Genetics: The Science of Heredity and Variation  Blending Inheritance

o it is the persisted belief that the offspring are

 Genetics - is the science of genes, heredity and variation in results of blended traits of parents.
all living organisms. It establishes a fundamental field in o this theory indicated that the progenies inherit
biology which intersects with other disciplines such as
the traits as the average values of that parental
biotechnology, agriculture, systematics and medicine.
characteristics like blended paints.
 Relatives - Individual organisms belonging to the same
 Gregor Johann Mendel (Father of Genetics)
species
o He performed experiments on pea plants and
 History demonstrated that humankind have keen interest
discovered the mechanism of inheritance
in heredity even long before the dawn of civilization
o He published his findings on inheritance of peas
Little is known about transmitted substances and manifested in 1866 but it was unnoticed in the research
characters. These theories persisted until the middle of 18th century. literatures until 1900
They were popularized by the founding personalities which laid o Later on, hundreds of papers supported the
down foundations of genetics as science. Mendelian inheritance performed on plants,
animals and humans with similar findings
 Hippocrates (c. 460–c. 375 BC) o Mendel discovered two laws on heredity:
o he postulated the hypothesis known as  (1) law of segregation and
pangenesis which explained that all body parts  (2) law of independent assortment
of a parent gave off invisible “seeds” to the
semen resembling a miniature organism Timeline of significant events in the history of genetics
o He is recognized also as “father of medicine” and
 1886 - Gregor Johann Mendel, an Austrian monk and
medical doctors take the Hippocratic oath in his
scientist published the results of his experiments on pea
honor
plants. It provided the foundation in the science of
 Aristotle (384-322 B.C.)
genetics.
o He reasoned that the blood provides the
 1869 – Johann Friedrich Miescher, a Swiss biochemist was
procreative materials in the assembly of adult
the first to isolate the nuclein now known as the DNA.
body and as basis for passing the generative
 1900 – The experiments of Gregor Mendel were
ability to the offspring
rediscovered independently by Hugo de Vries (Dutch
o His idea emphasized the role of blood in heredity
botanist and geneticist), Carl Erich Correns (German
that people still use to speak “blood lines” or “in
botanist and geneticist) and Erich Tschermak von
the blood” on physical features of related
Seysenegg (Austrian botanist). This has paved the way for
individuals
the development of modern science of genetics.
 Pre-formationism
 1928 – Frederick Griffith, an English bacteriologist
o People imagined that they saw a preformed,
performed experiments in bacteria showing capability of
miniature human being in sperm cells called the transferring the genetic information and this
homunculus transformation is heritable.
 Epigenesis  1931 – Harriet B. Creighton and Barbara McClintock,
o body parts were absent in the sex cells but were American scientists demonstrated that new allelic
formed later in the development of the combinations of linked genes are associated to exchanged
individual parts of the chromosomes. The published findings
o This theory presented the present view of indicated chromosomes form the basis of genetics.
inheritance but has no offered explanation on  1944 – Oswald Avery (bacteriologist), Maclyn McCarthy
the mechanism in the transmission of trait (biologist) and Colin McLeod (biologist) were American
 Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck scientists initially reported that the genetic material, as the
o he postulated the theory of the inheritance of transforming substance of the cell was the DNA.
acquired characteristics.  1950 – Erwin Chargaff, Austrian born American biochemist
o It embarks on the principle of use and disuse discovered the components of DNA in a 1:1 ratio. Such that
which explains that some organs developed amount of adenine is always equal to the amount of
distinctively as a product of environmental thymine, and the amount of guanine is always equal to the
influence amount of cytosine.
o The developed traits are then inherited and  1951 – Rosalind Franklin, Maurice Wilkins and Raymond
passed to the offspring hence inheritance of Gosling, British scientists performed X-ray diffraction
acquired characters experiments which presented images depicting the helical
o However, August Weissman disputed this this structure of DNA.
theory by performing experiments on mice by  1953 – James Watson and Francis Crick, British
cutting the tails of parental mice for 22 biophysicists determined the molecular structure of the
generations, it still gives of mice progenies with DNA using the data of Chargaff and X-ray images of
long tails Franklin, Wilkins, and Gosling. In 1962, the Nobel Prize for
Physiology or Medicine was shared by Watson, Crick and
Wilkins for their discovery.
