Bok - 978 981 16 2857 3

Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 239
Veeredhi Vasudeva Rao

Adepu Kumaraswamy
Sahil Kalra
Ambuj Saxena Editors
Computational and
Experimental Methods
in Mechanical
Engineering
Proceedings of ICCEMME 2021
Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies
Volume 239
Series Editors
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Veeredhi Vasudeva Rao · Adepu Kumaraswamy ·
Sahil Kalra · Ambuj Saxena
Editors
Computational
and Experimental Methods
in Mechanical Engineering
Proceedings of ICCEMME 2021
Editors
Veeredhi Vasudeva Rao Adepu Kumaraswamy
Department of Mechanical & Industrial Department of Mechanical Engineering
Engineering Defence Institute of Advanced Technology
College of Science, Engineering Pune, India
and Technology University of South Africa
Pretoria, South Africa Ambuj Saxena
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Sahil Kalra G. L. Bajaj Institute of Technology &
Department of Mechanical Engineering Management
Indian Institute of Technology Jammu Greater Noida, India
Jammu, India
ISSN 2190-3018 ISSN 2190-3026 (electronic)

Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies
ISBN 978-981-16-2856-6 ISBN 978-981-16-2857-3 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2857-3
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature
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Preface
International Conference on Computational and Experimental Methods in Mechan-

ical Engineering (ICCEMME-2021) has been the third conference of its series
organized by the Department of Mechanical Engineering of G. L. Bajaj Institute
of Technology and Management, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India. The institute
is located in the vicinity of industrial hub. Therefore, it was decided to provide a
forum to bring together scientists, speakers from industries, university professors,
graduate students and mechanical engineers, presenting new research in science,
technology, and engineering.
The motive of this conference was to provide an opportunity to share their inno-
vative ideas in the form of a paper presentation. The conference attracted many
participants working in various fields of engineering. Research articles were based
on Design, Mechanics, Materials, Energy, Industrial & Production Engineering
areas such as Sustainable Manufacturing Systems, Rapid Prototyping, Manufac-
turing Process Optimization, Machining, and Machine Tools, Casting, Welding,
Forming, Machining, Machine Tools, Computer-Aided Engineering, Manufacturing,
Management, Automation and Metrology, Industrial, Management and Marketing,
etc. During the conference, about ten delegates were joined from various contraries
and delivered keynote lecture on the theme of the conference. All papers were
critically reviewed by two reviewers from National/International authors.
More than 500 hundred manuscripts were submitted to the conference, topics
ranging from the latest research in the field of aerodynamics and fluid mechanics,
artificial intelligence, IOT, blockchain rapid manufacturing technologies, and proto-
typing, remanufacturing, refrigeration and air conditioning, renewable energies tech-
nology, IC engines, turbo machinery metrology, and computer-aided design and
inspection.
Furthermore, we would like to extend our appreciation to all the authors for
contributing their valuable research to the conference. The committee is also grateful
to all the reviewers who spared their time to carefully review all the assigned research
articles and to all the committee members for their great effort in making their
conference into grant success.
v
vi Preface
We are thankful to all sponsored agencies who gave us their cooperation and
funding support.
We are thankful to our management and the director of G L Bajaj Institute of Tech-
nology and Management, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India, for their continuous
source of inspiration and valuable support. We are thankful to all the members of the
organizing committee for their contribution in organizing the conference. Last but
not least, we thank Springer for its professional assistance, particularly, Mr. Aninda
Bose who supported this publication.
Pretoria, South Africa Veeredhi Vasudeva Rao

Pune, India Adepu Kumaraswamy
Jammu, India Sahil Kalra
Greater Noida, India Ambuj Saxena
Contents
1 Damage Detection in Eggshell Using Lamb Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Sahil Kalra, Maninder Meenu, and Deepak Kumar
2 Study of Steering System for an Electric Trike-Ackerman
Steering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Sachin Patel, Ritwick Rawat, Shantanu, Aditya Kumar,
and Amardeep
3 Experimental Study of Parameter Affecting the Thermal
Conductivity of Composite Materials and Alloy: A Review . . . . . . . . 19
Omprakash Yadav, Ankit Chhonkar, Rahul Sharma,
Sandeep Chauhan, Ashish Bansal, Navneet Singh Baghel,
Himanshu Sharma, and Devesh Sharma
4 An Experimental and Mathematical Analysis for Improvement
of Gas Stove Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Akanksha Mathur, Rohit Singh Lather, Vinit Chauhan,
Rahul Sharma, and Tushar Mehta
5 Theoretical Investigation of Physical, Mechanical
and Thermal Properties of Al–Cu Functionally Graded
Material Through Gradation Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Pankaj Kumar Chauhan and Sabah Khan
6 Thermodynamic Analysis of N2 O Transcritical Cycle Using
Dedicated Mechanical Subcooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Pradeep Kumar and Shivam Mishra
7 Effect of PEO Concentration on Electrochemical
and Mechanical Properties of PVDF, PEO and LATP Blended
Solid Polymer Electrolyte . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Ponam and Parshuram Singh
vii
viii Contents
8 Applicability of Banana Fiber as Reinforcement in Composites . . . . 77

Sandeep Chauhan, Tarun Kumar Gupta,
and Vishal Shankar Srivastava
9 State of Art on Microstructural and Mechanical
Characterization of Wire and Arc Additive Manufacturing
(WAAM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Aman Verma, Himanshu Yadav, Kuldeep Kumar,
Prince Kumar Singh, Mayank Sharma, Vishal Shankar Srivastava,
and Ashish Kumar Srivastava
10 Effect of La3+ Substitution on Structural, Magnetic,
and Multiferroic Properties of Bismuth Ferrite
(Bi1-x Lax FeO3 ) Nanoceramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Shama Farozan, Harendra Kumar Satyapal, Om Priya,
Saurabh Sharma, and Singh Sonu Kumar
11 Experimental Analysis of Wear and Mechanical
Characteristics of Aluminium Matrix Composite Fabricated
Through Powder Metallurgy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Harvendra Singh, Harshit Bahri, and Kaushalendra Kumar Singh
12 Recent Advancements on Structural Health Monitoring Using
Lamb Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Deepak Kumar, Sahil Kalra, and Mayank Shekhar Jha
13 Global Overview of Large-Scale Photovoltaic System and Its
Electrical Energy Storage Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Bajrangi Maurya
14 Consideration Analysis of Stress Distribution Using
Automotive Chassis for Heavy Vehicle Transports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Manish Saraswat, Pradeep Kumar Singh, and Rajat Yadav
15 A Review on Gas Sensor Technology and Its Applications . . . . . . . . . 165
Pooja Saxena and Prashant Shukla
16 CFD Study of Two-Dimensional Profile Geometry of an Airfoil . . . . 177
Harshit Bahri, Kaushalendra Kumar Singh, and Harvendra Singh
17 Tunable Filter at Second Transmission Window Containing
1D Ternary Superconductor/Dielectric Photonic Crystals . . . . . . . . . 189
Vimal, Sanjeev Sharma, Anil Kumar Sharma, and Rajesh Tiwari
18 A Numerical Method for a Problem Occurring in Conduction
of Heat Through a Solid and Other Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Shradha Gupta and Sanjeev Sharma
Contents ix
19 Emotional Intelligence: Assessing Its Impact on Financial

Productivity in an Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Shivi Mittal, Prabhat Srivastava, and Deepa Gupta
20 Acquiring FG Homogeneous Composite Shell Structure Using
Finite Element Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Aman Sharma, Rajat Yadav, and Vikas Kumar Sharma
21 An Optimal Control Scheme for Thermal-Hydro System
with Distributive Energy Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Nagendra Kumar, Brijesh Prasad, Kailash Sharma,
Rajat Mehrotra, and Vinamra Kumar Govil
22 Effect of Material Hardness and Operating Conditions
on Wear Rate of Sliding Tribopair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Mohammad Hanief
23 Fluorescence Characteristics of Coumarin Derivatives
with Divalent Metal Ions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Pooja Rani
24 A Novel Method for Performance Enhancement of PV Module
Using Graphene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Pragati Tripathi, M. A. Ansari, and Rajat Mehrotra
25 Load Frequency Control in Deregulated-Hybrid Power
System Integrated with Energy Generation/Storage System . . . . . . . 275
Nagendra Kumar, Mohit Bansal, Shivendra Kaura,
and Priyanka Datta
26 Transfer Learning-Based Brain Tumor Detection Using MR
Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Priyanka Datta and Rajesh Rohilla
27 Recyclability of Tractor’s Engine Component: A Case
Analysis of Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
Bhupendra Prakash Sharma, Rahul Sindhwani,
Priyank Srivastava, Pranav Malhotra, Harkirat Singh,
Shorya Gupta, and Priyanka Singh
28 Feature Extraction of Face Recognition Techniques Utilizing
Neural System as a Classifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Amrita Rai, C. Shylaja, and Puneet Kumar Mishra
29 Investigating Strategies and Parameters to Predict
Maintenance of an Elevator System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
Jasmine Awatramani, Gaayan Verma, Nitasha Hasteer,
and Rahul Sindhwani
x Contents
30 Groundwater Recharge Using Artificial Filter Mechanism . . . . . . . . 333

Deepti Dohare
31 A Computational Technique to Generate Coupler Curve
Equation of 6-bar Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
Khalid Nafees, Mohd. Qamar Tanveer, Ajay Mahendru,
and Anil P. Singh
32 Analysis on Manufacturing Automated Guided Vehicle
for MSME Projects and Its Fabrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
Rishabh Chaturvedi, Anas Islam, and Aman Sharma
33 Design and Fabrication of Self-balanced Electric Two-Wheeler . . . . 367
Karanjot Singh, Jaydeep Singh, Amardeep,
Shailesh Kumar Singh, and Harshit Kumar
34 Use of Response Surface Methodology for Optimization
of Received Signal Strength for GSM Signals in Challenging
Atmospheric Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
Shilpa Choudhary, Abhishek Sharma, Mudita Vats, and Vidit Shukla
35 Structural Analysis and Completion of Fatigue Axial-Flow
Compressor Using Finite Element ANSYS Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
Rishabh Chaturvedi, Vikas Kumar Sharma, and Manoj Kumar
36 Deep Neural Network for Facial Emotion Recognition System . . . . . 397
Vimal Singh, Sonal Gandhi, Rajiv Kumar, Ramashankar Yadav,
and Shivani Joshi
37 An Analytical Study of Partial Replacement of Cement
and Quartz Sand by Feldspar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
Rajat Yadav, Ravindra Pratap Singh, and Kuwar Mausam
38 A Review of Pick and Place Operation Using Computer Vision
and ROS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
Aditya Mathur, Chetan Bansal, Sandeep Chauhan,
and Omprakash Yadav
39 Efficient Activated Metal Inert Gas Welding Procedures
by Various Fluxes for Welding Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
Aman Sharma, Rishabh Chaturvedi, and Pradeep Kumar Singh
40 Computational Analysis of Heat Transfer Characteristics
of TiO and CuO2 Mixed with Water for Heat Exchanger
Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
Anuj Gupta, Vinod Kumar Yadav, Rishabh Kumar,
and Nirbhay Singh Parmar
Contents xi
41 Investigation on Automobile Fire and Its Root Causes . . . . . . . . . . . . 445

Shailendra Singh Chauhan, Aditya Kumar Bhati, Mihir Tomar,
Pankaj Kumar Mavi, Siddharth Singh Gurjar, Yash Chauhan,
and S. S. Saxena
42 Examination and Analysis of Thermal Steam Boiler Using
Power Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
Pradeep Kumar Singh, Rishabh Chaturvedi, and Manoj Kumar
43 Study on the Development and Problems Faced in Electric
Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
Ankit Sharma, Dhruv Sethi, Ishu Kumar, Jatin Yadav,
Siddhant Bhatia, and Amardeep
44 Enhancing Heat Transfer Rate by Optimization
of Commercial Refrigeration Condenser and Its Design
Metrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
Anas Islam, Vikas Kumar Sharma, and Manish Saraswat
45 FPGA Implementation of Low Power Pre-processor Design
for Biomedical Signal Processing Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
Kirti, Harsh Sohal, and Shruti Jain
46 Design and Implementation of Smart Energy Meter
with Real-Time Pricing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499
Prem Chand Vashist and Ashish Tripathi
47 Optimization of Glass, Carbon and Graphite Fiber Mono
Composite Leaf Spring Using Genetic Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
Aatif Ameer, Vikas Tiwari, Vansh Pokhriyal, Alok Saxena,
Divakar Tiwari, and Ranjeet Kumar Singh
48 Prospects of bioCNG in Modified Diesel Engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519
Rahul Sharma, Amit Pal, and N. A. Ansari
Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539

Editors and Contributors
About the Editors
Veeredhi Vasudeva Rao holds Bachelor’s Degree in Mechanical Engineering and

