Access to Higher Education

Psychology
Assignment Brief

A Assignment Details
Student Name - Alexandra-Andreea
Centre B&FC – U/C
Nicolaenco
Tutor Name - Sarah Christie Unit Title: Memory

Subject: Psychology Unit Code: 1383891

Assignment Title: Memory Report Indicative Word Count up to 2000 words

Assignments for this Unit 1 of 1

This unit is Graded
No. of Credits 3 Level 3
Grade Descriptors 1, 2, 4, 5 and 7 apply
Date set 29/11/22 Date due 15/01/23 Date submitted 15/01/2023
If a resubmission Date due Date submitted

Student Declaration

I understand that copying / taking ideas from other sources (e.g. reference books, journals, internet, and
tutor handouts) without acknowledging them is plagiarism. I confirm that:
 This assignment is all my own work.
 All contributions taken from other reading and research have been referenced accurately.
 Any direct quotations taken from other reading and research have been acknowledged and attributed
accurately.
 I have attached a bibliography listing all sources used in producing this assignment.
 I have added the word count below. NB unless specified otherwise, the word count indicated above is
acceptable.
 I have read and understood the Ascentis document entitled ‘Policies and Procedures for Dealing with
Malpractice’ provided by the tutor and understand the consequences of non-compliance with this
document.

To be completed by student on submission and in confirmation of above declaration

Student signature Alexandra-Andreea Nicolaenco
Word count 2582
To be completed by tutor
Tutor signature
Unit grade award Word count confirmed as accurate Yes/No
To be completed by the IM (Internal Moderator) if work has been internally moderated
IM name (printed) IM signature
Date internally moderated
B The Assignment Brief

Assignment Brief

Using the writing frame below:

Introduction: describe what memory is.

Section 1: Explain, using models the differences between Short- Term and Long-Term memory. You
should use research evidence that studies to support your explanations.

Section 1a: Evaluate at least two models of memory.

Section 2: Explain at least two theories of forgetting, use studies to support your arguments.

Section 3: Using your knowledge of memory and forgetting discuss some methods of improving
memory.
C Learning Outcomes
1st 2nd
submission submission
Learning Outcomes Assessment Criteria
Achieved Achieved
Y/N Y/N
The student should be able The student has achieved this
to: outcome because s/he can:
1.1 Explain the nature of memory

1.2 Explain models of short term

1 Understand models of memory and long term memory using
memory examples from studies

1.3 Evaluate two different models of

memory

2.1 Explain theories of forgetting

2 Understand forgetting
and methods of 2.2 Discuss methods of improving
improving memory memory

D Tutor Assignment Feedback

Tutor Comments (1st Submission)

Tutor Comments (2nd Submission)

E Grade Profile
 Tick if Performance
applicable against
Tutor comments
to this descriptor
assignment (P / M / D)
1 Understanding of the
subject

2 Application of
knowledge

4 Use of information

5 Communication and
presentation

7 Quality

Overall unit grade

F Grade Descriptors
Grading the assignment
Once the learning outcomes for this assignment are achieved, the student is eligible for grading against
specific grade descriptors (these are identified on the following pages)

There are no descriptor components for Pass. Students achieve a Pass by meeting the
requirements of all the assessment criteria of a unit

Only the components that are ticked apply to this

1 Understanding of the subject
assignment

Merit Distinction

The student, student’s work or performance: The student, student’s work or performance

a demonstrates a very good grasp of the a demonstrates an excellent grasp of the

relevant knowledge base relevant knowledge base

b is generally informed by the major b is consistently informed by the major

conventions and practices of the area of conventions and practices of the area of
study study

c demonstrates excellent understanding

c demonstrates very good understanding of
of the different perspectives or
the different perspectives or approaches
approaches associated with the area of
associated with the area of study.
study.
 Only the components that are ticked apply to this
2 Application of knowledge
assignment

Merit Distinction

The student, student's work or performance The student, student's work or

makes use of relevant a performance makes use of relevant a

• ideas • ideas

• facts • facts

• theories • theories

• perspectives • perspectives

• models • models

• concepts • concepts

with either with both

b breadth or depth that goes beyond the b breadth and depth

minimum required to Pass
and/or and/or
 Only the components that are ticked apply to this
2 Application of knowledge
assignment

