition of Functions

Multiply out 1x  a2 2 . Now that we can plug anything into functions, we can
plug one function in as the input of another function.
x2  2xa  a2  x2
This is called composition. The composition of func-
a
tion f with function g is written f  g . This means to
Cancel the x2 and the x2 . plug g into f like this:
2xa  a2 ( f o g )(x ) = f (g (x))
a It may seem that f comes first in ( f o g )(x) , read-
Factor out an a. ing from left to right, but actually, the g is closer to the
12x  a2a
x. This means that the function g acts on the x first.
a
Example
Cancel an a from the top and bottom. If f(x) = x + 2x and g1x2  4x  7, then what is the
2x  a composition ( f o g )(x) ?

Solution
Practice Start with the definition of composition.
(f ° g)(x) = f(g(x))
Simplify the following.
Use g1x2  4x  7 .
9. f 1y2 when f 1x2  x2  3x  1
( f o g )(x) = f (4 x + 7)
10. f 1x  a2 when f 1x2  x  3x  1
2

Replace each occurrence of x in f with 4x  7 .

11. f (x + h) − f (x) when f (x) = 1 ( f o g )(x) = 4 x + 7 + 2(4 x + 7)

h 2x
Simplify.
8
12. g(x 2 + x ) when g1t2   6t ( f o g )(x) = 4 x + 7 + 8 x + 14
t
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Conversely, to evaluate (g ° f )(x), we compute: Practice

(g o f )(x) = g ( f (x))

Using f 1x2 
1
, g1x2  x3  2x2  1 , and h(x) = x
Use f(x) = x + 2x. x
– x , simplify the following compositions.
(g o f )(x) = g ( x + 2 x)
17. (f ° g)(x)
Replace each occurrence of x in g with x + 2x.
(g o f )(x) = 4( x + 2 x) + 7 18. (g ° f )(x)

Simplify. 19. (f ° h)(t)

(g o f )(x) = 4 x + 8 x + 7
20. (f ° f )(z)

21. (h ° h)(w)
This shows that the order in which you com-
22. (g ° h)(16)
pute a composition matters! In general, ( f ° g)(x)
≠ (g ° f )(x). 23. (h ° f ° g)(x)

We can form the composition of more than two func- 24. (f ° h ° f )(2x)
tions. Just apply the functions, one at a time, working
your way from the one closest to x outward.
Domains
Example
If f (x) = x + 1 , g(x) = 2 – x, and h(x) = 4x, then When an expression is used to describe a function f (x),
2x − 3 it is convenient to think of the domain as the set of all
what is (f ° g ° h)(x)?
numbers that can be substituted into the expression
and get a meaningful output. This set is called the
Solution
domain. The range of the function is the set of all pos-
Start with the definition of composition.
sible numbers produced by evaluating f at the numbers
(f ° g ° h)(x) = f (g(h(x))) in its domain.
Use h(x) = 4x. In the beginning of the lesson, we considered the
(f ° g ° h)(x) = f (g(4x)) function:
Compute g(4x) by replacing each occurrence of x in g f(x) = x
with 4x.
However, we left out a crucial piece of information: the
g(4x) = 2 – 4x
domain. The domain of this function consisted of only
Next, substitute this into the composition. the numbers 1, 4, 9, 25, and 100. Thus, we should have
(f ° g ° h)(x) = f (g(4x)) = f (2 – 4x). written
Replace every occurrence of x in f with 2 – 4x. f(x) = x if x  1, 4, 9, 25, or 100
(f ° g ° h)(x) = f (2 – 4x) = (2 − 4 x) + 1 Usually, the domain of a function is not given
2(2 − 4 x) − 3
Simplify. explicitly like this. In such situations, it is assumed that
3 − 4x the domain is as large as it possibly can be, meaning that
(f ° g ° h)(x) =
1 − 8x
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it contains all real numbers that, when plugged into the Solution
function, produce another real number. Specifically, To avoid dividing by zero, we need x2  5x  6  0,
including a number in the domain cannot violate one so 1x  321x  22  0, thus x  3 and x  2 .
of the following two fundamental prohibitions: To avoid an even root of a negative number,
■ Never divide by zero. 4  x  0, so x  4 . Thus, the domain of k is
■ Never take an even root of a negative number. x  4 , x  3 , x  2 .
A nice way of representing certain collections of
Example real numbers is interval notation, as follows:
What is the domain of f 1x2 
3
?
x2 COLLECTION OF INTERVAL
REAL NUMBERS NOTATION
Solution a<x<b (a,b)
We must never let the denominator x  2 be zero, so
a≤x<b [a,b)
x cannot be 2. Therefore, the domain of this function
consists of all real numbers except 2. a<x≤b (a,b]
The prohibition against even roots (like square a≤x≤b [a,b]
roots) of negative numbers is less severe. An even root
of a negative number is an imaginary number. Useful x>a (a,∞)

mathematics can be done with imaginary numbers. x≥a [a,∞)

However, for the sake of simplicity, we will avoid them
x<b (–∞,b)
in this book.
x≤b (–∞,b]
Example All real numbers (–∞,∞)
What is the domain of g(x) = 3x + 2 ?
Note: A parenthesis is used when we intend to NOT
Solution include a point, whereas a square bracket is used when
The numbers in the square root must not be negative, we intend TO include a point.
2
so 3x  2  0 , thus x   . The domain consists The domain of the previous example would be
3
2 written as follows:
of all numbers greater than or equal to  . (–∞,–3), (–3,–2), and (–2,4]
3
Do note that it is perfectly okay to take the square
root of zero, since 0 = 0. It is only when numbers are
less than zero that even roots become imaginary. Practice

Example Find the domain of each of the following functions.

4 − x Express your answers using interval notation.
Find the domain of k(x) = 2 .
x + 5x + 6
−1
25. f (x) =
(x + 3)(x − 5)2

26. h(x) = x + 1
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– FUNCTIONS –

1 4
2 2x
27. k1t2  31. k1x2 
2t  5 x8
28. g1x2  x2  5x  6 8u
32. g (u) =
(u + 3) 4 + 3u
(z − 1)(z + 2)
29. j(z ) =
z2 +1
3
30. h1x2  2 x