  1960s – Werner Arber (Swiss microbiologist), Hamilton CHROMATIN AND CHROMOSOME
Othanel Smith (American microbiologist) and Daniel
Nathans (American microbiologist) discovered restriction  Chromatin - DNA does not exist as a naked double helix in
enzymes which can cleave DNA into fragments. This the nucleus of a cell but is complexed with proteins to form
enabled the scientists to handle genes through removal a fine filamentous material
and insertion of DNA sequences. The discovery won a  Chromosomes - the chromatin occurs as 46 long filaments
Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1978.  Histones - “bead” is disc-shaped cluster of eight proteins
 1963 – Kary B. Mullis (American biochemist) invented the  Nucleosomes - average chromatin thread repeats this
polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The machine allowed pattern almost 800,000 times and thus appears divided
specific segment of the DNA to be copied multiple times in into segment. Consist of a core particle and a short
short period. The invention won a Nobel Prize for segment of linker DNA leading to the next core particle
chemistry in 1993.  chromosome territory - each chromosome is packed into
 1990 – The human genome project (HGP) was initiated its own spheroidal region of the nucleus. It is permeated
and completed in 2003. The project successfully identified, with channels that allow regulatory chemicals to have
stored, publicly shared the data of almost all the genetic access to the genes.
content of human genome.
This is the state of the DNA in a nondividing cell. It is not a static
 2002 – The International HapMap Project was initiated structure, but changes from moment to moment according to the
which attempted to identify genetic variations contributing
genetic diversity of the cell as individual genes are turned on and off.
to human disease. It was performed though the Whole chromosomes migrate to new territories as a cell develops –
development of haploid genotype map of the human
for example moving from the edge to the core of a nucleus as its
genome. The data showed some 3.1 million variations in genes are activated for a certain developmental task. This allows
the human genome in phase II completion of project in
genes on different chromosomes to partner with each other in
2007. bringing about developmental changes in the cell.
 2008 – The 1000 Genomes Project was initiated which
attempted to sequence the genome of large number of  DNA Replication- exact copy of all its nuclear DNA.
people worldwide from various ethnicity to generate a  Sister chromatids- Each chromosome then consists of two
catalog of genetic variation and this project was completed parallel filaments.
last 2015.  Centromere- It consists of two genetically identical, rodlike
sister chromatids joined together at a pinched spot.
 Kinetochore- On each side of the centromere, there is a
protein plaque. Function, by pulling and pushing these
CHROMOSOME STRUCTURE AND CELL DIVISION
sister chromatids until they are separated during the
 Johann Friedrich Miescher - He discovered that anaphase stage.
 Genes- agent of heredity
nuclein is an acidic phosphorus rich substance
 sex chromosomes- determine the individual’s sex
also known as DNA  autosomes
 two homologous chromosomes- look alike and carry the
same genes, although they may have different varieties of
DNA Structure and Function those genes
 diploid- Any cells with 23 pairs of chromosomes
 DNA  haploid- Sperm and egg.
o is a long threadlike molecule with a uniform  Locus- location of a particular gene on a chromosome.
diameter of 2 nm  Alleles- Homologous chromosomes have the same gene at
o human cells have 46 molecules of DNA totaling 2 the same locus, although they may carry different forms of
m in length, making DNA in average of 2 inches that gene. one allele is dominant and the other one
long. recessive allele.
o DNA resembles a spiral staircase  Dominant allele – mask the effect of any recessive allele
o Two of the bases in DNA – cytosine (C) and that may be present.
thymine (T) – have a single carbon-nitrogen ring  Recessive allele – are expressed only when present on
and are classified as pyrimidines. both homologous chromosomes.
o adenine (A) and guanine (G) – have double rings
 Homozygous- Individuals with two identical alleles
and are classified as purines.
 Heterozygous- have different alleles for that gene
o function of DNA is to carry instructions, called
 Genotype- The paired alleles that an individual possesses
genes for the synthesis of proteins. And a gene is
for a particular trait constitute.
a segment of DNA that codes for a protein
o 2% of the DNA and the other 98% is noncoding
 Phenotype- An observable trait.
DNA sometimes thought as “junk DNA”  allele is expressed if it shows in the phenotype of an
individual.
RNA STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION DNA replication, and each new DNA helix wraps around
them to make new chromosomes.