Master’s Degree with specialization in Heat Transfer from Andhra University, India.
He holds a Doctoral Degree from the Indian Institute of Science (IISc) Bangalore,
India, with specialization in Heat Transfer from faculty of engineering. During his
studies at master’s and doctoral level, he was a recipient of (GATE) National Schol-
arship and Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) fellowships, respec-
tively. He was Postdoctoral Fellow at Nanyang Technological University, Singa-
pore. Formerly, he was Principal of SreeNidhi Institute of Science and Technology,
Hyderabad, India. He was also Director of Technology Development and Test center
(TDTC) recognized by Government of India. He has published more than 100
research papers in peer-reviewed National and International Journals of repute and
peer-reviewed conference proceedings. He has guided 4 Doctoral Research Scholars
and 25 master’s students for successful completion. He has presented several research
papers in international conference in India and the USA.
Dr. Adepu Kumaraswamy graduated in Mechanical Engineering from Kakatiya

University, Warangal, Telangana, India, in 1992 and received Master’s in Design and
Production Engineering from National Institute of Technology (NIT), Warangal, in
1995. Subsequently, he has pursued doctoral research work in the area of static
and dynamic indentation behavior of materials for defence applications at Osmania
University, Hyderabad, in 2008. He has authored 36 publications in reputed jour-
nals and good number of publications in various conferences. He was Principal
Investigator of three sponsored R&D projects in the area of tribological studies of
hydraulic seals, impact mechanics and high strain rate deformation behavior of mate-
rials for defence applications. He has 13 years of post-M.Tech. and 12 years of post-
Ph.D. teaching experience. He was Professor and Associate Dean (R&D) at SNIST
(autonomous institution), Hyderabad, during 2008–2010. He is currently Professor in
Mechanical Engineering, Head, Department of Technology Management, and Head,
Materials Management Group, Defence Institute of Advanced Technology (DU),
xiii
xiv Editors and Contributors
Pune, funded by Department of Defence R&D, Ministry of Defence, Government of

India. He has guided four Ph.Ds, one MS (R) and over fifty M.Tech. projects and
currently guiding six Ph.D. students.
Sahil Kalra was born in Kaithal, a small city in Haryana. He completed his B.Tech.
in Mechanical Engineering from Kurukshetra University in 2011. During his B.Tech.
degree, he received a full tuition fee waiver from the university. In his first attempt,
he qualified GATE exam with 96 percentile and joined M.Tech. in the Department
of Mechanical Engineering, NIT Jalandhar. Based on the performance, he was given
an opportunity to serve as Assistant Professor in the same institute. However, after
serving for one semester, he moved to IIT Kanpur as a full-time Ph.D. student.
There he worked on a research project sponsored by Space Application Centre,
Ahmedabad, Indian Space Research and Organization (ISRO). He worked jointly
with the ISRO scientists and developed a reconfigurable antenna for space applica-
tions. He defended his Ph.D. degree in May 2, 2019. From his Ph.D. research, he
has published four reputed International Journal articles, two patents and six confer-
ences, and symposiums. He is recipient of two international and two national awards
at different conferences and symposiums. He has been offered a prestigious fellow-
ship, namely Faculty in Science and Engineering, at the University of Groningen
(QS ranking 65) in the Netherlands (Europe). Currently, he is serving as Assistant
Professor in the Department of Mechanical Engineering, IIT Jammu. His research
interests are system dynamics and control, mechatronics, robotics, vibration control,
modal analysis, smart materials and smart structures. He is passionate about the algo-
rithm development for different finite element method-based engineering problems
and its solution using using Abaqus and MATLAB.
Dr. Ambuj Saxena completed his bachelor degree in Mechanical Engineering

Department from Uttar Pradesh Technical University, Lucknow (Uttar Pradesh),
India, in 2008. In his first attempt, he qualified GATE 2008 exam with 85.18 percentile
and completed Master’s degree in Mechanical Engineering from Dr. B R Ambedker
National Institute of Technology (NIT), Jalandhar, in 2011. Further, he was completed
his doctoral degree (Ph.D.) in the area of constitutive modelling and high strain rate
deformation behavior of armor steel weldments for defence applications at Defence
Institute of Advanced Technology (DIAT-DU), Pune, in 2019. He has completed his
doctoral work research experimentation at Defence Metallurgical Research Labora-
tory, Hyderabad. He has authored 21 SCI/SCIE and 5 Scopus publications in reputed
journals. He has published 3 research papers at the reputed international conference.
He is the reviewer of several international journals. He is currently working as an
Associate Professor in the Department of Mechanical Engineering, G. L. Bajaj Insti-
tute of Technology and Management, Greater Noida. He is a lifetime member of the
Indian Structural Integrity Society (InSIS).
Editors and Contributors xv
Contributors
Amardeep Department of Mechanical Engineering, GL Bajaj Institute of Tech-

nology and Management, Greater Noida, India
Aatif Ameer G.L. Bajaj Institute of Technology and Management, Greater Noida,
UP, India
M. A. Ansari Department of Electrical Engineering, Gautam Buddha University,
Greater Noida, India
N. A. Ansari Department of Mechanical Engineering, Delhi Technological Univer-
sity, Delhi, India
Jasmine Awatramani Amity University, Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
Navneet Singh Baghel Department of Mechanical Engineering, G.L Bajaj Institute
of Technology and Management Greater Noida, Greater Noida, India
Harshit Bahri Department of Mechanical Engineering, G. L. Bajaj Institute of
Technology and Management, Greater Noida, UP, India
Ashish Bansal Department of Mechanical Engineering, G.L Bajaj Institute of
Technology and Management Greater Noida, Greater Noida, India
Chetan Bansal Department of Mechanical Engineering, G L Bajaj Institute of
Technology and Management, Greater Noida, India
Mohit Bansal G. L. Bajaj Institute of Technology & Management, Greater Noida,
U.P., India
Aditya Kumar Bhati Department of Mechanical Engineering, G.L. Bajaj Institute
of Technology & Management, Greater Noida, India
Siddhant Bhatia Department of Mechanical Engineering, GL Bajaj Institute of
Rishabh Chaturvedi IET Department of Mechanical Engineering, GLA Univer-
sity, Mathura, Uttar Pradesh, India
Pankaj Kumar Chauhan Department of Mechanical Engineering, Jamia Millia
Islamia, New Delhi, India
Sandeep Chauhan Department of Mechanical Engineering, G. L. Bajaj Institute
Shailendra Singh Chauhan Department of Mechanical Engineering, G.L. Bajaj
Institute of Technology & Management, Greater Noida, India
Vinit Chauhan Department of Mechanical Engineering, The NorthCap University,
Gurugram, Haryana, India
xvi Editors and Contributors
Yash Chauhan Department of Mechanical Engineering, G.L. Bajaj Institute of

Technology & Management, Greater Noida, India
Ankit Chhonkar Department of Mechanical Engineering, G.L Bajaj Institute of
Shilpa Choudhary Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering,
GL Bajaj Institute of Technology and Management, Greater Noida, UP, India
Priyanka Datta G. L. Bajaj Institute of Technology & Management, Greater Noida,
U.P., India
Deepti Dohare GL Bajaj Institute of Technology and Management, Greater Noida,
India
Shama Farozan Aryabhatta Center for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, Aryab-
hatta Knowledge University, Patna, Bihar, India
Sonal Gandhi G L Bajaj Institute of Technology and Management, Greater Noida,
India
Vinamra Kumar Govil EE Department, I.E.T Lucknow, Lucknow, India
Anuj Gupta Department of Mechanical Engineering, Vishveshwarya Group of
Institutions, Dadri, UP, India
Deepa Gupta Department of Management Studies, G.L. Bajaj Institute of Manage-
ment & Research, A.P.J. Abdul Kalam Technical University, Gautam Buddha Nagar,
India
Shorya Gupta Department of Mechanical Engineering, Amity University, Noida,
Uttar Pradesh, India
Shradha Gupta Department of Applied Sciences, GL Bajaj Institute of Technology
and Management, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
Tarun Kumar Gupta Department of Mechanical Engineering, G. L. Bajaj Institute
Siddharth Singh Gurjar Department of Mechanical Engineering, G.L. Bajaj Insti-
tute of Technology & Management, Greater Noida, India
Mohammad Hanief Mechanical Engineering Department, National Institute of
Technology, Srinagar, India
Nitasha Hasteer Amity University, Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
Anas Islam IET Department of Mechanical Engineering, GLA University,
Mathura, India
Shruti Jain Department of ECE, Jaypee University of Information Technology,
Solan, HP, India
Editors and Contributors xvii
Mayank Shekhar Jha Centre de Recherche en Automatique de Nancy, Université

de Lorraine, Nancy, France
Shivani Joshi G L Bajaj Institute of Technology and Management, Greater Noida,
India
Sahil Kalra Indian Institute of Technology Jammu, Jammu & Kashmir, India
Shivendra Kaura G. L. Bajaj Institute of Technology & Management, Greater
Noida, U.P., India
Sabah Khan Department of Mechanical Engineering, Jamia Millia Islamia, New
Delhi, India
Aditya Kumar G.L. Bajaj Institute of Technology and Management, Greater
Noida, India
Deepak Kumar Indian Institute of Technology Jammu, Jammu & Kashmir, India
Harshit Kumar Department of Mechanical Engineering, Dronacharya Group of
Institutions, Greater Noida, India
Ishu Kumar Department of Mechanical Engineering, GL Bajaj Institute of Tech-
Kuldeep Kumar GL Bajaj Institute of Technology and Management, Greater
Noida, U.P., India
Manoj Kumar Greater Noida Institute of Technology, Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
Nagendra Kumar G. L. Bajaj Institute of Technology & Management, Greater
Noida, UP, India
Pradeep Kumar G. L. Bajaj Institute of Technology & Management, Greater
Noida, UP, India
Rajiv Kumar G L Bajaj Institute of Technology and Management, Greater Noida,
India
Rishabh Kumar Department of Mechanical Engineering, G. L. Bajaj Institute of
Singh Sonu Kumar Aryabhatta Center for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology,
Aryabhatta Knowledge University, Patna, Bihar, India
Rohit Singh Lather Department of Mechanical Engineering, The NorthCap
University, Gurugram, Haryana, India
Ajay Mahendru Department of Mechanical Engineering, Inderprastha Engi-
neering College, Ghaziabad, India
Pranav Malhotra Department of Mechanical Engineering, Amity University,
Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
xviii Editors and Contributors
Aditya Mathur Department of Mechanical Engineering, G L Bajaj Institute of

Akanksha Mathur Department of Mechanical Engineering, The NorthCap Univer-
sity, Gurugram, Haryana, India
Bajrangi Maurya G.L. Bajaj Institute of Technology and Management, Greater
Noida, India
Kuwar Mausam IET Department of Mechanical Engineering, GLA University,
Mathura, India
Pankaj Kumar Mavi Department of Mechanical Engineering, G.L. Bajaj Institute
Maninder Meenu Centre for Agricultural Research and Innovation, GNDU,
Amritsar, India
Rajat Mehrotra Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering, GL Bajaj
Tushar Mehta Department of Mechanical Engineering, The NorthCap University,
Puneet Kumar Mishra ECE Department, G.L. Bajaj Institute of Technology and
Management, Greater Noida, UP, India
Shivam Mishra G. L. Bajaj Institute of Technology & Management, Greater Noida,
UP, India
Shivi Mittal Department of Management Studies, G.L. Bajaj Institute of Tech-
nology & Management, A.P.J. Abdul Kalam Technical University, Greater Noida,
India
Khalid Nafees Department of Mechanical Engineering, Inderprastha Engineering
College, Ghaziabad, India
Amit Pal Department of Mechanical Engineering, Delhi Technological University,
Delhi, India
Nirbhay Singh Parmar Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indus Institute of
Technology and Management, Kanpur, UP, India
Sachin Patel G.L. Bajaj Institute of Technology and Management, Greater Noida,
India
Vansh Pokhriyal G.L. Bajaj Institute of Technology and Management, Greater
Noida, UP, India
Ponam Bhagwant University Ajmer, Rajasthan, India
Brijesh Prasad G. L. Bajaj Institute of Technology & Management, Greater Noida,
UP, India
Editors and Contributors xix
Om Priya Aryabhatta Center for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, Aryabhatta

