Basic information on hydrogen

Why hydrogen?
The basic precondition for the application of hydrogen in all sectors concerned is the
transition to a low-emission or zero-emission economy. As for the constant efforts of states
across all continents, new alternatives for the development of climate-neutral technologies
are sought. The European Union itself has set the goal of achieving complete climate
neutrality for the year 2050, i.e., capturing and storing the same amount of greenhouse gas
emissions as will be released into the atmosphere. The very fact of the development of
renewable energy sources across the Member States then creates room for stabilizing their
unpredictable electricity production. In this case, hydrogen will play the role of an energy
carrier, which is especially suitable for seasonal accumulation and some mobility
applications.

What is hydrogen?
Hydrogen is the lightest gaseous chemical element forming up two-thirds of the entire cosmic
mass. It is estimated that it makes up more than 30% of the total mass of the Sun. It is the
third most widespread element on Earth, yet it occurs almost never as a single molecule
because it is highly reactive and forms compounds immediately. Hydrogen is ubiquitous,
whether in the form of water, natural gas, or methanol. As the simplest and lightest element,
it disperses into the air very quickly when escapes. When escaping, hydrogen does not
pollute the environment in any way. It is an emission-free substance that is non-toxic and
odourless. Hydrogen is a combustible element, but it does not support combustion, and
burns with a pale blue flame.

What energy properties does hydrogen have?

Hydrogen is a very energy-rich fuel (33 kWh/kg) and is currently a direct competitor,
especially with battery technologies.

In a direct comparison of hydrogen with batteries, the leader in the field of battery technology
today is the automotive company Tesla, whose batteries reach energy densities of 250–260
Wh/kg. Hydrogen thus has almost 126 times higher energy density per 1 kg. However, each
technology has its disadvantages, and that is especially the low bulk energy density of
hydrogen (3 kWh/m3 at 20 °C and 1 bar). The tank, which is able to hold, for example, 6.3 kg
of hydrogen, therefore, has a total capacity of 156 liters (Hyundai Nexo).

What is the history of hydrogen use?

Hydrogen is a long-known gas in the world, discovered in 1776 by the British scientist Henry
Cavendish. Unfortunately, hydrogen was not widely used in industry at the time of its
discovery, mainly due to the advent of cheaper fossil fuels in the 19th and 20th centuries.
When pronouncing the word 'hydrogen', everyone will remember the Hindenburg airship
disaster. Although "banging" hydrogen is still blamed, the catastrophe was caused by an
electric shock that ignited the highly flammable material from which the hull was made. To
this day, the terrifying video of the burning airship raises concerns and creates a stigma over
the various applications of hydrogen. The expansion of hydrogen use was due to space
research missions in the 1960s, such as the Apollo missions. Hydrogen was used at that
time primarily as fuel for space rockets. In addition, during the Apollo spaceflight, hydrogen
fuel cell technology was used on board to generate electricity, heat and water. In the Czech
Republic, hydrogen was used as one of the main components of the well-known flue gas,
which was later replaced by natural gas.

What is the use of hydrogen?

Hydrogen is a carrier (storage) of energy. It is widely used in transport, energetics and
other industries. In the future, hydrogen is to serve as one of the energy carriers for
the application of the so-called sector coupling, or the concept of sector integration.

The sector coupling is a process in which the full decarbonisation of most sectors (transport,
energy, and other industries) should take place through the use of electricity from renewable
energy sources. Hydrogen has a significant role to play in this strategy as an energy carrier
in all the areas mentioned below.

In transport, hydrogen cars are a major competitor to battery electric vehicles (BEVs).
Hydrogen fuel cell cars (FCEV) have a longer range (600 km and more), a short filling time
(approx. 5 minutes), work better under cold conditions, and with significantly less range
losses and lower consumption at higher speeds. The loss of range at higher speeds is of the
same order as for internal combustion engine cars. Compared to batteries, hydrogen is
expected to be preferred especially in heavy freight transport, bus transport and other types
of long-distance transport. Today, hydrogen mobility works on the principle of fuel cells
producing electricity by the direct electrochemical reaction of hydrogen and oxygen to water.
As waste substances, only demineralized water and air are generated, which is purified by
filters. It is a bit of an exaggeration to say that hydrogen cars are cleaning the planet. The
mass development of FCEV is hindered only by the high acquisition price and the small
infrastructure of filling stations. With the wider application of FCEV, there will be a dramatic
reduction in acquisition prices due to mass production.

