Volume 2 Part 1

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ELEMENTARY ALGEBRA
HENRISON C. SANCHEZ
Assistant Professor
Department of Engineering Sciences
College of Engineering, Central Luzon State University
REAL NUMBER SYSTEM
Real
Number
U 3
Rationals Irrationals
D 2
E
O 20
Odd Number
R LA BE
C
Integers Fractions
Even Number
R S
Negative Whole
T C A
Integers Number
EP S
N W SU
Positive
{0}
Integers
Composite
O IE L
Prime No. {1}

No.
D EV C
SETS
A set is a collection or grouping of distinct elements. The elements of a set are called
members. The symbol "∈" is used to denote membership in a set. The cardinal number
(represented by|𝐴|) is the size of any set A.
O
Operation on Sets
a) Union. The union of set A and B, denoted as 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵, is a set of all elements in either A or
B.
b) Intersection. The intersection of set A and B, denoted by 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵, is the set of all elements
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that are both present to A and B.

c) Difference. The difference of set A and B, denoted by 𝐴 − 𝐵, is the set of all elements in A
that are not in B.
d) Complement. The complement of any set A, denoted by 𝐴′, is the set of elements of the
universal set (𝑈) which do not belong to A.
e) Cross Product. The cross product of any set A and B, denoted by 𝐴 × 𝐵, is the set of
ordered pair (𝑥, 𝑦) where 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 and 𝑦 ∈ 𝐵.
SOME THEOREMS ON REAL NUMBERS
𝑎 −𝑎 𝑎
Theorem 1. For any 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ with 𝑏 ≠ 0, we have − 𝑏 = = −𝑏.
𝑏
𝑎𝑐 𝑎
Theorem 2. Multiplicative Cancellation. For any 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ ℝ with 𝑏, 𝑐 ≠ 0, 𝑏𝑐 = 𝑏 .
CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Elementary Algebra

2
Theorem 3. Sum of Quotients.

𝑎 𝑐 𝑎+𝑏
(a) For any 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ ℝ with 𝑐 ≠ 0, we have 𝑐 + 𝑐 = 𝑐 .
𝑎 𝑏 𝑎𝑑+𝑏𝑐
(b) For any 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑 ∈ ℝ with 𝑐, 𝑑 ≠ 0, 𝑐 + 𝑑 = 𝑐𝑑
.
𝑎 𝑐 𝑎𝑐
Theorem 4. Product of Quotients. For any 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑 ∈ ℝ with 𝑏, 𝑑 ≠ 0, 𝑏 × 𝑑 = 𝑏𝑑.
𝑎 𝑐 𝑎 𝑑 𝑎𝑑
Theorem 5. Quotients of Quotients. For any 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑 ∈ ℝ with 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑 ≠ 0, ÷ 𝑑 = 𝑏 × 𝑐 = .
𝑏 𝑏𝑐
NOTE: In the following theorems, 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑 may stand for any algebraic expression.
0 𝑎 𝑎
= 0; = 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑; = 0.
𝑎 0 ∞
LAWS OF EXPONENTS
For any 𝑚, 𝑛 ∈ 𝑍 +, and any real numbers 𝑎 and 𝑏, we have
U 3
1. 𝑎 𝑚 ∙ 𝑎 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚+𝑛
D 2
𝑎𝑚
2. 𝑎𝑛
= 𝑎𝑚−𝑛
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3. (𝑎 𝑚 )𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚𝑛
O 20
4. (𝑎𝑏)𝑚 = 𝑎 𝑚 𝑏 𝑚
R LA BE
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𝑎 𝑚 𝑎𝑚
5. (𝑏 ) = 𝑏 𝑚
𝑚
𝑛
6. 𝑎 𝑛 = √𝑎𝑚
R S
7. 𝑎 0 = 1 provided 𝑎 ≠ 0. Note: 00 is indeterminate.
T C A
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8. 𝑎 −𝑚 = 𝑎𝑚
EP S
9. If 𝑎𝑚 = 𝑎𝑛 , then 𝑚 = 𝑛.
N W SU
LAWS OF RADICALS
1
𝑛
1. 𝑎 𝑛 = √𝑎
𝑚 𝑚
𝑛
2. 𝑎 = √𝑎𝑚 = ( 𝑛√𝑎)
𝑛
O IE L
𝑛 𝑛
3. ( √𝑎) = 𝑎
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
D EV C
4. √𝑎 × √𝑏 = √𝑎𝑏
𝑛
√𝑎 𝑛 𝑎
5. 𝑛 = √ provided that 𝑏 ≠ 0
√𝑏 𝑏
SPECIAL PRODUCTS AND FACTORING
1. 𝑎 (𝑥 + 𝑦) = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑎𝑦
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2. (𝑥 ± 𝑦)(𝑥 ± 𝑦) = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑦 ± 𝑦 2
3. (𝑥 + 𝑦)(𝑥 − 𝑦) = 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2
4. (𝑥 ± 𝑦)3 = 𝑥 3 ± 3𝑥 2 𝑦 + 3𝑥𝑦 2 ± 𝑦 3
5. (𝑥 ± 𝑦)(𝑥 2 ∓ 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 ) = (𝑥 3 ± 𝑦 3 )
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6. (𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧)2 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 + 2𝑥𝑦 + 2𝑥𝑧 + 2𝑦𝑧

7. (𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 + 𝑤)2 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 + 𝑤 2 + 2𝑥𝑦 + 2𝑥𝑧 + 2𝑥𝑤 + 2𝑦𝑧 + 2𝑦𝑤 + 2𝑧𝑤
To determine the coefficient of the terms in a binomial expansion, we use the Pascal's
𝑛!
triangle or by the equation 𝑟 𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = ((𝑛−𝑟+1)!(𝑟−1)!) 𝑎 𝑛−𝑟+1 𝑏 𝑟−1 where 𝑟 is the terms of the
unknown, 𝑛 is the binomial exponent, 𝑎 is the first term, and 𝑏 is the second term.
Example 1: Find the 3rd term in the expansion of (𝑥 + 𝑦)5
5!
3rd term = (5−3+1)!(3−1)! 𝑥 5−3+1 𝑦 3−1
5!
= 3!2! 𝑥 3 𝑦 2
= 10𝑥 3 𝑦 2

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On the other hand, to determine the sum of all coefficients of the expansion, substitute 1
to all variables and solve.
Example:
Find the sum of all coefficients of the expansion of (𝑥 + 𝑦)5 .
Solution: Let 𝑥 and 𝑦 be equal to 1.
(𝟏 + 𝟏)𝟓 = 𝟑𝟐.
DIVISION OF POLYNOMIALS
There are two ways in dividing polynomials that is, using the long method or synthetic
division. However, synthetic division can only be used if the divisor is a one degree polynomial.
Illustration:
U 3
By Long Division, divide 𝑥 4 − 18𝑥 2 + 32 by 𝑥 − 4
D 2
𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 8
E
𝑥 − 4√𝑥 4 + 0𝑥 3 − 18𝑥 2 + 0𝑥 + 32
O 20
← 𝑠𝑞𝑟𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑎𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛
R LA BE 𝑥 4 − 4𝑥 3
C
4𝑥 3 − 18𝑥 2
4𝑥 3 − 16𝑥 2
−2𝑥 2 + 0𝑥
R S
−2𝑥 2 + 8𝑥
T C A
−8𝑥 + 32
EP S
−8𝑥 + 32
0 ← 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜
N W SU
By Synthetic Division, divide 𝑥 4 − 18𝑥 2 + 32 by 𝑥 − 4.

Write the coefficients of the terms, supplying zero as a coefficient of the missing power of 𝑥.
1 0 -18 0 32 |4
O IE L
4 16 -8 -32
1 4 -2 -8 0 ← 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜
D EV C
SOLVING EQUATIONS
Solving an equation means finding all the values that satisfy the equation. This is done
by applying the above properties.
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Illustrations:
Example 1. Solve 2𝑥 − 3 = 𝑥 + 21
2𝑥 − 3 = 𝑥 + 21 *transpose all variables to the left and constants
to the right.
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2𝑥 − 3 + 3 + (−𝑥)= 𝑥 + (−𝑥) + 21 + 3
𝒙 = 𝟐𝟒
Example 2. Solve (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 5) = 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 8

(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 5) = 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 8
𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 10 = 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 8 *Expand
𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 10 − 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 8 = 0 *Move to the left; change sign
−𝑥 − 2 = 0
𝒙 = −𝟐
Example 3. Solve 5𝑥 2 − 10𝑥 = 0

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5𝑥 2 − 10𝑥 = 0
5𝑥(𝑥 − 2) = 0 *Use factoring then, equate each factor to zero.
5𝑥 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 − 2 = 0 *This is only applicable if the equation is
equated to zero
𝒙=𝟎 𝒐𝒓 𝒙 = 𝟐 *no. of values satisfying the eqn. is equal to its
degree
This equation can also be solved by dividing 5x in both sides, we will get 𝑥 − 2 = 0 which
only have one solution, that is 𝑥 = 2. The solution 𝑥 = 0 will be lost.
Note: There also some cases in which values fail to satisfy the original equation. This case occurred
mainly when we used the "squaring both sides" method or when we are solving problems with
restrictions.
U 3
LINEAR EQUATIONS IN ONE UNKNOWN
D 2
The standard form of linear equation with one unknown is 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 = 0 where 𝑎, 𝑏 are
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constant with 𝑎 ≠ 0. To solve this, we apply properties of real numbers, algebraic processes such
O 20
as operation on fractions, removal of parenthesis, and combining similar terms. The ultimate goal
R LA BE
C
𝑏
is to trabsform the linear equation into 𝑥 = 𝑎 which specifies the value of 𝑥, called its solution or
root.
R S
Example 1. Solve 5(2𝑥 − 1) = 2(8𝑥 − 7) − 3(2𝑥 − 3)
T C A
Solution: 10𝑥 − 5 = 16𝑥 − 14 − 6𝑥 + 9
EP S
10𝑥 − 5 = 10𝑥 − 5
𝟎=𝟎 *This is a true statement implies that any number is a solution of the
N W SU
equation
𝑥+5
Example 2. Solve 𝑥−5
= 1; 𝑥 ≠ 5.
𝑥+5
O IE L
Solution: (𝑥 − 5) (𝑥−5) = 1(𝑥 − 5)

𝑥+5 =𝑥−5
D EV C
𝟓 = −𝟓 *This is a false statement implies that it has no solution.
𝑥 4 4 3
Example 3. 𝑥−1
+ 15 = 5𝑥−5 + 5
Solution: (3)(5)𝑥 + (𝑥– 1)(4) = (3)(4) + 3(𝑥– 1)(3)
15𝑥 + 4𝑥– 4 = 12 + 9𝑥– 9
19𝑥 – 4 = 9𝑥 + 3 Multiplying both sides by the
19𝑥 – 9𝑥 = 3 + 4 LCD which is 3(5)(x – 1)
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10𝑥 = 7
𝟕
𝒙 =
𝟏𝟎
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LINEAR EQUATION IN TWO UNKNOWN
The standard form of linear equation with one unknown is 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 = 𝑐 where 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 are
constant with 𝑎, 𝑏 ≠ 0. Any pair of values for the variables 𝑥 and 𝑦 that satisfies the equation is
called a linear equation solution. The solution forms a straight line when plotted into a cartesian
coordinate plane. There are different methods to determine the solution of a system of linear
equations.

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Graphical Method
The point of intersection/s of two lines represents the value of 𝑥 and 𝑦 that satisfies the
system of linear equation.
2𝑥 − 𝑦 = 3
Example 1. { This two lines intersect only at (2,1), which is the only solution
2𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 7
U 3
D 2
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O 20
R LA BE
C
2𝑥 − 3𝑦 = 3
Example 2. { These two lines coincide, thus have infinite points of intersection
4𝑥 − 6𝑦 = 6
R S
or infinite solutions.
T C A
EP S
N W SU
O IE L
D EV C
𝑥 + 𝑦 = −1
Example 3. { These two lines do not intersect; they are parallel. Thus there is no point
𝑥+𝑦 =2
of intersection or no solution.
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Note: We can determine whether the system of linear equations has a unique solution, infinitely
many solutions, or no solution by looking at its coefficient. By applying MPE and the linear equations
become equal, then it has infinitely many solutions. If the coefficients of the equations are similar
but not on the right-hand side, then the system has no solution.
Graphical method also has disadvantages in solving linear equations. There are cases
where the solution is not integer which is difficult to measure using graphical. Also, graphical
method is not applicable if there are three or more unknown variables.

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Substitution Method
Solve any of the two equations for 𝑦 (or for 𝑥), then substitute the result into the other
equations.
2𝑥 − 3𝑦 = 3 (1)
Example 1. Solve {
3𝑥 + 2𝑦 = −1 (2)
2𝑥−3
Solution: Solving for 𝑦 in eqn. 1, we have 𝑦 = 3
. (3)
Substituting eqn. 3 into eqn. 2,
2(2𝑥−3)
3𝑥 + = −1
3
9𝑥 + 2(2𝑥 − 3) = −3
9𝑥 + 4𝑥 − 6 = −3
13𝑥 = 3
3
𝑥=
13
U 3
Substituting this value into eqn. 3,
2(3)
−3 6−39 11
13
𝑦= = =−
D 2
3 39 13
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3 11
Here, the solution of the system is (𝑥, 𝑦) = (13 , − ).
O 20
13
R LA BE
C
Note: Using the substitution method, if the resulting equation is true (e.i., 0=0), the system has
infinitely many solutions. If the resulting equation is false (e.i., 0 ≠ 5), the system has no solution.
R S
Elimination Method
T C A
EP S
Eliminate one of the two variables (𝑥 or 𝑦) to end up with an equation that involves only
one variable by either adding or subtracting the two equations.
N W SU
𝑥 𝑦
+ =1 (1)
Example 1. Solve {5 3
3𝑥 − 𝑦 = 0 (2)
Solution: First, clear eqn. 1 of fractions by multiplying both sides with 15. Then
subtract the eqn. 2 to eliminate 𝑥.
O IE L
3𝑥 + 5𝑦 = 15
− (3𝑥 – 𝑦 = 0 )
D EV C
+6𝑦 = 15
15 5
𝑦 = 6 or 𝑦 =
2
Substitute the value of 𝑦 into eqn. 2 to find 𝑥.
5
3𝑥 − = 0
2
6𝑥 − 5 = 0
𝟓
𝟔𝒙 = 𝟓 or 𝒙 =
𝟔
5 5
Here, the solution (𝑥, 𝑦) of the given system is (6 , 2).
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Note: For cases with infinitely many solutions and no solution, similar conditions to substitute
methods should be met.
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Determinant Method
𝑎 𝑏 𝑎 𝑏
For any real number 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑, we define the determinant | | as | | = 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐. The
𝑐 𝑑 𝑐 𝑑
method of solving a system of linear equations using determinants is called Cramer's Rule.
Illustration:
3𝑥 − 2𝑦 = −2
Example 1. Solve {
2𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 2

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Solution:
−2 −2
| | −6−(−4) −6+4 2
2 3
𝑥= 3 −2 = 9−(−4) = 9+4 = −
13
| |
2 3
3 −2
| | 6−(−4) 6+4 10
2 2
𝑦= 3 −2 = 9−(−4) = 9+4 = 13
| |
2 3
2 10
Hence, the solution is (𝑥, 𝑦) = (− 13 , ).
13
𝑥+1
𝑦−1=
2
Example 2. Solve { 𝑥 𝑦
+ =1
2 3
Solution:
First, transform the equations into standard form to make it easier, we have 𝑥 − 2𝑦 = −3
and 3𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 6.
−3 −2
| |
U 3
6 2 −6−(−12) −6+12 6 3
𝑥= 1 −2 = 2−(−6) = 2+6 = − 8 𝑜𝑟 4
| |
3 2
D 2
1 −3
| | 6−(−9) 6+9 15
3 6
𝑦= 1 −2 = 2−(−6) = 2+6 = 8
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| |
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3 2
3 15
R LA BE Hence, (𝑥, 𝑦) = (4 , 8 ).
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R S
QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
T C A
The standard form of the quadratic equation is 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0. To find the solutions or
EP S
root, use either Factoring or Quadratic Equation.
N W SU
Factoring
This method only works if 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 is factorable into two binomials.

O IE L
Example 1. Solve 3𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 2 = 0.
Solution: 3𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 2 = 0
D EV C
(3𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 2) = 0
3𝑥 + 1 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 − 2 = 0
𝟏 1
𝒙 = −𝟑 𝒐𝒓 𝒙 = 𝟐 Roots are − 3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2.
Example 2. Solve 3𝑥 2 = 6𝑥
Solution: 3𝑥 2 = 6𝑥
3𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 = 0
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3𝑥(𝑥 − 2) = 0
3𝑥 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 − 2 = 0
𝒙=𝟎 𝒐𝒓 𝒙 = 𝟐 Roots are 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2.
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Example 3. Solve 𝑥 (3𝑥 − 1) = 2

Solution: 𝑥(3𝑥 − 1) = 2
3𝑥 2 − 𝑥 = 2
3𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 2 = 0
(3𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 1) = 0
(3𝑥 + 2) = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑥−1 =0
𝟐 2
𝒙 = −𝟑 𝒐𝒓 𝒙=1 Roots are − 3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 1
Note: Though example 3 is already in factor form, it is wrong to equate it since the right-hand
side is 2 and not equal to 0. By equating, the equation into 2, the answers will be 𝑥 = 2 𝑜𝑟 3𝑥 −

8
1 = 2, which gives a wrong solution 𝑥 = 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = 1. Remember, before equating the factor of
the equations, the right-hand side of the equation must be equal to zero (0).
Quadratic Equation
−𝑏±√𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐
If 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0, then the roots of the equation is given by 𝑥 = 2𝑎
.
Remarks: 1. 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 is called the discriminant of the quadratic equation.
𝑏
2. If 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 = 0, then the roots are real and both are equal to − 2𝑎
3. If 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 > 0, then the roots are real and unequal.
4. If 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 < 0, then the roots are imaginary numbers.
Example 1. Solve 4𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 = −9.

Note: Before identifying the value of 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, make sure that the equation is in standard form.
U 3
4𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 + 9 = 0 ← 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑎 = 4, 𝑏 = −12, 𝑐 = 9
−(−12)±√(−12)2 −4(4)(9)
𝑥=
D 2
2(4)
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12±√144−144
𝑥= ← 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 = 0, 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙
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𝟑 3
R LA BE 𝒙=𝟐 Thus, roots are both equal to 2.
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Example 2. Solve 3𝑥 2 = 5𝑥 + 22.
R S
3𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 22 = 0 ← 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑎 = 3, 𝑏 = −5, 𝑐 = −22
T C A
−(−5)±√(−5)2 −4(3)(−22)
𝑥=
EP S
2(3)
5+√25+264
𝑥= 6
← 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 > 0, 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑢𝑛𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙
N W SU
5±√289
𝑥=
6
5±17
𝑥= ← 𝑅𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠
6
𝟏𝟏 11
𝒙= 𝒐𝒓 𝒙 = −𝟐 Thus roots are 𝑟1 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟2 = −2.
𝟑 3
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Example 3. Solve 2𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 5 = 0
D EV C
𝑎 = 2, 𝑏 = −4, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐 = 5
−(−4)±√(−4)2 −4(2)(5)
𝑥= 2(2)
4±√16−40
𝑥= ← 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 < 0, 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦
4
4±√−24
𝑥= 4
𝒊√𝟔
𝒙=𝟏± ← √(−24) = 2𝑖√6, Note: √−1 = 𝑖
𝟐
O
Properties of Roots:
𝑏
1. Sum of the Roots: 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 = −
R
𝑎
𝑐
2. Product of the Roots: 𝑟1 ∙ 𝑟2 =
𝑎
Example 1. Find the value of 𝑘 in 𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 + 𝑘 = 0 such that one root is twice the other root.
Solution:
Let 𝑟 be the smaller root and 2𝑟 be the larger root. From the given,
we know that 𝑎 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 = −12, then,
𝑟 + 2𝑟 = 12
3𝑟 = 12
𝑟=4
𝑐
To solve for 𝑘, we need to find the value of 𝑐 using 𝑟1 ∙ 𝑟2 = . Then,
𝑎
𝑐
𝑟 ∙ 2𝑟 = 1

9
4 ∙ 2(4) = 𝑐
𝑐 = 32 𝑜𝑟 𝑘 = 32
Thus, the quadratic equation must be 𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 + 32 = 0.
Example 2. One root of the equation 2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 is 2. Find the other root and the value of 𝑐.
Solution:
We know that 𝑎 = 2; 𝑏 = −3; 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟1 = 2. Let 𝑟 be the other root.
(−3)
𝑟+2 =−
2
1
𝑟=−
2
Using product of the roots,
1 𝑐
2 (− ) =
2 2
𝑐
−1 =
2
𝑐 = −2
U 3
Thus, the equation must be 2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 2 = 0.
D 2
Equations Leading to Quadratic Equations
E
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There are many situations where a quadratic equation is not evident and manipulation and
R LA BE
simplification of the equation is required. See the following problems.
C
Example 1. Solve √3𝑥 − 5 = 𝑥 − 1.
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Solution. Square both sides to remove the radical.
3𝑥 − 5 = (𝑥 − 1)2
T C A
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3𝑥 − 5 = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1
𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 6 = 0
(𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 − 2) = 0
N W SU
𝒙=𝟑 𝒐𝒓 𝒙=𝟐
Example 2. Solve √2𝑥 + 5 + √𝑥 − 1 = 2

Solution. Separate the radicals in such a way that they are on the opposite side of the
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equation. Then, continuously square both sides to remove the radical signs.
D EV C
√2𝑥 + 5 = 2 − √𝑥 − 1
2
2𝑥 + 5 = (2 − √𝑥 − 1)
2𝑥 + 5 = 4 − 4√𝑥 − 1 + (𝑥 − 1)
𝑥 + 2 = −4√𝑥 − 1
(𝑥 + 2)2 = 16(𝑥 − 1)
𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 4 = 16𝑥 − 16
𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 + 20 = 0
O
(𝑥 − 10)(𝑥 − 2) = 0
𝒙 = 𝟏𝟎 𝒐𝒓 𝒙 = 𝟐
However, upon substituting the values to 𝑥 in the original equation,
If 𝑥 = 10, 𝑤𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 √25 + √9 ≠ 2
R
If 𝑥 = 2, 𝑤𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 √9 + √1 ≠ 2
Therefore, 𝑥 = 10 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = 2 are not solutions, or the given quadratic equation has no
roots. Both 10 and 2 are extraneous.
Example 3. Solve (𝑥 2 − 3𝑥)2 − 2(𝑥 2 − 3𝑥) − 8 = 0

Solution. Let 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥. Then the given reduces to the familiar quadratic form
𝑦 2 − 2𝑦 − 8 = 0
(𝑦 − 4)(𝑦 + 2) = 0
𝑦 = 4 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 = −2
4 = 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 𝑜𝑟 − 2 = 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥
𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 4 = 0 or 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2 = 0

10
(𝑥 − 4)(𝑥 + 1) = 0 (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 1) = 0
𝒙 = 𝟒 𝒐𝒓 𝒙 = −𝟏 𝒙 = 𝟐 𝒐𝒓 𝒙 = 𝟏
Therefore, the above equation has 4 roots, that is, 𝑥 = 4, −1, 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 1. Remember, the
highest exponent in the equation indicates the maximum number of possible roots.
PARTIAL FRACTION
Illustrations:
3 𝐴 𝐵
1. (𝑥−1)(𝑥+2)
= +
𝑥−1 𝑥+2
3𝑥 2 +2𝑥+1 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
2. (𝑥−1)3
= + (𝑥−1)2 + (𝑥−1)3
𝑥−1
3𝑥−5 𝐴 𝐵𝑥+𝐶 𝐷𝑥+𝐸
3. (𝑥−1)(𝑥 2 +𝑥+1)2
= 𝑥−1 + 𝑥 2+𝑥+1 + (𝑥 2+𝑥+1)2
3𝑥−2 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶𝑥+𝐷
4. = 𝑥−1 + (𝑥−1)2 + 𝑥 2+𝑥+1
U 3
(𝑥−1)2 (𝑥 2 +𝑥+1)
D 2
Illustration:
3 𝐴 𝐵
E
= +
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(𝑥−1)(𝑥+2) 𝑥−1 𝑥+2
R LA BE 3 = 𝐴(𝑥 + 2) + 𝐵(𝑥 − 1)
C
3 = 𝐴𝑥 + 2𝐴 + 𝐵𝑥 − 𝐵
(𝐴 + 𝐵)𝑥 = 0𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2𝐴 − 𝐵 = 3
𝐴 = −𝐵 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 − 2𝐵 − 𝐵 = 3
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3 1 1
𝐵 = −1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴 = 1 Thus, (𝑥−1)(𝑥+2)
= − .
𝑥−1 𝑥+2
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PROGRESSION
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DESCRIPTION LAST TERM SUM MEAN
Arithmetic Sequence of 𝐿 = 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑 𝑛 𝑎+𝑐

𝑆= (𝑎 + 𝐿) 𝑏=
2 2
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Progression number with a

fixed common
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difference
i.e., 1, 3, 5, 7, 9
Geometric Sequence of 𝐿 = 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1 𝑎(1 − 𝑟 𝑛 ) 𝑏 = ±√𝑎𝑐

𝑆=
Progression number with a 1−𝑟
fixed common ratio
i.e., 1, 3, 9, 27
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Harmonic The sequence of numbers formed by the reciprocals of the terms of an

1 1 1 1
Progression arithmetic progression (i.e., 1, , 5 , 7 , 9).
3
R
where 𝐿 is the last term; 𝑎 is the first term; 𝑛 is the number of terms; 𝑑 is the common difference;
𝑟 is the common ratio; 𝑆 is the sum of all terms; and 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 are any three consecutive terms of the
progression.
Example 1. Find the 20th terms of the sequence 1, 4, 7, 10, … and determine the sum of the first
20 terms.
Solution: 𝐿 = 𝑢𝑛𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑎 = 1, 𝑑 = 3, 𝑛 = 20
𝐿20 = 1 + (20 − 1)3
𝑳𝟐𝟎 = 𝟓𝟖 Thus, the 20th term of the sequence is 58.