Merit Distinction

c very good levels of c excellent levels of

• consistency • consistency

• precision • precision

• accuracy • accuracy

• insight • insight

• analysis • analysis

• synthesis • synthesis

• creativity • creativity
 Only the components that are ticked apply to this
4 Use of information
assignment

Merit Distinction

The student, student’s work or

The student, student’s work or performance:
performance:

a identifies new information from

a identifies new information from sources
sources which are consistently
which are generally appropriate
appropriate

b makes extensive use of new

b makes some use of new information
information

c consistently appraises the relevance

c generally appraises the relevance and
and value of new information
value of new information accurately
accurately

d shows an excellent grasp of the

d shows a very good grasp of the meaning
meaning and significance of new
and significance of new information
information

e consistently combines or synthesises

information with outcomes that are
e generally combines or synthesises accurate, appropriate and
information with outcomes that are
accurate and appropriate  succinct
 innovative
 creative

In practice-based/practical work:

f is informed by research that draws on a

f is informed by research that draws on
range of sources and resources that goes
an extensive range of sources and
beyond the minimum required for the
resources
work.
 Only the components that are ticked apply to this
5 Communication and presentation
assignment

Merit Distinction

The student, student’s work or performance shows The student, student’s work or performance
very good command of: shows excellent command of:

 format  format

 structure  structure

 use of images  use of images

 language (including technical or  language (including technical or

specialist language) specialist language)

 syntax  syntax

 register  register

 spelling  spelling

 punctuation  punctuation

 referencing  referencing

7 Quality This grade descriptor applies to all units

Merit Distinction

The student, student’s work or performance: The student, student’s work or performance:

a is structured in a way that is generally a is structured in a way that is

logical and fluent consistently logical and fluent

b puts forward arguments or ideas which are b puts forward arguments or ideas which
generally unambiguous but which are in a are consistently unambiguous and
minor way limited or incomplete cogent

c taken as a whole, demonstrates a very c taken as a whole, demonstrates an

good response to the demands of the excellent response to the demands of
brief/assignment the brief/assignment
 MEMORY REPORT

INTRODUCTION

Memory, the psychological function of preserving information, involves the processes of

encoding, storing, and retrieval (Colman, 2009, p. 451). The precondition to learning, reasoning,
and perceiving is remembering, meaning that humans depend on memory, enabling them to
conduct day-to-day activities, such as learning new facts, evolving, remembering the route to
work, making decisions based on past experiences, remembering to brush their teeth, or even
remember their spouse’s birthday (Britannica, 2023). Baddeley (1995) suggested that memory
should be seen as a coalition of systems, memories are stored according to their type: sensory
memory, controlled by the unconscious; systems based on the duration of memories, short-term
memory, holding limited information and for a limited time, and long-term memory, storing
indeterminate information for an indefinite time; and verbal memory systems consisting of
spoken and written material (Zlotnik, Vansintjan, 2019). In addition, Tulving (1985) has found
there are four types of memories: semantic memory responsible for remembering facts, words,
numbers, or concepts; procedural memory, which is remembering how to perform actions, such
as riding a bicycle; prospective memory, remembering there is something to do in the future;
episodic memory is remembering an event from the past in a form of a time-tagged and
multidimensional memory (Albery et al, 2007, p. 221). Autobiographical memory is a type of
episodic memory involving reminiscing about events with strong personal relevance, such as
first day of school (Brace, Byford, 2012, p. 366).

Human memory happens in three distinct stages: firstly, processing and registering sensory
stimuli; secondly, encoding - storing information in memory; and lastly, retrieval - recalling data
stored in the memory. Scientists concluded that human memory is comparable to a computer in
terms of encoding, storing, and retrieving, however, the human mind stores memories
throughout the whole brain, not in one specific area; human memory is imperfect and can be
altered by factors such as emotions, age, or time; and requires understanding the connotation
of the data. In contrast, computer memory is contained in a hard drive or memory chips; is
perfect (excluding viruses) and able to perfectly reproduce or “remember” massive amounts of
information; and it does not need to understand the meaning of the information (Brace, Byford,
2012, p. 368). Another distinction between memory processes lies in whether these processes
are explicit, involving the conscious search of the memory, such as trying to recall the capital of
a country, or implicit, referring to unconscious retrieval of the memory, for example, driving does
not require conscious remembering of the skill (Albery et al, 2007, p. 222).