Knowledge University, Patna, Bihar, India
Amrita Rai ECE Department, G.L. Bajaj Institute of Technology and Management,
Greater Noida, UP, India
Pooja Rani G L Bajaj Institute of Technology and Management, Greater Noida,
UP, India
Ritwick Rawat G.L. Bajaj Institute of Technology and Management, Greater
Noida, India
Rajesh Rohilla Delhi Technological University, Delhi, India
Manish Saraswat Department of Mechanical Engineering, ABES Engineering
College, Ghaziabad, UP, India
Harendra Kumar Satyapal Aryabhatta Center for Nanoscience and Nanotech-
nology, Aryabhatta Knowledge University, Patna, Bihar, India
Alok Saxena G.L. Bajaj Institute of Technology and Management, Greater Noida,
UP, India
Pooja Saxena G. L. Bajaj Institute of Technology and Management, Greater Noida,
UP, India
S. S. Saxena Air Commodore VSM, Auto Wings Training and Consultancy Centre,
Dhruv Sethi Department of Mechanical Engineering, GL Bajaj Institute of Tech-
Shantanu G.L. Bajaj Institute of Technology and Management, Greater Noida,
India
Abhishek Sharma Department of Mechanical Engineering, GL Bajaj Institute of
Aman Sharma IET Department of Mechanical Engineering, GLA University,
Mathura, India
Anil Kumar Sharma Department of Mathematics, SPC Degree College, Baghpat,
Ankit Sharma Department of Mechanical Engineering, GL Bajaj Institute of
Bhupendra Prakash Sharma Department of Mechanical Engineering, Amity
University, Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
Devesh Sharma Department of Mechanical Engineering, G.L Bajaj Institute of
xx Editors and Contributors
Himanshu Sharma Department of Mechanical Engineering, G.L Bajaj Institute of

Kailash Sharma G. L. Bajaj Institute of Technology & Management, Greater
Noida, UP, India
Mayank Sharma GL Bajaj Institute of Technology and Management, Greater
Noida, U.P., India
Rahul Sharma Department of Mechanical Engineering, G.L Bajaj Institute of
Rahul Sharma Department of Mechanical Engineering, The NorthCap University,
Sanjeev Sharma Department of Physics, GL Bajaj Institute of Technology and
Management, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India;
Department of Applied Sciences, GL Bajaj Institute of Technology and Management,
Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
Saurabh Sharma Aryabhatta Center for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, Aryab-
hatta Knowledge University, Patna, Bihar, India
Vikas Kumar Sharma IET Department of Mechanical Engineering, GLA Univer-
sity, Mathura, India
Prashant Shukla Amity Institute for Advanced Research and Studies (M&D),
Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Sec 125, Noida, UP, India
Vidit Shukla Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, GL
Bajaj Institute of Technology and Management, Greater Noida, UP, India
C. Shylaja ECE Department, G.L. Bajaj Institute of Technology and Management,
Rahul Sindhwani Department of Mechanical Engineering, Amity University,
Anil P. Singh Department of Mechanical Engineering, Inderprastha Engineering
College, Ghaziabad, India
Harkirat Singh Department of Mechanical Engineering, Amity University, Noida,
Harvendra Singh Department of Mechanical Engineering, G. L. Bajaj Institute of
Jaydeep Singh Department of Mechanical Engineering, Dronacharya Group of
Karanjot Singh Department of Mechanical Engineering, Dronacharya Group of
Editors and Contributors xxi
Kaushalendra Kumar Singh Department of Mechanical Engineering, G. L. Bajaj

Institute of Technology and Management, Greater Noida, UP, India
Parshuram Singh Bhagwant University Ajmer, Rajasthan, India
Pradeep Kumar Singh IET Department of Mechanical Engineering, GLA Univer-
sity, Mathura, Uttar Pradesh, India
Prince Kumar Singh GL Bajaj Institute of Technology and Management, Greater
Noida, U.P., India
Priyanka Singh Department of Mechanical Engineering, Amity University, Noida,
Ranjeet Kumar Singh G.L. Bajaj Institute of Technology and Management,
Ravindra Pratap Singh IET Department of Mechanical Engineering, GLA
University, Mathura, India
Shailesh Kumar Singh Department of Mechanical Engineering, Dronacharya
Group of Institutions, Greater Noida, India
Vimal Singh G L Bajaj Institute of Technology and Management, Greater Noida,
India
Harsh Sohal Department of ECE, Jaypee University of Information Technology,
Solan, HP, India
Ashish Kumar Srivastava GL Bajaj Institute of Technology and Management,
Greater Noida, U.P., India
Prabhat Srivastava Shri Venkateshwara University, Gajraula, Uttar Pradesh, India
Priyank Srivastava Department of Mechanical Engineering, Amity University,
Vishal Shankar Srivastava Department of Mechanical Engineering, G. L. Bajaj
Mohd. Qamar Tanveer Department of Mechanical Engineering, Inderprastha
Engineering College, Ghaziabad, India
Divakar Tiwari G.L. Bajaj Institute of Technology and Management, Greater
Noida, UP, India
Rajesh Tiwari Department of Applied Science (Physics), ABES, Ghaziabad, Uttar
Pradesh, India
Vikas Tiwari G.L. Bajaj Institute of Technology and Management, Greater Noida,
UP, India
Mihir Tomar Department of Mechanical Engineering, G.L. Bajaj Institute of
Technology & Management, Greater Noida, India
xxii Editors and Contributors
Ashish Tripathi Department of Information Technology, G. L. Bajaj Institute of

Technology and Management, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
Pragati Tripathi Department of Electrical Engineering, Gautam Buddha Univer-
sity, Greater Noida, India
Prem Chand Vashist Department of Information Technology, G. L. Bajaj Institute
of Technology and Management, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India;
CST, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
Mudita Vats Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, GL
Bajaj Institute of Technology and Management, Greater Noida, UP, India
Aman Verma GL Bajaj Institute of Technology and Management, Greater Noida,
U.P., India
Gaayan Verma Amity University, Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
Vimal Department of Physics, GL Bajaj Institute of Technology and Management,
Himanshu Yadav GL Bajaj Institute of Technology and Management, Greater
Noida, U.P., India
Jatin Yadav Department of Mechanical Engineering, GL Bajaj Institute of Tech-
Omprakash Yadav Department of Mechanical Engineering, G L Bajaj Institute of
Rajat Yadav IET Department of Mechanical Engineering, GLA University,
Mathura, India
Ramashankar Yadav G L Bajaj Institute of Technology and Management, Greater
Noida, India
Vinod Kumar Yadav Department of Mechanical Engineering, G. L. Bajaj Institute
of Technology and Management, Greater Noida, UP, India
Chapter 1
Damage Detection in Eggshell Using
Lamb Waves
Sahil Kalra, Maninder Meenu, and Deepak Kumar
Abstract The application of Lamb waves is gaining attention in the scientific

community for diagnosing defects in the thin-walled structures. The lamb waves have
also been extensively employed in the aerospace, civil, and mechanical industries
for detection of damage especially in the thin-walled plate or cylindrical structures.
In the same direction, we have explored the application of Lamb waves in crack
detection of chicken’s egg. Eggshell is primarily composed of calcium carbonate
(CaCO3 ) stabilized by a protein matrix. This protein matrix provides mechanical
strength to the CaCO3 layer. The eggshell damage while laying and transportation
is a major problem faced by the poultry industry. Eggshell damage also results in
major economic loss as the cracked eggs must be discarded while sorting and selling.
The cracked eggshells have been identified manually which is a laborious and time-
consuming process. Thus, for rapid and efficient detection of eggshell cracks various
digital imaging-based algorithms, X-ray and gamma, optical transmission, nuclear
magnetic resonance (NMR) and electrical properties-based techniques have been
developed. However, the application of Lamb waves for the detection of eggshell
crack has not been explored till now. This is the first study that reports the application
of Lamb waves for detecting cracks in the eggshell. This technique is economical
compared to other available techniques. We have carried out finite element (FE)
modelling and simulations on the chicken eggshells. In order to capture the wave
passing through the shell, we have calculated the minimum element size requirement
for a given FE mesh and the time increments required to capture the wave in the shell.
The simulation results show the accurate detection of eggshell cracks. This technique
has a great potential to be employed at an industrial scale for sorting of the cracked
and intact eggs.
S. Kalra (B) · D. Kumar

Indian Institute of Technology Jammu, Jammu & Kashmir, India
e-mail: sahil.kalra@iitjammu.ac.in
M. Meenu
Centre for Agricultural Research and Innovation, GNDU, Amritsar, India
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 1
V. V. Rao et al. (eds.), Computational and Experimental Methods in Mechanical
Engineering, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 239,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2857-3_1
2 S. Kalra et al.
1.1 Introduction
Shell is an outer layer present in many agri-food products. The main function of the
outer shell is to protect the inner food content from bacterial contamination. The food
materials such as various fruits, dry fruits, seafood and eggs contain outer shells. The
damage or crack in their shells while harvesting, laying eggs and transportation is a
major problem that leads to bacterial contamination of these food materials which, in
turn, rapidly degrade the food quality. Consumption of these poor-quality food items
reported to impose several adverse effects on human health. Hence, there is an imme-
diate demand for identifying and sorting these damaged and poor-quality food items.
However, manual inspection is time consuming and laborious process. Thus, in litera-
ture, several state-of-the-art technologies and automation systems have been reported
for detecting and sorting poor quality and damaged food items. Various nondestruc-
tive evaluation (NDE) techniques are used to estimate the defect in the shell structure
[1–3]. The conventional NDE methods are based on optical or ultrasonic-based tech-
niques. These techniques are the approximate methods. When the location of the
defect is known these techniques may be applied directly over a region of interest.
In this direction, the damage detection using Lamb wave for structural health moni-
toring is an emerging technology. It is an efficient technique for the damage detection
for the thin structures.
In this paper, we have discussed the proof of concept for the application of Lamb
wave to find the defect in the egg shells. Eggshell is a very delicate structure and
faces many problems while laying, handling and transportation. The major problems
associated with egg quality include shell defects and internal defects. These defects
can be broadly categorized into three groups, namely, defects affecting yolk quality,
defects affecting albumin quality and defects affecting the overall quality [4]. Egg
quality defects are usually resolved easily; however, these quality and defect issues
may result in economic losses if they are not addressed quickly. The shells are
generally reported to have three types of cracks, namely, gross cracks, star cracks,
and hairline cracks [5].
The NDE method using the Lamb wave is capable to investigate defects in a
structure without prior information of the location of a defect which makes this
technology superior compared to the other present state of the art. This technique also
enables the rapid inspection of eggs without disassembly of the structure. Moreover,
this method can also be applied to various types of defects by adjusting the frequency
of the wave. The vibration approach may be used to detect such defects by comparing
the dynamic behaviour of the cracked and uncracked shells. However, using the
vibrational approach, it is unable to detect the defect if it is very small compared
to the size of the structure. Thus, the wave propagation approach is a much more
efficient method as it can detect a small and hidden defect in the structures.
1 Damage Detection in Eggshell Using Lamb Waves 3
1.2 Lamb Wave Analysis in Thin Shell Structures
Lamb waves were discovered by Horace Lamb and published in the book “Lamb
wave theory” in 1917 [6]. The Lamb wave theory was inspired by the work of
Lord Rayleigh on Rayleigh waves (1889) [7]. These waves are the guided elastic
waves produced from the restoring forces which occur between particles of the
material when they are displaced elastically. On excitation, the waves influence the
characteristic properties of the material by changing the stress and velocity inside the
material. These waves travel on the surface of the material or through the thickness
of the material if the thickness is very less compared to the length and width of the
material. They remain guided between two parallel surfaces. Lamb waves are plain
strain waves occurring in free plate-like structures, ultimately removing the traction
forces effect on the face of the structure. Lamb waves produce stress in the material on
excitation, which is distributed throughout the material and over the entire thickness.
The defect in the material disturbs the wave profile that, in turn, alters the stress
distribution and affects the impulse signal, which is sensed by the sensor and can be
visualized from the sensor response [8–12].
Considering the thickness d, Lamb waves follow the following characteristic
equations:

tanh βd 2 4αβk 2
= 2 for symmetric mode (1.1)
tanh αd 2 k2 + β2

2 2
tanh βd 2 k + β2
= for asymmetric mode (1.2)
tanh αd 2 4αβk 2
ω2 ω2
where, α 2 = k 2 − and β 2
= k 2
−
cl2 ct2
where ω is the angular frequency, k is the wave number, cl is the longitudinal wave
velocity and ct is the transverse wave velocity.
1.3 Finite Element Analysis of Eggshell Using Lamb Waves
We have chicken’s egg as a sample material, and the eggshell was a thin surface. The
objective of this study was to detect any crack on the eggshell. We have modelled an
eggshell for the crack detection, keeping its shell as the original target of application.
As an important part of this study, a considerable amount of work has been done
by performing an FE analysis of a sample egg by using appropriate dimensions
mentioned in the literature. The work includes the establishment of a wave source
4 S. Kalra et al.
and wave propagation from this actuation point to a sensor point both in case of an
intact and cracked egg sample. The egg is assumed to have a symmetricity along its
volumetric central point, and the shell is considered to be a curved plate.
The investigation is carried out using Abaqus modelling and simulation software
[13]. Abaqus uses the finite element method to simulate the model in which mate-
rials’ elastic modulus is one of the important parameters. In case of eggshell, the
elastic modulus has been measured by several authors, both for static [14–18] as
well as dynamic conditions [19, 20]. The prior knowledge of these crucial mechan-
ical properties of biological materials would help to create a precise model and hence
the improved quality of results. For the present study, the geometry of hen’s egg was
retrieved from the literature of Severa et al. [20] and the concept of applying mathe-
matical modelling in food is inspired by Meenu et al. [21]. The finite element analysis
simulation is done on an eggshell of identical dimensions, one without defect and
the other with an elliptical hole as a defect.
1.4 Material Properties and Element Size
Dimensions of Oval: Shown in Fig. 1.1.