11
20
𝑆20 = (1 + 58)
2
𝑺𝟐𝟎 = 𝟓𝟗𝟎 Thus, the sum of the first 20 terms is 590.
Example 2. If the 4th term of an arithmetic progression is 16 while the 9th term is 46, find the 1st
term.
Solution. The phrase “4th term is 16” means that
16 = 𝑎 + (4 – 1)𝑑
16 = 𝑎 + 3𝑑
Similarly, “9th term is 46” means that
46 = 𝑎 + (9 − 1)𝑑
46 = 𝑎 + 8𝑑
Solving equations simultaneously, we get 𝑑 = 6 and 𝑎 =– 2. That is, the required first term
must be – 2.
Example 3. Find the sum of all multiples of 6 that are between 25 and 200.
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Solution. Between the numbers 25 and 200, the smallest multiple of 6 is 30, while the
last multiple of 6 is 198. So,
D 2
a = 30 and L = 198
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To determine n, we use 𝐿 = 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑
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R LA BE 198 = 30 + (n – 1)6
C
n = 29
𝟐𝟗
𝑺= (𝟑𝟎 + 𝟏𝟗𝟖) = 𝟑, 𝟑𝟎𝟔 ← 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
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𝟐
Thus, the sum of the integers between 25 and 200 that are multiple of 6 is 3,306.
T C A
EP S
Example 4. The 7th term of a GP is 128 and the 4th term is 2. Write the first four terms.
Solution. It is easy to write the first 4 terms if we know the 1st term a and the common
N W SU
ratio r. The given tells us that

L7 = ar7 – 1 L4 = ar4 – 1
2
128 = ar6 2 = ar3 or a
r3
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By substituting 𝑎,
2 6
D EV C
128  r
r3
128 = 2r3
64 = r3
r=4
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
which gives a = 1/32. Thus, the first 4 terms are , , , 𝟐.
𝟑𝟐 𝟖 𝟐
O
Example 5. The 1st term of a geometric progression is 64, last term is –2 and the sum of the
terms is 42. Find the common ratio and how many terms are there?
Solution. With the given that a = 64, L = –2 and S = 42, we can use the formula for sum
of geometric progression.
R
𝑎−𝐿𝑟
𝑆= 1−𝑟
64−(−2)𝑟
42 = 1−𝑟
42 − 42𝑟 = 64 + 2𝑟
1
𝑟 = −2
Using the equation for last term of geometric progression,
𝐿 = 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1
1 𝑛−1
−2 = 64 (− )
2
1 1 𝑛−1
− = (− )
32 2
1 5 1 𝑛−1
(− 2) = (− )
2

12
5 =𝑛−1 The geometric sequence has 6 terms

1
𝒏=𝟔 and common ratio of − .
2
32
Example 6. . Find four geometric means between 3 and 81
.
32
Solution: Given are 𝑛 = 6, 𝑎 = 3, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐿 = .
81
𝑛−1
𝐿 = 𝑎𝑟
32
= 3𝑟 5
81
32
= 𝑟5
81∙3
2 5 2
( ) = 𝑟 5 implies that 𝑟 = .
3 3
𝟒 𝟖 𝟏𝟔 𝟑𝟐
Hence, the progression is 𝟑, 𝟐, , , , ..
𝟑 𝟗 𝟐𝟕 𝟖𝟏
U 3
COMPLEX NUMBERS
D 2
Complex numbers are written in the form 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖, where 𝑎 is the real part and 𝑏𝑖 is the
E
imaginary part. When dealing with imaginary number always remember that 𝑖 2 = −1.
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Example: 𝑖 15 = 𝑖 14 𝑖 = (𝑖 2 )7 𝑖 = (−1)7 𝑖 = −𝑖
R LA BE
C
R S
T C A
EP S
N W SU
O IE L
D EV C
O
R

13
REVIEW QUESTIONS
DIRECTIONS: Choose the best answer. If none of the choices is correct, write Q.
1. What is the 30th element of the arithmetic sequence for which the first element is 5 and the third
is 13?
a. 237 b. 125 c. 121 d. 150
2. Find the value of k such that the roots of 2x2 + 3kx + 9 = 0 are equal.
a. ±3 b. 5 2 c. 2 2 d. ±4
3. One pipe can fill a tank in 45 minutes and another pipe can fill it in 30 minutes. If these two
pipes are open while a 3rd pipe is drawing water from the tank, it takes 27 minutes to fill the
tank. How long will it take the 3rd pipe alone to empty a full tank?
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a. 48 min b. 20 min c. 54 min d. 60 min
D 2
4. A student in a chemistry laboratory wants to form a 32 ml mixture of 2 solutions to contain
E
30% acid. Solution A contains 42% acid and solution B contains18% acid. How many ml of
O 20
each solution must be used?
R LA BE
C
a. A = 16, B = 16 b. A = 10, B = 22
c. A = 14, B = 18 d. A = 15, B = 17
R S
5. A’s rate doing a work is three times faster than that of B. On a given day, A and B work
T C A
together for 4 hours, then B is called away and A finished the rest of the job in 2 hours. How
EP S
long would it take B to do the complete job alone?
a. 20 hours b. 21 hours c. 22hours d. 23 hours
N W SU
6. Each bacterium splits into 4 bacteria every hour. If there are 4 bacteria at the start, how
many will there be after 5 hours?
a. 64 b. 256 c. 1024 d. 4096
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7. Mary was four times as old as Ann four years ago and if Mary will be twice as old as Ann four
D EV C
years hence. How old is Ann?

a. 14 b. 12 c. 10 d. 8
8. A series of numbers wherein each term is derived from the previous term by adding a fixed
value is known as a/an _____ sequence:
a. arithmetic b. geometric c. harmonic d. analytic
O
9. The number of centimeters in the perimeter of a certain square is equal to the number of
square centimeter in its area. Find the length of the sides of the square.
a. 5 cm b. 2 cm c. 4 cm d. 6 cm
R
10. How many fifths are there in 7 3/5:?

a. 38 b. 7 c. 3 d. 35
11. If thrice a number is increased by 11, the result is 35. What is the number?
a. 9 b. 11 c. 10 d. 8
12. The sum of the ages of David and Ann is 25. Five years ago David was four times as old as
Ann. How old is David.
a. 17 b. 21 c. 24 d. 28
13. One sixth’s of the dentist’s age 8 years ago equal’s one tenth of his age 8 years hence. What
is his age now?

14
a. 11 b. 32 c. 29 d. 35
14. George is starting a math club. He is the only member now but his plan is to have each member
find two members each month. If his plan works out, how many members would the club have
at the end of 12 months?
a. 24 b. 8191 c. 1819 d. 2048
15. The difference between the square of a positive number and the number itself is 42, what is
the number?
a. 8 b. 7 c. 10 d. 9
16. Mary is twice as old as Ann now. When Ann is old as Mary, the sum of their ages is 180. Find the
age of Mary
a. 90 b. 72 c. 88 d. 36
U 3
17. A steel rod, 34 cm long is to be cut into 3 parts wherein 2 parts are equal. The length of each
D 2
of the two equal parts is 5 cm more than the 3rd part. Find the length of the third part.
E
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a. 13 b. 10 c. 8 d. 14
R LA BE
C
18. Jan jogs a certain distance at 8 kph & returns over the same track running 24 kph. If it took
him a total time of 2 ½ hours, what is the total distance covered? a. 15
b. 45 c. 30 d. 35
R S
T C A
19. The square of a number exceeds a 2nd number by 11. The square of the difference of the
EP S
numbers is 361. Find the larger no.
a. 6 b. 310 c. 25 d. 35
N W SU
20. Doubling a number and subtracting it from 35 will result in thrice the number. Find the no.
a. 7 b. 8 c. 8 d. 35
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21. Three chums wanted to buy a complete set of Pelota rackets with 3 balls. However they figure
out that each of them would need to pay P100 less if they can find two more chums, to share
D EV C
equally the cost of the sporting equipment they wish to buy. How much is the Pelota Set?
a. 450.00 b. 750.00
c. 1, 500.00 d. 250.00
22. Give a 3rd term so that 4x4 + 9y2 becomes a perfect square trinomial.
a. 6x2y b. 12x2y2 c. 12x2y d. 36x2y
O
23. x3 – y3 is equivalent to which of the following?

a. (x–y)3 b. (x–y)(x2+2xy+y2)
2 2
c. (x–y)(x +y ) d. (x–y)(x2+xy+y2)
R
24. LCM(x3, x3 – x , 2x2 – 2) is

a. 2x4(x+1)(x–1) b. x3(x3–x)(2x2–2)
c. 2x3(x+1)(x–1) d. x3(x+1)(x–1)
25. a  b b  a  b b is equivalent to
a. a  b b b. a2  b3 c. a  b b d. a2  b2
26. Which of the following is a geometric progression?

a. 16, 8, 4, … b. 16, 12, 8, …
c. ½, 1/3, ¼, … d. 1, 3, 6, …

15
27. Give the sum of the roots of 2x2 – 8x + 1

a. 4 b. –5 c. –2 d. 2
4
𝑥𝑦 −1 𝑥 2 𝑦−2
28. Simplify: ( 3 ) ÷ (𝑥 −3 𝑦 3 )
𝑥 −2 𝑦
𝑦 1
a. 𝑥𝑦 3 b. c. 𝑥 3 𝑦 d.
𝑥3 𝑥3𝑦
m3  8 2m2  3m  2
29.  is equivalent to
2m  1 m2  4
a. m2 + 2m + 4 b. m2 + 2m – 4
c. m2 – 2m + 4 d. m2 – 2m – 4
30. The values of x in the equation x2/5  x1/5  2  0 are

a. 1 & –2 b. –1 & 2 c. –1 & 32 d. 1 & –32
U 3
31. (x – 3) x + 2 is equivalent to
D 2
a. x2 – 3x + 2 b. x2 – x – 6 c. x2 + 5x – 6
E
d. (x–3)(x+2)
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R LA BE
xxxx
C
32. If  2 , then what is x?
xxxx
a. 2 b. 4 c. 8 d. 16
R S
T C A
33. What is the biggest common factor of 60xy2 + 36x2y + 48xyz?
EP S
a. 12 b. 6xy c. 12xy d. 12xyz
N W SU
34. Which of the following are the correct factors of 6x2 + 23x – 4 ?
a. (6x–1)(x+4) b. (3x+4)(2x–1)
c. (6x+1)(x–4) d. (3x–4)(2x+1)
35. If x2 + y2 = 22 while xy = 9, then (x – y)2 = ______.

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a. 4 b. 13 c.31 d. 40
D EV C
36. Which of the following is equivalent to 64x6 – y6 ?

a. (8x3 – y3)2 b. (4x2 – y2)3
c. (2x – y)6 d. (4x2)3 – (y2)3
37. (3 – 2i)(4 + 2i) is equal to

a. 12 – 4i b. 8 – 2i c. 16 – 2i d. 8 + 2i
O
38. If x5/3 = 32, then x = _____.

a. 2 b. 4 c. 8 d. 16
R
39. Find the sum of the coefficients of all terms in (5x – 3y)3.
a. 2 b. 4 c. 8 d. 16
40. What is the remainder if 2x3 – 3x2 + 5x – 4 is divided by x – 1?

a. 0 b. –8 c. –4 d. 6
x
41. is equivalent to ________.
1
1
x
1 x2 x x2
a. b. c. d.
x 1 x 1 x 1 2

16
42. If 7x2 – 42x + K = 7(x – 3)2, then what is K?

a. 9 b. 21 c. 42 d. 63
43. The value of x in the equation 4x – 2 = 6x + 12 is _______.

a. 7 b. –7 c. 5 d. –5
44. Which of the following equations has NO solution?

a. 4x = 2(2x–3) b. 4x = 2(2x)
c. 4x = 3(2x–3) d. 4x – 6 = 2(2x–3)
x5
45. Which of the following equations is equivalent to 40 ?
3
a. 3x – 4 = –15 b. x + 5 = –12
c. x + 5 = 4 d. 12 – x = 5
U 3
46. If A = bh/2, then ____.
D 2
a. b = Ah/2 b. b = 2Ah c. b = 2h/A d. b = 2A/h
E
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47. If a kid was x years old 5 years ago, how old is he now?
R LA BE
C
a. x – 5 b. x + 5 c. 5x d. 5x – 5
48. If x-1 is the 1st (smallest) integer among three consecutively odd integers, the 3rd integers is
R S
a. 3x + 3 b. x + 1 c. x + 3 d. x + 4
T C A
EP S
49. If there are x 1-peso coins and y 50-cent coins, how much is the total value?
a. x + 50y b. 1.50(x + y) c. x + y + 1.50 d. x + 0.50y
N W SU
50. Four times the average of 2 numbers is equal to how many times their sum?
a. 1 b. 2 c. 3 d. 4
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D EV C
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R

1
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY
HENRISON C. SANCHEZ
Assistant Professor
REPRESENTATION OF INEQUALITIES
1. Algebraic Form 2. Interval Form 3. Graphical Form

x>3 (3,) ____(________
3
Note: When using the interval form, parenthesis ( ) indicates an open interval means that the end
point/number is not included. Meanwhile, bracket [ ] indicates a closed interval which includes the
U 3
end point/number.
D 2
Properties of Inequalities
E
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ForR LA BE
any real numbers a, b, c and d;
C
1. Trichotomy Property – only one of the ff. is true: a > b, a < b, a = b
2. Transitivity – if a > b and b > c, then a > c.
3. Addition Property – if a > b, then a + c > b + c
4.
R S
Multiplication Property – if a > b and c > 0, then ac > bc
T C A
If a > b and c < 0, then ac < bc
EP S
5. Sum of Inequalities in the Same Direction - if a < b and c < d, then a + c < b + d
6. Product of Inequalities in the Same Direction – Suppose a, b, c, d > 0 .If a < b and c < d,
N W SU
then ac < bd.

7. Reciprocals Property - Suppose a and b are both positive or both negative, If a < b then
1 1
 .
a b
O IE L
D EV C
ABSOLUTE VALUE
 x, if x  0
If x is a real number, then x 
 -x, if x < 0
Properties of Absolute Values

x x
O
1. x 0 2. x  x 3. xy  x y 4.  ,y  0
y y
Solution of Inequalities
R
1. Linear Inequalities
Example 1. 5𝑥 – 3 > 7 Example 2. – 3  1 − 3𝑥  10
5𝑥 > 10 – 4  − 3𝑥  9
𝑥 > 2 4/3  𝑥  − 3
4
(2, ∞) [−3, 3]
2. Quadratic Inequalities
Example 1. 2𝑥 2 < 5 − 9𝑥
CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Plane Trigonometry

2
(2𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 5) < 0
1
Boundary points: 𝑥 = , −5
2
Boundary Pts -5 ½
2𝑥 − 1 − − − 0 +
𝑥+5 − 0 + + +
(2𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 5) + 0 − 0 +
Since (2𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 5) < 0, then the answer is the negative sign. Thus, the
solution set is (−5, ½) 𝑜𝑟 – 5 < 𝑥 < 1/2.
1
Note: The expression is zero under −5 𝑎𝑛𝑑 thus not included.
2
U 3
3. Rational Inequalities
D 2
𝑥−1
Example 1. Solve ≥ 0.
𝑥+3
E
O 20
R LA BE Boundary Points: 𝑥 = 1, −3
C
Boundary Pts −3 1
R S
𝑥−1 − − − 0 +
T C A
EP S
𝑥+3 − 0 + + +
𝑥−1 + ∞ − 0 +
N W SU
𝑥+3
Since the given sign is ≥ then the answer should be positive and bracket is used. The
O IE L
solution set is (−∞, −3) ∪ [1, ∞).

D EV C
4. Inequalities Involving Absolute Values

| 𝑥 | > 𝑐 means 𝑥 < −𝑐 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 > 𝑐, 𝑖𝑓 𝑐 > 0.
| 𝑥 | < 𝑐 mean – 𝑐 < 𝑥 < 𝑐, 𝑖𝑓 𝑐 > 0.
Example 1. | 2𝑥 – 3 |  4
O
4 < 2𝑥 – 3 < 4
1 < 2𝑥 < 7
R
𝟏 𝟕
𝟐
<𝒙<𝟐
Example 2. |4– 𝑥| > 3
4– 𝑥 < − 3 𝑂𝑅 4– 𝑥 > 3
− 𝑥 < −7 𝑂𝑅 − 𝑥 > −1
𝑥>7 𝑂𝑅 𝑥 < 1
(𝟕, ∞) ∪ (−∞, 𝟏)

3
Arc Length:
Arc Length: 𝑆 = 𝑟𝜃
1
Area of a Sector: 𝐴 = 2 𝑟2𝜃
Where 𝑆=arc length, 𝑟=radius, 𝜃=central angle in radians.
Example 1. A circle has a radius of 4 inches. Find the length of the arc intercepted by a central
angle of 240.
𝑆 = (4)(240)(/180)
𝑆 = 16/3
𝑺 = 𝟏𝟔. 𝟕𝟔 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒉𝒆𝒔
U 3
Example 2. The second hand of a clock is 10.2 centimeters long. Find the speed of the tip of
D 2
this second hand.
E
O 20
The time required for the second hand to make one full revolution is
R LA BE 𝑡 = 60 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 = 1 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒
C
The distance traveled by the tip of the second hand in one revolution
is 𝑆 = 2 (10.2) = 20.4 centimeters.
R S
T C A
Hence, the speed of the tip of the second hand is
EP S
𝒔 𝟐𝟎.𝟒𝝅
𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 = = 𝒄𝒎 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟔𝟖 𝒄𝒎 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅
𝒕 𝟔𝟎𝐬𝐞𝐜
N W SU
FUNCTION
A function type of relation such that for each element from the domain, there corresponds
O IE L
exactly one element from the range. Function is written as 𝐹: 𝑥 → 𝑦 or 𝑦 = 𝐹(𝑥) where 𝐹 is the
name of the function, 𝑥 is the domain, and 𝑦 is the range.
D EV C
Example 1. Suppose that 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 2 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 2 − 3𝑥. Find the value of 𝑓(2)
and 𝑓(𝑔(1)).
(a) 𝑓(2) = 3(2)2 − 5(2) + 2 ←use the function 𝑓 and let 𝑥 = 2
𝑓(2) = 4
O
(𝑏) For the function𝑓(𝑔(1)), solve first the value of 𝑔(1). Then
substitute the resulting value to 𝑓(𝑥).
R
𝑔(1) = 2 − 3(1) = −1
𝑓(𝑔(1)) = 3(−1)2 − 5(−1) + 2
𝑓(𝑔(1)) = 10
Circular Functions
Given: 𝑃() = (𝑥, 𝑦)
𝑠𝑖𝑛  = 𝑦 𝑡𝑎𝑛  = 𝑦/𝑥, 𝑥  0 𝑠𝑒𝑐  = 1/𝑥, 𝑥  0
𝑐𝑜𝑠  = 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑡  = 𝑥/𝑦, 𝑦  0 𝑐𝑠𝑐  = 1/𝑦, 𝑦  0

4
Circular Functions of Special Real Numbers
𝑃(0) = (1, 0) 𝑃(/2) = (0, 1) 𝑃 () = (−1, 0)

𝜋 √3 1 𝜋 √2 √2
𝑃(3/2) = (0, −1) 𝑃 (6) = ( 2 , 2) 𝑃 (4) = ( 2 , )
2
𝜋 1 √3
𝑃 ( 3 ) = (2 , )
2
Period and Amplitude
𝟐
The period of 𝑦 = 𝑎 sin 𝑏𝑥 is 𝒃
. This is also true for cosine, secant and cosecant
functions.
The amplitude of 𝑦 = 𝑎 sin 𝑏𝑥 is |𝒂|.
U 3

The period of 𝑦 = 𝑎 tan 𝑏𝑥 is . This is also true for cotangent.
𝒃
D 2
E
The Circular Function Hexagon
O 20
R LA BE 𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝜽 𝒄𝒔𝒄 𝜽
C
R S
T C A
𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜽 𝒄𝒐𝒕 𝜽
EP S
1
N W SU
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽
O IE L
Reciprocal Identities Quotient Identities Pythagorean Identities

D EV C
sin 𝜃
sin 𝜃 csc 𝜃 = 1 tan 𝜃 = cos 𝜃 sin2 𝜃 + cos 2 𝜃 = 1
cos 𝜃
tan 𝜃 cot 𝜃 = 1 cot 𝜃 = tan2 𝜃 + 1 = sec 2 𝜃
sin 𝜃
1
cos 𝜃 sec 𝜃 = 1 sec 𝜃 = cos 𝜃 cot 2 𝜃 + 1 = csc 2 𝜃
O
1
sin 𝜃 sec 𝜃 = tan 𝜃 csc 𝜃 = 𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏2
sin 𝜃
sin 𝜃 cot 𝜃 sec 𝜃 = 1

R
tan 𝜃 cos 𝜃 = sin 𝜃
sec 𝜃 sin 𝜃 csc 𝜃 = 1
General Addition Formulas Reduction Formulas

sin      sin  cos   cos  sin  cos(/2 - ) = sin 
cos      cos  cos  sin  sin  sin(/2 - ) = cos 

tan   tan 
tan      tan(/2 - ) = cot 
1 tan  tan 

5
Double-Value Formulas Half-Value Formulas

1  cos 
sin 2 = 2 sin cos  sin 2  
2
cos 2   sin 2 
 1  cos 
cos 2   2 cos 2   1 cos 2  
 1  2sin 2  2

1  cos 
2 tan   sin 
tan 2  tan 2  
1  tan 2   cos 
 1  sin 
U 3
Sums and Differences of Sines or Cosines
D 2
x y x y x y x y
sin x  sin y  2sin cos cos x  cos y  2 cos cos
E
2 2 2 2
O 20
R LA BE x y x y x y x y
sin x  sin y  2 cos cos x  cos y  2sin
C
sin sin
2 2 2 2
1
sin 𝑥 cos 𝑦 = 2 [𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥 + 𝑦) + 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥 − 𝑦)]
R S
1
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦 = [𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑥 + 𝑦) + 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑥 − 𝑦)]
2
T C A
1
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦 = − [𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑥 + 𝑦) − 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑥 − 𝑦)]
EP S
2
Relationships Between Degrees, Radians, Revolutions

N W SU
1
 𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 3.1416 𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 180 = 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
2
Inverse Trigonometric Functions

O IE L
 
arcsin 𝑥 =  if and only if sin 𝜃 = 𝑥, − 2    2
D EV C
arccos 𝑥 =  if and only if cos 𝜃 = 𝑥, 0    
arctan 𝑥 =  if and only if tan 𝜃 = 𝑥, −∞    ∞
2
Example 1. Find the exact value of tan (arccos ).
3
2 2
Let 𝑢 = arccos , then cos 𝑢 = 3. This implies that 𝑥 = 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧 = 3.
O
3
R
√5 5
Hence, tan(arccos 2/3) = tan u = .
u 2
2
Solution of Right Triangles (SOH-CAH-TOA)
side opposite  side adjacent  side opposite

sin   cos   tan  
hypotenuse hypotenuse side adjacent

6
Application Involving Right Triangle
1. For security reasons, the required maximum angle of elevation for a rescue ladder is 72.
If a fire department’s longest ladder is 110 feet, what is the maximum safe rescue height?
110 ft
𝑎
Solution: a = 110 sin 72 = 104.6 ft

72𝑜
2. A truck travels from point M northward for 30 min. then eastward for one hour, then
shifted N 30𝑜 W. If the constant speed is 40 kph, how far directly from M, in km, will be
U 3
it after 2 hours?
30
MA = 40 ( ) = 20 𝑘𝑚
D 2
C 60
↑N 𝐴𝐵 = 40(1) = 40 𝑘𝑚
E
O 20
8𝑜 After two hours, 𝑡𝑏𝑐 = 30 𝑚𝑖𝑛
R LA BE 30
𝐵𝐶 = 40 ( ) = 20 𝑘𝑚
C
A 60
B
In triangle MDC:
𝑀𝐷 = 𝐴𝐵 − 𝐵𝐶 sin 30𝑜
R S
𝑀𝐷 = 40 − 20 sin 30𝑜 = 30 𝑘𝑚
T C A
𝐶𝐷 = 𝑀𝐴 + 𝐵𝐶 cos 30𝑜 = 37.32
EP S
M D 𝐶𝑀 = √𝑀𝐷2 + 𝐶𝐷2 = 𝟒𝟕. 𝟖𝟖 𝒌𝒎
N W SU
3. The hypotenuse of a right triangle is 34 cm. Find the length of the shortest leg if it is 14
cm shorter than the other leg.
342 = 𝑥 2 + (𝑥 + 14)2
O IE L
34 1156 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 2 + 28𝑥 + 196

2𝑥 2 + 28𝑥 − 960 = 0
𝑥
D EV C
28±√282 −4(2)(−960)
𝑥= = 16 𝑐𝑚
2(2)
𝑥 + 14
Solution of Oblique Triangles

O
Case I: SAA (given 2 angles and 1 side)
Case II; SSA (given 2 sides and an angle opposite one of the given sides)
R
Case III: SAS (given 2 sides and the included angle)
Case IV: SSS (given 3 sides)
Case I and Case II are solved using the law of sines.

a b c
Law of Sines :  
sin A sin B sin C
Case III and Case IV are solved using the law of cosines.
b2  c2  a 2
Law of Cosines : a 2  b 2  c 2  2bc cos A cos A 
2bc

7
a 2  c2  b2
b 2  a 2  c 2  2ac cos C cos B 
2ac
a  b2  c2
2
c 2  a 2  b 2  2ab cos C cos C 
2ab
tan 12 ( A  B) a  b tan 2 ( A  C ) a  c
1
First Law of Tangents:  
tan 12 ( A  B) a  b tan 12 ( A  C ) a  c
r r r
Second Law of Tangents: tan B
 , tan A2  , tan C2 
2
s b sa sc
Applications Involving Oblique Triangle
1. A pole tilts toward the sun at an 8 angle from the vertical , and it casts a 22-foot
U 3
shadow. The angle of elevation from the tip of the shadow to the top of the pole is
43. How tall is the pole?
D 2
E
C
O 20
R LA BE 𝐴 = 43 𝐵 = 90 + 8 = 98
C
𝐶 = 180 − 43 − 98 = 39
Using Law of Sine:
𝒃 𝑎=
22 sin 43
= 22.84 𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑡
R S
sin 39
T C A
𝒂
EP S
8𝑜
43𝑜
N W SU
B 22 𝑓𝑡 A
2. In triangle ABC, ∠𝐶 = 70𝑜 ; ∠𝐴 = 45°; 𝐴𝐵 = 40 𝑚. What is the length of the median

O IE L
drawn from, vertex A to side BC?