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SHORT-TERM MEMORY (STM) AND LONG-TERM MEMORY

(LTM)

Sperling (1960) discovered the iconic memory when he was a PhD student at Harvard
University, where he conducted an experiment trying to figure out the duration of this type of
memory. The participants were shown a display of twelve letters for fifty milliseconds, after
which they were asked to report what they had seen. Most of the participants remembered
approximately four letters, but Sperling was adamant all the letters were available, therefore, he
pursued with the partial report condition where the visual array was seconded by a high, middle,
or low tone. The participants had to report letters from the top line if they heard a high tone; the
middle line if they heard a middle tone; and the bottom line if they heard a low tone. It was a
successful method, the participants being able to recall about nine letters. After gradually
increasing the interval between the visual display and the on-set of the tone, the number of
letters recalled decreased, Sterling concluding that iconic memory has a duration of one-third of
a second (Albery et al, 2007, p. 222). Echoic memory was introduced by Neisser (1967), and it
can hold massive amounts of auditory information for three to four seconds, before being
encoded if given a meaning (Perera, 2021).

William James (1890) was the first to make a distinction between the STM or primary memory,
and the LTM or the secondary memory. Primary memory reflects current conscious information,
while secondary memory holds the memories of events that happened in the past, involving the
process of retrieval (Rose, Myerson, Roediger, and Hale, 2010, p. 471) However, the
differences between STM and LTM were extended and determined by their respective
capacities, duration, encoding, serial position effect, and neuropsychology. Furthermore, the
similarities and contrasts between the STM and the LTM have been reinforced by the memory
models developed by influential psychologists (Albery et al, 2007, p. 226).

Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) developed the multi-store model of memory (MSM), model
suggesting that information is transmitted and processed between three separate memory
stores – sensory memory, STM, and LTM - in linear progression (fixed sequence). The analogy
of the human memory with a computer memory is useful again, to understand that according to
the MSM, the information received by sensory memory is an input; attention paid to the added
information moving into the STM is processing; if data has been rehearsed or given a meaning,
it then transfers it into LTM where it can be retrieved from, labelled as output. Research led to
discovering that the STM has a duration of approximately twenty-eight seconds; the capacity of
the STM according to Miller (1956) is seven plus/minus two items of data (between five and
nine), which if rehearsed continuously, it transfers into LTM; the non-rehearsed material is lost
through decay and displacement - forgotten (Mcleod, 2021). The LTM has unlimited duration
and unlimited capacity, with auditory and visual encoding as well, but mainly semantic.

Evidence to support the existence of separate stores within the MSM are noticed from the
primacy and recency effect, known as serial position effect. Cunitz and Glanzer (1966) inspired
the MSM by conducting an experiment where two hundred and forty US army men were
presented with a list of monosyllabic words, out of which they remembered the first and last
words, forgetting the ones in the middle. This implies that due to the primacy effect, the words
from the top of the list entered the LTM, the words from the bottom of the list ended in the STM
because of the recency effect, and the intermediate sequence or the words placed in the middle
of the list were forgotten, because of the limited capacity of the STM – Immediate recall
condition. When the participants were conditioned to recall after a delay of thirty seconds – just
past the STM duration - the recency effect has gone because there was no time for rehearsal,
although the primacy effect still existed, thus information was transferred into LTM (Dixon,
2018). This experiment was laboratory-controlled, suggesting it has high validity and can be
repeated, although, it has low ecological validity due to the simple, artificial stimuli not
representing the complexity of the memory, and low generalisability because of the lack of
population diversity (Glanzer, Cunitz, 1966). Additionally, in the forthcoming research projects,
psychologists discovered that STM and LTM are oversimplified in the MSM where both were
considered to perform in a unitary process (McLeod, 2021).