Material Properties: Elasticity modulus = 40 GPa.
Poisson’s ratio = 0.29.
Density = 8027 kg/m3
Fig. 1.1 Geometry of egg

for modelling in Abaqus

Speed of the wave, c L = E
ρ
Loading: Impulse signal as a concentrated load on the exciter.

Boundary conditions: U1 = U2 = U3 = 0 on edge surfaces of the plate
Elastic propagation speed: c L = 3162 m/s.
Abaqus uses the finite element method to simulate the models in which the model
is divided into finite elements, and the operation is performed on each element to
get the required solution. While doing wave propagation, the element size and the
increment time are important factors to be taken care of, as they influence the final
solution.
Time increment size should be sufficient enough to capture the smallest natural
period of interest, and element size should be taken such that it can capture the
wavelength, but it should not be so small that the wave crosses one element in one
increment. Element size can be determined based on the wavelength of impulse.
Wavelength of impulse ∼ 2 × cL × dt = 2 × 3162 × 10E − 6 = 2 × 6598 × 2E − 6 =
2.6E − 2 m
Hence, element size = 1E−3 m is appropriate
mesh element size 0.001

Critical time increment = = = 1.5E − 7 s
theoritical elastic propagation speed 6598
Hence, the maximum increment time step = 1E−7 s is found to be appropriate.

Figures 1.2 and 1.3 show different meshed models of intact and defected eggs
with sensory nodes at different locations of the egg. Out of these nodes, one node
is considered as actuator node which sends the input signal to the eggshell which is
sensed at the sensory node as the output signal (Fig. 1.4).
Fig. 1.2 Healthy egg with

axis-symmetric problem and
mesh Sensory
Nodes
Actuator
Node
6 S. Kalra et al.
Fig. 1.3 Egg with hair line

defect and axis-symmetric
Sensory
geometry
Nodes
Bend in
Eggshell
Actuator
Node
Fig. 1.4 Input signal sent to Input Signal

1
the eggshell
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
Amplitude
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Time -4
10
1.5 Post-processing of Finite Element Results
The input impulse signal, boundary conditions, along with required geometric and
material parameters are implemented on the Finite Element model of the eggshell.
The problem is considered as axis-symmetric case. To post-process the results,
various frames of field output data are requested during simulation so that the prop-
agation pattern can be observed. The displacement data on the top sensor node
(Fig. 1.3) obtained are acquired from Abaqus and plotted in Matlab. The simula-
tion results show that for the case of hairline crack, significant attenuation is clearly
observed in the magnitude of the output signal, which is due to scattering around the
defect. The difference in the propagation pattern is also clearly visible as shown in
Fig. 1.5.
Fig. 1.5 Output signal

received on one of the
sensory nodes
1.6 Conclusion and Future Scope
The results from the Finite Element simulation show a significant difference in the
output signal received from intact and hairline cracked egg. The simulations may
be validated for different types of cracks. In future, this non-destructive technology
may be validated experimentally. The results from Finite Element simulations may
also be validated experimentally. In future, this technique may be implemented to
sort and differentiate the defected and intact eggs on the industrial scale.
References
1. Meenu, M., Cai, Q., Xu, B.: A critical review on analytical techniques to detect adulteration of
extra virgin olive oil. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 91, 391–408 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.tifs.2019.07.045
2. Meenu, M., Kamboj, U., Sharma, A., Guha, P., Mishra, S.: Green method for determination
of phenolic compounds in mung bean (Vigna radiata L.) based on near-infrared spectroscopy
and chemometrics. Int. J. Food Sci. Technol. 51(12), 2520–2527 (2016). doi:https://doi.org/
10.1111/ijfs.13232
3. Meenu, M., Xu, B.: Application of vibrational spectroscopy for classification, authentication
and quality analysis of mushroom: a concise review. Food Chem. 289, 545–557 (2019). https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2019.03.091
4. EPF and NZFS: Egg producers federation of New Zealand (Inc) code of practice (includes
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ion/egg-cop/discussion-paper/egg-cop-ch1.pdf
5. Elaroussi, M.A., et al.: Calcium homeostasis in the laying hen:1. age and dietary calcium
effects. Poult. Sci. 73(10), 1581–1589 (1994)
6. Lamb, H.: On waves in an elastic plate. Proc. R. Soc. A Math. Phys. Eng. Sci. 93, 114–128
(1917)
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7. Rayleigh, L.: Waves propagated along the plane surface of an elastic solid. Proc. Lond. Math.
Soc. 20, 225–234 (1889)
8. Han, S.: Finite element analysis of lamb wave propagation in a thin aluminium plate. MS thesis
Air Force Institute of Technology AU, Wright Patterson AFB, Ohio (2007)
9. Yu, L., Zhongqing, Su.: Application of Kernel density estimation in lamb wave-based damage
detection. Math. Probl. Eng. 2012(20), 1–24 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/406521
10. Alleyne, D.N., Cawley, P.: The interaction of lamb waves with defects. IEEE Tran. Ultrason.
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11. Wang, Q., Jing, X.: Lamb wave tomography technique for crack damage detection. In: Proceed-
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studies for damage detection in an aluminium and a composite plate using geodesic algorithm.
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13. ABAQUS Inc.: ABAQUS Analysis User’s Manual, Version 6.6. ABAQUS Inc., Providence,
RI (2006)
14. Lin, J., Fajardo, T.A., Puri, V.M., Anantheswaran, R.C., Macneil, J.H.: Measurement of
mechanical and thermal properties for eggshell quality determination. ASAE Paper, St Joseph,
MI, No. 93-6503 (1993)
15. Dhanoa, P.S., Puri, V.M., Anantheswaran, R.C.: Thermal and mechanical properties of eggshell
under different treatments. Trans. ASAE 39(3), 999–1004 (1996)
16. Buchar, J., Simeonovova, J.: On the identification of the eggshell elastic properties under
quasistatic compression. In: 19th CAD—FEM Users Meeting 2001, International Congress on
FEM Technology, pp. 17–19. Potsdam, Berlin (2001)
17. De Ketelaere, B., Govaerts, T., Coucke, P., Dewil, E., Visscher, J., Decuypere, E., De Baerde-
maker, J.: Measuring the eggshell strength of 6 different genetic strains of laying hens:
techniques and comparisons. Br. Poult. Sci. 43, 238–244 (2002)
18. Kemps, B., De Ketelaere, B., Bamelis, F., Govaerts, T., Mertens, K., Kamers, B., Tona, K.,
Decuypere, E., Bardemaeker, B.: Development of a methodology for the calculation of young’s
modulus of eggshell using vibration measurements. Biosys. Eng. 89(2), 215–221 (2004)
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grain based on IR heating. Int. J. Model. Simul. Sci. Comput. 08(02), 1740001 (2017). https://
doi.org/10.1142/s1793962317400013
Chapter 2
Study of Steering System for an Electric
Trike-Ackerman Steering
Sachin Patel, Ritwick Rawat, Shantanu, Aditya Kumar, and Amardeep
Abstract In small towns and cities, we need a lightweight vehicle to travel from one
place to another. Every time we use a vehicle that has complex component assembly
which uses a lot more amount of fuel because of the overall weight, and also because
of complex steering systems, we have to put up some extra steering effort to give
direction to our vehicle. Using a simple steering mechanism/system results in overall
weight reduction, low manufacturing cost and low maintenance cost for the user. In
this paper, the focus has been put on the simple design of the steering system based on
Ackerman steering mechanism considering the factors that are related to the overall
weight of the vehicle, driver’s safety, easy maintenance and low cost.
2.1 Introduction
Reduction of vehicle weight is a recommended strategy to address growing concerns

about emissions of greenhouse gases and fuel consumption. Generally, if we talk
about a steering system, the things that come to our mind are rack and pinion arrange-
ment/mechanism, and for steering control, we generally use universal joints and
steering wheel which results in overall weight increment of vehicle. Using a simple
steering mechanism/system can help us to cut off a lot of weight as compared to other
complex steering systems used nowadays. Steering is needed to guide the vehicle in
the desired direction. While turning, the wheel nearer to the centre of rotation are
known as inner wheels, and the wheels farther from the centre are known as outer
wheels. Ackerman steering is a basic concept that while turning around a corner, the
inner tire must turn at a greater angle than the outside tire. But in racing, it gets more
complex because not only do the wheels have to turn at a proper angle to propel
the vehicle around the corner but also they must consider the proper slip angles
required for the maximum tire lateral force. Without understanding these principles,
S. Patel · R. Rawat · Shantanu · A. Kumar · Amardeep (B)

G.L. Bajaj Institute of Technology and Management, Greater Noida, India
e-mail: amardeep.college@gmail.com
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2857-3_3
10 S. Patel et al.
Fig. 2.1 The Ackerman turn

centre [1]
Fig. 2.2 Ackerman centre

and centre of rotation [2]
the vehicle would not be able to maintain traction and speed while taking a turn on
the corner which is shown in Fig. 2.1 [1] (Fig. 2.2).
2.2 Steering System and Mechanisms
The steering system starts with a steering wheel or a handle to give input. Driver’s
input from the steering wheel is passed through a shaft followed by a system of gear
reduction, frequency rack and pinion, ball bearings or multiplication of ball bearings.
It pulls the steering gear to the unruly wheels to produce movement in the direction of
the direction. The steer of each wheels is controlled by the steering arm. The steering
arm is attached to a wheelbarrow that controls the key, key lock, and harp. For some
cars, it is an integral part of a one-piece harp and a driving punch. To achieve optimal
mobility, a minimum operating length of 35 must be given on the front wheels of the
passenger cars [3]. Two traditional mechanisms that are used till date are Rack and
Pinion and Recirculating ball steering.
2 Study of Steering System for an Electric Trike-Ackerman Steering 11
Fig. 2.3 Rack and pinion

steering system [5]
2.3 Rack and Pinion
Rack and pinion steering as shown in Fig. 2.3 is the most common type of movement
control systems in cars, small trucks and SUVs. The rack and pinion machine is when
we open the steering wheel; the gear will change, moving rack. The tie rod connects
to the steering arm, which is attached to the spinning rope. The purpose of Rack and
Pinion gear is to rotate the steering wheel in a straight line. It allows gear reduction,
which results in the easier wheel turning [4].
2.4 Variable Ratio Steering
Rack subtype and pinion gear steering is a variable ratio steering. This method of
alignment has a different value for the height of the teeth in the middle than at the
edges. This makes the steering wheel less sensitive when the steering wheel is close
to the center. And when it turns on the building, the wheels are very sensitive to the
circular motion of the steering wheel [4].
2.5 Re-circulating Ball/Steering Box
Re-circulating Ball Steering is shown in Fig. 2.4 and is the most commonly used
steering system in heavy automobiles [6]. It runs on Parallelogram linkage, in which
• The Pitman and Idler arm remains parallel.
• The mechanism absorbs heavy shock loads and vibrations.
The mechanism of the Re-circulating ball is
(i) When the steering wheel is rotated, the rod turns.
(ii) When the wheel spins, the block moves.
(iii) The block moves another gear that in turn moves the Pitman arm.
12 S. Patel et al.
Fig. 2.4 Recirculating ball steering system [7]
(iv) The ball bearings in the threads re-circulate through the gear as it turns.
2.6 Sources of Ackerman
Ackerman distinguishes between direct and circular movements. The directional

inputs move in sequence while the directional/spinning/wheel/wheel rotates around
the steering axis, also called the kingpin axis. Directional guess is the line drawn
from the kingpin axis using directional arm keeping the height constant, and if the
steering wheel is the same as the center line of the vehicle, then both the directional
angles will be the same and there will be 0% Ackerman. By carefully selecting the
angles, we can use the emerging Ackermann [8]. If the steering rod is indefinitely
longer or too long, this will be Ackerman’s only source, but since the binding rods
are limited, they represent the second source of circular motion, as the wheel rotates,
the angle of the binding rod, as it is clearly visible, it should change as the point
of the binding rod moves in length. The main movement goes later, but there is the
second movement in length, and Ackerman is the result of a second order.
2.7 Ackerman Principle and Steering Geometry
For true rolling of the vehicle on a turn or a curved track, lines drawn with each
wheel axis must pass through the instantaneous centre. The instantaneous centre
position is constantly changing due to the change in the angular position of the
front wheel to adjust the direction of the directed vehicle. Since both rear wheels
Fig. 2.5 Ackerman drive