B
D EV C
65°
45 𝑫
45° 70° C
A
𝑏
𝑎 𝑏 40
= =
O
sin 45° sin 65° sin 70°

𝑎
𝑎 = 30.1 𝑚; 2 = 15.05 𝑚; 𝑏 = 38.56 𝑚
For triangle ADC

R
𝐴𝐷2 = 38.562 + 15.052 − 2(38.56)(15.05) cos 70° = 36.28
Area of a Triangle (K)
K = ½ bc sin A = ½ ac sin B = ½ ab sin C

K  s ( s  a )( s  b)( s  c) , where s = ½(a+b+c)
( s  a )( s  b)( s  c)
K = rs, where r 
s
a 2 sin B sin C b 2 sin A sin C c sin A sin B
K  
2sin A 2sin B 2sin C
8
n
 1
The Exponential Function: e x , where e  2.718281828459045  1+ 
 n
The Logarithmic Function: y  log b x
y
if and only if x = b
log b N
log b 1  0 log b xy  log b x  log b y log a N 
log b a
x ln x
logb x  , if x  0 log b  log b x  log b y log x 
y ln10
log x
log b b x  x log b x n  n log b x ln x 
log e
Solving Exponential and Logarithmic Equations
Solve for the value of 𝑥.
U 3
1. 𝑒 𝑥 = 72 2. 𝑒 2𝑥 − 3𝑒 𝑥 + 2 = 0
D 2
Ln 𝑒 𝑥 = ln 72 (𝑒 𝑥 )2 − 3𝑒 𝑥 + 2 = 0
E
𝑥 = ln 72 (𝑒 𝑥 − 2)(𝑒 𝑥 − 1) = 0
O 20
R LA BE 𝒙 ≈ 𝟒. 𝟐𝟕𝟕 𝑒 𝑥 = 2 𝑜𝑟 𝑒 𝑥 = 1
C
𝒙 = 𝒍𝒏 𝟐 𝒐𝒓 𝒙 = 𝒍𝒏 𝟏 = 𝟎
3. 5 + 2 ln 𝑥 = 4 4. ln 𝑥 − ln(𝑥 − 1) = 1
R S
𝑥
2 ln 𝑥 = −1 ln 𝑥−1 = 1
T C A
1
EP S
Ln 𝑥 = − 𝑥 = 𝑒(𝑥 − 1)
2
1
𝑥 = exp (− 2) 𝑥(1 − 𝑒) = −𝑒
N W SU
𝒆
𝒙 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟎𝟕 𝒙=
𝒆−𝟏
Note:
180(𝑛 – 2) = sum of interior angles of an n-gon
360
180 − = measure of each interior angle of an n-gon
O IE L
𝑛
360 = sum of exterior angles
D EV C
180
𝑃 = 2𝑛𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( 𝑛
) perimeter of a regular n-gon inscribed in a circle
O
R

9
REVIEW QUESTIONS
DIRECTIONS: Choose the best answer. If none of the choices is correct, write Q.
1. For what values is | x + 2 | > 5 true?

I. x > 3 II. x < 7 III. x > -3 IV. x < -7
a. I or III b. II or III c. I or IV d. II or IV
12 x  4 5  2 x
2. Find all values of x such that  .
3 2
23 23 23 23
a. 𝑥 > 30 b. 𝑥 < 30 c. 𝑥 ≤ 30 d. 𝑥 ≥ 30
3. The measure of 2.25 revolutions counterclockwise is:

a. −835° b. −810° c. 805° d. 810°
U 3
D 2
4. Find the perimeter of a regular octagon inscribed in a circle of radius 150 ft.
E
a. 950 ft b. 870 ft c. 1200 ft d. 459 ft
O 20
R LA BE
C
5. A certain angle has a supplement five times its complement. Find the angle.
a. 67.5° b. 157.5° c. 168.5° d. 186°
R S
6. Among the following, which is the largest?
T C A
a. 11/12 rad b. 175 c. 2.4 rad d. 2/5 rev
EP S
7. Solve for , 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2, 2 cos 𝜃 + 3 = 2.
N W SU
5 11 3 7 2 4  5
a. ; b. ; c. ; d. ;
6 6 4 4 3 3 3 3
8. If sin 40° + sin 20° = sin 𝜃, find the value of 𝜃.

a. 20° b. 80° c. 120° d. 60°
O IE L
9. How many different value of 𝑥 from 0° to 180° for the equation (2 sin 𝑥 − 1)(cos 𝑥 + 1) = 0?
D EV C
a. 3 b. 0 c. 1 d. 2
4 7
10. If sin 𝐴 = 5, A in quadrant II, sin 𝐵 = 25, B in quadrant I,find sin(𝐴 + 𝐵).
3 2 3 4
a. b. c. d.
5 5 4 5
11. If 10𝑎𝑥+𝑏 = 𝑃, what is the value of 𝑥?

O
1 1 1 1
a. (log 𝑃 − 𝑏) b. log(𝑃 − 𝑏) c. 𝑃10−𝑏 d. log 𝑃10
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
12. If log 8 𝑥 = −𝑛, then 𝑥 is equal to:

1 1 81
R
a. 8𝑛 b. 8𝑛
c. d.
8−𝑛 𝑛
13. If tan   2 , what is sin 2  ?

a. 4/9 b. 1/5 c. 2/3 d. 4/5
14. If tan  = 5 , tan  = 3 , then tan( - ) equals
5 3 2 2
a. 5 3 b. c. d.
16 1  15 16
15. Solve for x: Arc tan x  2 Arc tan 1  x   / 2 .
a. 0 b. 1 c. –1 d. ½
10
1
16. If 𝑠𝑖𝑛  − 𝑐𝑜𝑠  = , and sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 = −1, find sin3 𝜃 − cos 3 𝜃.
2
a. –2 b. –1 c. 0 d. 1
  3 
17. Evaluate: Arc tan  2Cos  Arc sin 
  2  
  
a. b. c.  d.
2 4 6
18. Evaluate: arccot[2 cos(arcsin 0.5)]

a. 60º b. 45º c. 30º d. 90º
19. Three times the sine of a certain angle is twice the square of the cosine of the same angle.
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Find the angle.
a. 60º b. 45º c. 30º d. 90º
D 2
E
20. Find the value of 𝑦: 𝑦 = (1 + cos 2𝜃 ) tan 𝜃.
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a. cos 𝜃
R LA BE b. sin 𝜃 c. sin 2𝜃 d. cos 2𝜃
C
1−tan2 𝑎
21. Solve for 𝑥: 𝑥 = 1+tan2 𝑎.
R S
a. cos 𝑎 b. sin 2𝑎 c. cos 2𝑎 d. sin 𝑎
T C A
EP S
22. Given three angles A, B, and C whose sum is 180°. If tan 𝐴 + tan 𝐵 + tan 𝐶 = 𝑥, find the value
of tan 𝐴 × tan 𝐵 × tan 𝐶 .
𝑥
N W SU
a. 1 − 𝑥 b. √𝑥 c. d. 𝑥
2
23. PQ is the diameter of a circle with center O. R is a point on the circumference so that PO =
OQ = QR = 1. What is the length of PR?
O IE L
a. 5 b. 1 c. 3/2 d. 3
D EV C
24. The sides of a triangle are 3, 5, and 6 cm . The shortest side of a larger triangle that is similar
to the given triangle is 10 cm. What are the lengths (in cm) of the other two sides of the larger
triangle?
a. 50/3 and 20 b. 12 and 13 c. 11 and 12
d. 10/3 and 10 e. 40/3 and 20/3
25. In a 90-60-30 triangle, if the shortest side is 6 cm, what is the length of the hypotenuse?
O
a. 12 b. 6 3 c. 3
d. 3 3 e. 6
R
26. Find the area of an equilateral triangle with a perimeter of 9 cm.

81√3
a. 4.5 cm b. 40.5 cm c. 𝑐𝑚
2
9√3
d. 𝑐𝑚 e. 27 cm
2
27. Two vertical poles 20 m and 80 m high, stand apart on a horizontal plane. What is the height,
in meters, of the point of intersection of the lines joining the top of each pole to the foot of
the other?
a. 18 b. 50 c. 16
d. 15 e. 23

11
28. If the sun is 30 above the horizon, find the length of a shadow cast by a tower that is 60 ft
tall.
a.103.9 feet b. 100.4 feet c. 85.6 feet
d. 93.1 feet e. 100 feet
29. A ladder 16 feet long leans against the side of a building. Find the height from the top of the
ladder to the ground if the angle of elevation of the ladder is 74.
a. 13.8 feet b. 15.4 feet. c. 10.5 feet
d. 15 feet e. 17.4 feet
30. The angle of elevation of a tree from a point on the ground 42 m from its base is 33. How
high is the tree?
a. 20 m b. 26.7 m c. 27.28 m
d. 30.2 m e. 19.6 m
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31. The distance across a river can be determined from an airplane. Suppose the angles of
D 2
depression to the two sides of the river are 43 and 55. If the altitude of the plane is 20,000
E
O 20
feet, how far is it across the river?
R LA BE
a. 7443 ft b. 9423 ft c. 3875 ft
C
d. 2568 ft e. 8521 feet
32. On the top of a building is a television tower. From a point 1000 ft from a point on the ground
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directly below the top of the tower, the angle of elevation to the bottom of the tower is 51.34
T C A
and to the top of the tower is 55.81. Find the length of the television tower.
EP S
a. 222 feet b. 333 feet c. 123 feet
d. 325 feet e. 276 feet
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33. If the distance from the earth to the sun is 92.9 million miles and the angle formed between
Venus, the Earth and the sun are as shown. Find the distance from the earth to Venus.
O IE L
Venus
D EV C
Earth 47° Sun

92, 900, 000 miles
a. 63.4 million miles b. 70 million miles
c.53 million miles d. 69 million miles
O
34. A swimming pool is 20 meters long and 12 meters wide. The bottom of the pool is slanted so
that the water depth is 1.3 meters at the shallow end and 4 meters at the deep end. Find the
R
angle of depression of the bottom of the pool.

a. 10.5 º b. 9.8º c. 7.69 d. 5.7º e. 8.96º
35. A plane is observed approaching your home and you assume its speed is 550 miles per hour.
If the angle of elevation of the plane is 16 at one time and 57 one minute later, approximate
the altitude of the plane.
a. 3.23 miles b. 4.34 miles c. 6.9 miles
d. 8.23 miles e. 23.4 miles
36. A pole 50 ft high was standing vertically on top of a hill with a uniform slope of 30 degrees.
How long will the shadow of the pole be on the slope of the hill if the angle of elevation of the
sun is 60 degrees?

12
a. 40 ft b. 50 ft c. 60 ft d. 30 ft e. 70 ft
37. A tower 125 ft high is on a cliff on the bank of a river. From the top of the tower, the angle of
depression of a point on the opposite shore is 2840 and from the base of the tower, the angle
of depression of the same point is 1820. Find the width of the river.
a. 580 ft b. 192 ft c. 611 ft d. 300 ft
e. 422 ft
38. In ABC, C is a right angle, AC = 40 cm and AB = 50 cm. What is the length of the altitude
to the hypotenuse?
a. 24 cm b. 30 cm c. 40 cm d. 50 cm
e. 48 cm
39. From the top of a cliff 126 m high, the angle of depression of a boat is 45. How far (in m) is
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the boat from the foot of the cliff?
D 2
a. 63 b. 63 2 c. 126 2 d. 126 e. 63 3
E
O 20
40. The length of the hypotenuse of a right triangle is
R LA BE 29 cm and its area is 5 sq cm. Find the
C
lengths (in cm) of the legs of the triangle.
a. 3; 10 b. 4; 6 c. 4; 25 d. 2; 5 e. 2; 5
R S
T C A
41. A triangle has sides of lengths 2.8 inches, 3.2 inches and 4.1 inches. Find the area of the
EP S
triangle.
a. 4.47 sq in b. 5.05 sq in c. 20 sq in d. 44.69 sq in e. 19.97 sq in
N W SU
42. An airplane leaves an aircraft carrier and flies South at 350 mph. The carrier travels S 30° E at
25 mph. If the wireless communication range of the airplane is 700 miles, when will it lose
contact with the carrier?
O IE L
a. after 4.36 hours b. after 2.13 hours c. after 4.54 hours

d. after 5.57 hours e. after 3.61 hours
D EV C
43. Two wires support a pole in opposite directions. They make angles of 36 and 42 with the
horizontal and the points where they touch the ground are 50 ft apart. Find the length of the
longer wire.
44. To determine the distance across a straight river, a surveyor chooses two points P and Q on
O
the bank, where the distance between P and Q is 200 m. At each of these points, a point R
on the opposite side of the bank is sighted. The angle having sides PQ and PR is measured to
be 63.1 degrees and the angle having the sides QP and QR is measured to be 80.4 degrees.
R
What is the distance across the river?

a. 290 m b. 320 m c. 296 m d. 240 m e. 200 m
45. A building is located at the end of the street that is inclined at an angle of 8.4° with the
horizontal. At a point P, 210 km down the street from the building, the angle subtended by
the building is 15.6 degrees. How tall is the building?
a. 61.8 km b. 58.4 km c. 28.2 km d. 14.4 km e. 20.5 km
46. A guy wire from the top of a tower is attached to the ground 40 ft from the base of the tower.
How high is the tower if the wire makes a 64°angle with the ground?

13
47. The angle of depression from the roof of the skyscraper to a person walking on the street
below is 80° . How far is the person from the foot of the skyscraper whose height is 400 ft?
a. 9. 7 ft b. 39.72 ft c. 29.66 ft d. 18.45 ft e.
46.22 ft
48. The lengths of the diagonals of a parallelogram are 84 cm and 52 cm. If the diagonals intersect
at an angle of 40°, how long are the sides of the parallelogram?
a. 64.1 cm; 27.7 cm b. 60 cm; 28 cm c. 64 cm; 29 cm
d. 56.2 cm; 31.4 cm e. 54 cm; 32 cm
49. The two sides of a triangular field are 123.8 m and 89.7 m, respectively. The angle between
the two sides is found to be 112° 53' Find the length of the third side.
a. 170.8 cm b. 178.9 m c. 160.85 cm d. 150.4 cm e. 67.85 cm
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50. The angle of elevation of the top of the tower A from the foot of tower B is twice the angle of
elevation of the top of tower B from the foot of tower A. At a point midway between the two
D 2
towers, the angles of elevation of the top of the towers are complementary. If the two are
E
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120 m apart, what are the heights of the towers?
a. 90 m; 40 m
R LA BE b. 80 m; 50 m c. 85 m; 35 m
C
d. 95 m; 45 m e. none of the above
R S
T C A
EP S
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O IE L
D EV C
O
R

1
ANALYTIC GEOMETRY
HENRISON C. SANCHEZ
Assistant Professor
DISTANCE FORMULA
A. Distance from Point to Point. The distance between two points 𝑷(𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 ) and
𝑸(𝒙𝟐 , 𝒚𝟐 ) is given by the formula 𝒅 = √(𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏 )𝟐 + (𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏 )𝟐 .
Example: The distance between 𝑷(𝟑, 𝟓) and 𝑸(𝟏, −𝟏𝟏) is
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𝒅 = √(𝟑 − 𝟏)𝟐 + (𝟓 + 𝟏𝟏)𝟐 = √𝟐𝟔𝟎 = 𝟐√𝟔𝟓
D 2
B. Distance from a Point to a Line. The distance from a point 𝑷(𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 ) to the line
E
𝑨𝒙 + 𝑩𝒚 + 𝑪 = 𝟎 is
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R LA BE |𝑨𝒙𝟏 + 𝑩𝒚𝟏 + 𝑪|
𝒅=
C
√𝑨𝟐 + 𝑩𝟐
Example: The distance from the point 𝑷(−𝟒, 𝟐) to the line 𝟑𝒙– 𝟐𝒚 + 𝟓 = 𝟎 is
R S
|𝟑(−𝟒) − 𝟐(𝟐) + 𝟓| 𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏√𝟏𝟑
T C A
𝒅= = =
𝟐
√𝟑 + 𝟐 𝟐 √𝟏𝟑 𝟏𝟑
EP S
C. Distance between Two Parallel Lines. Given the two parallel lines
N W SU
𝑨𝒙 + 𝑩𝒚 + 𝑪𝟏 = 𝟎 and 𝑨𝒙 + 𝑩𝒚 + 𝑪𝟐 = 𝟎. The distance between two parallel lines is:

𝑪𝟐 −𝑪𝟏
𝒅=| |.
√𝑨𝟐 +𝑩𝟐
O IE L
Example: The distance between 𝟐𝒙 + 𝒚 = 𝟓 and 𝟐𝒙 + 𝒚 = −𝟏 is

𝟓 − (−𝟏) 𝟔 𝟔√𝟓
𝒅=| |= 𝒐𝒓
D EV C
𝟐
√𝟐 + 𝟏 𝟐 √𝟓 𝟓
MIDPOINT FORMULA
The midpoint 𝑴(𝒙 ̅, 𝒚

̅) of the line segment joining 𝑷(𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 ) and 𝑸(𝒙𝟐 , 𝒚𝟐 ) is
𝒙𝟏 + 𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟏 + 𝒚𝟐
̅, 𝒚
𝑴(𝒙 ̅) = 𝑴 ( , )
O
𝟐 𝟐
Example:
The midpoint of the line segment joining the points 𝑷(−𝟓, 𝟒) and 𝑸(𝟕, −𝟐) is
−𝟓+𝟕 𝟒−𝟐
𝑴(𝒙 ̅) = 𝑴 (
̅, 𝒚 , ) = 𝑴(𝟏, 𝟏).
R
𝟐 𝟐
DIVISION OF A LINE SEGMENT
𝒓𝟏 𝑷𝟏 𝑷 𝒓 𝒙𝟏 −𝒙 𝒓 𝒚 −𝒚 𝒓
Suppose P(x, y) divides P1P2 in the ratio 𝒓𝟐
, then 𝑷𝑷𝟐
= 𝒓𝟏. That is, 𝒙−𝒙𝟐
= 𝒓𝟏 and 𝒚−𝒚
𝟏
= 𝒓𝟏.
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
Example 1: The segment joining 𝑷𝟏 (𝟏, 𝟑) and 𝑷𝟐 (𝟓, −𝟐) is trisected. Find the point of trisection
nearer to 𝑷𝟏 .
𝑷𝟏 𝑷 𝟏
Solution: =
𝑷𝑷𝟐 𝟐
𝟏−𝒙 𝟏 𝟑−𝒚 𝟏
=𝟐 =𝟐
𝒙−𝟓 𝒚+𝟐
CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Analytic Geometry

2
𝟐(𝟏 − 𝒙) = 𝒙 − 𝟓 𝟔 − 𝟐𝒚 = 𝒚 + 𝟐
𝟑𝒙 = 𝟕 𝟑𝒚 = 𝟒
𝟕 𝟒
𝒙= 𝒚=
𝟑 𝟑
𝟕 𝟒
Hence, 𝑷(𝒙, 𝒚) = 𝑷 (𝟑 , ).
𝟑
Example 2. The segment joining 𝑷𝟏 (𝟓, −𝟒) and 𝑷𝟐 (𝟕, −𝟗) is extended beyond 𝑷𝟐 so that its length
is doubled. Find the terminal point 𝑷.
𝑷𝟏 𝑷 𝟏
Solution: 𝑷𝑷𝟐
=𝟏
𝟓−𝟕 𝟏
= → −𝟐 = 𝟕 − 𝒙 → 𝒙=𝟗
𝟕−𝒙 𝟏
−𝟒+𝟗 𝟏
−𝟗−𝒚
=𝟏 → 𝟓 = −𝟗 − 𝒚 → 𝒚 = −𝟏𝟒
Hence, the terminal point 𝑷(𝒙, 𝒚) = 𝑷(𝟗, −𝟏𝟒).
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SLOPE OF THE LINE
D 2
E
The slope of the line passing through points 𝑷𝟏 (𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 ) and 𝑷𝟐 (𝒙𝟐 , 𝒚𝟐 ) is:
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R LA BE 𝒓𝒊𝒔𝒆 𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏
𝑺𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒆, 𝒎 = =
C
𝒓𝒖𝒏 𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏
Note:
1. 𝒎 is positive if the line is inclined upwards to the right;
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2. 𝒎 is negative if the line is inclined downwards to the right;
T C A
3. 𝒎 is zero for horizontal lines.
EP S
4. If the slopes of the two lines are equal, 𝒎𝟏 = 𝒎𝟐 , then the two lines are parallel.
𝟏
5. If the slope of the line 𝒍𝟏 is a negative reciprocal of the slope of the other line 𝒍𝟐 , 𝒎𝟏 = − ,
N W SU
𝒎𝟐
then the line 𝒍𝟏 and 𝒍𝟐 are parallel.
EQUATIONS OF A LINE
O IE L
D EV C
a. Standard Form of a Linear Equation: Ax + By + C = 0

b. Slope-Intercept Form. Given a slope 𝒎 and 𝒚-intercept, 𝒚 = 𝒎𝒙 + 𝒃.
c. Point-Slope Form. Given a point 𝑷𝟏 (𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 ) and slope 𝒎, 𝒚 − 𝒚𝟏 = 𝒎(𝒙 − 𝒙𝟏 ).
𝒚−𝒚 𝒚 −𝒚
d. Two-Point Form. Given a two points 𝑷𝟏 (𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 ) and 𝑸(𝒙𝟐 , 𝒚𝟐 ), 𝒙−𝒙𝟏 = 𝒙𝟐−𝒙𝟏 .
𝟏 𝟐 𝟏
𝒙 𝒚
e. Two-Intercept Form. Given an 𝒙- and 𝒚-intercept, 𝒂 + 𝒃 = 𝟏.
Examples: Find the equation of the line satisfying the given conditions:
O
𝟐
1. with a slope of – 𝟑 and 𝒚-intercept of 4
𝟐
𝒚 = (− 𝟑) 𝒙 + 𝟒
𝟑𝒚 = − 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟏𝟐
R
2. with slope 3 and passing through ( -2, 7)