 The three that are directly involved in producing proteins:
mRNA, rRNA and tRNA. ERRORS AND MUTATION
 The essential function of the three principal RNAs is to
interpret the code in DNA and use those instructions to  DNA polymerase- double-checks the new base pair and
synthesize proteins. RNA is a disposable molecule that tends to replace incorrect, biochemically unstable pairs
works mainly in the cytoplasm, while DNA is irreplaceable with more stable, correct pairs.
and remains safely behind in the nucleus, “giving orders”  Mutations- Changes in the DNA structure. A result from
from there. replication errors or from the environmental factors such
 Gene- as an information-containing segment of the DNA as radiation, chemicals, and viruses.
that codes for the production of a molecule of RNA, which
in most cases goes on to play a role in the synthesis of one THE CELL CYCLE
or more proteins. The amino acid sequence of a protein is
determined by a nucleotide sequence in the DNA. Cell cycle is divided into four main phases: G1, S, G2, and M.
 Genomics- study how genes and its non-coding DNA  G1 is the first gap phase- an interval between cell division
interact affecting the structure and function of the whole and DNA replication. During this time, a cell synthesizes
organism, then you are looking at one of the new fields of proteins, grow, and carries out its preordained task for the
biology. body. Cells in G1, also accumulate the materials needed to
 Human Genome Project (HGP)- discovered that all humans replicate their DNA in the next phase. In cultured cells like
worldwide are at least 99.99% genetically identical, but fibroblast divide every 18 to 24 hours, G1 last 8 to 10 hours
even the 0.01% variation means that we can differ from  S is the synthesis phase- n which a cell makes a duplicate
one another in more that 3 million base pairs. copy of its centrioles and all of its nuclear DNA. The two
 Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNP)- account for all identical sets of DNA molecules are then available to be
human genetic variation. divided up between daughter cells at the next cell division.
This phase takes 6 to 8 hours in cultured fibroblasts
CELL CYCLE AND THE FUNDAMENTALS OF DNA
 G2, the second gap phase- is a relatively brief interval (4-6
REPLICATION hours) between DNA replication and cell division. In G2, a
cell finishes replicating its centrioles and synthesizes
 Law of complementary base pairing- shows that we can enzymes that control cell division. It also checks the fidelity
predict the base sequence of one DNA strand if we know of DNA replication and usually repairs any errors that are
the sequence of the other. It enables a cell to reproduce detected.
one strand based on information in the other.  M is the mitotic phase- in which a cell replicates its nucleus
The fundamental steps of the replication process are as follows: and then pinches in two to form new daughter cells. In
cultured fibroblasts, the M phase takes 1 to 2 hours.
1. The double helix unwinds from the histones.  G0 phase- Some cells leave the cell cycle for a “rest” and
2. Like a zipper, an enzyme called DNA helicase opens up one cease to divide for days, years, or the rest of one’s life. An
short segment of the helix at a time, exposing its important factor in determining the number of cells in the
nitrogenous bases. The point where the DNA is opened up, body. An inability to stop cycling and enter G0 is
like the two halves of a zipper separating, is called the characteristic of cancer cells.
replication fork.
3. Molecules of the enzyme DNA polymerase move along MITOSIS
each strand; read the exposed bases; and like a
Cells divide by two mechanisms called Mitosis and Meiosis.
matchmaker; arrange “marriages” with complementary
free nucleotides. If the polymerase finds the sequence TCG  Meiosis- is restricted to one purpose, the production of
for example, it assembles AGC across from it. The two egg and sperm, and is therefore important in reproduction.
separated strands of DNA are copied by separate
polymerase molecules, proceeding in opposite directions. Mitosis serves all the other functions of cell division:
On one strand, the DNA polymerase moves toward the
replication fork and makes a long, continuous, new strand 1. Development of an individual, from a single fertilized
of DNA to complement the old one (semiconservative egg cell
replication). On the other strand (bottom strand), DNA 2. Growth of all tissues and organs after birth.
polymerase moves away from the replication fork and 3. Replacement of cells that die and
copies only a short segment of DNA at a time. The 4. Repair of damaged tissues.
segments are then joined together by another enzyme
Four phases of mitosis
called DNA Ligase.
4. While DNA is synthesized in the nucleus, new histones are Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.
synthesized in the cytoplasm. Millions of histones are
 Prophase – at the onset of mitosis, the chromosomes
transported into the nucleus within a few minutes after
shorten and thicken, eventually coiling into compact rods
 that are easier to distribute to daughter cells than the long, 4. They are stimulated by growth factors, chemical signals
delicate chromatin of interphase. There are 46 secreted by blood platelets, kidney cells and other sources.