schematics [10]
are positioned in the same axis but the front axles are independent of each other,
the current operating instantaneous center lies somewhere in a hypothetical line
created by being pulled by the rear axles axis. Figure 2.5 shows the Ackerman drive
schematics. Ackermann’s principle is based on two front wheels with axles blown
along the axle beam. Ackermann’s original coupling has the same track-rod-arms so
that both sensing wheels rotate at equal angles. As a result, the intersecting lines do
not intersect at the same time. If both front wheels are free to follow their natural
paths, they can come together and eventually cross over. As the car spins in the
same direction, both wheels constantly collide and cause the tire to slip and slip. The
subsequent modification connects using the track arms so that the inner wheels rotate
around its kingpin slightly than the outer wheel. So, the lines drawn on the stub-axles
meet in one place at a time by guessing the background axis [9]. The idea behind
the Ackerman mechanism is that the outer wheel, i.e., the wheel closer to ICR must
turn at a greater angle and thus moves with a slower speed while taking a turn [10].
2.8 Prototype
This prototype in Fig. 2.6 shows the basic four-bar linkage used in the Ackerman
steering mechanism. This prototype was printed on a 3D printing machine. The
prototype was verified by observing the linear displacement of link CD and link GH
when the link FH is pulled to rotate mid-plate DEG [11] (Fig. 2.7).
14 S. Patel et al.
Fig. 2.6 Steering system prototype [11]
Fig. 2.7 Steering system overall geometry [11, 12]
2.9 Literature Survey
Wei et al. [13] have learned the powerful and dynamic aspects of the planetary
connection process with permissions. Both movement accuracy and road stability
have been improved. They also studied the effect of the system and the vibrations
caused by the permission to connect the rod. After all these studies, they successfully
detected the vibration of the rod caused by the permit. The numerical method is used to
analyse the effect of the permit value on the powerful signals of the direction system,
providing support for the theory of pinion formation and rack steering mechanism.
Then they work on different system motion equations and find the amount of variable
torque on the kingpin [14]. To increase the parameters of the objectives and to
determine the size of the defined vehicle equipment, a genetic algorithm method
was also used to summarize the size of the machine components, which were set as
specific requirements, that were considered. They then work on the error operation
that gives the business value at its fair value. After the completion of the error
correction, they had performed a kinematic analysis of the correction method, with a
well-executed magnitude, performed to confirm the results obtained in operation. The
analysis was performed on the Multibody Simulation Software MSC-ADAMS, and

the appropriate parameters were applied to the model to mimic the actual degrees of
system freedom. Results of ADAMS were sent to MS Excel with appropriate graphs.
The performance of a well-designed machine is compared to the construction of an
existing train, and the result is a Steering and Tie Rod Displacement Error [15].
They suggested that the hand-operated joystick replace four-wheel drive models and
show, for example, that this method works to improve mobility. In fact, they have
shown that the differential gear mechanism works like a one-handed joystick. This
made it easy to change locomotion mode easily. The rear-wheel drive has produced
brake work without the use of special components such as discs, shoe pads or locking
devices. Dipal Kumar Koladia studied mathematical models to design rack and pinion
type of Ackerman steering geometry. He studied that by applying and solving three
equations of mathematical model for any vehicle, rack and pinion type of Ackerman
steering geometry can be designed for any vehicle [16]. Thirugnanam et al. [17]
studied the different lifting mechanisms and concluded that, compared with other
lifting mechanisms, no separate room is required for rack and pinion lift mechanisms.
They are compact and save effort and time. Parvez et al. [18] conducted a case study
in the existing column of the passenger car. That was a solid column in the event of a
crash transferring power directly to the driver causing serious injury or damage. So,
they fix the solid column with a collapsing steering column so that it is built securely.
Wins et al. [19] take into account the fact that risks are increasing on a daily basis.
In view of the strength of the damage to the steering wheel, they suggest that the
construction of safety wheels be built. Pneumatic collapsible steering production is
also less expensive and can achieve more comfort by increasing the gas or air pressure
in it. They have made them more sensitive to the use of sensors and provided a more
efficient airbag. Some more literature surveys are shown in Table 2.1.
2.10 Conclusion
• This type of steering system (Ackerman steering system) is easy to design and
manufacture as compared to rack and pinion type steering system.
• The overall cost of this steering system is very less as compared with other steering
systems.
• This review paper helps to understand the Ackerman principles, working and
factors like minimizing slipping and tire wear.
• Directional geometry can be done using Ackerman’s statistical model of the
different arms of the inner wheels and selecting the geometry of what Ackermann
percent and directional effort are right for.
16 S. Patel et al.
Table 2.1 Exhaustive literature survey

Author/Year Title Mechanism Efficiency Applications References
Akhilesh Kumar All wheel steering Steering Higher as Narrow roads, [20]
Verma, Sanjay system mechanism compared gentle curves,
Kumar Sharma, for four to lane changes
Sanjay Kumar wheels two-wheel
Singh (2015) steering
Manzoor Hadi, Chain drive Davis Low Domestic [21]
A. Padma Rao steering steering efficiency vehicles,
(2015) mechanism mechanism, commercial
Ackerman vehicles
steering
mechanism
Lei Wang, Min Differential speed Differential Efficiency Electric [22]
Xu, Xiadong Wu steering control for steered is high vehicle motor
(2013) four-wheeled mechanism driving
independent
driving electric
vehicle
Pingxia Zhang, Study on control Centre of Efficiency Situ rotation, [23]
Li Gao, schemes of flexible rotation or is high multimode
Yongqiang Zhu steering system of steering steering,
(2016) a multi-axle all-n angle of lateral
wheel steering wheels movement
robot
P. L. Implementation of Ackerman Efficiency High-speed [24]
Ramalingam, variable turning mechanism is high vehicles,
M. Prabhu, S. radius by commercial
Subramaniyan, combining and domestic
R. Vigithra Ackerman and vehicles
(2016) reverse Ackerman
mechanism
D. P. Miller, D. Turning efficiency Ackerman Efficiency Commercial [25]
F. Flippo prediction for-skid mechanism is higher and domestic
(2013) steering via single vehicles to
wheel testing avoid
skidding
Er. Amitesh Zero-turn Linkage Efficiency Commercial [26]
Kumar, Dr. four-wheel mechanism is low vehicles
Dinesh N. steering system
Kamble
(2014)
Yuan Shen, Biao Optimization of Crank Efficiency Forklift [27]
Chu, Dongcai steering system of mechanism is high vehicles
Liu, Chang forklift vehicle for
Anzhu (2015) idle
(continued)
Table 2.1 (continued)

Author/Year Title Mechanism Efficiency Applications References
Yuhon Tee, A compact design Direct Efficiency Commercial [28]
Yongchai Tan, of zero radius differential is high vehicles
Boonyew Teoh, steering mechanism
Engbeng Tan, autonomous
Zhenyang Wong amphibious
(2010) vehicle with direct
differential
drive-UTAR-AAV
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5513192
Chapter 3
Experimental Study of Parameter
Affecting the Thermal Conductivity
of Composite Materials and Alloy:
A Review
Omprakash Yadav, Ankit Chhonkar, Rahul Sharma, Sandeep Chauhan,

Ashish Bansal, Navneet Singh Baghel, Himanshu Sharma,
and Devesh Sharma
Abstract In the new era, the development of composite materials and alloy is very
demanding for the fulfilment of the present demand of industries and society. The
thermal analysis of composite materials and alloy is requiring its thermal properties
like thermal conductivity, specific heat, etc. before their uses. The main focus of this
research work is to study the effect of different parameters on the thermal conduc-
tivity of composite material and alloy based upon the experimental and analytical
data available in the literature. Furthermore, a different method of finding the thermal
conductivity of composite materials and alloy like finite element method, finite
volume method, statistical model, non-conventional laser flash technique, machine
learning method, spatially varying relaxation parameter lattice Boltzman method
using melting process, equivalent inclusion method, hot plate method cut bar method,
etc. also has been presented in this work. The machine learning method is a very
fast, accurate and efficient method for predicting the conductivity of composites
and alloy. From the intensive studies, it was found that temperature, particle size,
density of materials and composition are generally affecting the thermal conductivity
of composite materials. Furthermore, it was found that conductivity of composites
material increases with an increase in the composition of filler material and a decrease
in particle size of the filler.
3.1 Introduction
For thousand of years, composite materials and alloy have been used in industries
and societies. Nowadays, utilization and demand for composite material and alloy
are increasing day by day. The composite materials are produced by combining two
O. Yadav (B) · A. Chhonkar · R. Sharma · S. Chauhan · A. Bansal · N. S. Baghel · H. Sharma ·

D. Sharma
Department of Mechanical Engineering, G.L Bajaj Institute of Technology and Management
Greater Noida, Greater Noida, India
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2857-3_4
20 O. Yadav et al.
or more than two materials with different physical, chemical and thermal properties.
The material having higher concentration is matrix materials and material with lower
concentration is filler or reinforced material. The properties of the composite mate-
rials and alloy are different compared to the property of the base element. Some of the
commonly used composite materials are Reinforced concrete, plywood, composite
wood, masonry brick, reinforced plastic, fibreglass, ceramic matrix composite, silica
aerogel composite, carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer composites, etc. and some
of the advanced composite materials are polymer matrix composite and metal
matrix composite. As per matrix phase is concerned, composite are classified as
ceramic matrix composite, metal matrix composite and polymer matrix composite.
The composite material finds its versatile use because of its inherent property like
lightweight, lower cost, better toughness, hardness and strength.
A number of the experimental, computational and analytical models have been
developed to estimate the effective thermal conductivity of composite material.
Although a number of experimental works have been done by several authors to
find the thermal conductivity of materials but only few researchers have developed
analytical models and methods to find the conductivity of composites. The analytical
model can save huge amount of energy, time and resources compared to the experi-
mental model. Figure 3.1 represents some of the experimental and analytical models
and methods which can be utilized to find the thermal conductivity of composite
materials.
In the subsequent section, widely used experimental method viz Hot plate Method
and Cut Bar Method has been discussed. Hot plate methods are generally employed
Fig. 3.1 Experimental and analytical method and model for finding thermal conductivity of
composite material
3 Experimental Study of Parameter Affecting … 21
to find the insulating material’s thermal conductivity [5]. The main component of the
hot plate apparatus are the main heater, hot plate, guard heater, cold plate, supply of
cold fluid, thermocouple, sample holder, etc. The guard heater is used to maintain the
temperature of the heater equals to the temperature of the hot plate to stop the flow of
heat in the guard heater direction. The temperature of the cold plate was maintained
very low by circulating cold water on the opposite side. Three thermocouples were
inserted at the hot plate on the sample side, an average of three was taken as Th,
and three more thermocouples were inserted on the cold plate on the sample side;
average of three was taken as Tc. The following Fourier law of conduction can be
utilized to find the thermal conductivity of sample material.
The systematic arrangement of components in the hot plate method is shown in
Fig. 3.3.
Cut bar method is the steady state comparative technique in which the flow of
heat is axial. In this method, the measurement of heat flow is not required which was
the main cause of error in the absolute technique. In this method, two bars are used,
one is the sample bar and the other is the standard bar. If the thermal conductivity of
the standard bar is known, the conductivity of the sample bar can be found by the cut
bar method. This method is most suitable when the conductivity of the sample bar is
comparable to standard bar conductivity. A number of thermocouples are used to find
the temperature at different sections. By knowing the temperature difference across
the two bars, cross-sectional area and length of the bar, the thermal conductivity of
the sample bar can be found by the following formula.
K 1 = K 2 . AA21 ll21 T2
T1
,
where K1 and K2 are the thermal conductivity of the sample and standard bar, and
A1 and A2 are the area of the sample and standard bar.
3.2 Literature Review
Zain-ul-Abdein et al. [1] computationally investigated the effective thermal conduc-