𝒚– 𝟕 = 𝟑(𝒙 + 𝟐)
𝒚– 𝟕 = 𝟑𝒙 + 𝟔
𝒚 − 𝟑𝒙 − 𝟏𝟑 = 𝟎
3. passing through (5, 2) and (-6, 1)
𝒚−𝟐 𝟐−𝟏
𝒙−𝟓
= 𝟓+𝟔
𝟏𝟏(𝒚 − 𝟐) = 𝒙 − 𝟓
𝟏𝟏𝒚 − 𝒙 − 𝟏𝟏𝟕 = 𝟎
4. with x-intercept = -3 and y-intercept = 4
𝒙 𝒚
+𝟐=𝟏
−𝟑

3
𝟐𝒚 − 𝟑𝒙 + 𝟔 = 𝟎
5. parallel to the y-axis and passing through (5, -6)
𝒙 = 𝟓 parallel to y-axis implies that 𝒎 = 𝟎.
6. parallel to the line 7x – 2y = 3 and passing through (1, -2)
at (𝟏, 𝟐): 𝟕𝒙 – 𝟐𝒚 = 𝟕(𝟏) – 𝟐(−𝟐)
𝟕𝒙 – 𝟐𝒚 = 𝟏𝟏
7. perpendicular to the line 𝟕𝒙 − 𝟐𝒚 = 𝟑 and passing through (1, -2)
𝟐𝒙 + 𝟕𝒚 = 𝟐(𝟏) + 𝟕(−𝟐)
𝟐𝒙 + 𝟕𝒚 = −𝟏𝟐
AREA OF A TRIANGLE
Suppose 𝑷(𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 ), 𝑸(𝒙𝟐 , 𝒚𝟐 ), 𝑹(𝒙𝟑 , 𝒚𝟑 ) are vertices of a triangle in counterclockwise

direction, the area of triangle PQR is given by:
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𝟏 𝒙𝟏 𝒚𝟏 𝟏
𝑨 = |𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟐 𝟏|
𝟐 𝒙 𝒚 𝟏
D 2
𝟑 𝟑
E
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R LA BE
C
ANGLE BETWEEN TWO LINES
The angle between lines 𝑳𝟏 and 𝑳𝟐 is the angle 𝜽 that 𝑳𝟏 must be rotated in a
R S
counterclockwise direction to make it coincide with 𝑳𝟐 .
T C A
EP S
𝜶𝟏 = 𝐚𝐫𝐜𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒎𝟏
𝐿2
𝜶𝟐 = 𝐚𝐫𝐜𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒎𝟐
N W SU
𝐿1 𝜽 = 𝜶𝟐 − 𝜶𝟏
𝒎 −𝒎
𝛼2 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜽 = 𝟐 𝟏
𝟏+𝒎𝟏 𝒎𝟐
𝜃
𝛼1
O IE L
D EV C
FUNCTIONS AND RELATIONS, DRISA
A function is a relation such that no two-ordered pairs have the same first element. The
graph of a function is intersected by any vertical line in at most one point.
The domain of a relation is the set of all its x’s. To find the domain, solve y = f(x) and
determine all possible values of x.
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The range of a relation is the set of all its y’s. To find the range, solve x = g(y). and
determine all possible values of y.
R
The x-intercept is the point on the curve that cuts the x-axis. To find the x-intercept, set
y = 0 and solve for x.
The y-intercept is the point on the curve that cuts the y-axis. To find the y-intercept, set
x = 0 and solve for y.
A curve is symmetric with respect to y-axis if the equation remains unchanged when x is
replaced by -x. It is symmetric with respect to x-axis if it remains unchanged when y is replaced
by –y. It is symmetry with respect to origin if it remains unchanged when x is replaced by –x and
y is replaced by –y.

4
The asymptote of a curve is a line such that far enough on the curve, the distance between
this line and the curve is very close to zero. To find the vertical asymptote, solve for y = f(x)
and find all values of x for which the denominator becomes 0 while the denominator does not. To
find the horizontal asymptote, solve for x = g(y) and find all values of y for which the denominator
becomes 0 while the denominator does not.
SECOND-DEGREE EQUATIONS IN X AND Y
1. Standard 2nd –degree equation in x and y

𝑨𝒙𝟐 + 𝑩𝒙𝒚 + 𝑪𝒚𝟐 + 𝑫𝒙 + 𝑬𝒚 + 𝑭 = 𝟎
𝟐
Note: If 𝑩 − 𝟒𝑨𝑪 < 𝟎, the graph is an ellipse.
If 𝑩𝟐 − 𝟒𝑨𝑪 = 𝟎, the graph is a parabola.
If 𝑩𝟐 − 𝟒𝑨𝑪 > 𝟎, the graph is a hyperbola.
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2. Circle
D 2
Circle is the locus of a moving point P(x, y) whose distance from a fixed point C(h,
E
O 20
k), called the center, is constant. The constant equal distance is called the radius.
In the standard 2nd-degree equation in x and y, if B = 0 and A = C, the equation becomes
R LA BE
C
𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 + 𝑫𝒙 + 𝑬𝒚 + 𝑭 = 𝟎 or (𝒙 − 𝒉)𝟐 + (𝒚 − 𝒌)𝟐 = 𝒓𝟐 . The graph of this equation maybe
a circle, point or empty set.
R S
Note: 𝒓 is radius and (𝒉, 𝒌) is the center.
T C A
EP S
Examples:
1. The graph of 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 + 𝟔𝒙 − 𝟐𝒚 − 𝟏𝟓 = 𝟎 is a circle with 𝑪(−𝟑, 𝟏) and 𝒓 = 𝟓.
N W SU
2. The graph of 𝟐𝒙𝟐 + 𝟐𝒚𝟐 + 𝟏𝟐𝒙 − 𝟐 − 𝟖𝒚 + 𝟑𝟏 = 𝟎 is an empty set.

3. The graph of 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 − 𝟒𝒙 + 𝟏𝟎𝒚 + 𝟐𝟗 = 𝟎 is the point (2,-5).
3. Parabola
O IE L
Parabola is the locus of a point 𝑷(𝒙, 𝒚) which is equidistant from a fixed point 𝑽(𝒉, 𝒌),
called the vertex, and a fixed line called the directix.
D EV C
In the standard 2nd-degree equation in 𝒙 and 𝒚, if 𝑩 = 𝟎 and 𝑨𝑪 = 𝟎 , the equation

becomes either
a) 𝑨𝒙𝟐 + 𝑫𝒙 + 𝑬𝒚 + 𝑭 = 𝟎 which is equivalent to (𝒙 − 𝒉)𝟐 = ±𝟐𝒑(𝒚 − 𝒌)
b) 𝑩𝒚𝟐 + 𝑫𝒙 + 𝑬𝒚 + 𝑭 = 𝟎 which is equivalent to (𝒚 − 𝒌)𝟐 = ±𝟐𝒑(𝒙 − 𝒉)
𝒑
Here, 𝒑 is the distance from directrix to focus, so that 𝟐 is the distance from vertex to
focus.
O
Note:
𝒑 𝒑
a) 𝑽(𝒉, 𝒌), 𝑭 (𝒉, 𝒌 ± 𝟐 ), axis is 𝒙 = 𝒉, directrix is 𝒚 = 𝒌 ± , opens up/down.
𝟐
𝒑 𝒑
R
b) 𝑽( 𝒉, 𝒌), 𝑭 ( 𝒉 ± , 𝒌), axis is 𝒚 = 𝒌 , directrix is 𝒙 = 𝒉 ± , opens to the

𝟐 𝟐
right/left.
Examples:
1. The parabola 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟔𝒙 − 𝟏𝟐𝒚 + 𝟓𝟕 = 𝟎.
𝒙𝟐 + 𝟔𝒙 − 𝟏𝟐𝒚 + 𝟓𝟕 = 𝟎
𝒙𝟐 + 𝟔𝒙 + 𝟗 = 𝟏𝟐𝒚 − 𝟓𝟕 + 𝟗
(𝒙 + 𝟑)𝟐 = 𝟏𝟐(𝒚 − 𝟒)
𝒑
Thus, 𝟐𝒑 = 𝟏𝟐 𝒐𝒓 𝟐 = 𝟑; 𝑽(−𝟑, 𝟒); 𝑭(−𝟑, 𝟕); 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔: 𝒙 = −𝟑;
𝒅𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒙: 𝒚 = 𝟏; 𝒐𝒑𝒆𝒏𝒔 𝒖𝒑𝒘𝒂𝒓𝒅.
2. The parabola 𝒚𝟐 + 𝟔𝒙 + 𝟖𝒚 + 𝟏 = 𝟎.
5
𝟏𝟓 𝒑 𝟑
(𝒚 + 𝟒)𝟐 = −𝟔 (𝒙 −
); =
𝟏𝟔 𝟐 𝟐
𝟏𝟓 𝟓 𝟑
has 𝑽 ( , −𝟒), 𝑭(𝟏, −𝟒), axis: 𝒚 = −𝟒, Directrix: 𝒙 = 𝟐 + 𝟐 = 𝟒; opens left
𝟔
The degenerate cases for this 2nd-degree form are 1 line, 2 lines or empty set.
4. Ellipse
Ellipse is the locus of a point 𝑷(𝒙, 𝒚) the sum of whose distances from two fixed
points (foci) is constant.
In the standard 2nd-degree equation in x and y, if 𝑩 = 𝟎 and 𝑨𝑪 > 𝟎, the equation
becomes 𝑨𝒙𝟐 + 𝑪𝒚𝟐 + 𝑫𝒙 + 𝑬𝒚 + 𝑭 = 𝟎, or
( x  h) 2  y  k  ( y  k )2  x  h 
2 2
 1 or  1
a2 b2 a2 b2
In both cases 2a is the sum of the distances from the fixed points, 2c is the
U 3
distance between the two foci; 𝒂 > 𝒄, 𝒂𝟐 = 𝒃𝟐 + 𝒄𝟐 , 𝟐𝒃 is the length of the latus rectum
𝒄
and eccentricity is < 𝟏.
D 2
𝒂
a) Major axis is parallel to the x-axis; minor axis is parallel to the y-axis, 𝑪(𝒉, 𝒌), foci
E
O 20
𝒄 𝒂
at 𝑭(𝒉 ± 𝒄, 𝒌), vertices at 𝑽(𝒉 ± 𝒂, 𝒌), eccentricity is 𝒂, directrices: 𝒙 = 𝒉 ± 𝒆.
R LA BE
C
b) major axis is parallel to the y-axis; minor axis is parallel to the x-axis, 𝑪(𝒉, 𝒌), foci
𝒄 𝒂
at 𝑭(𝒉, 𝒌 ± 𝒄), vertices at 𝑽(𝒉, 𝒌 ± 𝒂), eccentricity is , directrices: 𝒚 = 𝒌 ± .
𝒂 𝒆
The degenerate cases for this 2nd-degree equation are point and empty set.
R S
T C A
Examples:
EP S
1. The graph of 𝟔𝒙𝟐 + 𝟗𝒚𝟐 − 𝟐𝟒𝒙 − 𝟓𝟒𝒚 + 𝟓𝟏 = 𝟎 which is equivalent to
(𝒙 − 𝟐)𝟐 (𝒚 − 𝟑)𝟐
+ = 𝟏; 𝒂 = 𝟑, 𝒃 = √𝟔, 𝒄 = √𝟑
N W SU
𝟗 𝟔
is an ellipse which has major axis parallel to the x-axis, minor axis parallel to the y-
√𝟑
axis, 𝑪(𝟐, 𝟑), 𝑭(𝟐 ± √𝟑, 𝟑), 𝑽(𝟐 ± 𝟑, 𝟑), 𝒆 = .
𝟑
𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟐
2. The graph of 𝟏𝟔𝒙𝟐 + 𝟗𝒚𝟐 = 𝟏𝟒𝟒 𝒐𝒓 + 𝟏𝟔 = 𝟏, 𝒂 = 𝟒, 𝒃 = 𝟑, 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒄 = √𝟕 is an ellipse
O IE L
𝟗
whose major axis is the y-axis, minor axis is the x-axis, 𝑪(𝟎, 𝟎), 𝑽(𝟎, ±𝟒), 𝑭(𝟎, ±√𝟕),
D EV C
√𝟕
𝒆= .
𝟒
5. Hyperbola
Hyperbola is the locus of the moving point 𝑷(𝒙, 𝒚) the difference of whose
distances from two fixed points (foci) is constant.
In the standard 2nd-degree equation in x and y, if 𝑩 = 𝟎 and 𝑨𝑪 < 𝟎, the equation becomes
𝑨𝒙𝟐 − 𝑪𝒚𝟐 + 𝑫𝒙 + 𝑬𝒚 + 𝑭 = 𝟎 or
O
( x  h) 2  y  k  ( y  k )2  x  h 
2 2
 1 or b)  1
a2 b2 a2 b2
R
In both cases 2a is the difference of the distances from the vertices, 𝟐𝒄 is the
𝒄
distance between the two foci; > 𝒂, 𝒂𝟐 = 𝒄𝟐 − 𝒃𝟐 , and 𝒆 = 𝒂 > 𝟏.
a) The transverse axis is parallel to the x-axis, the conjugate axis is parallel to the
𝒄 𝒂
y-axis, 𝑪(𝒉, 𝒌), 𝑽( 𝒉 ± 𝒂, 𝒌), 𝑭(𝒉 ± 𝒄, 𝒌), 𝒆 = 𝒂, directrices: 𝒚 = ± 𝒆 , asymptotes:
𝒃(𝒙−𝒉)
𝒚=𝒌± .
𝒂
b) The transverse axis is parallel to the y-axis, the conjugate axis is parallel to the
𝒄 𝒂
x-axis, 𝑪(𝒉, 𝒌), 𝑽(𝒉, 𝒌 ± 𝒂), 𝑭(𝒉, 𝒌 ± 𝒄), 𝒆 = , directrices: 𝒙 = ± , asymptotes:
𝒂 𝒆
𝒂(𝒙−𝒉)
𝒚=𝒌± .
𝒃

6
Examples:
1. The graph of 𝟐𝟓𝒙𝟐 − 𝟗𝒚𝟐 = 𝟐𝟐𝟓 which is equivalent to
𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟐
− = 𝟏; 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝐚 = 𝟑; 𝒃 = 𝟓; 𝒄 = √𝟑𝟒
𝟗 𝟐𝟓
is a hyperbola whose transverse axis is the x-axis, conjugate axis is the y-axis,
√𝟑𝟒 𝟗
𝑪(𝟎, 𝟎), 𝑽(±𝟑, 𝟎), 𝑭(±√𝟑𝟒, 𝟎), 𝒆 = ; Directrix: 𝒙 = ± and asymptotes 𝒚 =
𝟑 √𝟑𝟒
𝟓𝒙
± 𝟑.
𝟓
2. Find the equation of the hyperbola with vertices at (𝟎, ±𝟔) and 𝒆 = .
𝟑
𝟓 𝒄
𝒂 = 𝟔, 𝟑 = , hence 𝒄 = 𝟏𝟎, 𝒃𝟐 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 − 𝟑𝟔 = 𝟔𝟒, hence 𝒃 = 𝟏𝟎 transverse axis is
𝟔
the y-axis.
𝒚𝟐 𝒙𝟐
The equation of the hyperbola is − 𝟔𝟒 = 𝟏 or 𝟔𝟒𝒚𝟐 − 𝟑𝟔𝒙𝟐 = 𝟐𝟑𝟎𝟒.
𝟑𝟔
U 3
POLAR COORDINATE SYSTEM
D 2
E
O 20
In polar coordinates, the location of a point is determined relative t a fixed reference point
O (the pole) and to a given ray (polar axis) beginning at O.
R LA BE
C
Sign Convection:
1. 𝜽 is positive (+) if measured counterclockwise.
2. 𝜽 is negative (−) if measure clockwise
R S3. 𝒓 is positive (+) if laid off at the terminal side of 𝜽.

T C A
4. 𝒓 is negative (−) if laid off at the prolongation through 𝑶 from the terminal side
EP S
of 𝜽.
N W SU
Distance between two points. The distance between two points (𝒓𝟏 , 𝜽𝟏 ) and (𝒓𝟐 , 𝜽𝟐 ) can be
found using cosine law, that is,
𝒅 = √𝒓𝟐𝟏 + 𝒓𝟐𝟐 − 𝟐𝒓𝟏 𝒓𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝜽𝟐 − 𝜽𝟏 )

O IE L
Relationship Between Polar and Rectangular Coordinates

D EV C
𝒙 = 𝒓 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝒓𝟐 = 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐
𝒚
𝒚 = 𝒓 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝜽 = 𝒂𝒓𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏 ( )
𝒙
Examples: Express in terms of polar coordinates:

1. 𝑷(−𝟏, −𝟏)
𝟓𝝅
𝒓 = √(−𝟏)𝟐 + (𝟏)𝟐 = √𝟐 𝜽 = 𝐚𝐫𝐜𝐭𝐚𝐧(𝟏) = ; 𝜽 in QIII
𝟒
O
𝟓𝝅
Thus, 𝑷(−𝟏, −𝟏) = (√𝟐, ).
𝟒
2. 𝑷(√𝟑, −𝟏)
𝟏 𝝅
𝒓=𝟐 𝜽 = 𝐚𝐫𝐜𝐭𝐚𝐧 (− ) = − 𝟔 ; 𝜽 is in QIV
R
√𝟑
𝝅
Thus 𝑷(√𝟑, −𝟏) = (𝟐, − ).
𝟔
Express each of the following as a polar equation:

1. x2 + y2 = 4 Answer: r2 = 4
2. x2 + y2 = x – y Answer: 𝒓 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 + 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
Graphs of Polar Equations
𝝅
1. 𝜽 = line
𝟒
2. 𝒓𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 = 𝟑 horizontal line
3. 𝒓 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 = 𝟒 vertical line
7
4. 𝒓 = 𝟒 circle with center at the pole and

radius 4
5. 𝒓 = 𝟐𝒂 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝒐𝒓 𝒓 = 𝟐𝒂 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 circle of radius |𝒂| units
6. 𝒓 = 𝒂  𝒃 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝒐𝒓 𝒓 = 𝒂  𝒃 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
Graph is any of the four limacons:

a) limacon with a loop if 0 < a/b < 1 Ex: 𝒓 = 𝟏 + 𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽
b) cardioid if a/b = 1 Ex: 𝒓 = 𝟑 + 𝟑 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
c) limacon with a dent Ex: 𝒓 = 𝟑 + 𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽
d) convex limacon Ex: 𝒓 = 𝟑 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔Ɵ
e) 𝒓 = 𝒂 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒏𝜽
The graph is a rose having 𝒏 leaves if 𝒏 is odd and 𝟐𝒏 leaves if even .
𝑬𝒙: 𝒓 = 𝟒 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝜽 ← 4-leaved rose
𝑬𝒙: 𝒓 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟑Ɵ ← 3-leaved rose
U 3
D 2
E
O 20
R LA BE
C
R S
T C A
EP S
N W SU
O IE L
D EV C
O
R

8
REVIEW QUESTIONS
DIRECTIONS: Encircle the letter of the best answer. If none of the choices is correct, write Q.
1. Find the distance between the points (𝟒, −𝟐) and (−𝟓, 𝟏).
a. 4.897 b. 8.947 c. 7.149 d. 9.487
2. Find the length of the median through (−𝟐, −𝟓) of the triangle whose vertices are (−𝟔, 𝟐),
(𝟐, −𝟐), 𝐚𝐧𝐝 (−𝟐, −𝟓).
a. 3 b. 4 c. 5 d. 6
3. What is the domain of 𝒙 = −√𝟗 − 𝒚𝟐 ?

a. (-4, 0) b. (3, 0) c. all real numbers d. [ -3, 0]
4. Find the area of the triangle formed by the vertices 𝑷(𝟔, −𝟓), 𝑸(𝟏𝟏, 𝟔), and 𝑹(−𝟓, 𝟎).
a.146 sq units b. 73 sq units c. 33 sq units
U 3
d. 92.2 sq units e. 76 sq units
D 2
5. If 𝑷(𝒂, 𝒃) lies on the graph of 𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙) and 𝒇(𝒙) is symmetric with respect to the 𝒚-axis, which
E
O 20
of the following points are also on the graph?
a. (𝒂, −𝒃)
R LA BE b. (−𝒂, 𝒃) c. (−𝒂, −𝒃)
C
d. (𝒃, 𝒂) e. (𝟎, 𝒃)
6. What is the distance from the point (2,4) to the line with equation 3x – y = 5.
R S
10 3 10 3
T C A
a. 10 b. 3 10 c. d. e.
10 10 3
EP S
7. Find the distance from the point (𝟓, −𝟑) to the line passing through (𝟏, −𝟏) and (−𝟑, −𝟒).
N W SU
a. 4 b.¼ c. 2
2
d. ½ e.
2
8. What is the value of k such that the lines whose equation are 𝟑𝒙 + 𝟔𝒌𝒚 = 𝟕 and
O IE L
𝟗𝒌𝒙 + 𝟖𝒚 + 𝟏𝟓 = 𝟎 are parallel?

a. ½ . b. 9/8 c. ¼ d. 2/3
D EV C
e. 2
9. The segment from (−𝟏, 𝟒) to (𝟐, −𝟐) is extended three times its own length. The terminal point
is
a. (𝟏𝟏, −𝟏𝟖) b. (𝟏𝟏, −𝟐𝟒) c. (𝟏𝟏, −𝟐𝟎)
d. (−𝟏𝟏, −𝟐𝟎) e. (−𝟏𝟏, −𝟏𝟖)
10. The midpoint of the line segment between 𝑷𝟏 (𝒙, 𝒚) and 𝑷𝟐 (−𝟐, 𝟒) is 𝑷𝒎 (𝟐, −𝟏). Find the
coordinate of 𝑷𝟏 .
O
a. (𝟔, −𝟓) b. (𝟓, −𝟔) c. (𝟔, −𝟔)

d. (−𝟔, 𝟔) d. (−𝟔, −𝟔)
11. Find the equation of the line containing (𝟑, −𝟏) and having a slope equal to 𝟐.
R
a. 2x + 2y = 5 b. 2x – y = 7 c. x + 2y = 1
d. x + 2y = 1 e. y – 2x = 7
12. Find the equation of the line through (𝟑, 𝟏) that is perpendicular to the line 𝒙 + 𝟓𝒚 + 𝟓 = 𝟎.
a. 5x – y – 14 = 0 b. 6x – y – 13 = 0 c. 4x – y – 14 = 0
d. 3x – y + 12 = 0 e. 5y –x = 14
13. The intercept of a line on the y-axis is –3. If (5, 2) is a point on this line, find its slope.
a. –3 b. 1 c. 5 d. 0
e. –1
14. What do you call the straight line which joins a vertex of a triangle to the midpoint of the
opposite side?
a. median b. altitude c. base
d. side e. midpoint

9
15. Determine 𝒌 so that the line 𝟓𝒙 + 𝒌𝒚 = 𝟑𝟐 will pass through the point 𝑷(𝟒, 𝟑).
a. – 𝟒 b. 4 c. 28
d. – 𝟐 e. 2
16. Find the equation of the line that passes through (𝟐, −𝟑) and parallel to 𝟑𝒙 + 𝒚 = 𝟖.
a. 3x + y = 1 b. 3x + y = 3 c. x – 3y = 11
d. 2y + x = 12 e. 3y – x = 11
17. The linear function 𝒇 is defined such that 𝒇(−𝟏) = 𝟕 and 𝒇(𝟐) = 𝟎. Find 𝒇(𝟓).
a. 1 b. –1 c. –3 d. –5 e. -7
18. The two points on the line 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟑𝒚 + 𝟒 = 𝟎 which are at distance 𝟐 from the line 𝟑𝒙 + 𝟒𝒚 −
𝟔 = 𝟎 are:
a. (−𝟖, −𝟖) and (−𝟏𝟔, −𝟏𝟔) b. (−𝟒𝟒, 𝟔𝟒) and (−𝟓, 𝟐)
c. (−𝟓. 𝟓, 𝟏) and (−𝟓, 𝟐) d. (𝟔𝟒, −𝟒𝟒) and (𝟒, −𝟒)
U 3
19. This straight line is said to be such of the curve if the curve approaches this line more and
more closely but never really touches it except as limiting position at infinity.
D 2
a. asymptote b. symmetry
E
c. intercept d. domain
O 20
R LA BE
20. What is the equation of the line passing through the x-intercept of the line 𝟗𝒙– 𝟓𝒚 +
C
𝟑 = 𝟎 and perpendicular to the line 𝟏– 𝟕𝒙 + 𝟓𝒚 = 𝟎?
a. 𝟓𝒙 − 𝟕𝒚 = 𝟓 b. 𝟏𝟓𝒙 − 𝟐𝟏𝒚 = −𝟓
c. 𝟓𝒙 + 𝟕𝒚 = −𝟓 d. 𝟏𝟓𝒙 + 𝟐𝟏𝒚 + 𝟓 = 𝟎
R S
T C A
21. Given the following points: 𝑨(𝟏, 𝟏), 𝑩(−𝟑, 𝟐) and 𝑪(𝟎, 𝟗). Suppose there is a point D whose
EP S
abscissa is 5. If the slopes of segments AC and BD are equal, find the ordinate of D.
a. −𝟓𝟔 b. 𝟏𝟎 c. −𝟓𝟒
d. −𝟖 e. −𝟔𝟐
N W SU
22. What are the coordinates of the point that is | − 𝟑| units below the x-axis and 5 units to the
left of the y-axis?
a. (𝟓, −𝟑) b. (−𝟓, −𝟑) c. (−𝟓, 𝟑)
O IE L
d. (𝟓, 𝟑) e. (−𝟑, −𝟓)

D EV C
23. The midpoint of 𝑨𝑩 is at 𝑴(−𝟕, 𝟐). The abscissa of 𝑨 is 5 and the ordinate of 𝑩 is −𝟗. Find
𝑨 and 𝑩.
a. (5,-7), (6, -9) b. (5, 2), (-1, -19) c. (5, -2), (-6, 9)
d. (5, 13), (-19, -9) e. (19, 9), (5, 1)
24. Find the equation of the perpendicular bisector of the line segment joining
A(6, 2) and B(-1, 3).
a. 𝒚 − 𝟕𝒙 + 𝟏𝟓 = 𝟎 b. 𝟕𝒚 + 𝒙 = 𝟏𝟓 c. 𝟓𝒚 − 𝟕𝒙 − 𝟏𝟓 = 𝟎
O
d. 𝟐𝒚 + 𝟓𝒙 = 𝟕 e. 𝟐𝒚 − 𝟏𝟒𝒙 = 𝟑𝟓
25. Find the acute angle between lines 𝟑𝒙 − 𝟕𝒚 − 𝟖 = 𝟎 and 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟓𝒚 − 𝟏𝟕 = 𝟎.

a. 15º b. 24.5º c. 45º d. 36.5º e. 43.2º
R
26. Find the equation of the circle with center at (−𝟐, 𝟑) and which is tangent to the line 𝟐𝟎𝒙 −
𝟐𝟏𝒚 − 𝟒𝟐 = 𝟎.
a. 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 + 𝟒𝒙 − 𝟔𝒚 − 𝟏𝟐 = 𝟎 b. 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 + 𝟒𝒙 − 𝟔𝒚 + 𝟏𝟐 = 𝟎
𝟐 𝟐
c. 𝒙 + 𝒚 + 𝟒𝒙 + 𝟔𝒚 − 𝟏𝟐 = 𝟎 d. 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 − 𝟒𝒙 − 𝟔𝒚 − 𝟏𝟐 = 𝟎
27. Find the area of the circle whose center is at (𝟐, −𝟓) and tangent to the line 𝟒𝒙 + 𝟑𝒚 − 𝟖 = 𝟎.
a. 𝟔𝝅 b. 𝟑𝝅 c. 𝟗𝝅 d. 𝟏𝟐𝝅
28. Find the radius of the circle 𝟐𝒙𝟐 + 𝟐𝒚𝟐 − 𝟑𝒙 + 𝟒𝒚 − 𝟏 = 𝟎.