In energy, it is possible to use hydrogen as an energy storage. Taking into account that
hydrogen stores a large amount of energy (approx. 33 kWh/kg) and can be easily stored in a
large capacity, it is an ideal medium for seasonal energy accumulation (in the order of TWh).
Where battery technologies fail in covering up long-term shortages of electricity in the
transmission system, hydrogen works as an ideal alternative. Hydrogen stored in this way,
whether in storage tanks or in the gas system, can then be in combination with oxygen
converted back into electricity using fuel cell technology.

In other industries, hydrogen can replace fossil fuels. In the steel industry, it can be used,
for example, to reduce iron. Today, hydrogen is primarily used for the production of
ammonia, which is then used mainly in the production and processing of fertilizers. Other
industrial uses of hydrogen include the production of polymers, explosives, but also in the
food industry for the hardening of fats in the production of margarines. There are also pilot
projects in the world testing the use of combustion of hydrogen instead coal.
How is hydrogen produced?
96% of all hydrogen produced today comes from fossil fuels. Only 4% is produced by
water electrolysis. However, this ratio should change in the next decade in favour of
emission-free production by means of the above-mentioned electrolysis of water.

It is currently stated that 96% of all world hydrogen production comes from fossil fuels,
mainly through the so-called steam reforming of natural gas. This is the cheapest current
hydrogen production technology. Steam reforming is a chemical process in which water
vapor, at a temperature of 750–950 °C, is fed to methane. The mixture of methane and vapor
then reacts to form hydrogen, carbon monoxide and less carbon dioxide. Subsequently,
carbon monoxide reacts with additional water vapor to form hydrogen and carbon dioxide.
The overall efficiency of this process is around 75%. However, it produces a large amount of
CO2, up to 9–12 kg of CO2 is produced per 1 kg of hydrogen produced. The hydrogen thus
produced is called gray.

A transitional method of hydrogen production can be a combination of technologies already

known today, and these are steam reforming of natural gas with CCS (Carbon Capture
Storage). In this variant, the generated CO2 emissions are captured using CCS or CCU
(Carbon Capture Utilization) technology and the hydrogen produced is virtually emission free
(emissions are reduced by up to 95%). The hydrogen thus produced is called blue.

In the future, the most supported method of hydrogen production in the European Union is
the production of hydrogen by electrolysis of water using electricity from renewable energy
sources. Unfortunately, nowadays the production of hydrogen using electricity reaches
approximately a 4% share of all production. In addition, most of this hydrogen is a by-product
of chlorine production using brine electrolysis technology, i.e., white hydrogen (formed as a
by-product of further chemical reactions).

If hydrogen is produced by electrolysis of water and the electricity used comes from
renewable sources, then such hydrogen is called green. Green hydrogen is emission free
and has the greatest potential for reducing greenhouse gas emissions. During the
electrolysis of water, the chemical bond between hydrogen and oxygen in the solution is
broken to form hydrogen gas and oxygen. At present, the overall efficiency is around 50–
60% depending on the use of cell technology. To produce 1 kg of hydrogen, about 9 liters of
water and about 50 kWh of electricity is required.

There are other methods of hydrogen production that can be found in the literature.
Currently, the potential of hydrogen production in newly developed fourth-generation nuclear
reactors using high-temperature electrolysis of water vapor on solid oxide cells is discussed.

In addition, hydrogen is classified into other 'colours' based on the source from which it is
produced. So, we can find brown hydrogen (produced by coal gasification) or turquoise
hydrogen (produced from natural gas, but the by-product is solid carbon).

How is hydrogen produced in the Czech Republic and what is the

potential for the production of green hydrogen in our country?
Due to its specific position in the heart of Europe, the Czech Republic has relatively
little potential for the production of so-called green hydrogen. The utilization
coefficient (approximately slightly above 20%) of wind power plants is lower in our
country than in neighboring coastal states, where strong and stable winds
(approximately above 30%) blow over sea coasts. At present, there is no large
electrolyser in the Czech Republic designed for the production of green hydrogen on a
commercial basis. A small electrolyser using solar energy with an output of 6 kW is
located in ÚJV Řež and is intended only for research purposes. Nevertheless, large
electrolysers exist in the Czech Republic, but they are used primarily for the
production of other chemicals and the so-called white hydrogen is formed here only
as a by-product. It is worth to mention the largest Czech electrolyser, which is
operated by Spolchemie for the production of chlorine. As a by-product, hydrogen is
also produced there, the use of which is considered for urban transport in cooperation
with the town of Ústí nad Labem in the future. Most hydrogen in the Czech Republic is
produced by the Unipetrol company that by means of partial oxidation of heavy oil
residues, steam reforming and from the ethylene unit produces more than 85,000 tons
of hydrogen per year, which is then used mainly for the production of ammonia.