The study case of Clive Wearing is another evidence to support the idea of the STM and LTM
being separate stores, as described by Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968). Clive Wearing’s central
nervous system, specifically the hippocampus, was attacked by a virus, affecting the ability of
his STM to transfer information into LTM, being diagnosed with amnesia. He was unable to
make new memories and he lost memories of past events (anterograde and retrograde
amnesia) (Wilson, Kopelman, and Kapur, 2008). Clive’s STM had a duration of seven to thirty
seconds, making it impossible for him to remember what he was doing few minutes prior or to
recognise new people he met. However, Wearing remembered he had children from a previous
marriage, but not their names; he remembered he was a musician, but he was not able to recall
his career; he only remembers his wife, Deborah, but has no recollection of their life together.
Despite his amnesia, some of Wearing’s semantic and procedural memories remained, such as
his humour and intelligence or the ability to play piano (Practical Psychology, 2022). This case
supports the MSM thought Clive’s inability to form new memories; partial loss of semantic
memory; and severely damaged episodic memory. The limitations of this study are inferring
that, although Clive gave his consent over the twenty years of being studied, he was never able
to recall giving consent, lowering the ethics of the study. Furthermore, Clive might have suffered
psychological harm because of his consciousness being cross-examined; confidentiality has
been broken by revealing his identity; and generalisability is low due to the rare and unusual
condition Clive suffered from (Dixon, 2018).

The MSM has a significant importance in generating understanding of how memory systems
work, however, it was clearly oversimplified in terms of the STM holding information for a limited
period, while involving little to no processing. Baddeley & Hitch asked the question enquiring
what the function of the STM as a separate store is, and if it is indeed a unitary ‘depot,’
consequently developing the working memory (WMM) (Baddeley, 1976, p. 169). Working
memory is STM, but not as one store as MSM suggested, but rather formed by three systems:
central executive or the ‘boss’ of working memory allocating information to the visuospatial
sketchpad and phonological loop; visuospatial sketchpad is used for navigation and is
responsible with storing visual and spatial information; phonological loop is accountable for the
spoken data (inner voice) and written data (inner eye) (McLeod, 2022). This model was
developed in laboratory, attributing controlled variables to produce reliable results that can be
replicated. Similarly, with the implication of Shallice and Warrington (1974) in the case study of
KF who suffered brain damage, it has been demonstrated that the short-term systems within the
WMM are managing the visual and phonological memories.

It is of essential importance to understand how the memories can become long-lasting, this
being supported by the levels-of-processing, an un-structured theory, proposed by Craik and
Lockhart (1972), allegedly averting the MSM (Baddeley, 1976, p. 167). This theory suggests
that shallow processing leads to memory decay, while deeply processed memories are stored
for indefinite time. Maintenance rehearsal, elaborative rehearsal (improving the LTM), and
distinctiveness are factors contributing to securely encoding memories into LTM. Strengths of
this theory are the proof of encoding being a complicated process, and the great level of activity
in the brain when deep processing, shown in brain imaging. The limitations of this theory are
found in terminology and description when arguing that shallow processing of the memories
leads to memories being lost quickly, but it does not explain recalling memories after long years,
even though they were never deep processed. Additionally, people with conditions that affect
memory, cannot be included in this theory (McLeod, 2022).

EXPLANATION OF FORGETTING

Memory has an essential role in people’s lives, allowing them to reuse the past and present
experiences, ensuring continuance between what has happened and what will happen (Savage,
2018). Nevertheless, amounts of unimportant or un-rehearsed information are forgotten, or
difficult to retrieve. Forgetting data from STM can be analysed using the theory of displacement,
and the information lost from the LTM can be described using theory of retrieval failure
(McLeod, 2008).