√𝟑𝟑 𝟑𝟑 √𝟑𝟑
a. b. c. d. 𝟏𝟕
𝟒 𝟏𝟔 𝟑
29. What is the diameter of a circle described by 𝟗𝒙𝟐 + 𝟗𝒚𝟐 = 𝟏𝟔.

10
𝟏𝟔 𝟒 𝟖
a. b. c. 𝟒 d.
𝟗 𝟑 𝟑
30. Find the value of 𝒌 for which the equation 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 + 𝟒𝒙 − 𝟐𝒚 − 𝒌 = 𝟎 represents a point circle.
a. 5 b. −𝟓 c. 𝟔 d. −𝟔
31. Find the equation of the parabola which passes through the points (𝟏, 𝟑) and (−𝟐, 𝟎).
a. 𝒚 = 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟑 b. 𝒚 = 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟒 c. 𝒚 = 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟒
𝟐 𝟐
d. 𝒚 = −𝒙 + 𝟒 e. 𝒚 = −𝒙 + 𝟑
32. A parabolic mirror has a depth of 12 cm at the center, and the distance across the top of the
mirror is 32 cm. What is the distance from the vertex to the focus?
a. 9/8 cm b. 9/2 cm c. 64/3 cm
d. 9/4 cm e. 16/3 cm
33. The parabola 𝒚 = −𝒙𝟐 + 𝒙 + 𝟏 open in which direction.

a. to the right b. to the left
U 3
c. upward d. downward
D 2
34. Determine the axis of symmetry of the quadratic function 𝒚 = 𝟐𝒙𝟐 − 𝟕𝒙 + 𝟓.
E
a. 𝟒𝒙 + 𝟕 = 𝟎 b. 𝟒𝒙 − 𝟕 = 𝟎
O 20
c. 𝒙 − 𝟐 = 𝟎
R LA BE d. 𝟕𝒙 + 𝟒 = 𝟎
C
35. The cable of a suspension bridge hangs in the form of a parabola when the load is uniformly
distributed horizontally. The distance between the two towers is 150 m, the points of support
R S
of the cable on the towers are 22 m above the roadway, and the lowest point on the cable is
7 m above the roadway. What is the vertical distance to the cable from a point on the roadway
T C A
15 m from the foot of a tower?
EP S
a. 81 m b. 14 m c. 16.6 m
d. 18 m e. 16 m
N W SU
36. What is the equation of the directrix of the parabola = 𝒚𝟐 − 𝟐𝒚 + 𝟕?

a. y = 23/4 b. y = 5/4 c. x = 23/4 d. x = 25/4
37. Find the length of the latus rectum of the ellipse 𝟐𝟓𝒙𝟐 + 𝟗𝒚𝟐 − 𝟑𝟎𝟎𝒙 − 𝟏𝟒𝟒𝒚 + 𝟏𝟐𝟓𝟏 = 𝟎
O IE L
a. 3.4 b. 3.2 c. 3.6 d. 3.0

D EV C
38. What is the eccentricity of the ellipse 𝟏𝟔𝒙𝟐 + 𝟗𝒚𝟐 + 𝟑𝟐𝒙 − 𝟏𝟐𝟖 = 𝟎?
a. 0.531 b. 0.66 c. 0.824 d. 0.93
39. The major axis of the elliptical path in which the earth moves around the sun is
approximately 186,000,000 miles, and the eccentricity of the ellipse is 1/60. Determine the
apogee of the earth.
a. 94, 550, 000 miles b. 94, 335, 100 miles
c. 91, 450, 000 miles d. 93, 000, 000 miles
O
40. The chords of the ellipse 𝟔𝟒𝒙𝟐 + 𝟐𝟓𝒚𝟐 = 𝟏𝟔𝟎𝟎 having equal slopes of 1/5 are bisected by its
diameter. Determine the equation of the diameter of the ellipse.
a. 𝟓𝒙 − 𝟔𝟒𝒚 = 𝟎 b. 𝟓𝒙 + 𝟔𝟒𝒚 = 𝟎
R
c. 𝟔𝟒𝒙 − 𝟓𝒚 = 𝟎 d. 𝟔𝟒𝒙 + 𝟓𝒚 = 𝟎
41. Find the equation of the ellipse with center at y-axis, F(-3, 2) and V(4, 2).
a. 7𝑥 2 + 16(𝑦 − 2)2 = 112 b. 7𝑦 2 + 16(𝑥 − 2)2 = 112
2 2
c. 7𝑦 − 16(𝑥 − 2) = 112 d. 7𝑥 2 + 16𝑦 2 = 112
42. The arch of a bridge is in the shape of a semi-ellipse having a horizontal span of 40 m and a
height of 16 m at its center. How high is the arch 9 m to the right or left of the center?
a. 14.29 m b. 11.3 m c. 12.5
d. 14 m e. 14.5 m
𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟐
43. The semi-conjugate axis of the hyperbola 𝟗
− 𝟒
= 𝟏 is
a. 2 b. −𝟐 c. 𝟑 d. −𝟑

11
𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟐
44. What is the equation of the asymptote of the hyperbola − = 𝟏?
𝟗 𝟒
a. 𝟐𝒙 − 𝟑𝒚 = 𝟎 b. 𝟑𝒙 − 𝟐𝒚 = 𝟎
c. 𝟐𝒙 − 𝒚 = 𝟎 d. 𝟐𝒙 + 𝒚 = 𝟎
45. Find the polar form of the equation 𝟑𝒙 + 𝟒𝒚 − 𝟐 = 𝟎.

a. 𝟑𝒓 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 + 𝟒𝒓 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 = 𝟐 b. 𝟑𝒓 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 + 𝟒𝒓 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = −𝟐
c. 𝟑𝒓 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 + 𝟒𝒓 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = 𝟐 d. 𝟑𝒓 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 + 𝟒𝒓 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜽 = −𝟐
46. Find the distance between points (𝟓, 𝟑𝟎°) and (−𝟖, −𝟓𝟎°).
a. 9.84 b. 10.14 c. 6.13 d. 12.14
𝝅
47. Convert 𝜽 = to Cartesian Coordinate.
𝟑
a. 𝒙 = 𝒙√𝟑 b. 𝒚 = 𝒙√𝟑 c. 𝒚 = 𝒙 d. 𝟑𝒚 = 𝒙√𝟑
48. Find the equation of a line normal to the curve 𝒙𝟐 = 𝟏𝟔𝒚 at (𝟒, 𝟏).
U 3
a. 𝟐𝒙 − 𝒚 − 𝟗 = 𝟎 b. 𝟐𝒙 − 𝒚 + 𝟗 = 𝟎
c. 𝟐𝒙 + 𝒚 − 𝟗 = 𝟎 c. 𝟐𝒙 + 𝒚 + 𝟗 = 𝟎
D 2
E
49. Find the equation of the hyperbola with center at the origin, foci on 𝒙-axis, 𝒆 = √𝟓, and passing
O 20
through (𝟑, 𝟐).
R LA BE
a. 32𝑥 2 − 8𝑦 2 = 1 b. 32𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 = 32 c. 32𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 = 1
C
2 2 2 2
d. 32𝑦 − 𝑥 = 32 e. 32𝑦 − 𝑥 = 1
50. The graph of y = 4(x + 1)2 – 2 is congruent to that of y = 4x2 but is
R S
a. shifted 1 unit to the right and 2 units down.
T C A
b. shifted 1 unit to the left and 2 units down.
EP S
c. shifted 1 units to the left and 2 units up.
d. shifted 1 unit to the right and 2 units up.
N W SU
e. shifted 2 units to the right and 1 unit down.

O IE L
D EV C
O
R

1
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
HENRISON C. SANCHEZ
Assistant Professor I
Department of Engineering Sciences, College of Engineering
Central Luzon State University
INTRODUCTION
This reviewer will deal in solving problems relative to the application of theories and basic
concepts of functions and limits, continuity, derivatives and its applications, algebraic functions,
U 3
polynomial curves, maxima and minima, differential of exponential, logarithmic, inverse
trigonometric and hyperbolic functions.
D 2
E
BASIC THEORIES AND CONCEPTS OF LIMITS AND CONTINUITY
O 20
R LA BE
C
Definition of Limits
The limits of (𝑥) 𝑎𝑠 𝑥 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝐿, lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿, if any 𝜖 > 0, however small, there exists a
𝑥→𝑎
R S
𝛿 > 0 such that |𝑓(𝑥) − 𝐿| < 𝜖 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟 0 < |𝑥 − 𝑎| < 𝛿.
T C A
EP S
Theorems on Limits of Functions
Let lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐴 and lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝐵, and let 𝑐 be a constant then the following holds true:
N W SU
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
Theorems Examples
1 lim 𝑐 = 𝑐 lim 3 = 3
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→2
lim[(2𝑥 + 3) + (−𝑥 + 4)] = (2(2) + 3) + (−2 + 4)
2 lim [𝑓(𝑥 ) ± 𝑔(𝑥)] = 𝐴 + 𝐵 𝑥→2
𝑥→𝑎
=9
O IE L
lim[(2𝑥 + 3) ∙ (−𝑥 + 4)] = (2(2) + 3) ∙ (−2 + 4)

3 lim [𝑓(𝑥) ⋅ 𝑔(𝑥)] = 𝐴𝐵 𝑥→2
𝑥→𝑎
= 14
D EV C
𝑥 3 − 27 (𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 9)
𝑓(𝑥) 𝐴 lim =
𝑥→2 𝑥 − 3 𝑥−3
4 lim [ ]=
𝑥→𝑎 𝑔(𝑥) 𝐵 = 22 + 3(2) + 9
= 19
lim [𝑓(𝑥)]𝑛 = 𝐴𝑛 lim(2𝑥 − 3)3 = (2(2) − 3)3
5 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→2
where 𝑛 is a positive integer =1
O
One-sided Limits
When considering the limit of a function of independent variable 𝑥 is restricted to values
less than (greater than) a number 𝑎, 𝑥 approaches 𝑎 from the left (right), then the limits is call left
hand limits (right hand limits).
R
NOTE: lim 𝑓(𝑥) exist and equal to 𝐿 if and only if lim 𝑓(𝑥) and lim 𝑓(𝑥) both exist and equal
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎+ 𝑥→𝑎−
to 𝐿.
CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Differential Calculus

2
−1 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 0
Example: Let 𝑓 be defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑠𝑔𝑛 𝑥 = { 0 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 0
1 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 > 0
Find lim− 𝑓(𝑥) and lim+ 𝑓(𝑥).
𝑥→0 𝑥→0
Ans: lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = −1 and lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = 1
𝑥→0 𝑥→0
Infinite Limits
As 𝑥 approaches 𝑎, 𝑓(𝑥)increases (decreases) without bound.
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = +∞
𝑥→𝑎
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = −∞
U 3
𝑥→𝑎
2𝑥 2𝑥
D 2
Example: (a) lim− 𝑥−1 = −∞ and (b) lim+ = +∞
𝑥→1 𝑥−1
𝑥→1
E
O 20
Limits at Infinity
R LA BE
If the values of 𝑓 (𝑥) eventually get as close as we like to a number 𝐿 as 𝑥 increases without
C
bound, we write
lim 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝐿
𝑥→+∞
R S
Similarly, if the values of 𝑓(𝑥) eventually get as close as we like to a number 𝐿 as 𝑥
decreases without bound, then we write
T C A
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿
EP S
Limit of polynomials as 𝑥 → ±∞
𝑥→−∞
The end behaviour of a polynomial matches the end behaviour of its highest degree term.
N W SU
lim (𝑐0 + 𝑐1 𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 ) = lim 𝑐𝑛 𝑥 𝑛

𝑥→−∞ 𝑥→−∞
lim (𝑐0 + 𝑐1 𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 ) = lim 𝑐𝑛 𝑥 𝑛
𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞
Examples:
O IE L
1. lim (1 + 2𝑥 − 3𝑥 5 ) = −∞
𝑥→+∞
2. lim (7𝑥 5 − 4𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 − 9) = −∞
D EV C
𝑥→−∞
Limit of Rational Functions as 𝑥 → ±∞

The end behaviour of a rational function matches the end behaviour of the highest degree
term in the numerator divided by the highest degree term in the denominator.
Examples:
4𝑥 2 −𝑥
1. lim
𝑥→−∞ 2𝑥 3 −5
O
1
4𝑥 2 − 𝑥 (4𝑥 2 − 𝑥) ( 3 )
lim = lim 𝑥
𝑥→−∞ 2𝑥 3 − 5 𝑥→−∞ 1
(2𝑥 3 − 5) ( 3 )
𝑥
4 1
R
− 2
= lim 𝑥 𝑥
𝑥→−∞ 5
2− 3
𝑥
0
=
2
=0
5𝑥 3 −2𝑥 2 +1
2. lim
𝑥→+∞ 1−3𝑥 3

3
1
5𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 1 (5𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 1) ( 3 )
𝑙𝑖𝑚 = lim 𝑥
𝑥→+∞ 1 − 3𝑥 3 𝑥→+∞ 1
(1 − 3𝑥 3 ) ( 3 )
𝑥
2 1
5− + 3
= lim 𝑥 𝑥
𝑥→+∞ 1
−3
𝑥3
5
=−
3
Continuity of a Function
U 3
The function f is continuous at a if and only if
(i) 𝑓(𝑎) exists
D 2
(ii) lim 𝑓(𝑥) exists
𝑥→𝑎
E
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎)
O 20
(iii)
𝑥→𝑎
R LA BE
C
(2𝑥+3)(𝑥−1)
𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≠ 1
Example: Given: 𝑓(𝑥) = { 𝑥−1
2 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 1
𝑓(1) = 2
R S
(i)
(ii) lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 5
T C A
𝑥→1
not satisfied since 𝑓(1) ≠ lim 𝑓(𝑥)
EP S
(iii)
𝑥→1
Therefore, the function f(x) is discontinuous at 1.
N W SU
Note:
If 𝑓 and 𝑔 are two functions which are continuous at 𝑎, then
(i) 𝑓 ± 𝑔 is continuous at 𝑎.
(ii) 𝑓 ∙ 𝑔 is continuous at 𝑎.
O IE L
(iii) 𝑓/𝑔 is continuous at 𝑎.

If 𝑔(𝑥) is continuous at 𝑎 and 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous at 𝑔(𝑎), then the composite function 𝑓 ⃘𝑔
is continuous at 𝑎.
D EV C
Evaluating limits easily using calculator

To evaluate the lim 𝑓(𝑥) easily, substitute for 𝑥 a value that is very close to 𝑎 then use a
𝑥→𝑎
calculator. The following are some examples:
For 𝑥 → 2, substitute 𝑥 = 1.9999 or 𝑥 = 2.0001
For 𝑥 → 0, substitute 𝑥 = −0.00001 or 𝑥 = 0.00001
O
𝑥 4 −81
Example: lim
𝑥→3 𝑥−3
Substitute 𝑥 = 2.9999
(2.9999)4 − 81
= 107.99
2.9999 − 3
R
≈ 108

4
DERIVATIVES OF ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS
Derivative of Functions
Delta notation
Delta refers to a small change in the value of variable, whereas the average rate of change
is given by
∆𝑦 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑦 𝑓(𝑥 +∆𝑥)−𝑓(𝑥0 )
= = 0 , where 𝑥0 is the initial value of 𝑥.
∆𝑥 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑥 ∆𝑥
Example: Let 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥. Starting at 𝑥0 = 1, change 𝑥 to 1.5.
Then ∆𝑥 = 0.5, thus,
U 3
∆𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥0 + ∆𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥0 )
= 𝑓(1.5) − 𝑓(1)
D 2
= 5.25 − 3
= 2.25.
E
O 20
Hence, the average rate of change of 𝑦 between 𝑥 = 1 and 𝑥 = 1.5 is
∆𝑦 2.25
R LA BE
C
=
∆𝑥 0.5
= 4.5.
R S
Formal definition of derivative
T C A
The derivative of 𝑓(𝑥) with respect to 𝑥 is the function 𝑓′(𝑥) and is defined as
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)
EP S 𝑓 ′ (𝑥 ) = lim
h→0 ℎ
N W SU
Rules for differentiating functions

𝑑
1. The derivative of a constant is zero: (𝑐) = 0
𝑑𝑥
Example:
𝑑
(4) = 0
O IE L
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑𝑢
2. The derivative of the constant and polynomial: 𝑑𝑥
(𝑐𝑢) = 𝑐 𝑑𝑥
D EV C
Example:
𝑑 𝑑
(4(2𝑥 + 3)) = 4 (2𝑥 + 3)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
=8
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
3. Sum and Difference Rule: (𝑢 ± 𝑣 ± ⋯ ) = (𝑢) ± (𝑣) ± ⋯ )
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Example:
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
(2𝑥 + 3) = (2𝑥) + (3)
O
=2
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
4. Product Rule: (𝑢𝑣 ) = 𝑢 (𝑣 ) + 𝑣 (𝑢)
Example:
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
R
(4(2𝑥 + 3)) = 4 (2𝑥 + 3) + (2𝑥 + 3) (4)

= 4(2) + (2𝑥 + 3)(0)
=8
𝑑 𝑑
𝑑 𝑢 𝑣𝑑𝑥(𝑢)−𝑢𝑑𝑥(𝑣)
5. Quotient Rule: ( )= ;𝑣 ≠ 0
𝑑𝑥 𝑣 𝑣2
Example:
𝑑 𝑑
𝑑 2𝑥 + 1 (1 − 𝑥) (2𝑥 + 1) − (2𝑥 + 1) (1 − 𝑥)
( )= 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 1 − 𝑥 (1 − 𝑥)2
5
(1 − 𝑥)(2) − (2𝑥 + 1)(−1)

=
(1 − 𝑥)2
1
=
(1 − 𝑥)2
𝑑 𝑚 𝑚−1
6. Power Rule: 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 ) = 𝑚𝑥
Example:
𝑑 4
𝑥 = 4𝑥 4−1
𝑑𝑥
= 4𝑥 3
𝑑
7. Chain Rule: 𝑑𝑥
[𝑓(𝑔(𝑥))] = 𝑓 ′ (𝑔(𝑥)) ⋅ 𝑔′ (𝑥)
Example:
U 3
𝑑 2
(𝑡 − 3)4 = 4(𝑡 2 − 3)3 (2𝑡)
𝑑𝑥
D 2
= 8𝑡(𝑡 2 − 3)3
E
8. Alternative chain rule:
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Let 𝑢 = 𝑔(𝑥) and 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑢). Then the composite function of 𝑔 and 𝑓 is 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑢) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥))
R LA BE
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
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=
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥
Example: Find the derivative of 𝑦 = (4𝑥 − 2𝑥 + 5)3 .
2
Let 𝑢 = 4𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 5 and 𝑦 = 𝑢3 , then
R S
𝑑𝑢 = (8𝑥 − 2)𝑑𝑥
T C A
𝑑𝑦 = 3𝑢2 𝑑𝑢
EP S 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥
= 3𝑢2 (8𝑥 − 2)
= 3(4𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 5)2 (8𝑥 − 2)
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Higher-order Derivatives Notation

𝑑𝑦
First Derivative 𝑦 ′ , 𝑓 ′ (𝑥), , 𝐷𝑥 𝑦
𝑑𝑥
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𝑑2𝑦
Second Derivative 𝑦 ′ ′, 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥), , 𝐷𝑥2 𝑦
𝑑𝑥 2
D EV C
𝑑3 𝑦
Third Derivative 𝑦 ′ ′′, 𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥 ) , , 𝐷𝑥3 𝑦
𝑑𝑥 3
𝑑𝑛 𝑦
nth Derivative 𝑦 (𝑛) , 𝑓 (𝑛) (𝑥) , , 𝐷𝑥𝑛 𝑦
𝑑𝑥 𝑛
Implicit Differentiation
An equation 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0 defines 𝑦 implicitly as a function of 𝑥. The domain of that implicitly
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defined function consists of those x for which there is a unique y such that 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0.
Example: Find 𝑦’, given 𝑥 2 𝑦 − 𝑥𝑦 2 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 0.
𝐷𝑥 ( 𝑥 2 𝑦) − 𝐷𝑥 (𝑥𝑦 2 ) + 𝐷𝑥 ( 𝑥 2 ) + 𝐷𝑥 (𝑦 2 ) = 0
𝑥 2 𝑦 ′ + 2𝑥𝑦 − 𝑥2𝑦𝑦 ′ − 𝑦 2 + 2𝑥 + 2𝑦𝑦 ′ = 0
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(𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑦 + 2𝑦)𝑦 ′ + (2𝑥𝑦 − 𝑦 2 + 2𝑥) = 0

(𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑦 + 2𝑦)𝑦 ′ = 𝑦 2 − 2𝑥𝑦 − 2𝑥
𝑦 2 − 2𝑥𝑦 − 2𝑥
𝑦′ = 2
𝑥 + 2𝑥𝑦 + 2𝑦

6
DERIVATIVES AND SHAPE OF A GRAPH OF A FUNCTION
Critical Numbers
Critical number 𝑐 are values that makes 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = 0 or 𝑓′(𝑐) undefined.
Example: Determine all the critical points for the function.
𝑓(𝑥) = 6𝑥 5 + 33𝑥 4 − 30𝑥 3 + 100
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 30𝑥 4 + 132𝑥 3 − 90𝑥 2
𝑓′(𝑥) = 6𝑥 2 (5x − 3)(x + 5) = 0
By solving the values of 𝑥, we can get the critical numbers. These are:
3
𝑐 = 0, , −5
5
U 3
Increasing/Decreasing Test
D 2
a. If 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) > 0 on an interval, then 𝑓 is increasing on that interval
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b. If 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) < 0 on an interval, then 𝑓 is decreasing on that interval
O 20
R LA BE
C
First Derivative Test
Suppose we have the critical number 𝑐 of a continuous function
(i) If 𝑓 ′ changes from positive to negative at 𝑐, then 𝑓 has local maximum at 𝑐.
If 𝑓 ′ changes from negative to positive at 𝑐, then 𝑓 has local minimum at 𝑐.
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(ii)
(iii) If 𝑓′ does not change sign at 𝑥0 (for example, if 𝑓′ is positive on both sides of 𝑐 or negative
T C A
on both sides), then 𝑓 has no local maximum or minimum at 𝑐
EP S
N W SU
O IE L
D EV C
Concavity
If a graph of 𝑓 lies above all its tangents on an interval 𝐼, then it is called concave upward
on 𝐼. If a graph of 𝑓 lies below all its tangents on an interval 𝐼, then it is called concave downward
on 𝐼.
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R

7
Concavity Test
If 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) > 0 on an interval, then the graph of 𝑓 is concave upward on that interval
If 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) < 0 on an interval, then the graph of 𝑓 is concave downward on that interval
Points of Inflection
A point 𝑃 on the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is called point of inflection if 𝑓 is continuous at 𝑃, and
the curve changes from concave upward to concave downward or from concave downward to
concave upward at 𝑃.
Second Derivative Test

Suppose 𝑓′′ is continuous near the critical number 𝑐,
i. If 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = 0 and 𝑓 ′′ (𝑐) > 0, then 𝑓 has a local minimum at 𝑐.
U 3
ii. If 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = 0 and 𝑓 ′′ (𝑐) < 0, then 𝑓 has a local maximum at 𝑐.
D 2
E
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Tabular Method for critical numbers, interval at which the function is increasing/decreasing,
concavity and points of inflection and relative extrema.
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C
Examples:
1. Locate the relative extrema of 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 2 + 𝑥 2/3 and the intervals on which 𝑓 is increasing
R S
or decreasing, concavity, and points of inflection.
2 1
T C A
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑥 −3 = 0
3
EP S
We have the critical number 𝑐 = 0
𝑥<0 0 𝑥>0
N W SU
2 1
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑥 −3 − +
3
The function is increasing in the interval 𝑥 > 0, and the function is decreasing in the interval
𝑥 < 0. Since 𝑓′ changes sign from negative to positive at 𝑥 = 0, it has a local minimum at 𝑥 = 0.
We also need to compute the second derivative 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥).
O IE L
2 4
𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = − 𝑥 −3 = 0
9
D EV C
We have a critical number 𝑐 = 0.