chromosomes, two chromatids per chromosomes and one
DNA molecule of DNA per chromatid. The nuclear 5. The neighboring cells die, opening up space in a tissue to be
envelope disintegrates during prophase and releases the occupied by new cells. Cells stop dividing when they snugly
chromosomes into the cytosol. The centrioles begin to contact neighboring cells or when nutrients or growth factors
sprout elongated microtubules called spindle fiber, which are withdrawn. This cessation of cell division in response to
push the centrioles apart as they grow. Eventually, a pair of contact with other cells is called contact inhibition.
centrioles comes to lie at each pole of the cell. Some
MEIOSIS
spindle fibers grow toward the chromosomes and become
attached to the kinetochore on each side of the -reduces the chromosome number from diploid to haploid. There are
centromere. The spindle fibers then tug the chromosomes two consecutive cells divisions, Meiosis I and Meiosis II, resulting in
back and forth until they line up along the middle of the four haploid daughter cells.
cell.
 Metaphase – the chromosomes are aligned on the cell The first division, Meiosis I, separates homologous chromosomes
equator, swinging slightly, and awaiting a signal that while in Meiosis II is the separation of sister chromatids. Meiosis I
stimulates each of them to split in two at the centromere. occurs in four phases: Prophase I, Metaphase I, Anaphase I, and
The spindle fibers now form a lemon-shaped array called Telophase.
the mitotic spindle. Long microtubules reach out from each
centriole to the chromosomes, and shorter microtubules  Prophase I -It typically occupies more than 90% of the time
form a star-like aster, which anchors the assembly to the required for meiosis. During prophase I, the chromosomes
inside of the plasma membrane at each end of the cell. begin to condense. Homologous chromosomes loosely pair
up along their length, precisely aligned gene for gene. In
 Anaphase – this phase begins with activation of an enzyme
crossing over, DNA molecules in non-sister chromatids
that cleaves the two sister chromatids from each other at
break at corresponding places and then rejoin the other
the centromere. Each chromatid is now regarded as a
chromatid. In synapsis, a protein structure called the
separate, single-stranded daughter chromosome. One
synaptonemal complex forms between homologues,
daughter chromosome migrates to each pole of the cell,
holding them tightly together along their length. As the
with its centromere leading the way and the arms trailing
synaptonemal complex disassembles in late prophase,
behind. Migration is achieved by means of motor proteins
each chromosome pair becomes visible as a tetrad, or
in the kinetochore crawling along the spindle fiber as the
group of four chromatids. Each tetrad has one or more
fiber itself is “chewed up” and disassembled at the
chiasmata, sites where the chromatids of homologous
chromosomal end. Since sister chromatids are genetically
chromosomes have crossed, and segments of the
identical, and since each daughter cells receives one
chromatids have been traded. Spindle microtubules form
chromatid from each chromosome, the daughter cells of
from the centrosomes, which have moved to the poles. In
the mitosis are genetically identical.
this stage, there is breakdown of the nuclear envelope and
 Telophase – the chromatids cluster on each side of the cell.
nucleoli take place. Kinetochores of each homologue
The rough ER produces a nuclear envelope around each
attach to microtubules from one of the poles.
cluster, and the chromatids begin to uncoil and return to
 Metaphase I -the tetrads are all arranged at the
the thinly dispersed chromatin form. The mitotic spindle
metaphase plate, with one chromosome facing each pole.
breaks up and vanishes. Each new nucleus forms nucleoli,
Microtubules from one pole are attached to the
indicating it has already begun making RNA and preparing
kinetochore of one chromosome of each tetrad, while
for protein synthesis.
those from the other pole are attached to the other.
 The telophase is the end of nuclear division but overlaps
 Anaphase I- the homologous chromosomes separate. One
with cytokinesis, division of the cytoplasm into two cells.
chromosome moves toward each pole, guided by the
Early traces of cytokinesis are visible even at the anaphase.
spindle apparatus. Sister chromatids remain attached at
It is achieved by the motor terminal web of the
the centromere and move as a single unit toward the pole.
cytoskeleton. This creates a crease called the cleavage
furrow (in animal cell) around the equator of the cell, and  Telophase I and cytokinesis- movement of homologous
the cell eventually pinches in two. Interphase has now chromosomes continues until there is a haploid set at each
begun for these new cells. pole. Each chromosome consists of two sister chromatids.
Cytokinesis usually occurs simultaneously, by the same
TIMING OF CELL DIVISION mechanisms as mitosis. In animal cells, a cleavage furrow
forms. In plant cells, a cell plate forms. No chromosome
Cells divide when: replication occurs between the end of meiosis I and the
beginning of meiosis II, as the chromosomes are already
1. They grow large enough to have enough cytoplasm to
replicated.
distribute to their daughter cells.