What is water electrolysis?

Electrolysis is a process in which a direct electric current breaks a chemical bond
between hydrogen and oxygen in an aqueous solution.

2 HO → 2 H + O
2 2 2

Very pure hydrogen is subsequently formed at the cathode in gaseous form, from where it is
discharged and subsequently stored. We must not forget the evolution of oxygen at the
anode, without which this technology could not work, because we cannot perform the
reaction on one electrode only. The process can also be operated at room temperature and
requires only electricity. The efficiency of current commercial electrolysers used for hydrogen
production is around 50–75%.

What types of electrolysers do we have?

At present, there is talk of a total of three types of electrolyzers, which are advanced
enough to saturate market demand. These are electrolysers using alkaline
electrolysis, PEM electrolysis and high-temperature electrolysis taking place in solid
oxide fuel cells.

The alkaline electrolysis is now the cheapest and currently the most commercially developed
technology. In terms of attractiveness and technical properties, the PEM technology is
currently the most suitable for the production of green hydrogen from surplus renewable
energy sources due to its fast start-up capabilities and relatively low operating temperature.
The disadvantage of PEM electrolysers is their higher price, which is mainly due to the use of
more expensive materials in production, such as iridium and platinum together with the high
price of the membrane.

How much water is used in electrolysis?

To produce 1 kg of hydrogen and 8 kg of oxygen, 8.92 liters of demineralized water are
needed, i.e., water free from all minerals present (even purer than distilled water).

Current industrial oil processing processes use about 40% more water than is used during its
electrolysis. In addition, when you reuse the hydrogen in the fuel cell, you get back a similar
amount of water as you put in the process.
What water can be used for electrolysis?

The water needed to produce very pure hydrogen must be demineralized, i.e. free of all
solutes and impurities. However, it can be obtained from virtually any water source.

For example, the desalination process today costs around 0.8 euros per 1 m3 water. If we
convert this process to hydrogen production, the production of hydrogen from seawater costs
0.007 euros more per 1 kg of hydrogen.

Hydrogen storage

How is it possible to store hydrogen?

At present, the compression of hydrogen in the gaseous state is mentioned as the
most promising and also as the most commercially advanced technology for
hydrogen storage. The hydrogen thus stored tends to escape due to the very small
size of molecule. Modern storage tanks are already made of extremely strong and
airtight materials, allowing safe storage with minimal losses of stored hydrogen.
Compared to the competitive possibilities of hydrogen storage, the compression of
hydrogen gas clearly has the least disadvantages.

Hydrogen is stored stationary in large-volume gaseous steel pressure vessels. To compress

hydrogen to 350 bars, approximately 15–20% of the energy in the fuel is required. The
second option is to convert hydrogen to a liquid state. However, the disadvantage of this
process is that it is necessary to keep such hydrogen in this form at -253 °C in cryogenic
storage tanks. During its handling and use, leaks subsequently occur as a result of the
evaporation of hydrogen, which thus behaves at a temperature higher than -253 °C. Up to
30–40% of the total energy contained in the fuel is needed for liquefaction alone.

Hydrogen applications in mobility

What are fuel cells?

Fuel cells in electric cars are basically small electricity generators obtaining energy
from a direct electrochemical reaction between oxygen and hydrogen. Hydrogen is
stored in a tank from which it is fed to the fuel cell. There it reacts with oxygen to
produce electricity. The product of this electrochemical reaction is only distilled water.

This technology is also sometimes called reverse electrolysis because the opposite happens
to water electrolysis. The average efficiency of fuel cells is between 50–60%. From 1 kg of
hydrogen, the fuel cell is able to produce about 16 kWh of electricity.

How do fuel cells work in electric cars?

The fuel cell is similar in construction to batteries. In the fuel cell we find the anode,
cathode and membrane with a catalyst. Hydrogen enters the system on the anode side
and oxygen on the cathode side. Hydrogen is decomposed into an electron at the
anode and a hydrogen proton, which is transported by the membrane to the cathode,
reacts there with the oxygen present. The product is only distilled water and
electricity, in addition, unused oxygen leaves the fuel cell.

How is a battery electric car different from a fuel cell one?