𝑥<0 0 𝑥>0
2 −
4
𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = − 𝑥 3 − −
9
The function 𝑓 is concave downward on the interval 𝑥 < 0 and 𝑥 > 0. The function 𝑓 does
not have a point of inflection since the sign of 𝑓′′ does not change as it goes near the critical
number 𝑐.
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Figure 1.Graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 2 + 𝑥 2/3

8
2. Locate the relative extrema of 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 4 − 4𝑥 3 − 12𝑥 2 + 5, and the intervals on which 𝑓
is increasing or decreasing, concavity, and points of inflection.
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 12𝑥 3 − 12𝑥 2 − 24𝑥
= 12𝑥(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 1) = 0
We have the critical numbers 𝑐 = 0,2, −1
𝑥 < −1 −1 −1<𝑥 <0 0 0<𝑥<2 2 𝑥>2
12𝑥 − − + +
𝑥−2 − − − +
𝑥+1 − + + +
12𝑥(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 1) − + − +
The function 𝑓 is increasing in the intervals −1 < 𝑥 < 0 and 𝑥 > 2, and the function is
decreasing in the interval 𝑥 < −1 and 0 < 𝑥 < 2. We have the local minimums at 𝑥 = −1 and 𝑥 =
U 3
2 and local maximum at 𝑥 = 0.
We also need to compute for the second derivative 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥).
D 2
𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = 36𝑥 2 − 24𝑥 − 24 = 0
E
1±√7
O 20
We have the critical numbers 𝑐 = 3 ≈ −0.549, 1.215.
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𝑥 < −0.549 − 0.549 − 0.549 < 𝑥
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< 1.215 1.215 𝑥 > 1.215
𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = 36𝑥 2 − 24𝑥 − 24 + − +
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The function 𝑓 is concave upward in the intervals 𝑥 < −0.549 and 𝑥 > 1.215, and concave
T C A
downward in the interval −0.549 < 𝑥 < 1.215. It has points of inflections at 𝑥 = −0.549 and 𝑥 =
1.215.
EP S
N W SU
O IE L
D EV C
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Figure 2. Graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 4 − 4𝑥 3 − 12𝑥 2 + 5.

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APPLICATIONS OF DERIVATIVES
Rate of Change
𝑓′(𝑥) represents the rate of change of 𝑓(𝑥)

9
Example: A 25-foot ladder rests against a vertical wall. If the bottom of the ladder is sliding away
from the base of the wall at the rate 3ft/sec, how fast is the top of the ladder moving down the
wall when the bottom of the ladder is 7ft from the base?
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
Let 𝑑𝑡 = 3𝑓𝑡/𝑠𝑒𝑐, 𝑥 = 7𝑓𝑡, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛.
𝑑𝑡
Using Pythagorean theorem, we have,
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 252
Solving for 𝑦 given 𝑥 = 7𝑓𝑡, we get 𝑦 = 24𝑓𝑡.
We get the derivative of the equation above with respect to time, that is,
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
2𝑥 + 2𝑦 =0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
Substituting 𝑥 = 7𝑓𝑡, 𝑑𝑡 = 3𝑓𝑡/𝑠𝑒𝑐, and 𝑦 = 24𝑓𝑡 to the equation above and solving for ,
𝑑𝑡
U 3
we have
𝑑𝑦
2(7)(3) + 2(24) =0
D 2
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑦 7
E
=−
O 20
𝑑𝑡 8
= −0.875𝑓𝑡/𝑠𝑒𝑐
R LA BE
C
This means that the ladder is sliding down at a rate of 0.875ft/sec
R S
Tangent and Normal Lines
T C A
The slope 𝑚 of the tangent line to the curve 𝑓(𝑥) at any point 𝑥0 is the value of the first
EP S
derivative of 𝑓(𝑥) at 𝑥0 .
𝑚 = 𝑓 ′ (𝑥0 )
Note: Normal line of curve at one of its points is the vertical line passes through the point and
N W SU
perpendicular to the tangent line.

Example: Find the equations of the tangent and normal lines to 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 4 at (2,4)
𝑦 ′ = 3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥
At point (2,4), the slope of the tangent line is
𝑚 = 𝑓 ′ (2) = 4
O IE L
Then the equation of the line is 𝑦 − 4 = 4(𝑥 − 2) 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 = 4𝑥 − 4. On the other hand, the
1 9
normal line is perpendicular to tangent line, thus, we have 𝑦 = − 𝑥 + .
D EV C
4 2
Optimization
Deals with the largest value or the smallest value that a function can take.
Step 1. Find the absolute extrema
Step 2. First Derivative Test
Step 3. Use of second derivatives
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Example: A manufacturer needs to make a cylindrical can that will hold 1.5 liters of liquid.
Determine the dimensions of the can that will minimize the amount of material used in its
construction.
We are asked to minimize the amount of material in constructing the cylindrical can. This
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is the same as saying to minimize the surface area of the can.

Minimize: 𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑟ℎ + 2𝜋𝑟 2
Constraint: 𝑉 = 1.5𝐿 = 1500𝑐𝑚3
Note that for a cylindrical can, 𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ, where 𝑟 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 and ℎ = ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡. So we have
1500 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ
1500
ℎ=
𝜋𝑟 2
Substituting the value of ℎ to 𝐴 to make the surface area a function of 𝑟 only, we have,

10
1500
𝐴(𝑟) = 2𝜋𝑟 ( ) + 2𝜋𝑟 2
𝜋𝑟 2
3000
𝐴(𝑟) = + 2𝜋𝑟 2
𝑟
Getting the first derivative of 𝐴(𝑟) and equating it to zero, we have,
3000
𝐴′(𝑟) = 4𝜋𝑟 − 2
𝑟
4𝜋𝑟 3 − 3000
=
𝑟2
The critical points of the equation above are 0 and 6.20.
0 6.20
4𝜋𝑟 3 − 3000 − − +
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𝑟2 + + +
4𝜋𝑟 3 − 3000
D 2
− − +
𝑟2
E
O 20
We can see here that 𝑟 = 6.2 𝑐𝑚 is the local minimum. Solving for the height, we have
R LA BE
ℎ = 12.41 𝑐𝑚. These dimensions will minimize the amount of material used to construct the
C
cylinder.
Business Application
R S
Example: An apartment complex has 250 apartments to rent. If they rent X apartments then their
T C A
monthly profit, in dollars, is given by 𝑃(𝑥) = −8𝑥 2 + 3200𝑥 − 80,000. How many apartments
EP S
should they rent in order to maximize their profit?
𝑃 ′ (𝑥) = −16𝑥 + 3200 = 0
We have the critical number 𝑥 = 200.
N W SU
200
−16𝑥 + 3200 + −
The apartment complex will generate the most profit if they only rent out 200 of the
apartments instead of all 250 of them.
O IE L
Rectilinear Motion
D EV C
Rectilinear motion is motion of an object on a straight line.

𝑑𝑠
Instantaneous velocity (𝑣) is the derivative of 𝑠 = 𝑓(𝑡), that is, 𝑣 = 𝑑𝑡 .
Instantaneous speed is the absolute value of instantaneous velocity.
𝑑2𝑠
Acceleration is the rate of change in velocity or the derivative of the velocity, that is, 𝑑𝑡 2
.
1 3
Example: A body moves along a straight line according to the equation 𝑠 = 2
𝑡 − 2𝑡. Determine its
velocity and acceleration at the end of 2 seconds.
𝑑𝑠 3 3 𝑓𝑡
𝑣 = = 𝑡 2 − 2; hence when 𝑡 = 2, 𝑣 = (2)2 − 2 = 4 .
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𝑑𝑡 2 2 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑑𝑣 𝑓𝑡
𝑎= 𝑑𝑡
= 3𝑡; hence when 𝑡 = 2, 𝑎 = 3(2) = 6 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 .
If an object has been thrown straight up and down, and the only force acting upon it is
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the gravitational pull then the resulting rectilinear motion is call free fall.
𝑓𝑡 𝑚
Note: Acceleration (a) is constant approx. equal to −32 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑜𝑟 − 9.8 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2.
𝑑𝑠
Velocity is equal to 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑣 = 𝑣0 − 32𝑡, where 𝑣0 is the initial velocity
Position of the object is given by 𝑠 = 𝑠0 + 𝑣0 𝑡 − 16𝑡 2, where 𝑠0 is the initial position.
𝑓𝑡
Example: A stone, projected vertically upward with initial velocity 112 𝑠𝑒𝑐 , moves according to 𝑠 =
112𝑡 − 16𝑡 2 , where s is the distance from the starting point. Compute (a) the velocity and
acceleration when 𝑡 = 3, and (b) the greatest height reached. (c) When will its height be 96 𝑓𝑡.
11
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑣
We have = 𝑣 = 112 − 32𝑡 and 𝑎 = = −32.
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
(a) At 𝑡 = 3, 𝑣 = 16 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎 = −32. This means that at 𝑡 = 3, the stone is rising at 16 𝑓𝑡/𝑠𝑒𝑐.
(b) The object is at highest point if 𝑣 = 0. Thus, 0 = 112 − 32𝑡 yields to 𝑡 = 3.5. Substituting
t value to function 𝑠, 𝑠 = 196 𝑓𝑡.
(c) Substitute the tentative height to function 𝑠, 96 = 112𝑡 − 16𝑡 2 yields to 𝑡 = 1, 6. At 𝑡 = 1,
the stone is at height of 96 𝑓𝑡 and is rising while at 𝑡 = 6, the stone is at the same height
but is falling.
Circular Motion.
The motion of a particle 𝑃 along a circle is completely described by an equation 𝜃 = 𝑓(𝑡),
U 3
where theta is the central angle (in radians) swept over in time by a line joining 𝑃 to the center of
the circle. The coordinates of 𝑃 are given by 𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃 and 𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃.
D 2
𝑑𝜃 𝑑2𝜃
Note: Angular velocity (𝜔) is equal to 𝑑𝑡
while angular momentum (α) is equal to 𝑑𝑡 2
.
E
𝑡3
O 20
Example: A particle rotates counter clockwise from rest according to 𝜃 = 50 − 𝑡, where 𝜃 is in
R LA BE
radians and t in seconds. Calculate the angular displacement, the angular velocity, and the angular
C
acceleration at the end of 10 seconds.
𝑡3
𝜃= − 𝑡 = 10 𝑟𝑎𝑑
50
R S
𝑑𝜃 3𝑡 2 𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝜔= = −1=5
T C A
𝑑𝑡 50 𝑠𝑒𝑐
EP S 𝑑 2 𝜃 6𝑡
𝛼= 2=
𝑑𝑡 50
= 1.2
𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝑠𝑒𝑐 2
N W SU
Differentials: Newton’s Method

Given by the function 𝑓(𝑥 + ∆𝑥 )~𝑓 (𝑥) + 𝑓′(𝑥)∆𝑥 which can used to approximate values of
a function.
O IE L
Example: Estimate the value of √16.2.

This could be written at 𝑥 + ∆𝑥, where 𝑥 = 16 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∆𝑥 = 0.2.
1
D EV C
1
If 𝑓 (𝑥) = √𝑥 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 2 𝑥 −2 .
Thus,
1 1
𝑓(𝑥 + ∆𝑥)~𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)∆𝑥 = √16 + (16)−2 ∙ 0.2
2
1
= 4 + (0.2)
8
= 4.025
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DERIVATIVES OF TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS
Derivative of Trigonometric and Inverse Trigonometric Functions

R

12
𝑑
1. (sin 𝑥) = cos 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
2. 𝑑𝑥
(cos 𝑥) = − sin 𝑥
𝑑
3. (tan 𝑥) = sec 2 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
4. (cot 𝑥) = − csc 2 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
5. 𝑑𝑥
(sec 𝑥) = tan 𝑥 sec 𝑥
𝑑
6. (csc 𝑥) = − cot 𝑥 csc 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 1
7. (sin−1 𝑥) =
𝑑𝑥 √1−𝑥 2
𝑑 1
(cos −1 𝑥) = −
U 3
8.
𝑑𝑥 √1−𝑥 2
𝑑 −1 1
9. (tan 𝑥) = 1+𝑥 2
D 2
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 −1 1
10. (cot 𝑥) = − 1+𝑥 2
E
𝑑𝑥
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𝑑 1
11. 𝑑𝑥
(sec −1 𝑥) =
𝑥√𝑥 2 −1
R LA BE
C
𝑑 1
12. (csc −1 𝑥) = −
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 √𝑥 2−1
R S
Example:
T C A
1. Let 𝑦 = 𝑥 sin 𝑥. Find 𝑦’’’.
EP S 𝑦 ′ = sin 𝑥 + 𝑥 cos 𝑥
𝑦’′ = 𝑥(− sin 𝑥) + cos 𝑥 + cos 𝑥
𝑦’′′ = −𝑥 cos 𝑥 − sin 𝑥 − 2 sin 𝑥
N W SU
𝑦′′ = −𝑥 cos 𝑥 − 3 sin 𝑥

2. Let 𝑦 = tan2 (3𝑥 − 2). Find 𝑦’’.
𝑦 ′ = 2(tan(3𝑥 − 2))(sec 2 (3𝑥 − 2))(3)
𝑦 ′ = 6 tan(3𝑥 − 2) sec 2 (3𝑥 − 2)
𝑦 ′′ = 6[(tan(3𝑥 − 2))(2 sec(3𝑥 − 2))(sec(3𝑥 − 2) tan(3𝑥 − 2))(3)
O IE L
+(sec 2 (3𝑥 − 2))(3)(sec 2 (3𝑥 − 2))]

𝑦 = 36 tan2 (3𝑥 − 2) sec 2 (3𝑥 − 2) + 18 sec 4 (3𝑥 − 2)
′′
D EV C
−1 2
3. Let 𝑦 = cos (𝑥 ). Find 𝑦’.
1
𝑦′ = − (2𝑥)
√1 − (𝑥 2 )2
2𝑥
𝑦′ = −
√1 − 𝑥 4
Derivative of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

O
1. 𝐷𝑥 (𝑒 𝑥 ) = 𝑒 𝑥
1
2. 𝐷𝑥 (ln 𝑥) = 𝑥
3. 𝐷𝑥 (𝑎 𝑥 ) = 𝑎 𝑥 ln 𝑎
R
1
4. 𝐷𝑥 (log 𝑎 𝑥) = 𝑥 ln 𝑎
Example: Find 𝑦′ for the following

1. y = ln(𝑥 4 + 7𝑥)
1
𝑦′ = (4𝑥 3 + 7)
𝑥4
+ 7𝑥
4𝑥 3 + 7
= 4
𝑥 + 7𝑥

13
2. 𝑦 = ln(𝑐𝑜𝑠(3𝑥 2 + 3))
1
𝑦′ = (− sin(3𝑥 2 + 3))(6𝑥)
cos(3𝑥 2 + 3)
−6𝑥 sin(3𝑥 2 + 3)
=
cos(3𝑥 2 + 3)
= −6𝑥 tan(3𝑥 2 + 3)
3. 𝑦 = tan(log 4 3𝑥)
1
𝑦 ′ = [sec 2 (log 4 3𝑥)] ( ) (3)
3𝑥 ln 4
1
= sec 2 (log 4 3𝑥)
𝑥 ln 4
Recall that:
U 3
ln 𝑢𝑣 = ln 𝑢 + ln 𝑣
𝑢
ln = ln 𝑢 − ln 𝑣
D 2
𝑣
ln(𝑥 𝑟 ) = 𝑟 ln 𝑥
E
O 20
𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 ln 𝑎
R LA BE
C
DERIVATIVE OF HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS
Properties
R S
𝑒 𝑥−𝑒 −𝑥
1. sinh 𝑥 =
T C A
2
sinh 𝑥
tanh 𝑥 =
2.
3.
EP S
sech 𝑥 =
cosh 𝑥
1
cosh 𝑥
N W SU
𝑒 𝑥 +𝑒 −𝑥
4. cosh 𝑥 =
2
cosh 𝑥
5. coth 𝑥 = sinh 𝑥
1
6. csch 𝑥 = sinh 𝑥
O IE L
Derivatives
𝑑
1. (sinh 𝑥) = cosh 𝑥
D EV C
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
2. (tanh 𝑥) = sech2 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
3. 𝑑𝑥
(sech 𝑥) = −sech 𝑥 tanh 𝑥
𝑑
4. 𝑑𝑥
(cosh 𝑥) = sinh 𝑥
𝑑
5. (coth 𝑥) = csch2 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
6. (csch 𝑥) = −csch 𝑥 coth 𝑥
O
𝑑𝑥
Examples: Find 𝑦′ for the following

1. 𝑦 = 2𝑥 5 cosh 𝑥
R
𝑦 ′ = 10𝑥 4 cosh 𝑥 + 2𝑥 cosh 𝑥
sinh(𝑥 2 +2𝑥)
2. 𝑦 = 𝑥+1
(𝑥 + 1)[cosh(𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 )](2𝑥 + 2) − sinh(𝑥 2 + 2𝑥) (1)
𝑦′ =
(𝑥 + 1)2
(2𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 + 1) cosh(𝑥 2 + 2𝑥) − sinh(𝑥 2 + 2𝑥)
=
(𝑥 + 1)2

14
REVIEW QUESTIONS
𝑥 2 +5𝑥+6
1. Evaluate lim .
𝑥→+∞ 𝑥 2 +1
a. 1 b. -2/3 c. 0 d. 1/3
2. Which of the following equation is not true?

𝑥 2 −4
a. lim =0 c. lim √25 − 𝑥 2 = 3
𝑥→−2 𝑥 2 +4 𝑥→4
𝑥 2 −25 1 1
b. lim =0 d. lim =
𝑥→−5 𝑥+5 𝑥→−2 |𝑥|+3 5
𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 > 0
3. Which of the following is not a behaviour of 𝑓(𝑥) = {
𝑥+1 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≤ 0
a. lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 b. lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 c. lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 1 d. limit doesn’t exist
𝑥→0+ 𝑥→0− 𝑥→1
𝑥 2 +5𝑥+6
4. What is lim ?
𝑥→+∞ 𝑥+1
U 3
a. −∞ b. 0 c. +∞ d. does not exist
D 2
3𝑥 −3−𝑥
5. What is lim ?
E
𝑥→+∞ 3𝑥 +3−𝑥
O 20
a. −∞ b. +∞ c. 1 d. 0
R LA BE
C
6. Which of the following functions is continuous on the closed interval [0, 1]?
1
𝑖𝑓 𝑥 > 0
a. 𝑓(𝑥) = { 𝑥 c. 𝑓(𝑥) = 1 𝑖𝑓 0 < 𝑥 ≤ 1
1 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≤ 0
R S −𝑥 2 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 > 0
𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≤ 0
T C A
b. 𝑓(𝑥 ) = { 2 d. 𝑓(𝑥) = {0 𝑖𝑓 0 < 𝑥 < 1

EP S
𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≤ 0 𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≥ 1
N W SU
7. Given that 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 − 4, find the value of dy/dx if x=4.

a. 25 b. 30 c. 35 d. 40
8. Find the increase in the volume of a spherical balloon when its radius is increased from 2
to 3 in.
O IE L
4 54 76 86
a. 3 𝜋 𝑖𝑛3 b. 3 𝜋 𝑖𝑛3 c. 3 𝜋 𝑖𝑛3 d. 3 𝜋 𝑖𝑛3
D EV C
9. Find the slope of the tangent line to 𝑦 = 8 − 5𝑥 2 at point 𝑥 = 1.

a. -10 b. -1 c. 1 d. 10
10. Differentiate 𝑠 = (𝑡 2 − 3)4 .

a. 8𝑡(𝑡 2 − 3)3 b. 4(𝑡 2 − 3)3 c. 4𝑡(𝑡 2 − 3)3 d. 4𝑡(𝑡 2 − 3)4
𝑑𝑦 𝑢2 −1 3
11. Find 𝑑𝑥
, given that 𝑦 = 𝑢2 +1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑢 = √𝑥 2 + 2.
O
8𝑥 8𝑥 8𝑥 8𝑥
a. 3(𝑢2 +1)2
b. 3(𝑢2 −1)2 c. 3𝑢(𝑢2 +1)2
d. 3(𝑢2 −1)2
1
12. A point moves along the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 + 5 so that 𝑥 = 2 √𝑡 + 3, where t is time. At
R
what rate is y changing when t=4?

a. 45/8 b. 42/8 c. 5 d. 38/8
13. Find 𝑦′ at point (2,1) on 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 − 𝑥 = 1.

a. -5/4 b. 1 c. 45/8 d. 3/2
14. Find the equation of the tangent line to 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 4 𝑎𝑡 (2,4).