Meiosis II.
2. They have replicated their DNA, so they can give each  Prophase II -A spindle apparatus forms and attaches to
daughter cell a duplicate set of genes. kinetochores of each sister chromatid. Spindle fibers from
one pole attach to the kinetochore of one sister chromatid,
3. They receive an adequate supply of nutrients.
 and those of the other pole attach to kinetochore of the a. Independent assortment of chromosomes.
other sister chromatid.
 Metaphase II- the sister chromatids are arranged at the b. Crossing over.
metaphase plate. Because of crossing over in meiosis I, the c. Random fertilization
two sister chromatids of each chromosome are no longer
genetically identical. The kinetochores of sister chromatids  Independent assortment of chromosomes -contributes to
attach to microtubules extending from opposite poles. genetic variability due to the random orientation of
 Anaphase II- The centromeres of sister chromatids homologous pairs of chromosomes at the metaphase plate
separate, and two newly individual chromosomes travel during meiosis I.
toward opposite poles. There is a fifty-fifty chance that a particular daughter cell of
 Telophase II- The chromosomes arrive at opposite poles. meiosis I will get the maternal chromosome of a certain
Nuclei form around the chromosomes, which begin homologous pair and a fifty-fifty chance that it will receive
expanding, and cytokinesis separates the cytoplasm. At the the paternal chromosome. Each homologous pair of
end of meiosis, there are four haploid daughter cells. chromosomes segregates independently of the other
homologous pairs during metaphase I. Therefore, the first
There are key differences between mitosis and meiosis meiotic division results in independent assortment of
maternal and paternal chromosomes into daughter cells.
The chromosome number is reduced from diploid to haploid in The number of combinations possible when chromosomes
meiosis but is conserved in mitosis. Mitosis produces daughter cells assort independently into gametes is 2 n , where n is the
that are genetically identical to the parent and to each other. Meiosis haploid number of the organism. If n = 3, there are 23 = 8
produces cells that are genetically distinct from the parent cell and possible combinations. For humans with n = 23, there are
from each other. 223, or more than 8 million possible combinations of
chromosomes.
Three events, unique to meiosis, occur during the first
 Crossing over- produces recombinant chromosomes,
division cycle. which combine genes inherited from each parent. Crossing
over begins very early in prophase I as homologous
1. During prophase I of meiosis, replicated homologous
chromosomes pair up gene by gene.
chromosomes line up and become physically connected along their
In crossing over, homologous portions of two non-sister
lengths by a zipperlike protein complex, the synaptonemal complex,
chromatids trade places. For humans, this occurs an
in a process called synapsis. Genetic rearrangement between non-
average of one to three times per chromosome pair.
sister chromatids called crossing over also occurs. Once the
Recent research suggests that, in some organisms, crossing
synaptonemal complex is disassembled, the joined homologous
over may be essential for synapsis and the proper
chromosomes are visible as a tetrad. X-shaped regions called
assortment of chromosomes in meiosis I. Crossing over, by
chiasmata are visible as the physical manifestation of crossing over.
combining DNA inherited from two parents into a single
Synapsis and crossing over do not occur in mitosis.
chromosome, is an important source of genetic variation.
2. At metaphase I of meiosis, homologous pairs of chromosomes At metaphase II, nonidentical sister chromatids sort
align along the metaphase plate. In mitosis, individual replicated independently from one another, increasing by even more
chromosomes line up along the metaphase plate. the number of genetic types of daughter cells that are
formed by meiosis.
3. At anaphase I of meiosis, it is homologous chromosomes, not  Random nature- of fertilization adds to the genetic
sister chromatids, that separate and are carried to opposite poles of variation arising from meiosis. Any sperm can fuse with
the cell. Sister chromatids of each replicated chromosome remain any egg. The ovum is one of more than 8 million possible
attached. In mitosis, sister chromatids separate to become individual chromosome combinations. The successful sperm is one of
chromosomes. more than 8 million possibilities. The resulting zygote could
contain any one of more than 70 trillion possible
Meiosis I is called the reductional division because it halves the
combinations of chromosomes. Crossing over adds even
number of chromosome sets per cell— a reduction from the diploid
more variation to this. Each zygote has a unique genetic
to the haploid state. The sister chromatids separate during the
identity. The three sources of genetic variability in a
second meiosis division, meiosis II.
sexually reproducing organism are:
ORIGINS OF GENETIC VARIATION 1. Independent assortment of homologous chromosomes
during meiosis I and of nonidentical sister chromatids
Mutations- are the original source of genetic diversity. Once during meiosis II.
different versions of genes arise through mutation, reshuffling during 2. Crossing over between homologous chromosomes
meiosis and fertilization produce offspring with their own unique set during prophase I.
of traits. 3. Random fertilization of an ovum by a sperm.