A fuel cell vehicle (FCEV) is also an electric vehicle. The car includes a battery,
electric motor and fuel cell along with a hydrogen tank.

Unlike battery electric vehicles (BEVs), fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) have a small
battery with a capacity of the order of kWh. Electricity generated from fuel cells is stored in a
battery, from which the electric motor then takes electricity directly. The efficiency of such a
system is due to the addition of a fuel cell to the whole process lower than in a purely battery
system by about 40–50%, yet the whole process is more energy efficient than in the case of
an internal combustion engine.

How is a hydrogen electric car refueled?

Refueling takes place at filling stations. The whole process is very similar to refueling
traditional fossil fuels. After connecting the filling gun to the tank valve, you press the
lever and the whole system will take care of the rest of the work. Filling the tanks takes
5 minutes and gives the car full capacity.

The whole system works highly automatically and when the filling pistol clicks, the system
closes and locks. It is therefore not possible for hydrogen to escape from the filling station to
the surroundings. After refueling, you simply "click out" the filling pistol, pay and move on.

How many filling stations do we have in the Czech Republic?

At present, no public access to the filling station in the Czech Republic is open. One
filling station, which is used mainly for research purposes, is located in Neratovice.
However, a total of three are being prepared for 2021, which will be managed by the
Unipetrol company – in Litvínov, Prague and Brno.

The National Action Plan for Clean Mobility assumes that a total of 80 publicly accessible
hydrogen filling stations should be operational in the Czech Republic by 2030.

How does a hydrogen electric car work in cold weather?

The advantage is the reliability of the whole system in cold weather. Compared to
battery packs, fuel cells are not subject to degradation during cold weather.

The efficiency of the whole car is better in winter conditions than in the case of battery
electric cars, because the hydrogen electric car does not need to heat by the electricity
produced, but can work with the waste heat generated during the operation of fuel cells. In
winter, on the other hand, the efficiency of a battery-powered electric car drops roughly to the
level of FCEV, which retains its efficiency even at low temperatures.

Can't the wastewater in the hydrogen electric car system freeze?

Fuel cell systems and water drainage are currently designed so that water cannot
freeze throughout the car system.

For example, the developers of the Hyundai Nexo hydrogen electric car guarantee that their
system works without any problems in the range of -30 °C to +50 °C.

Is battery electromobility a better transport solution than fuel cells?

It depends on who you ask and what type of transport we are talking about. However,
hydrogen and batteries should be two complementary technologies that will
complement each other. Why?

Long-distance freight transport: Hydrogen currently offers greater potential for the
transport of goods over longer distances. Despite the hypothetical technological evolution of
batteries (solid electrolyte batteries), it is unlikely that within ten years it will be possible to
recharge the batteries so that to use the increased capacity for journeys over 1000 km
without major problems. In addition, current batteries are very heavy, and even if you double
the energy density from the current 260 Wh per 1 kg battery to 500 Wh per 1 kg, you would
still need a battery with a minimum capacity of 1.5 MW and a battery weighing 3 tons for
long-distance transport over 1000 km. Charging such a striking amount of electricity is also a
problem. What power consumption would the chargers need to charge 1.5 MW overnight
between shifts? With the hypothetical idea of 20 such trucks standing in the parking lot in a
row, we get to the numbers, due to which it is no longer possible to build only a stronger
transformer station, but a small power plant near such chargers. For that reason alone, it is
obvious to think of turning electricity into another, easily storable energy carrier that we can
produce continuously from renewable energy sources. We can transport hydrogen to the
truck significantly faster and we would not endanger the stability of the transmission system
during charging/refueling. Hydrogen currently offers greater potential for the transport of
goods over longer distances.

Haulage in cities: In cities, on the other hand, battery electromobility can play a more
significant role due to its high efficiency and low cost. The battery is great for city traffic
where operators do not need a long range. In addition, the advantage of the entire solution is
supported by low operating costs and high efficiency due to energy recovery and low
transport speeds.

Passenger car transport: The BEV (battery electric vehicle) market is currently a relatively
developed market. In addition, every year there is a significant progress towards achieving
the driving characteristics of internal combustion cars (range, charging speed). BEVs are the
ideal solution for standard daily driving and charging at home from the socket. Today, BEVs
already offer a decent range of 400 km, are highly efficient and locally emission free.
Especially for urban transport, there will be no equivalent competitor for BEV at present or in
the near future. Fuel cell passenger cars (FCEVs), on the other hand, cannot compete in
some areas of the BEVs, although their application is possible, in particular taking into
account their specific characteristics. They offer a higher and more stable range, even at
higher speeds, especially on motorways, and their properties are similar to internal
combustion engines in terms of range. FCEVs can also be a suitable alternative for drivers
who live in densely populated areas without adequate home charging options. However, the
development of FCEVs is currently hindered by high acquisition costs and insufficient
infrastructure of filling stations, which are also significantly more expensive compared to the
construction of charging stations.