1 1
a. 𝑦 = −4𝑥 − 4 b. 𝑦 = 4𝑥 − 4 c. 𝑦 = − 𝑥 − 4 d. 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 4
4 4
15. One of the points of intersection of the curve 𝑦 2 = 4𝑥 is (1,2). Find the acute angle of
intersection of the curve at that point.
a. 39o b. 41o c. 43o d. 45o

15
1
16. The total cost of producing 𝑥 radio sets per day is 𝑥 2 + 35𝑥 + 25, and the price per set
4
1
at which they may be sold is 50 − 𝑥. What should be the daily output to obtain a
2
maximum total profit?
a. 15 b. 12 c. 10 d. 9
17. At 9AM, ship B is 65 miles due east of another ship A. Ship B is then sailing due west at
10 mi/h, and A is sailing due south at 15 mi/h. If they continue on their respective
courses, when will they be nearest one another?
a. 9:30 AM b. 10 AM c. 10:30 AM d. 11AM
18. The cost of fuel to run a locomotive is proportional to the square of the speed and is
25pesos/h for a speed of 25mi/hr. Other costs amount to 100pesos/h, regardless of
speed. Find the speed that minimizes the cost per mile.
a. 25 mi/h b. 30mi/h c. 40 mi/h d. 50 mi/h
19. The sum of the two positive numbers is 20. Find the numbers if their product is a
maximum.
U 3
a. 8, 12 b. 10, 10 c. 11, 9 d. 7, 13
D 2
20. Find the acute angle between the parabolas 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = 𝑦 2 𝑎𝑡 (1,1).
E
a. 28o b. 33o c. 37o d. 41o
O 20
R LA BE
C
21. If the angle of elevation of the sun is 45o and is decreasing by ¼ radians per hour, how
fast is the shadow cast on the ground by a pole 50 ft tall lengthening?
a. 25 ft/h b. 20 ft/h c. 32 ft/h d. 28 ft/h
R S 3
22. What is the first derivative of 𝑦 = tan−1 (𝑥)?
T C A
3 3 3 3
EP S
a. 𝑥 2 +9
b. 𝑥 2 −9
c. − 𝑥 2+9 d. − 𝑥 2−9
23. A wheel turn through an angle θ radians in time t seconds so that 𝜃 = 128𝑡 − 12𝑡 2 . Find
N W SU
the acceleration at the end of 3 seconds.

a. 56 rad/sec b. -36 rad/sec c. -24 rad/sec d. 46 rad/sec
24. An object moves in a straight line according to the equation 𝑠 = 𝑡 3 − 6𝑡 2 + 9𝑡, the units
O IE L
being feet and seconds. Which of the following statements is true if 𝑡 = 1/2?
a. 𝑠 = 25/8 𝑓𝑡, moving to the left with 𝑣 = 15/4 𝑓𝑡/𝑠𝑒𝑐; speed increasing
D EV C
b. 𝑠 = 25/8 𝑓𝑡, moving to the left with 𝑣 = 15/4 𝑓𝑡/𝑠𝑒𝑐; speed decreasing
c. 𝑠 = 25/8 𝑓𝑡, moving to the right with 𝑣 = 15/4 𝑓𝑡/𝑠𝑒𝑐; speed increasing
d. 𝑠 = 25/8 𝑓𝑡, moving to the right with 𝑣 = 15/4 𝑓𝑡/𝑠𝑒𝑐; speed decreasing
25. A stone is dropped down a well that is 144 ft deep. When will it hit the bottom of the
well?
a. After 3 seconds b. After 4 seconds c. After 5 seconds d. After 6
seconds
𝑓𝑡 3
O
26. Gas is escaping from a spherical balloon at the rate 2 . How fast is the surface area
𝑚𝑖𝑛
shrinking when the radius is 12 ft?
a. ½ ft2/min b. 1/3 ft2/min c. 2/3 ft2/min d. 1 ft2/min
R
27. Find the radius of a sphere when the rate of change of the surface area and the rate of
change of the radius are equal.
1 1 1 1
a. 4𝜋 b. 6𝜋 c. 8𝜋 d. 10𝜋
28. If a point moves along the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥, at what point is the y coordinate changing
twice as fast as the x-coordinate?
a. (0, 0) b. (2, 0) c. (1, 2) d. (3, 0)
29. What is 𝑑𝑦 of the function 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 6.

a. (3𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 − 5)𝑑𝑥 b. (3𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 + 5)𝑑𝑥
c. (3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 5)𝑑𝑥 d. (6𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 − 5)𝑑𝑥
30. Find 𝑑𝑦/𝑑𝑥 of 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑥 − 2𝑦 = 5.

𝑦−2 2𝑦−1 𝑦+1 2𝑦+1
a. 𝑥+1 b. c. d.
𝑥+1 2−𝑥 𝑥−2
16
31. What is the first derivatives of 𝑦 = ln(𝑥 + 3)2 ?

1 1 2 2
a. b. c. d.
𝑥−3 𝑥+3 𝑥−3 𝑥+3
4 2𝑥+3
32. Calculate 𝑦’ of 𝑦 = √2𝑥−3.
3𝑦 −3 3𝑦−3 3𝑦 −3 3𝑦 −3
a. − 4𝑥 2 −9 b. c. − (2𝑥−3)2 d.
4𝑥 2 −9 (2𝑥−3)2
33. Find the derivative of 𝑦 = 𝑥 3/𝑥 .

3𝑦(1−ln 𝑥) 3𝑦(1−ln 𝑥) 3𝑦(1−ln 𝑥) 3𝑦(1−ln 𝑥)
a. − 𝑥2
b. 𝑥2
c. − 𝑥
d. 𝑥
3
34. Estimate the value of √124
a. 370/75 b. 374/75 c. 376/75 d. 378/75
35. Calculate the derivative of 𝑦 = 𝑒 −𝑥 cos 𝑥.

a. 𝑒 −𝑥 (cos 𝑥 + sin 𝑥)
b. 𝑒 −𝑥 (cos 𝑥 − sin 𝑥)
U 3
c. c. −𝑒 −𝑥 (cos 𝑥 + sin 𝑥)
d. d. −𝑒 −𝑥 (cos 𝑥 − sin 𝑥)
D 2
E
O 20
R LA BE
C
R S
T C A
EP S
N W SU
O IE L
D EV C
O
R

17
ANSWER KEY
1. A
2. B
3. B
4. C
5. C
6. B
7. D
8. C
9. A
10. A
11. C
12. C
13. D
14. B
15. D
U 3
16. C
17. D
D 2
18. D
E
O 20
19. B
20. C
R LA BE
C
21. A
22. C
23. C
24.
25.
R S
D
A
T C A
26. B
EP S
27. C
28. B
N W SU
29. A
30. C
31. D
32. C
33. B
O IE L
34. B
35. B
D EV C
O
R

1
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
HENRISON C. SANCHEZ
Assistant Professor I
Department of Engineering Sciences, College of Engineering
Central Luzon State University
INTRODUCTION
This reviewer is about the concept and application of the fundamental principles of
integration, definite integrals, plane areas, compute areas between two curves and solids of
revolutions and its application to work and fluid pressure
FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF INTEGRATION
Definition of Antiderivative
U 3
A function 𝐹 is called antiderivative of a function 𝑓 on a given open interval if for all 𝑥 in
the interval, 𝐹 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥).
D 2
Example:
E
1 1 1
O 20
𝐹(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 ; 𝐺(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 5 ; 𝐻(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + √5
3 3 3
R LA BE
C
𝐹(𝑥), 𝐺(𝑥), and 𝐻(𝑥) are all antiderivatives of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 , because the derivative of 𝐹(𝑥), 𝐺(𝑥), and
𝐻(𝑥) are all equal to 𝑓(𝑥).
R S
Theorem 1.
If 𝐹 is an antiderivative of 𝑓 on a given open interval, then the most general antiderivative
T C A
(or indefinite integral) of 𝑓 on the given open interval is

EP S
𝐹(𝑥) + 𝐶
where 𝐶 is an arbitrary constant.
N W SU
The symbol
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
is used to indicate indefinite integral of 𝑓(𝑥).
O IE L
Integration formulas
D EV C
Algebraic, Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
𝑑𝑥
1 ∫ 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝐶 5 ∫ = ln|𝑥| + 𝐶
𝑥
∫[𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥)]𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 𝑎𝑥
2 6 ∫ 𝑎 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = + 𝐶, 𝑎 > 0, 𝑎 ≠ 1
± ∫ 𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 ln 𝑎
O
3 ∫ 𝑎𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 7 ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐶
𝑥+1
4 ∫ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = +𝐶 8 ∫ ln 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 ln 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝐶
𝑛+1
R
Trigonometric Functions
1 ∫ sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − cos 𝑥 + 𝐶 6 ∫ csc 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ln|csc 𝑥 − cot 𝑥| + 𝐶
2
∫ cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sin 𝑥 + 𝐶 7 ∫ sec 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = tan 𝑥 + 𝐶
3 ∫ tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ln|sec 𝑥| + 𝐶 8 ∫ csc 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − cot 𝑥 + 𝐶
4 ∫ cot 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ln|sin 𝑥| + 𝐶 9 ∫ sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 = sec 𝑥 + 𝐶
5 ∫ sec 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ln|sec 𝑥 + tan 𝑥| + 𝐶 10 ∫ csc 𝑥 cot 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − csc 𝑥 + 𝐶
Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions

𝑑𝑥 𝑥
1 ∫ = arcsin + 𝐶 9 ∫ csch2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − coth 𝑥 + 𝐶
√𝑎2 − 𝑥2 𝑎
CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Integral Calculus

2
𝑑𝑥 1 𝑥
2 ∫ = arctan + 𝐶 10 ∫ sech 𝑥 tanh 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − sech 𝑥 + 𝐶
𝑎2 + 𝑥 2 𝑎 𝑎
𝑑𝑥 1 𝑥
3 ∫ = arcsec + 𝐶 11 ∫ csch 𝑥 coth 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − csch 𝑥 + 𝐶
2
𝑥√𝑥 − 𝑎 2 𝑎 𝑎
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
4 ∫ sinh 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = cosh 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 12 ∫ = sinh−1
+𝐶
√𝑥 2
+ 𝑎2 𝑎
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
5 ∫ cosh 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sinh 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 13 ∫ = cosh−1 + 𝐶 , 𝑥 > 𝑎 > 0
2
√𝑥 − 𝑎 2 𝑎
𝑑𝑥 1 −1
𝑥
6 ∫ tanh 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ln cosh 𝑥 + 𝐶 14 ∫ 2 2
= tanh + 𝐶, 𝑥 2 < 𝑎 2
𝑎 −𝑥 𝑎 𝑎
𝑑𝑥 1 𝑥
7 ∫ coth 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ln sinh 𝑥 + 𝐶 15 ∫ 2 2
= − coth−1 + 𝐶, 𝑥 2 > 𝑎 2
𝑥 −𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
8 ∫ sech2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = tanh 𝑥 + 𝐶
Integration by Substitution
To evaluate an integral ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥, it is often useful to replace 𝑥 with a new variable 𝑢 by
means of substitution 𝑥 = 𝑔(𝑢), 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑔′ (𝑢)𝑑𝑢. The equation becomes
U 3
∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑔(𝑢))𝑔′ (𝑢)𝑑𝑢
D 2
Example:
E
1. Evaluate ∫(𝑥 + 3)11 𝑑𝑥.
O 20
Let 𝑢 = 𝑥 + 3 ⇒ 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥
R LA BE
C
∫(𝑥 + 3)11 𝑑𝑥 ⇒ ∫ 𝑢11 𝑑𝑢
𝑢12
= +𝐶
R S 12
(𝑥 + 3)12
T C A
⇒ +𝐶
12
EP S
𝑑𝑥
2. Evaluate ∫
N W SU
2𝑥−3
𝑑𝑢
Let 𝑢 = 2𝑥 − 3, 𝑑𝑢 = 2𝑑𝑥 → 2
= 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑥
∫ ⇒∫ 2
2𝑥 − 3 𝑢
1 𝑑𝑢
O IE L
= ∫
2 𝑢
1
D EV C
= ln|𝑢| + 𝐶
2
1
⇒ ln|2𝑥 − 3| + 𝐶
2
𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
3. Evaluate∫ 1−2𝑥 3
Let 𝑢 = 1 − 2𝑥 3 , 𝑑𝑢 = −6𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
1
𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 − 6 𝑑𝑢
∫ ⇒∫
1 − 2𝑥 3 𝑢
O
1 𝑑𝑢
=− ∫
6 𝑢
1
= − ln|𝑢| + 𝐶
6
R
1
⇒ − ln|1 − 2𝑥 3 | + 𝐶
6
4. Evaluate ∫ 𝑒 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1
Let 𝑢 = 𝑒 3𝑥 , 𝑑𝑢 = 3𝑒 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥 → 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑒 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥
3
1
∫ 𝑒 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ⇒ ∫ 𝑑𝑢
3
𝑢
= +𝐶
3
𝑒 3𝑥
⇒ +𝐶
3
1
5. ∫ sin (2 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
1 1
Let 𝑢 = 2 𝑥, 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥 → 2𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥
2
1
∫ sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ⇒ ∫ 2sin𝑢 𝑑𝑢
2

3
= −2cos𝑢 + 𝐶
1
⇒ −2 cos 𝑥 + 𝐶
2
6. ∫ sin2 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Let 𝑢 = sin 𝑥 , 𝑑𝑢 = cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
∫ sin2 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ⇒ ∫ 𝑢2 𝑑𝑢
𝑢3
= +𝐶
3
sin3 𝑥
⇒ +𝐶
3
7. ∫ tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
sin 𝑥
Recall: tan 𝑥 =
cos 𝑥
Let 𝑢 = cos 𝑥, 𝑑𝑢 = − sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 → −𝑑𝑢 = sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
sin 𝑥
∫ tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
cos 𝑥
𝑑𝑢
⇒ ∫−
𝑢
U 3
= − ln|𝑢| + 𝐶
= − ln|cos 𝑥| + 𝐶
D 2
⇒ ln|sec 𝑥| + 𝐶
E
8. ∫ 𝑥 cot 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
O 20
𝑑𝑢
Let 𝑢 = 𝑥 2 , 𝑑𝑢 = 2𝑥𝑑𝑥 → 2 = 𝑥𝑑𝑥
R LA BE
C
1
∫ 𝑥 cot 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 ⇒ ∫ cot 𝑢 + 𝐶
2
1
R S = ln|𝑢| + 𝐶
2
1
T C A
⇒ ln|𝑥 2 | + 𝐶
EP S
2
9. ∫ sec 2 2𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑢
Let 𝑢 = 2𝑎𝑥, 𝑑𝑢 = 2𝑎𝑑𝑥 → = 𝑑𝑥
N W SU
2𝑎
1
∫ sec 2𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ⇒ ∫ sec 2 𝑢 𝑑𝑢
2
2𝑎
tan 𝑢
= +𝐶
2𝑎
tan 2𝑎𝑥
O IE L
⇒ +𝐶
2𝑎
10. ∫(1 + tan 𝑥)2 𝑑𝑥
D EV C
∫(1 + tan 𝑥)2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫(1 + 2 tan 𝑥 + tan2 𝑥)𝑑𝑥
= ∫(sec 2 𝑥 + 2 tan 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 Recall: sec 2 𝑥 = 1 + tan2 𝑥

= tan 𝑥 + 2 ln|sec 𝑥| + 𝐶
𝑑𝑥
11. ∫
√ 25−16𝑥 2
𝑑𝑢
Let 𝑢 = 4𝑥, 𝑑𝑢 = 4𝑑𝑥 → 4
= 𝑑𝑥
O
𝑑𝑥 1 𝑑𝑢 1 4𝑥
∫ = ∫ = arcsin +𝐶
√25 − 16𝑥 2 4 √52 − (𝑢)2 4 5
𝑑𝑥
12. ∫
𝑥 √𝑥 4 −1
R
𝑑𝑢
Let 𝑢 = 𝑥 2 , 𝑑𝑢 = 2𝑥𝑑𝑥 → 1 = 𝑑𝑥
2𝑢2
𝑑𝑢
( 1)
𝑑𝑥 2𝑢2
∫ ⇒ 1
𝑥√𝑥 4 − 1 𝑢2 √𝑢2 − 1
∫
1 𝑑𝑢
= ∫
2 𝑢√𝑢2 − 1
1
= arcsec 𝑢 + 𝐶
2
1
= arcsec 𝑥 2 + 𝐶
2
Integration by Parts
When 𝑢 and 𝑣 are differentiable functions of 𝑥.

4
𝑑(𝑢𝑣) = 𝑢 𝑑𝑣 + 𝑣 𝑑𝑢
𝑢 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑑(𝑢𝑣) − 𝑣 𝑑𝑢
and
∫ 𝑢 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑢
General rules:
1. The part selected as 𝑑𝑣 must be readily integrable.
Note: Note: It will be easier to choose 𝑢 whose category occurs earlier in LIATE
(Logarithmic, Inverse Trigonometric, Algebraic, Trigonometric, and Exponential) and take
𝑑𝑣 to be the rest of the integrand
2.
3. ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑢 must not be more complex than ∫ 𝑢 𝑑𝑣
Examples:
2
1. Find ∫ 𝑥 3 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥.
1 2
Let 𝑢 = 𝑥 2 , 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥. Then, 𝑑𝑢 = 2𝑥𝑑𝑥, 𝑣 = 2 𝑒 𝑥
2 1 2
∫ 𝑥 3 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 2 − ∫ 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
U 3
2
1 2 1 2
= 𝑥2𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐶
D 2
2 2
2. Find ∫ ln(𝑥 2 + 2) 𝑑𝑥
E
O 20
2𝑥𝑑𝑥
Let 𝑢 = ln(𝑥 2 + 2) , 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑑𝑥. Then 𝑑𝑢 = 2 , 𝑣 = 𝑥
𝑥 +2
R LA BE 2𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
C
∫ ln(𝑥 2 + 2) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 ln(𝑥 2 + 2) − ∫ 2
𝑥 +2
2
4
= 𝑥 ln(𝑥 + 2) − ∫ (2 − 2 ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 +2
R S = 𝑥 ln(𝑥 2 + 2) − 2 ∫ 𝑑𝑥 + 4 ∫ 2
𝑑𝑥
T C A
𝑥 +2
EP S
2
𝑥
= 𝑥 ln(𝑥 + 2) − 2𝑥 + 2√2 arctan +𝐶
√2
N W SU
3. Find ∫ 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Let 𝑢 = 𝑥, 𝑑𝑣 = sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥. Then 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥, 𝑣 = − cos 𝑥.
∫ 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑥 cos 𝑥 − ∫ − cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
O IE L
= −𝑥 cos 𝑥 − sin 𝑥 + 𝐶
4. Find ∫ 𝑥 √1 + 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
3
D EV C
2
Let 𝑢 = 𝑥, 𝑑𝑣 = √1 + 𝑥𝑑𝑥. Then 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥 and 𝑣 = (1 + 𝑥)2
3
2 3 2 3
∫ 𝑥 √1 + 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥(1 + 𝑥)2 − ∫(1 + 𝑥)2 𝑑𝑥
3 3
2 3 2 2 5
= 𝑥(1 + 𝑥) − ( ) (1 + 𝑥)2 + 𝐶
2
3 3 5
2 3 4 5
= 𝑥(1 + 𝑥)2 − (1 + 𝑥)2 + 𝐶
3 15
5. Find ∫ arctan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
O
𝑑𝑥
Let 𝑢 = arctan 𝑥 , 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑑𝑥. Then 𝑑𝑢 = and 𝑣 = 𝑥.
1+𝑥 2
𝑥𝑑𝑥
∫ arctan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 arctan 𝑥 − ∫
1 + 𝑥2
𝑑𝑢
R
⇒ 𝑥 arctan 𝑥 − ∫ 2 Sub: 𝑢 = 1 + 𝑥 2
𝑢
1
= 𝑥 arctan 𝑥 − ln 𝑢 + 𝐶
2
1
⇒ 𝑥 arctan 𝑥 − ln(1 + 𝑥 2 ) + 𝐶
2
= 𝑥 arctan 𝑥 − ln √1 + 𝑥 2 + 𝐶

5
Trigonometric Integrals
Always remember the different trigonometric identities
1
1 sin2 𝑥 + cos 2 𝑥 = 1 7 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑦 = [sin(𝑥 − 𝑦) + sin(𝑥 + 𝑦)]
2
1
2 1 + tan2 𝑥 = sec 2 𝑥 8 sin 𝑥 sin 𝑦 = [cos(𝑥 − 𝑦) − cos(𝑥 + 𝑦)]
2
1
3 1 + cot 2 𝑥 = csc 2 𝑥 9 cos 𝑥 cos 𝑦 = [cos(𝑥 − 𝑦) + cos(𝑥 + 𝑦)]
2
1 1
4 sin2 𝑥 = (1 − cos 2𝑥) 10 1 − cos 𝑥 = 2 sin2 𝑥
2 2
2
1 2
1
5 cos 𝑥 = (1 + cos 2𝑥) 11 1 + cos 𝑥 = 2 cos 𝑥
2 2
1 𝜋
6 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 = sin 2𝑥 12 1 ± sin 𝑥 = 1 ± cos ( − 𝑥)
2 2
Examples:
1. ∫ sin2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1
∫ sin2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (1 − cos 2𝑥)𝑑𝑥
2
U 3
1 1
= 𝑥 − sin 2𝑥 + 𝐶
D 2
2 4
2. ∫ cos 2 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥
E
1
O 20
∫ cos 2 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (1 + cos 6𝑥)𝑑𝑥
2
R LA BE
C
1 1
= 𝑥 + sin 6𝑥 + 𝐶
2 2
3. ∫ sin3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
R S ∫ sin3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ sin2 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

T C A
= ∫(1 − cos 2 𝑥) sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

EP S
= − cos 𝑥 − ∫ cos 2 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 Sub: 𝑢 = cos 𝑥
N W SU
1
= − cos 𝑥 + cos 3 𝑥 + 𝐶
3
Special substitution rule

1. For ∫ sin𝑚 𝑥 cos 𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
O IE L
a. If 𝑚 is odd, substitute 𝑢 = cos 𝑥.

b. If 𝑛 is odd, substitute 𝑢 = sin 𝑥
D EV C
2. For ∫ tan𝑚 𝑥 sec 𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

a. If 𝑛 is even, substitute 𝑢 = tan 𝑥.
b. If 𝑚 is odd, substitute 𝑢 = sec 𝑥
Examples:
1. ∫ cos 4 2𝑥 sin 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
∫ cos 4 2x sin3 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ cos 4 2𝑥 sin2 2𝑥 sin 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
O
= ∫ cos 4 2𝑥 (1 − cos 2 2𝑥) sin 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= ∫ cos 4 2𝑥 sin 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ cos 6 2𝑥 sin 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥

R
Let 𝑢 = cos 2𝑥, 𝑑𝑢 = −2 sin 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥

1 1
⇒ − ∫ 𝑢4 𝑑𝑢 + ∫ 𝑢6 𝑑𝑢
2 2
1 5 1 7
=− 𝑢 + 𝑢 +𝐶
10 14
1 5
1
⇒ − cos 2𝑥 + cos 7 2𝑥 + 𝐶
10 14
2. ∫ cos 5 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
∫ cos 5 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ cos 4 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= ∫(1 − sin2 𝑥)2 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= ∫(1 − 2 sin2 𝑥 + sin4 𝑥) cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Let 𝑢 = sin 𝑥 , 𝑑𝑢 = cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

6
⇒ ∫ 𝑑𝑢 − 2 ∫ 𝑢2 𝑑𝑢 + ∫ 𝑢4 𝑑𝑢
2 1
= 𝑢 − 𝑢3 + 𝑢5 + 𝐶
3 5
2 3 1
⇒ sin 𝑥 + sin 𝑥 + sin5 𝑥 + 𝐶
3 5
3. ∫ tan4 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
∫ tan4 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ tan2 𝑥 tan2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ tan2 𝑥 (sec 2 𝑥 − 1) 𝑑𝑥
= ∫ tan2 𝑥 sec 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ tan2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= ∫ tan2 𝑥 sec 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − ∫(sec 2 𝑥 − 1)𝑑𝑥

1 𝑑
= tan3 𝑥 − tan 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝐶 Recall: tan 𝑥 = sec 2 𝑥
3 𝑑𝑥
4. ∫ tan3 2𝑥 sec 2 2𝑥
∫ tan3 2𝑥 sec 2 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫(tan2 2𝑥 sec 2 2𝑥)(sec 2𝑥 tan 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥)
U 3
= ∫(sec 2 2𝑥 − 1)(sec 2 2𝑥)(sec 2𝑥 tan 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥)
D 2
= ∫(sec 4 2𝑥) (sec 2𝑥 tan 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥) − ∫(sec 2 2𝑥) (sec 2𝑥 tan 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥)
E
1 1
O 20
= sec 5 2𝑥 − sec 3 2𝑥 + 𝐶 Sub: 𝑢 = sec 2𝑥
10 6
R LA BE
C
Partial Fraction
Case 1: Distinct Linear Factors. To each linear factor 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 occurring once in the denominator of
R S
a proper rational fraction, there corresponds a single partial fraction of the form
𝐴
where 𝐴 is a
T C A
𝑎𝑥+𝑏
EP S
constant to be determined.
𝑑𝑥
Example: ∫ 𝑥 2−4
N W SU
The denominator can be factored into (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 2) and be written as

1 𝐴 𝐵
2
= +
𝑥 −4 𝑥−2 𝑥+2
Multiplying the equation above by (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 2), we have,
O IE L
1 = 𝐴(𝑥 + 2) + 𝐵 (𝑥 − 2)
⇒ 1 = (𝐴 + 𝐵)𝑥 + (2𝐴 − 2𝐵)
Equating the coefficients of 𝑥’s of left-hand side and right-hand side of the equation, we
D EV C
have,
𝑥1 : 0=𝐴+𝐵
𝑥0: 1 = 2𝐴 − 2𝐵
1 1
Solving the system of two equations,we can get 𝐴 = and 𝐵 = . So we can write
4 4
1 1
𝑑𝑥 4
∫ 2 = ∫( − 4 ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 −4 𝑥−2 𝑥+2
O
1 𝑑𝑥 1 𝑑𝑥
= ∫ − ∫
4 𝑥−2 4 𝑥+2
1 1
= ln|𝑥 − 2| − ln|𝑥 + 2| + 𝐶
R
4 4
1 𝑥−2
= ln | |+𝐶
4 𝑥+2
Case 2: To each linear factor 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 occurring 𝑛 times in the denominator of a proper rational
fraction, there corresponds a sum of 𝑛 partial fractions of the form
𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴𝑛
+ +⋯+
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) 2 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑛
where the 𝐴's are constants to be determined.
(3𝑥+5)
Example: Find ∫ 3 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 −𝑥 −𝑥+1
The denominator can be factored as (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 1)2 . Hence,
3𝑥 + 5 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
= + +
𝑥 − 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 1 𝑥 + 1 𝑥 − 1 (𝑥 − 1)2
3 2
Multiplying the equation above by (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 1)2 , we have,