 Evolutionary adaptation depends on a population’s
1. Sexual life cycles- produce genetic variation among offspring. The genetic variation- Darwin recognized the importance of
behavior of chromosomes during meiosis and fertilization is genetic variation in evolution. A population evolves
responsible for most of the variation that arises in each generation. through the differential reproductive success of its variant
Three mechanisms contribute to genetic variation: members. Which means not all individuals within the
population will produce the same number of offspring.
 Those individuals best suited to the local environment traits are inherited independently and have no relation.
leave the most offspring, transmitting their genes in the This principle involves dihybrid crosses.
process. This natural selection results in adaptation, the  Allelic pair – the combination of alleles which comprise the
accumulation of favorable genetic variations for a gene pair.
particular environment.  Dominant – the allele that expresses itself at the expense
 Although Darwin realized that heritable variation makes of an alternate allele. It is the stronger of two genes
evolution possible, he did not have a theory of inheritance, expressed in the hybrid and usually represented by capital
what Darwin provided is the mechanism of evolution. It letter, such as capital letter “T” for tall.
was Gregor Mendel, a contemporary of Darwin’s,  Recessive – an allele whose expression is suppressed or
published a theory of inheritance that supported Darwin’s masked-off in the presence of a dominant allele. The gene
theory of Evolution. shows up less often in a cross and is represented by a
 Homologous chromosomes- plays an important role in lowercase letter, as small letter "t" for short.
genetic diversity and is also a key determinant in the  Homozygous genotype- is an individual which contains
unique gene profile of an individual. These are only one allele at allelic pair. The gene combination
chromosomes alike in structure, size and each carries the possesses two identical alleles for a particular locus,
genetic information for the same set of hereditary involving 2 dominant (RR) or 2 recessive genes (rr). This is
characteristics but not necessarily identical. also called as pure.
 Somatic human cells have 23 pairs of chromosomes,  Heterozygous genotype- is an individual that contains one
including the sex chromosomes, X, and Y. Males are XY, and of each member of the gene pair. The gene combination
females are XX. possesses different alleles for particular locus, one
dominant and one recessive (e.g Rr). This is also called as
Eukaryotic chromosomes exist in four major types: metacentric,
hybrid.
submetacentric, acrocentric, and telocentric.
Types of Genetic Crosses
 Metacentric chromosomes -have the centromere in
the center, such that both sections are of equal  Monohybrid Cross - a genetic cross that takes into account
length. Human chromosomes 1 and 3 are the behavior of allele at a single locus. Example: Flower
metacentric. color. Single Trait Involves and Principles of Dominance and
 Submetacentric Chromosomes- have the centromere Segregation.
slightly offset from the center leading to a slight  Dihybrid Cross – a genetic cross that takes into account the
asymmetry in the length of the two section. Human behavior of allele at two locus. Example: Flower color and
chromosome 4 to 12 are submetacentric. plant height. Two Traits and Involves Principle of
 Acrocentric chromosomes- have a centromere that is
severely offset from the center leading to one very
long and one very short section. Human
chromosomes 13, 15, 21, and 22 are acrocentric.
 Telocentric Chromosomes- have the centromere at
the very end of the chromosome. Humans do not
possess telocentric chromosomes, but they are found
in other species, such as mice.
 Principle of Dominance -In a cross of parents that are pure
for contrasting traits, only one form of the trait will appear
in the next generation. The resulting offspring will be
heterozygous and express only the dominant trait.
 Principle of Segregation-During the formation of gametes
(eggs or sperm), the two alleles responsible for a trait Independent Assortment.
separate from each other. This principle is a statement
about genetic transmission. An allele is transmitted
faithfully to the next generation, even if it was present with
a different allele in a heterozygous. This means that each
offspring receives one allele from each parent.
 Principle of Independent assortment-Alleles for different
traits are distributed, or as we sometimes say, assort, to
sex cells and offspring independently of one another. This
principle is another rule of genetic transmission, based on
the behavior of different pairs of chromosomes during
meiosis. The principle is a result when Mendel began
mixing two traits and found a 9:3:3:1 ratio of the offspring.
Unless the features are linked, he concluded that various