tivity of bakelite-graphite composites using Abaqus software. Furthermore, the
author has studied the effect of particle size, composition and packing density on
bakelite-graphite conductivity. The result reveals that the effective conductivity of
50% backelite-50% graphite with 70% packing density was 10.78 W/m-K. Further-
more, it was found that finer particle size results in better conductivity of Bakelite-
graphite composites, and its variation was non-linear. Sang Hyun Lee et al. [2] inves-
tigated thermal expansion coefficient and thermal conductivity of tungsten-copper
composite by varying the composition of copper between 5 and 30%. The spray
conversion method was used to produce the powder, and their composite was devel-
oped by injection moulding. From this study, it was found that the thermal conduc-
tivity of 70% tungsten-30% copper composite by weight is 238 W/m-k at room
temperature. Furthermore, its conductivity decreases with an increase in temperature.
Tao Xie et al. [3] investigated the silica aerogel composite conductivity and effect of
22 O. Yadav et al.
concentration, particle size and temperature by the computational tool heat conduc-
tion. The study reveals that thermal conductivity increases with doping concentration,
reaches a maximum value and further decreases to a minimum value. As temperature
increases, radiative conductivity increases but conductive conductivity is unaffected.
Furthermore, with a decrease in particle size, radiative conductivity decreases. Gori
et al. [4] computationally investigate the anisotropic thermal conductivity of silica
matrix with asbestos, steel, copper composite by solving heat conduction equation.
Assumption of parallel isothermal and heat flux lines was used to make the computa-
tional analysis simple. In this study, author concluded that the anisotropic efficiency
of silica matrix with asbestos is the linear function potential anisotropy. Further-
more, copper has better conductivity compared to asbestos and steel. Cherki et al.
[5] experimentally investigated the effect of size of cork on thermal properties of
gypsum-cork composite by hot plate method, and the results have been compared
with the analytical model. Due to light weight and better thermal property of cork-
gypsum plaster, composite enhances the efficiency of the building. From this study,
it was found that the effective thermal conductivity of cork-gypsum composite was
0.101–0.124 W/m-K while thermal conductivity of gypsum was 0.299 W/m-K. The
author has reported a substantial decrease in conductivity of cork-gypsum composite
compared to gypsum. Furthermore, it was reported that decrease in conductivity by
factor 1/3 as a contrast with the gypsum without cork. The comparison of results of
the different models has been presented in Fig. 3.3 by Cherki et al. [5]
Jong-Pil Won et al. [6] experimentally studied the thermal conductivity of
composite which is based on cement matrix. For this, they placed composite on copper
that has a protecting layer on a heating system, which is further used for snow melting.
The temperature of the surface layer from outside as well as from inside is measured to
find conductivity. During analysis, there is a separation between the plates of copper
and concrete which are used as a variable. This gives the uniform distribution of
temperature over the surface and is helpful to determine the thermal characteristics of
cement-based composite. The results reveal that 1.8–2.05 kcal/m-hr-degree conduc-
tivity for this composite. Li et al. [7] investigated the thermal properties and surface
structure of paraffin-expanded graphite composite by Scanning electron microscopy
and Thermal constant analyzer. Expanded graphite is a composite powder that is taken
under high compression pressure with the varieties of weight fraction. The author
proposed a two-level model that tells us about the thermal conductivity of materials
and for the particles’ distribution in the material a mathematical function is used.
From the results, it was found that thermal conductivity of 94% paraffin- 6% expanded
graphite composite is 20 times more as compared to pure paraffin. S.I Kundalwal et al.
[8] investigated the fuzzy fiber-reinforced composite(FFRC) conductivity by effec-
tive medium approach and composite cylinder assembly approach. From the results,
it was concluded that thermal conductivity of FFRC was increased by 1040% and
400% for Carbon Nanotube (CNT) fraction of 6.88% and 4.27% than the composites
without CNTs. Furthermore, with the increment in carbon fibre volume % and the
temperature, the thermal conductivity of FFRC also increases. Gao et al. [9] exper-
imentally and theoretically has found conductivity of silicon-rubber and alumina
composite by thermal resistance tester. This composite is made up of silicon rubber
and Al2O3 particles. From the results, it was found that effective thermal conduc-
tivity variation was non-linear with particle size and volume fraction. Comparison
between experimental and theoretical method was made, and it was found that both
was consistent with each other. Kovacik et al. [10] investigated the thermal conduc-
tivity of copper- graphite composite for 0–40% weight percentage of graphite using
Cut bar method and condition of room temperature. There is a range of cu-graphite
which has been prepared. The results reveal that the experimental value of thermal
conductivity is less than the thermal conductivity of Cu due to the presence of copper
oxide in it. Furthermore, it was found that thermal conductivity variation with the
composition was non-linear at room temperature. Alok Agrawal et al. [11] have devel-
oped a mathematical model for the measurement of effective thermal conductivity of
polymer filled with filler by using Unitherm model 2022 tester. From the results, it
was found that effective conductivity increases non-linearly with the volume fraction
of filler. The theoretical and experimental value of conductivity was approximately
the same.
Feng et al. [12] investigated the thermal conductivity of the composites which
are made of conductor and insulator having different geometries and structures.
The experiment work to predict various effects on the thermal conductivity through
these different geometries of second phase composites has been prepared to have
spherical structure. Results reveal that the branch’s fractal dimensions show lower
value with the same filling elements. Hautcoeur et al. [13] experimentally studied the
anisotropy thermal conductivity of ceramics-aluminium alloy composite and effect
of aluminium infiltration in ceramic with a porous structure so that it can efficiently
be used in thermal management fields. Ceramics-aluminium alloy composite was
produced by freeze casting. From the result, it was found that along the freezing direc-
tion average conductivity was 80 W/m-K and along the direction normal to freezing
direction was 13 W/m-K. Majid TabkiPaz et al. [14] investigated the thermal conduc-
tivity of carbon nanotubes and boron nitride with the use of the effective medium
method and walk random logic. The results reveal that the thermal conductivity of
nanotube composite increases with the alignment of carbon nanotubes which was
studied by a random walk tool. The increase in conductivity is more in a parallel direc-
tion compared to the normal direction. Jinzao Xu et al. [15] have developed a statis-
tical model to investigate the thermal conductivity of composite which was developed
by polymer and metals with high thermal conductivity. In the electronics industries
for cooling purposes, a material with high conductivity and light is required. The
value of thermal conductivity was found by electric and thermal field analogies,
which satisfy the Laplace equation. Furthermore, it was noted that with an increase
in volume fraction of filler metals, the thermal conductivity of composite increases.
Liu, Hua et al. [16] investigated the thermal conductivity silica aerogel composite,
which is highly porous and has much potential for a number of insulation systems
as insulating materials. A number of experiments were performed to predict the
behaviour of heat transfer of silica aerogel (SAC) composite for a range of tempera-
ture between 290 and 1090 K and pressure range of 0.01–100 kPa. From this study,
it was found that the conductivity of this composite increases linearly with a rise in
temperature. Tingyu Wang et al. [17] experimentally and theoretically studied the
24 O. Yadav et al.
behaviour of thermal conductivity of phase change composites which are microcap-

sules based. For the experimental work, microcapsule base composite mixed with
carbon network has been prepared by a facile method. By the combination of the
transient plane source method and effective medium theory, they are able to calculate
the experimental and theoretical thermal conductivity, respectively. From the results,
it was found that thermal conductivity of phase change composite increases with an
increase in density of carbon network structure and it was nearly 24 times more for
24% expanded graphite. This increment on thermal conductivity helps in improving
the efficiency of energy storage devices. Onitiri et al. [18] investigated the thermal
conductivity and other thermal properties of iron Ore Tailings mixed with epoxy
composite. Iron Ore is a waste material which is ejected from the iron ore’s benefi-
ciation. Furthermore, the effects of particle size and loading on thermal conductivity
were investigated in this experiment. The results reveal that conductivity increases
with an increase in the volumetric concentration of iron ore tailings filler (Fig. 3.4)
and a decrease in particle size.
Wojciech Adamczyka et al. [19] investigated the thermal conductivity of the
carbon fiber reinforced polymer composite by using the inverse technique. This
technique uses a heat energy source and IR detector which gives the finite dimen-
sion of the sample. The multidimensional mathematical model was used, which
describes the heat distribution on the entire body. The results reveal that the proposed
methodology which was used to evaluate the thermal conductivity of fiber-reinforced
polymer composite was in good agreement with other techniques. Han Wei et al. [20]
studied thermal conductivity of composite material with porous media by the machine
learning method. The machine learning method is a fast process that was newly sued
to investigate the thermal conductivity of composite material and porous media. The
machine learning method also can be used to investigate other physical properties of
composite material and porous media. It is the best method for predicting the thermal
conductivity. Gaurav Rajoriya et al. [21] computationally investigated the thermal
conductivity of composite solid propellants by using the finite volume method. The
solid loading of reinforced particles is very high in composite propellant which was
used in the defence sector. This pack of propellant is changed in the form of cubical
cells, and all cells have their properties based on their location. The results reveal that
the thermal conductivity of these composite decreases with an increase in interface
surface area. The simulation result was compared with experimental data and found
that the value of simulation results is lower than the experimental value. Vasiliy
Dokutovich et al. [22] investigated the effect of temperature and thickening agent on
thermal conductivity of alkali carbonate which is filled with filler metal Al2 O3 with
the help of coaxial cylinder method under steady-state condition. From the result, it
was found that variation of thermal conductivity was linear for low composition of
Al2O3. For a high concentration of Al2 O3 , variation becomes non-linear. Jun-Ping
Song et al. [23] investigated the thermal conductivity of different varieties of rubber
materials which were filled by carbon black. The author has used microscopy of
a transmission electron which tells about the connective structure of carbon black.
From the results, it was found that found a larger number of carbon chains which
help in increasing the connectivity structure and subsequently increases the thermal
conductivity of the composite. Furthermore, the thermal conductivity of various types

of carbon black-filled rubber composite was found high with parallel heat. Ke et al.
[24] studied the thermal conductivity of composite material with the help of the
Lattice Boltzmann method by varying the spatial relaxation parameter. It has high
accuracy to measure the thermal conductivity of any material. The Lattice Boltz-
mann method result was compared with the experimental result, and it was found
that both were consistent. The results reveal that thermal conductivity is more for
the high volume fraction of filler and also for higher filler size. Liu et al. [25] exper-
imentally investigated the thermal conductivity of plain woven composites mixed
with carbon fiber. The effect of the composition of fiber and porosity was compu-
tationally investigated by the up-scaling method. By using the up-scaling approach,
the thermal conductivity of Sic matrix, woven yard, and plain woven c/Sic compos-
ites were predicted. From the results, it was found that for the same porosity and
carbon fiber volume fraction, the out-plane conductivity is smaller than the in-plane
thermal conductivities. The decrease in thermal conductivities for in-yarn porosity
was found as 3.1 and 5.6% for in-plane and out of the plane with respect to without
in-yarn porosity.
Ashok Kumar et al. [26] experimentally investigated the thermal conductivity of
elastospray composite for the purpose to evaluate their effect on the insulation of
the wall and roof of the building by satisfying the requirements of ECBC, India.
From the results, it was found that for wall insulation 50 mm thickness was sufficient
while more thickness of conventional insulation layer was needed. Furthermore, it
was found that lowering the U-value decreases the cooling load on the air condi-
tioning. Chuan Li et al. [27] investigated the thermal conductivity of carbonate salt
composite which is a phase change material, i.e., a material which contains a phase
change material like in this case, it is carbonate salt. Two CPCMs are prepared, a
mixture of NaLiCO3 and Na2CO3. To get the thermal conductivity of this material,
a theoretical model is derived which consists of two MgO spheres with a mixture
of PCM/TCEM and filled in interparticle voids; also a parallel-plate-based experi-
ment was done to calculate the thermal conductivity of these composites and verify
the theoretical model. After which the theoretical result agrees with data calcu-
lated experimentally. Furthermore, it was found that effective thermal conductivity
increases with the volume fraction of salt. For the parallel plate model, its variation
was found as linear. Gurushanth Vaggar et al. [28] experimentally investigated the
effect of volume fraction of silicon cardide and glass fiber on the thermal conduc-
tivity of composite which was made by mixing silicon cardide, reinforced polymer
and glass fiber by Lee experiments. This composite was made by a compression
moulding machine for the experimental work. Mathematical models such as the
Maxwell model with a difference of 10.40%, Rule of mixture with 16.12% and
Hashin formula with 3.62 for 20% SiC content were found to be with very small
differences with experimental results. The comparison showed that experimental
results matched well with theoretical models for GFER10SI15 and GFIR10SI20.
Ankush Sharma et al. [29] experimentally investigated the thermal conductivity of
nonwoven jute epoxy composite with the marble dust as filler and without marble dust
filler by hot disc transient plane source method. Furthermore, the Ansys workbench
26 O. Yadav et al.
has been used to investigate theoretical thermal conductivity. From the experimental
results, it was found that the thermal conductivity of jute epoxy composite increases
with an increase in the volume fraction of marble dust filler. Furthermore, it was
found that the computational result was in good agreement with the experimental
results. Qu et al. [30] experimentally investigated the effects of expanded graphite-
MWCNT and expanded graphite-CNF filler on the thermal conductivity of paraffin-
HDPE SSPCP composite. The Maxwell Garnett model was used which found good
agreement between the analytical model and experiment results. From the results,
it was found that with the addition of only 5wt% of expanded graphite-CNF, the
thermal conductivity increases to 21.2% of paraffin HDPE SSPCP. With the addition
of 5wt% of expanded graphite-MWCNT, the thermal conductivity increases to 60%
of paraffin HDPE SSPCP. Hence EG-MWCNT is more efficient than the other which
is EG-CNF because the thermal resistance of EG-MWCNT is relatively smaller than
the other.
3.3 Summary and discussion
From the extensive survey of previously reported experimental and computational