Displacement theory is supported by Miller’s magic number – seven plus/minus two -

suggesting that information is displaced because of the small capacity of STM. Furthermore,
when the STM reaches maximum capacity, old memories are replaced with new memories, or
the new memories are displaced. Many studies were conducted to find out if the theory of
displacement can be supported. The method called ‘free recall’ was typically used as following:
the experimenter read out some words at a rate of two seconds per word; participants were
asked to recall as many words as possible, in any order; the results from the experiments using
free recall were reliable and comparable; the studies are also supported by the primacy and
recency effects discussed earlier. The theory of displacement can account for the memories lost
as explained in the MSM, but it is not clear if forgetting happens due to displacement from STM,
or decay (Practical Psychology, 2022).

Endel Tulving (1974) developed the retrieval failure theory, suggesting that forgetting happens
because of a failure in memory retrieval, meaning the information is not lost, but inaccessible at
a particular time - the informal ‘tip-of-the-tongue' effect, or for example, the inability to remember
the name of the favourite movie. Retrieval failure can also be explained using the theory of cue
dependent forgetting, suggesting that the lack of meaningful or non-meaningful cues contributes
to forgetting. Godden and Baddeley (1975) conducted an experiment in Scotland to investigate
the effect of the environment on recall (divers experiment). The results showed that participants
recalled less words when they learned and recalled in different environments than when they
learned and recalled in the same environment (Murre, 2021).

Discussion on how to improve memory

uIn many ways, memories are crucial to the essence of who and how people are, so it is
important to maintain the health of the nervous system and the whole body. A healthy diet, not
smoking, exercising regularly, good sleep, meditation, visualising, rehearsing, are few of every
day's proven methods of improving memory. Nevertheless, psychologists created methods and
models, also able to enhance memory, such as mnemonics or chunking. Mnemonics are tools
which help to remember phrases or ideas with relatable associations, patterns of letters, and
numbers, associating the respective incoming information with images, songs, poems, and
rhymes. Chunking is a method suggesting that information can be successfully encoded by
organising it in achievable blocks or chunks, for example, breaking down a phone number into
segments to help with remembering (Pedersen, 2022).
REFERENCES

Albery, I. Chandler, C. Field, A. Jones, D. Messer, D. Moore, S. Sterling, C. (2007) Complete

Psychology. 4th edition. Hodder and Stoughton Educational. Dubai.

Baddeley, A. (1934) The Psychology of Memory. 1st edition. Basic Books Inc Publishers. New
York.

Brace, N. Byford, J. (2012) Investigating Psychology. 2nd edition. The Open University. London.

Colman, A. (2009) Oxford Dictionary of Psychology. 3rd edition. Oxford University Press. Oxford

Dixon, T. (2018) If you’re interested: Clive Wearing. Available at: https://www.themantic-

education.com/ibpsych/2017/09/26/if-youre-interested-clive-wearing/ (Accessed on 15 January
2023).

Dixon, T. (2018) Key Study: The Primacy and Recency Effects (Glanzer and Cunitz, 1966).
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model-the-primacy-and-recency-effects/ (Accessed on 14 January 2023).

Gathercole, S. (1996) Models of Short-Term Memory. 1st edition. Psychology Press. East
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Glanzer, M., & Cunitz, A. R. (1966). Two storage mechanisms in free recall. Journal of Verbal
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McLeod, S. (2021) Multi-Store Memory Model. Available at:

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Murre, J. (2021) The Godden and Baddeley (1975) Experiment on Context-Dependent Memory.
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January 2023).

Pedersen, T. (2022) Memory and Mnemonic Devices. Available

at:https://psychcentral.com/lib/memory-and-mnemonic-devices (Accessed on 15 January).

Perera, A. (2021) How Episodic Memory works. Available at:

https://www.simplypsychology.org/episodic-memory (Accessed on 14 January 2023).

Practical Psychology. (2022) Clive Wearing (Amnesia Patient). Available at:

https://practicalpie.com/clive-wearing/ (Accessed on 14 January 2023).

Rose, N., Myerson, J., Roediger, H., and Hale, S. (2010) ‘Similarities and Differences Between
Working Memory and Long-term Memory: Evidence from the Levels-of-Processing Span Task.’
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The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. (2022) Memory. Available at:

https://www.britannica.com/science/memory-psychology (Accessed on 14 January 2023).
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Wilson. (2008) Summary of the Study of Clive Wearing. Available at:

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