7
3𝑥 + 5 = 𝐴(𝑥 − 1)2 + 𝐵(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 1) + 𝐶(𝑥 + 1)

⇒ 3𝑥 + 5 = (𝐴 + 𝐵)𝑥 2 + (−2𝐴 + 𝐶)𝑥 + (𝐴 − 𝐵 + 𝐶)
Equating the coefficients of 𝑥’s of left-hand side and right-hand side of the equation, we
have,
𝑥2: 0 = 𝐴 + 𝐵
𝑥 1 : 3 = −2𝐴 + 𝐶
𝑥0: 5 = 𝐴 − 𝐵 + 𝐶
1 1
Solving the system of three equations, we have 𝐴 = 2 , 𝐵 = − 2 and 𝐶 = 4. So we can
write,
(3𝑥 + 5) 1 𝑑𝑥 1 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ − ∫ +4∫
𝑥3 − 𝑥2 − 𝑥 + 1 2 𝑥+1 2 𝑥−1 (𝑥 − 1)2
1 1 4
= ln|𝑥 + 1| − ln|𝑥 − 1| − +𝐶
2 2 𝑥−1
4 1 𝑥+1
= + ln | |+𝐶
𝑥−1 2 𝑥−1
Definite Integral
Fundamental Theorem of Calculus.
U 3
If 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous on the interval 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏, and if 𝐹(𝑥) is any indefinite integral of
𝑓(𝑥), then
D 2
𝑎 𝑎
E
∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑥) | = 𝐹(𝑎) − 𝐹(𝑏)
O 20
𝑏 𝑏
R LA BE
C
Properties
𝑏 𝑏
∫ 𝑐𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑐 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
1
R S
𝑎 𝑎
T C A
For any constant 𝑐
EP S
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
N W SU
∫ [𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥)]𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 ± ∫ 𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥

2 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
O IE L
𝑐 𝑏 𝑏
∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
3
D EV C
𝑎 𝑐 𝑎
Examples:
5
1. ∫0 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
5 5
𝑥2
∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = |
0 2 0
25
O
= −0
2
25
=
2
R
3
2. ∫1 𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥
3 3
𝑥4
∫ 𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 = |
1 4 1
34 1
= −
4 4
= 20
10 𝑑𝑥
3. ∫−6 𝑥+2
10
𝑑𝑥 10
∫ = ln|𝑥 + 2| |
𝑥+2
−6 −6
= ln 12 − ln 4
= ln 3

8
1
1 2𝑥 3 𝑥4 2 1 2 1 4
4. ∫−1(2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 3 )𝑑𝑥 = [ − ]| = ( − ) − (− − ) =
3 4 −1 3 4 3 4 3
1 4 1
2𝑥 3 𝑥
∫ (2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 3 )𝑑𝑥 = [ − ]|
−1 3 4 −1
2 1 2 1
= ( − ) − (− − )
3 4 3 4
4
=
3
SOME APPLICATIONS OF INTEGRALS
AREAS BETWEEN TWO CURVES

The steps in setting up a definite integral that yields a required are:
1. Make a sketch showing the area sought, a representative (kth) strip, and the approximating
rectangle. We shall generally show the representative subinterval of length Δ𝑥 (𝑜𝑟 Δ𝑦),
with the point 𝑥𝑘 (𝑜𝑟 𝑦𝑘 ) on this subinterval as its midpoint.
U 3
2. Write the area of the approximating rectangle and the sum for the n rectangles.
D 2
3. Assume the number of rectangle to increase indefinitely, and apply the fundamental
theorem on integration.
E
O 20
Example:
1. Find the area bounded by the parabola 𝑥 = 4 − 𝑦 2 and the 𝑦 axis.
R LA BE
C
Solution:
The parabola crosses the x-axis at point (4,0), and the y-axis at the points (0,2) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (0, −2). We
can give two solutions for this problem.
R S Solution 1: Using horizontal strips. The approximating

rectangle is given by the figure a. The width is Δ𝑦 and
T C A
the area is (4 − 𝑦 2 )Δ𝑦. We have the limits of integration

EP S
for the resulting definite integral as 𝑦 = −2 and 𝑦 = 2.
So we have,
N W SU
2 2
2 )𝑑𝑦
𝑦3
𝐴=∫ (4 −𝑦 = (4𝑦 − )|
−2 3 −2
23 (−2)3
= [4(2) − ] − [4(−2) − ]
3 3
O IE L
8 8
= (8 − ) − (−8 + )
3 3
D EV C
16
= 16 −
3
32
= 𝑠𝑞. 𝑢.
3
Solution 2: Using vertical strips. The
approximating rectangle has width Δ𝑥, the
height is 2𝑦 = 2√4 − 𝑥, and the area is
2√4 − 𝑥Δ𝑥. The limits of integration are 𝑥 =
O
0 and 𝑥 = 4.
4
4 3 4
∫ 2√4 − 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = [− (4 − 𝑥)2 ]|
0 3 0
32
= 𝑠𝑞. 𝑢.
R
Find the area bounded by the parabolas

𝑦 = 6𝑥 − 𝑥 2 and 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥

9
Solution:
The parabolas intersect at points (0,0) and
(4,8). For the approximating triangle, the
width is Δ𝑥, the height is (6𝑥 − 𝑥 2 ) −
(𝑥 2 − 𝑥) = 8𝑥 − 2𝑥 2 , and the area is (8𝑥 −
2𝑥 2 )Δ𝑥.
4 4
2
∫ (8𝑥 − 2𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑥 = [4𝑥 2 − 𝑥 3 ]|
0 3 0
64
= 𝑠𝑞. 𝑢.
3
U 3
VOLUME OF SOLIDS OF REVOLUTION
D 2
A solid of revolution is generated by revolving a plane area about a line, called the axis of
rotation, in the plane. The volume of a solid of revolution may be found with disc method, washer
E
O 20
method, and shell method.
R LA BE
C
Disc Method
This method is useful when the axis of rotation is part of the boundary of the plane area.
1. Make a sketch showing the area involved, a representative strip perpendicular to the axis
R S
of rotation, and the approximating rectangle.
T C A
2. Write the volume of the disc (or cylinder) generated when the approximating rectangle is
revolved about the axis of rotation, and sum for the 𝑛 rectangles.
EP S
When the axis of rotation is the x axis and the top of the plane
N W SU
area is given by the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥 ) between 𝑥 = 𝑎 and 𝑥 = 𝑏, then the

volume 𝑉 of the solid of revolution is given by
𝑏 𝑏
𝑉 = ∫ 𝜋𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋 ∫ [𝑓(𝑥)]2 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑎
O IE L
D EV C
Similarly, when the axis of rotation is the y axis and one side of
the plane area is given by the curve 𝑥 = 𝑔(𝑦) between 𝑦 = 𝑐 and 𝑦 = 𝑑,
then the volume V of the solid of revolution is given by
𝑑 𝑑
𝑉 = ∫ 𝜋𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦 = 𝜋 ∫ [𝑔(𝑦)]2 𝑑𝑦
𝑐 𝑐
Example: Find the volume generated by revolving the first-quadrant area
bounded by the parabola 𝑦 2 = 8𝑥 and its latus rectum (𝑥 = 2) about the
x-axis.
O
Solution:
We divide the plane area vertically, as can be
seen in the figure to the right. When the
approximating rectangle is revolved about the x-axis,
a disc whose radius is 𝑦 whose height is Δ𝑥 and whose
R
volume is 𝜋𝑦 2 Δ𝑥 is generated. We have the lower

boundary at 𝑥 = 0 (x-axis) and upper boundary at 𝑥 =
2 (latus rectum). The volume then is given by:
2 2
𝑉 = ∫ 𝜋𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋 ∫ 8𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0 0
2
= 4𝜋𝑥 2 | = 16𝜋 cubic units
0
Washer Method
This method is useful when the axis of rotation is not a part of the boundary of the plane
area.
1. Same as step 1 of the disc method.

10
2. Extend the sides of the approximating rectangle to meet the axis of rotation. When the
approximating rectangle is revolved about the axis of rotation, a washer is formed whose
volume is the difference between the outer and inner volumes generated by revolving the
rectangles about the axis. Write the difference of the two volumes, and proceed as in step
2 of the disc method.
If the axis of rotation is the x axis, the upper boundary
of the plane area is given by 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), the lower boundary by
𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥), and the region runs from 𝑥 = 𝑎 to 𝑥 = 𝑏, then the
volume V of the solid of revolution is given by
𝑏
𝑉 = 𝜋 ∫ {[𝑓(𝑥)]2 − [𝑔(𝑥)]2 }𝑑𝑥
𝑎
Similarly, if the axis of rotation is the y axis and the plane

area is bounded to the right by𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑦), to the left by 𝑥 = 𝑔(𝑦),
above by 𝑦 = 𝑑, and below by 𝑦 = 𝑐, then the volume V is given by
𝑑
𝑉 = 𝜋 ∫ {[𝑓(𝑦)]2 − [𝑔(𝑦)]2 } 𝑑𝑦
𝑐
U 3
Example: Find the volume generated by revolving the area cut off
D 2
from the parabola 𝑦 = 4𝑥 − 𝑥 2 by the x axis about the line 𝑦 = 6.
E
Solution:
O 20
We divide the area vertically. The solid
R LA BE
generated by revolving the approximating rectangle
C
about the line 𝑦 = 6 is a washer whose volume is
𝜋(62 − (6 − 𝑦)2 )Δ𝑥. The left and right boundaries can
be solved by looking at the intersection of the given
R S
parabola and the x-axis. With this, we know that we
T C A
have left boundary at 𝑥 = 0 and right boundary at 𝑥 =

EP S
4. The required volume is then given by:
4 4
𝑉 = 𝜋 ∫ [(6)2 − (6 − 𝑦)2 ]𝑑𝑦 = 𝜋 ∫ (12𝑦 − 𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑥
N W SU
0 0
4
= 𝜋 ∫ (48𝑥 − 29𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 3 − 𝑥 4 ) 𝑑𝑥
0
1408
= 𝜋 cubic units
15
O IE L
D EV C
O
R

11
Shell Method
1. Make a sketch showing the area involved, a representative strip parallel to the axis of
rotation, and the approximating rectangle.
2. Write the volume (mean circumference x height x thickness) of the cylindrical shell
generated when the approximating rectangle is revolved about the axis of rotation, and
sum for the rectangles.
If the axis of rotation is the y axis and the plane area, in the
first quadrant, is bounded below by the x axis, above by 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥),
to the left by 𝑥 = 𝑎, and to the right by 𝑥 = 𝑏, then the volume 𝑉 is
given by
𝑏 𝑏
𝑉 = 2𝜋 ∫ 𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝜋 ∫ 𝑥 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑎
Similarly, if the axis of rotation is the x axis and the plane area, in
the first quadrant, is bounded to the left by the y axis, to the right by 𝑥 =
𝑓(𝑦), below by 𝑦 = 𝑐 , and above by 𝑦 = 𝑑, then the volume V is given by
𝑑 𝑑
𝑉 = 2𝜋 ∫ 𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = 2𝜋 ∫ 𝑦𝑓(𝑦)𝑑𝑦
U 3
𝑐 𝑐𝑑
D 2
E
O 20
Example: Find the volume of the torus generated by revolving the circle
R LA BE
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 4 about the line 𝑥 = 3.
C
Solution:
Using the sell method, we can see that the approximating rectangle has height of 2𝑦, and
thickness of Δ𝑥. It has a mean distance from the axis of revolution of 3 − 𝑥. Then the volume can
R S
be written as 2𝜋(2𝑦)(3 − 𝑥)Δ𝑥. Since we have a vertical axis of rotation, then we should use the
T C A
left and right boundary of the circle. We can see clearly that the left boundary of the circle is at
EP S
𝑥 = −2 and the right boundary is at 𝑥 = 2. The required volume is then given by:
2 2
𝑉 = 2𝜋 ∫ 2𝑦(3 − 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 4𝜋 ∫ (3 − 𝑥)√4 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
N W SU
−2 −2
2 2
= 12𝜋 ∫ √4 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 − 4𝜋 ∫ 𝑥 √4 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
−2 −2
𝑥 𝑥 4𝜋 3 2
= [12𝜋 ( √4 − 𝑥 2 + 2 arcsin ) + (4 − 𝑥 2 )2 ] |
2 2 3
O IE L
−2
= 24𝜋 2 cubic units
D EV C
FLUID PRESSURE
Suppose that a flat surface is immersed vertically in a fluid of weight density 𝜌 and that
the submerged portion of the surface extends from 𝑥 = 𝑎 to 𝑥 = 𝑏 along an x-axis whose positive
direction is down. For 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏, suppose that 𝑤(𝑥) is the width of the surface and that ℎ(𝑥) is the
O
depth of the point 𝑥. Then we define the fluid force 𝐹 on the surface to be
𝑏
𝐹 = ∫ 𝜌ℎ(𝑥)𝑤(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑎
R
Example:
1. The face of a dam is a vertical rectangle of height 100 ft and width 200 ft. Find the total
fluid force exerted on the face when the water surface is level with the top of the dam.
Solution:
We introduce Introduce an x-axis with its origin at the water
surface as shown in the figure in the right. At a point 𝑥, the width
of the dam is 𝑤(𝑥) = 200 and depth ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑥. We can also see
that the surface extends from 0 ft up to 100 ft, thus, we have
𝑦 = 0 to 𝑦 = 100. Thus with weight density of the water 𝜌 =
62.4 𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡 3, we obtain the following force on the face.
𝑏 100
𝐹 = ∫ 𝜌ℎ(𝑥)𝑤(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (62.4)(𝑥)(200) 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 0
100
𝑥 2 100
= 12,480 ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 12,480 |
2
0 0

12
= 62,350,000 𝑙𝑏
2. A plate in the form of an isosceles triangle with base 10 ft and
altitude 4 ft is submerged vertically in machine oil as shown at
the right. Find the fluid force 𝐹 against the plate surface if the
oil has weight density 𝜌 = 30 𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡3.
Solution:
We introduce an x-axis as shown below. We can see that
the plate is submerged entirely, so we have 𝑦 = 0 to 𝑦 = 4.
By similar triangles, the width of the plate, in feet, at a depth
of ℎ(𝑥) = (3 + 𝑥) ft satisfies
𝑤(𝑥) 𝑥
=
10 4
5
𝑤(𝑥) = 𝑥
2
Then, we can calculate the force on the plate as follows:
𝑏 4
5
𝐹 = ∫ 𝜌ℎ(𝑥)𝑤(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (30) (3 + 𝑥) ( 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 0 2
4 2 3 4
3𝑥 𝑥
U 3
= 75 ∫ (3𝑥 + 𝑥 2 ) 𝑑𝑥 = 75 [ + ]|
2 3
0 0
D 2
= 3400 𝑙𝑏
E
O 20
WORK
R LA BE
C
Suppose that an object moves in the positive direction along a coordinate line over the
interval [𝑎, 𝑏] while subjected to a variable force 𝐹(𝑥) that is applied in the direction of motion.
Then we define the work 𝑊 performed by the force on the object to be
𝑏
R S 𝑊 = ∫ 𝐹(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
T C A
𝑎
Hooke’s Law
EP S
Under appropriate conditions, a spring that is stretched 𝑥 units beyond its natural length
pulls back with a force
N W SU
𝐹(𝑥) = 𝑘𝑥
Where 𝑘 is constant (spring constant) with units of force per unit length.
Example: A spring has a spring constant of 5 𝑁/𝑚. How much work is required to stretch the
spring 1.8 m beyond its natural length?
O IE L
Solution:
We want to find the work 𝑊 required to stretch the spring from 0m to 1.8m. We can
D EV C
compute it as follows:
𝑏 1.8
5 1.8
𝑊 = ∫ 𝐹(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 5𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 2 |
2
𝑎 0 0
= 8.1 𝐽
O
R

13
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Evaluate ∫0𝜋/2 3𝑒 3 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 .

A. 15.421 C. 17.048
B. 19.086 D. 20.412
2. Evaluate ∫(3𝑡 − 1)3 𝑑𝑡

A. 1 C. 1
(3𝑡 − 1)4 + 𝐶 (3𝑡 − 4)4 + 𝐶
12 4
B. 1 D. 1
(3𝑡 − 4)4 + 𝐶 (3𝑡 − 1)3 + 𝐶
12 4
3. What is the integral of sin5 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 if the lower limit is 0 and the upper limit is 𝜋2?
A. 0.233 C. 0.433
B. 0.333 D. 0.533
sin 𝑥
4. Evaluate ∫ tan 𝑑𝑥
U 3
𝑥
A. cos 𝑥 + 𝐶 C. sin 𝑥 + cos 𝑥 + 𝐶
B. sin 𝑥 + 𝐶 D. sec 𝑥 + 𝐶
D 2
E
5. Find the area of the region bounded by the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 and the lines 𝑦 = 1 and 𝑥 = 0.
O 20
A. 3/4 C. 4/3
R LA BE
C
B. 2/3 D. 3/2
6. Evaluate the integral of (2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 4)𝑑𝑥
R S
A. 2 3 3 2
𝑥 + 𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 𝐶
C. 2 3 3 2
𝑥 + 𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 𝐶
T C A
3 2 3 4
B. 3 3 2 2 D. 4 3 3 2
EP S
𝑥 + 𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 𝐶 𝑥 + 𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 𝐶
2 3 3 4
N W SU
7. Integrate the square root of (1 − cos 𝑥)𝑑𝑥

𝑥
A. √2 cos 𝑥 + 𝐶 C. −2 sin + 𝐶
2
B. 𝑥 D. 𝑥
−2√2 cos + 𝐶 −√2 cos + 𝐶
2 2
O IE L
8. What is the area (in square units) bounded by the curve 𝑦 2 = 4𝑥 and 𝑥 2 = 4𝑦?
D EV C
A. 5.33 C. 7.33
B. 6.67 D. 8.67
9. Find the area lying above the 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 and under the parabola 𝑦 = 4𝑥 − 𝑥 2 .
A. 8.67 C. 10.67
B. 9.67 D. 11.67
O
10. Integrate: ∫ 𝑥 2 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

A. 𝑥 2 cos 𝑥 + 2𝑥 sin 𝑥 + 2 cos 𝑥 + 𝐶 C. −𝑥 2 cos 𝑥 − 2𝑥 sin 𝑥 + 2 cos 𝑥 + 𝐶
B. −𝑥 2 cos 𝑥 + 2𝑥 sin 𝑥 − 2 cos 𝑥 + 𝐶 D. −𝑥 2 cos 𝑥 + 2𝑥 sin 𝑥 + 2 cos 𝑥 + 𝐶
R
11. The area bounded by the curve 𝑦 2 = 12𝑥 and the line 𝑥 = 3 is revolved about the line
𝑥 = 3. What is the volume generated?
A. 186 C. 181
B. 179 D. 184
12. The natural length of a given spring is 8cm. A force of 4 kg will stretch it to a total of 10
cm. find the work done in stretching it from its natural length to a total length of 16 cm.
A. 6.28 J C. 3.65 J
B. 5.32 J D. 7.17 J
13. Find the volume by revolving the hyperbola 𝑥𝑦 = 6 from 𝑥 = 2 to 𝑥 = 4 about the 𝑥-axis.
A. 30.43 cu.units C. 28.27 cu.units

14
B. 23.23 cu.units D. 25.53 cu.units
2
14. Evaluate: ∫01 (𝑥+1)
𝑥
4 𝑑𝑥
A. 0.0672 C. 0.0417
B. 0.0821 D. 0.0234
15. Evaluate ∫ 𝑥+2

𝑥+1
𝑑𝑥
A. 𝑥 + ln|𝑥 + 1| + 𝐶 C. 𝑥 + ln|𝑥 + 2| + 𝐶
B. 𝑥 − ln|𝑥 + 1| + 𝐶 D. 𝑥 − ln|𝑥 + 2| + 𝐶
16. What is the area bounded by the curves 𝑦 = 𝑥2 and the line 𝑦 = 3 − 𝑥?
A. 0.327 C. 0.185
B. 0.231 D. 0.114
17. Find the work done in stretching a spring of natural length 8 cm, from 10 cm to 13 cm.
U 3
assume a force of 6 N is needed to hold it at a length of 11 cm.
A. 21 N-m C. 0.21 N-m
D 2
B. 2.1 N-m D. 0.021 N-m
E
O 20
18. Find the volume generated by rotating the region bounded by 𝑦 = 𝑥, 𝑥 = 1 and 𝑦 2 = 4𝑥,
R LA BE
C
about the x-axis.
A. 𝜋 C. 3𝜋
B. 2𝜋 D. 9𝜋
R S
T C A
4𝑑𝑥
19. Evaluate: ∫ 3𝑥+2
EP S
A. 4 ln(3𝑥 + 2) + 𝐶 C. 1
ln(3𝑥 + 2) + 𝐶
3
N W SU
B. 4 D. 2 ln(3𝑥 + 2) + 𝐶
ln(3𝑥 + 2) + 𝐶
3
2𝑥
20. Evaluate ∫ 𝑒𝑒𝑥+1 𝑑𝑥.
1 𝑥 ln(𝑒 𝑥 + 1) + 𝐶
O IE L
A. C.
𝑒 + ln(𝑒 𝑥 + 1) + 𝐶
2
D EV C
B. 𝑒 𝑥 − ln(𝑒 𝑥 + 1) + 𝐶 D. 𝑒 𝑥 + ln(𝑒 𝑥 + 1) + 𝐶
O
R

15
ANSWER KEY
1. B
2. A
3. D
4. B
5. A
6. A
7. B
8. A
9. C
10. D
11. C
12. A
13. C
14. C
15. A
U 3
16. D
17. C
D 2
18. D
E
O 20
19. B
20. B
R LA BE
C
R S
T C A
EP S
N W SU
O IE L
D EV C
O
R

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1

REAL NUMBER SYSTEM

Prime No. {1}

that are both present to A and B.

SOME THEOREMS ON REAL NUMBERS

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Elementary Algebra

Theorem 3. Sum of Quotients.

For any 𝑚, 𝑛 ∈ 𝑍 +, and any real numbers 𝑎 and 𝑏, we have

SPECIAL PRODUCTS AND FACTORING

6. (𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧)2 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 + 2𝑥𝑦 + 2𝑥𝑧 + 2𝑦𝑧

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Elementary Algebra

By Synthetic Division, divide 𝑥 4 − 18𝑥 2 + 32 by 𝑥 − 4.

Example 2. Solve (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 5) = 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 8

Example 3. Solve 5𝑥 2 − 10𝑥 = 0

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Elementary Algebra

Solution: (𝑥 − 5) (𝑥−5) = 1(𝑥 − 5)

𝟓 = −𝟓 *This is a false statement implies that it has no solution.

LINEAR EQUATION IN TWO UNKNOWN

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Elementary Algebra

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Elementary Algebra

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Elementary Algebra

This method only works if 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 is factorable into two binomials.

Example 3. Solve 𝑥 (3𝑥 − 1) = 2

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Elementary Algebra

Example 1. Solve 4𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 = −9.

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Elementary Algebra

Example 2. Solve √2𝑥 + 5 + √𝑥 − 1 = 2

Example 3. Solve (𝑥 2 − 3𝑥)2 − 2(𝑥 2 − 3𝑥) − 8 = 0

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Elementary Algebra

DESCRIPTION LAST TERM SUM MEAN

Arithmetic Sequence of 𝐿 = 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑 𝑛 𝑎+𝑐

Progression number with a

Geometric Sequence of 𝐿 = 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1 𝑎(1 − 𝑟 𝑛 ) 𝑏 = ±√𝑎𝑐

Harmonic The sequence of numbers formed by the reciprocals of the terms of an

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Elementary Algebra

ratio r. The given tells us that

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Elementary Algebra

5 =𝑛−1 The geometric sequence has 6 terms

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Elementary Algebra

years hence. How old is Ann?

10. How many fifths are there in 7 3/5:?

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Elementary Algebra

23. x3 – y3 is equivalent to which of the following?

24. LCM(x3, x3 – x , 2x2 – 2) is

26. Which of the following is a geometric progression?

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Elementary Algebra

27. Give the sum of the roots of 2x2 – 8x + 1

30. The values of x in the equation x2/5  x1/5  2  0 are

35. If x2 + y2 = 22 while xy = 9, then (x – y)2 = ______.

36. Which of the following is equivalent to 64x6 – y6 ?

37. (3 – 2i)(4 + 2i) is equal to

38. If x5/3 = 32, then x = _____.

40. What is the remainder if 2x3 – 3x2 + 5x – 4 is divided by x – 1?

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Elementary Algebra

42. If 7x2 – 42x + K = 7(x – 3)2, then what is K?

43. The value of x in the equation 4x – 2 = 6x + 12 is _______.

44. Which of the following equations has NO solution?

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Elementary Algebra

1. Algebraic Form 2. Interval Form 3. Graphical Form