research work, it has been found that a number of new composite materials have been
developed to replace the conventional material because of its limitation to fulfill
the demand of industries and society. Thermal property evaluation of these new
composite materials is very essential for their analysis and design before their uses.
In the present work, determination of thermal conductivity of composite materials,
the effect of different parameter and different method used have been presented. A
detailed description of different experimental and analytical methods and models has
been presented in the introduction section of this paper in Fig. 3.2. It was found that
generally used experimental methods are the hot plate method and cut bar method
which has been described in the introduction section of this paper. Furthermore,
generally used analytical methods are finite element method, finite volume method,
Maxwell Eucken model, Effective medium model and Fractal intersecting sphere
model. From the extensive study of past research work, some of the comparative
results drawn by the author have been presented in Figs. 3.5, 3.6, 3.7.
Fig. 3.2 Hot plate

arrangement
Fig. 3.3 Comparison of results of different model [5]
Fig. 3.4 Thermal conductivity of epoxy with varying volume % of iron ore [18]
From Figs. 3.5 and 3.6, it can be seen that the thermal conductivity of all the
composite materials increases with an increase in percentage volume fraction of
filler or reinforced material into the composite material. The rates of increase of
thermal conductivity are small for the small amount of volume fraction of filler and
further this rate increases at a faster rate with an increase in volume fraction of filler.
From Fig. 3.7, also this can be seen that the effect of iron ore and rubber on the
thermal conductivity of composite material are very small, while the effect of epoxy,
polypropelene and graphit on thermal conductivity of composite is very significant.
From Fig. 3.7, it can be found that the thermal conductivity of all the composite
material decreases with an increase in the particle size of filler or reinforced material
into the composite material. The rates of decrease of thermal conductivity are fast
28 O. Yadav et al.
14
Effective Thermal Conductivity
12
Ke (W/m-K) for
10
Epoxy filler
(W/m-K)
8 Ke (W/m-K) for
Polypropelene filler
6 Ke(W/m-K) for iron
ore filler
4
2
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Volume fraction of Filler (%)
Fig. 3.5 Variation of effective thermal conductivity composite for epoxy, polypropelene and iron
ore filler with volume fraction in percentage [3, 11]
160.00
140.00
120.00
100.00
(W/m-K)
80.00
60.00 Ke (W/m-K) for
Graphite filler in
40.00 Cu
20.00
0.00
0.00 20.00 40.00 60.00 80.00
Volume fraction of Filler (%)
Fig. 3.6 Variation of effective thermal conductivity of composite for Graphite and Al2 O3 filler
with volume fraction in percentage [9, 10]
for small particle size of filler and further this rate decreases at a slower rate with
an increase in particle size of filler. Furthermore, the conductivity of epoxy base,
pp-based and graphite-based composite is higher compared to Al2 O3 base and fibre
based composite.
3.4 Conclusion
After an exhaustive literature survey of the past work done, the author has concluded
the following observation.
3.00
2.50
2.00 Ke (W/m-K) for
(W/m-K)
Fibre Particle
1.50
Ke (W/m-K) for
Al2O3 Particle
1.00
Ke (W/m-K) for
0.50 Iron ore Particle
0.00
0.00 20.00 40.00 60.00 80.00 100.00
Filler particle size (µm)
Fig. 3.7 Effect of particle size of fibre, Al2 O3 and iron ore on thermal conductivity of composite
material [3, 9, 18]
1. Thermal conductivity of composite materials was affected by the volume

fraction of filler or reinforced material.
2. Thermal conductivity of composite material can be increase by increasing the
volume fraction of reinforced materials. Graphite as a filler material increases
the thermal conductivity substantially.
3. Thermal conductivity of composite materials was also affected by the particle
size of filler or reinforced material.
4. Thermal conductivity of composite material can be increased by decreasing the
particle size of reinforced or filler materials.
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Chapter 4
An Experimental and Mathematical
Analysis for Improvement of Gas Stove
Efficiency
Akanksha Mathur, Rohit Singh Lather, Vinit Chauhan, Rahul Sharma,

and Tushar Mehta
Abstract There are various ways of enhancing the thermal efficiency of an LPG
gas stove like variation of gas pressure, varying loading weight or loading height.
This paper deals with the improvement of the thermal efficiency of LPG gas stoves
by varying the loading height. Loading height is defined as the distance between
the burner top and the bottom surface of the vessel when the vessel is kept on
the stove. The experiment was performed as prescribed by the Bureau of Indian
Standard (BIS). It was found that with an increase in the loading height there was
an increase in thermal efficiency up to the optimum loading height of 17.5 mm at
which maximum thermal efficiency was achieved. Further increase in the loading
height resulted in a decrease in the thermal efficiency. A mathematical analysis was
carried, and a correlation is developed which is compared with the experimental
results. The maximum efficiency achieved was comparable to the value predicted
from correlation. Uncertainty analysis was also computed for the efficiency obtained.
4.1 Introduction
Liquid petroleum gas (LPG) is a very common and essential fluid nowadays. It has
many important properties which makes it very useful. Currently, 80% of the Indian
households are using LPG as cooking gas, and three years ago, only 53% were
using LPG, which is a revolutionary change. Earlier, fuel used for cooking mainly
included coal and wood. These types of fuel have many properties which are harmful
to both living beings and the environment. In terms of properties, LPG has benefits
like it produces less pollution, easily transportable, high calorific value and many
more [1, 2]. In India, the LPG market is mainly ruled by three major companies,
they are Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Limited (HPCL), Indian Oil Corporation
Limited (IOCL), and Bharat Petroleum Corporation Limited (BPCL). Nowadays
A. Mathur (B) · R. S. Lather · V. Chauhan · R. Sharma · T. Mehta

Department of Mechanical Engineering, The NorthCap University, Gurugram 122017, Haryana,
India
e-mail: akankshamathur@ncuindia.edu
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2857-3_5
34 A. Mathur et al.
since the fuel costs are rising sharply, improving the efficiency of combustion systems
is the priority [3, 4]. Reducing the average gas consumption by achieving improved
efficiency of gas stoves will save significant fuel costs for Indian consumers. Thus,
it has become important to design gas burners and stoves to increase efficiency.
Various studies have been performed to enhance the LPG stove performances. The
improvement through changes in the design of port diameters induces swirl in gas
flow by proving inclined holes [5]. Some studies are there in the literature to mini-
mize heat loss by including inserts and redesigning burner for energy saving with
a comparison with numerical analysis [6, 7]. It was also seen that the thermal effi-
ciency of the stove is significantly affected by the parameters like loading height and
porosity of the burner [8, 9]. Hou and Ko [10] studied the effect of loading height on
flame appearance, temperature field and efficiency of single impinging laminar jet
flame. Single copper tube Bunsen burner was used which produced a double-flame
fuel-rich flame. Thermal efficiency and temperature distribution around the flame
were observed at different loading heights. When the loading height is highest, the
inner premixed and outer diffusion flame was conical. When the loading height was
decreased, the flames transited from conical to trumpet shape. The maximum thermal
efficiency occurred at the loading height of 15 mm.
Ashman et al. [11] conducted experiments to study the effect of loading height and
the emissions from natural gas-fired domestic cooktop burner using three different
heights and efficiencies were observed. The set-up had a burner with three different
thermal inputs and a sampling hood to collect the combustion products. It was noticed
that with the increase in loading height of the stove, there was a decrease in thermal
efficiency of the cooking stove with reducing heat transfer. Joshi et al. [12] did
experiments for the development of efficient designs of the cooking system. Experi-
mentation was done to find the optimum dimension of the vessel and efficiency was
obtained according to BIS standard. The investigation was also done with real food
items like rice, lentils and vegetables. They concluded that for any vessel of particular
diameter, the optimum diameter of the flame is one-third of vessel diameter and the
optimum distance between burner top and bottom of the vessel was 2–3 mm. The
optimum heat flux which depended on heat supply rate and heat absorbed by the
contents of the cooker was in the range of 20,000–25,000 kcal/h m2 .
In the work done by Agarwal et al. [13], the effect of thermal input on emis-
sion level was investigated. Maximum thermal efficiency of 61.66% was achieved
with the present burner with 3 kg of LPG gas. It was found that the emission of
pollutant gases increases with an increase in thermal input. Hydrocarbon has the
maximum percentage, and it was present at 66.2 ppm at medium thermal input.
A maximum thermal efficiency was observed with the largest diameter pot. With
increasing loading height, thermal efficiency first increased, and then after attaining
maximum at some specific loading height, it decreased.
4 An Experimental and Mathematical Analysis for Improvement of Gas … 35
The present work aims to analyze experimentally the effect of loading height of
LPG burner on thermal efficiency and develop a correlation equation which predicts
efficiency as a function of loading height.
4.3 Experimental Setup and Procedure
In this experiment, the thermal efficiency was determined by boiling water test
according to the procedure mentioned in the Bureau of Indian Standard (BIS) IS
4246:2002 [14]. Different apparatus or equipment are shown in Fig. 4.1. In this
study, an LPG cylinder weighing 7.5 kg when filled fully with gas and a weighing
machine with the least count of 0.001 is used. Other essential equipment is pressure
gauge, rotameter, gas pipe, aluminium vessel, aluminium stirrer, stove burner, and
resistance temperature detector (RTD) with a display. Loading height arrangement
was made by rack and pinion mechanism. Figure 4.2 shows the photograph of the
setup for conducting thermal efficiency tests as per BIS standard. The experiment was
performed at a uniform pressure of 2.492 KN/m. The aluminium vessel was loaded
on the loading cell and weighed along with the stirrer and lid. The LPG cylinder
was also weighed before starting the experiment. Now the vessel was filled with the
distilled water amounting to 1 kg. The vessel was kept on the stove, when the loading
height was at minimum, i.e., 14. 5 mm. Now the water is allowed to reach 31 ± 1 °C.
As the vessel temperature is higher than that of water, the water finally reaches
Fig. 4.1 Schematic of the test setup for thermal efficiency test (BIS standard)
36 A. Mathur et al.
Fig. 4.2 A photograph showing thermal efficiency test setup with loading height arrangement
35 ± 1 °C. Now again the LPG cylinder was weighed on the loading cell. Now the
water is again heated by continuously stirring it and recording the rising increase in
temperature continuously. When the temperature of the water reaches 88 ± 1 °C,
the gas stove valve was closed and the final temperature of the water recorded after
continuously stirring for few seconds was 90 ± 1 °C. Now the weight of the LPG
cylinder is again measured using a load cell. The thermal efficiency was calculated
using the formula as prescribed in the BIS IS 4246:2002.