Bus transportation: For urban transport with driving distances in the order of tens of
kilometers, the most efficient solution is a battery bus, similarly to the urban freight transport.
Hydrogen buses have greater potential, especially in intercity and long-distance transport, as
they offer a more stable and higher range.

Train transport: Hydrogen has the potential to replace diesel train transport in such parts of
countries where there is no electrified railway. Today, pilot projects are already operating
around the world, for example in France, which plans to test hydrogen trains from 2023.
Similar to the Czech Republic, where hydrogen trains could hit the tracks, especially in the
northern part of Bohemia.

How heavy are hydrogen storage tanks in cars?

With the hypothetical storage of 4.2 kg of compressed hydrogen at a pressure of 700
bar, we need a tank in cars weighing about 135 kg. The tanks are currently made of
reinforced carbon fiber.

Compared to a vehicle burning petrol, the hydrogen tank has 4–5 times higher volume and
10 times more weight.

Couldn't hydrogen be liquefied and then refueled like standard petrol?

This solution is extremely energy inefficient. Liquid hydrogen needs to be maintained
at -253 °C and if such conditions are not met, hydrogen will evaporate.

The effect of heat on the fuel tank can be caused by the environment, heat from the engine
and other aspects. This results in large losses (usually about 3% of the stored energy per
day) and at the same time excess pressure is built up in the fuel tanks, which must then be
compensated by releasing it from the fuel tank.

Is hydrogen safe?
All fuels contain a high concentration of energy and can therefore be dangerous under
certain conditions. However, hydrogen can be considered as similarly safe or even
safer than any other fuel. In addition to standard crash tests, hydrogen tanks are also
tested to withstand firing from a sniper rifle. The tanks can withstand twice the
pressure that will be achieved under standard conditions. Filling stations, which have
a number of systems focusing on safety when working with high pressure, are
similarly safe.

The advantage in the safety of the use of hydrogen is also its very low density, when
hydrogen rises rapidly when the tank is punctured, therefore it does not accumulate
near the accident. In the event of fire, a flame will be created, which will rise vertically
upwards and the vehicle will not fire as it is in case of liquid fossil fuels.

Hydrogen production has been going on for decades and there are practically no
extraordinary tragedies. Hydrogen is also, among other things, a gas that is not harmful to
health, so you do not have to worry about its leakage. In addition, the systems in modern
hydrogen electric cars are developed so that they close in the event of an accident and
sudden ignition cannot happen.

Hydrogen economy

How much does it cost to produce 1 kg of hydrogen?

The price depends mainly on the method of production. In addition, for the production
of green hydrogen, it is necessary to take into account the different price in different
parts of the world, depending on how much it costs to produce electricity from
renewable energy sources. According to the International Energy Agency, the price of
hydrogen production is as follows:

Steam reforming of natural gas $ 1–3.5/kg

Coal gasification $ 1.2–2.2/kg

Water electrolysis $ 3–7.5/kg

How much does 1 kg of hydrogen cost at filling stations?
For the end user, the price of hydrogen per kg is currently set at 9.5 euros in Germany
(where most filling stations are located). Converted to kilometers and with an average
consumption of 1 kg per 100 km, 1 km in a hydrogen electric car will cost you ~ 0,094
EUR.

Compared to conventional fuels, a hydrogen electric car is currently more expensive to

operate. However, the price should decrease in the future with increasing production. Filling
the full tank of a Hyundai Nexo (6.3 kg) with a reported range of 666 km would cost you
around 60 EUR today.

How will the price reduction be achieved in the next 10 years?

The hydrogen economy will not be sufficiently developed without the help of state
subsidies. In order to reduce the price, it is necessary to invest in production. In the
coming years, support for low-emission and zero-emission (green hydrogen) will
prevail in Europe, with the aim of building 40 GW electrolysers within the EU by 2030
and supporting the construction of another 40 GW electrolysers across borders to
increase imports. In addition to increasing production capacity, the price of green
hydrogen will also be reduced by technological progress and increasing the efficiency
of the electrolysers themselves.