(mw × Cw ) + mp × Cp (T2 − T1 )
η= (4.1)
mf × CV
where
mw = mass of distilled water,
C w = specific heat capacity of water,
C p = specific heat capacity of the aluminium pan,
mp = mass of aluminium pan along with lid and stirrer,
CV = calorific value of LPG,
mf = mass of the fuel.
Table 4.1 Thermal

Loading height (mm) Avg. fuel consumed (g) Efficiency%
efficiency corresponding to
loading height 14.5 14.167 40.910
15.5 13.800 41.996
16.5 11.967 48.430
17 10.667 54.333
17.3 10.533 55.021
17.5 10.433 55.458
17.7 10.667 54.333
18 10.900 53.170
18.5 11.733 49.394
19.5 12.133 47.765
21.5 13.267 43.685
4.4 Calculation
The thermal efficiency was calculated using the formula prescribed by the BIS.
Putting the following values in the formula mentioned in the Sect. 4.3: mw = 1000 g,
C w = 4.1826 J/g k, C p = 0.896 J/g k, mp = 689.9 g, mf = mass of the fuel, CV =
45,636.12 J/g, T1 = 35 °C and T2 = 90 °C. The efficiency obtained is shown through
a sample calculation.
((1000 × 4.1826) + (689.9 × 0.896))(90 − 35) 5.786

η= =
mf × 45636.12 mf
At the loading height of 17.5 mm, mf = 10.433. So, η = 10.433

5.786
×100 = 55.458%.
The thermal efficiency for each loading height was calculated. Table 4.1 shows
the thermal efficiency corresponding to each loading height.
4.5 Uncertainty Analysis
An error analysis was done through uncertainty analysis on the calculated efficiency
based on the experimental data. An uncertainty of ±1.142% in the derived efficiency
from experiments is estimated which shows a low value of error. The formulation
for uncertainty calculation used in the current work is described.
Suppose a function depends on x1 , x2 , x3 …xn . If y = f(x1 , x2 , x3 …xn ). Partially
differentiating,

dy dy dy
∂y = · ∂x1 + · ∂x2 + · · · ∂xn
dx1 dx2 dxn
38 A. Mathur et al.
Squaring both sides,

2 2 2
dy dy dy
∂y 2 = · ∂x12 + · ∂x22 + · · · · ∂xn2
dx1 dx2 dxn
1/
dy 2 2
∂y = · ∂xi2
dxi
The uncertainty formula was derived by using the gas stove efficiency formula
(see Eq. 4.1). Since calorific value, mass of aluminium utensil, specific heat capacity
of water and aluminium are fixed quantity; partial differentiating Eq. (4.1) gives,
2 2 2
dη dη dη
∂η =
2
· ∂m2w + · ∂(T ) +
2
· dm2f
dmw d (T ) dmf
Partial differentiation w.r.t. mw,
dη cpw · T
= (4.2)
dmw mf ∗ CV
Partially differentiating w.r.t. T,
dη mw · cpw + ma · cpa
= (4.3)
d (T ) mf ∗ CV
Partially differentiating w.r.t. mf ,
dη mw · cpw + ma · cpa · T
= (4.4)
dmf m2f ∗ CV
Using values in formula based on physical experiments with mw = 1000 g, T

= 55 °C, mf = 10.433 g, ∂mw = ± 0.5 g, ∂(T) = ± 1°C, ∂mf = ± 0.1g.
Putting the above values in respective formulas,
dη (4.1826 ∗ 55)
= = 0.00048316
dmw (10.433 ∗ 45636.12)
dη (1000 ∗ 4.1826) + (698.9 ∗ 0.896)
= = .01009997
d (T ) (10.433 ∗ 45636.12)
dη [(1000 ∗ 4.1826) + (698.9 ∗ 0.896)] ∗ 55
= = 0.053244355
dmf 10.4332 ∗ 45636.12
Computing Uncertainty in efficiency,

∂η2 = (0.00048316)2 · (0.5)2 + (0.01009997)2 · 12 + (0.053244355)2 · 0.12
∂η2 = 0.000130416. Therefore, ∂η(%) = ±1.142%.
4.6 Result and Discussion
The variation of efficiency with increasing loading height is shown in Fig. 4.3. It can
be seen from the plot that with an increase in loading height, the thermal efficiency
first increases. There is an optimum loading height hl at which the thermal efficiency
reaches its peak value. Further increasing height decreases the efficiency.
For smaller values of hl , the residence time of the gases in the combustion zone is
less, and the flame is quenched by impinging on the relatively colder base of the vessel
and the flame temperature does not rise to the maximum value. Beyond the optimum
value of hl , the flue gases cool before reaching the vessel bottom as residence time
is greater. The trend of increasing efficiency with an increase in height is also related
to the change in flame shape [10, 15]. At first, when the loading height is increased
to some level, both of the flames’ inner rich premixed and outer diffusion flame
Fig. 4.3 A plot showing the variation of thermal efficiency with loading height
40 A. Mathur et al.
are trumpet-shaped, this type of flame produces a wide high-temperature region so

flame covers most of the vessel heating surface. Hence heat transfer is higher and
heat loss to the surrounding is less, as the distance between the burner and vessel
surface is optimum, when the efficiency is highest. And as the loading height is
further increased, the thermal efficiency starts decreasing. Flame shape changes as
the loading height is increased. Usually rich premixed flame takes a converging shape
with a decrease in impingement. This results in a reduction in the area covered by
flame and less heat is transferred to the vessel. More heat is lost by convection and
radiation to the surrounding air and hence lower efficiency is observed.
The values of efficiency were interpolated, and a fourth-degree polynomial equa-
tion was formulated by curve fitting. The correlation developed between thermal
efficiency (ïth) with loading height (hl) is as follows:
ηth = 167.913 − 38.834hi + 3.344h2i − 0.126h3i + 0.00178h4i
Using this equation and the calculated efficiency from the experimental data was
plotted and compared on a single graph (see Fig. 4.4). The correlation closely follows
the thermal efficiency obtained from experimental data with the r-square value of
0.92.
The co-relationship developed also shows that thermal efficiency increases to a
maximum of 54.4% at an optimum value of hl (17.7 mm). A small change in loading
height changes the efficiency significantly as the latter is proportional to the fourth
power of loading height.
Fig. 4.4 Comparison of correlation developed and thermal efficiency from experiment data
4.7 Conclusions
In this study, the effect of loading height on the gas stove with one burner is
experimentally determined. From the above discussion, it can be concluded that
• Thermal efficiency is sensitive to changes in loading height. The loading height
has a significant effect on the thermal efficiency.
• When loading height is increased, thermal efficiency increases up to an optimum
value of loading height. Further increase in loading height results in a decrease in
thermal efficiency due to conical flame characteristics and increased heat losses
to the environment.
• A relationship between loading height and thermal efficiency was developed in
good agreement with experimental results.
Thermal efficiency can be enhanced by improving burner port design and swirl
angle inclinations. Reduction in heat losses from flames by developing a radiation
shield around the burner ring can be studied for enhancing the thermal performance of
gas stoves. Also, the concave design of the base of vessels can be studied in which the
impinging flame contact with the bottom and residence time of combustion products
is increased.
Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank the management of The NorthCap University
for providing the financial support to carry out the experimental work under the VCIF scheme. The
author would like to thank Mr. Vijender Pal, laboratory technical assistant, for his contribution
during experimental work.
References
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75, 925–930 (2015)
5. Basu, D., Saha, R., Ganguly, R., Datta, A.: Performance improvement of LPG cook stoves
through burner and nozzle modifications. J. Energy Inst. 81(4), 218–225 (2008)
6. Boggavarapu, P., Ray, B., Ravikrishna, R.V.: Thermal efficiency of LPG and PNG-fired burners:
experimental and numerical studies. Fuel 116, 709–715 (2014)
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cooking applications. Fuel 112, 562–566 (2013)
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9. Teotia, S., Yadav, V.K., Sharma, S., Yadav, J.P.: Effect of porosity and loading height on the
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1–8 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1177/0954408920987024
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1583–1595 (2004)
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emissions from a natural gas-fired domestic cooktop burner. Combust. Sci. Technol. 103, 283–
298 (1994)
12. Joshi, J.B., Pandit, A.B., Patel, S.B., Singhal, R.S., Bhide, G.K., Mariwala, K.V., Devidayal,
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pp. 385–390 (2011)
Chapter 5
Theoretical Investigation of Physical,
Mechanical and Thermal Properties
of Al–Cu Functionally Graded Material
Through Gradation Laws
Pankaj Kumar Chauhan and Sabah Khan
Abstract Functionally graded materials are tailor-made materials. In the present

work, the theoretical study of Al–Cu functionally graded material through gradation
laws is investigated. The properties like density, Young’s modulus, shear modulus,
specific heat and thermal conductivity are taken into consideration. The gradation
laws such as power law, exponential law and sigmoid law gradation laws are applied
to evaluate the behavior of these parameters at varying index numbers from one
to three. It has been concluded that increasing the value of power law index (n),
variation in all the effective material properties (mechanical and physical) of Al–
Cu FGM, changing from linear into a polynomial way. Al (material at the bottom
surface) properties are becoming more predominant up-to a larger range of z/h ratio
with increasing value of power law index (n). At the value of n = 1, power law
and Sigmoid law both are predicting the same results which are simply the rule of
mixture.
5.1 Introduction
Engineering applications, such as aerospace, biomedical, space vehicles, electronics,

and defense industries, have wide use of layered composite for decades due to their
design flexibility to achieve required stiffness and strength, high strength to weight,
low maintenance cost, lightweight and stiffness to weight properties. The problem
of delamination is the prime concern in composites because of the extreme inter-
laminar stresses developed [1]. Incompetency of conventional composites for high-
temperature uses is another grey area [2]. To encounter these problems, traditional
composites are being replaced by functionally graded materials (FGMs) day by day.
First time, concept of functionally graded material was introduced in 1984 in Japan
by a team of researchers in the field of aerospace. FGMs are the new age mate-
rials, which are formed using two or more materials (typically metal and ceramics)
P. K. Chauhan (B) · S. Khan

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi 11025, India
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2857-3_6
44 P. K. Chauhan and S. Khan
in such a way that constituents vary from one plane to another, along a direction
(usually thickness) with continuous varying compositions [3]. FGMs may also be
defined in another way as a group of materials showing continuously varying graded
material properties [4]. FGMs show varying mechanical properties and microstruc-
tures in a continuous manner which also overcome the problems of composites
of stress concentrations at internal boundaries [5]. Generally, metal and ceramics
are used in FGMs as metals have greater fracture toughness and superior strength
whereas ceramics have antioxidant property along with good resistance towards
thermal loading [6]. In literature, a vast review towards advancement in analysis
of FGMs, especially for beam-type structures, on the effect of system parameters,
different deformation theories, boundary conditions and different laws for property
distribution have been discussed [7]. Future aspects of the FGMs as a new class
of material have been reported in the literature by various researchers in the form
of literature reviews on analysis, modelling and optimization [6, 8–25]. Based on
the literature, FGMs are mainly of two types for example materials with continuous
gradation and materials with step-wise gradation. Usually, FGMs have two distinct
material compositions having gradual continuous variation from one plane (bottom)
to the other plane (top) along a direction as presented in Fig. 5.1a. In another type of
FGMs, the material elements change with stepwise gradation illustrated in Fig. 5.1b.
In the upcoming time, FGMs have potential scope in different engineering applica-
tions. In this direction modelling of FGMs as per designer requirement using different
gradation theories and different effective material properties have great importance.
The present work is intended to fulfil such requirements of modelling and different
effective material properties with an example of calculations.
(a) (b)
Fig. 5.1 FGMs type a continuous and b discontinuous (step)

5 Theoretical Investigation of Physical, Mechanical and Thermal … 45
5.2 Materials and Methods
In the present study, we have taken the Al–Cu FGM for consideration. Figure 5.2
shows the gradation of Al-rich bottom with Cu gradation (Cu composition is varied
as 90, 80, 70, 60, 50, 40, 30, 20, 10 wt%). Gradation of Cu is done with respect to the
z-direction; x and y direction gradation is neglected. The rectangular cross-section
of the sample is considered having a height h, made of a mixture of Cu and Al. Here
the top surface is of pure Cu (z = h/2) and the bottom surface (z = −h/2) is of pure
Al.
The FGM of Al–Cu was sintered by powder metallurgy methodology. The detailed
discussion of the sintering process of Al–Cu FGM was discussed in our published
literature [26]. There are several laws used for the modelling of functionally graded
materials (Power law, exponential law and Sigmoid law) given below.
The power law is demonstrated by
n
h + 2z
VCu (z) = , (5.1)
2h
where n, h and z represent the power law index, the height of FGM layer in the
z-direction and the distance from the reference plane where the property has to be
measured, respectively. With respect to the reference plane at any point z, the effective
material properties Peff can be expressed as
Fig. 5.2 Volume fraction of Cu and Al throughout the FGM layer

n
h + 2z
Peff (z) = (PCu − PAl ) + PAl , (5.2)
2h
where PCu and PAl are the material property of Cu and Al, respectively. According
to Exponential law for gradation, the material properties variation is expressed as
per the following equation:
Peff (z) = PCu exp(−e(1− h )) ,

2z
(5.3)

where e may be given by e = 21 ln PCu
PAl
,
where e is the factor used to describe the gradation along with the height of developed
FGM in the z-direction. This law reveals the simple rule of mixtures. Sigmoid law for
material properties distribution, using two power law functions, ensures even stress
distribution at the layer interfaces. Expressions for volume fraction according to this
law may be expressed in equations as.
n
1 h2 − z
VCu1 (z) = 1 − h
for 0 ≤ z ≤ h/2 (7.4a)
2 2
n
1 h2 + z
VCu2 (z) = h
for − h/2 ≤ z ≤ 0 (7.4b)
2 2
where VCu1 (z) and VCu2 (z) are the Sigmoid function (two different power law func-
tions) for volume fraction distribution. With respect to the reference plane at any
point z, the effective material properties Peff can be expressed as.
Peff (z) = PCu VCu1 + (1 − VCu1 )PAl for 0 ≤ z ≤ h/2 (7.5a)
Peff (z) = PCu VCu2 + (1 − VCu2 )PAl for − h/2 ≤ z ≤ 0 (7.5b)
The properties of the matrix material (Al and Cu) are given in Table 5.1, and the
same has been used for modelling of Al–Cu FGM.
The laws of gradation are applied for the Al–Cu FGM by using the mechanical and
physical properties given in Table 5.1. The result comprises the study of physical and
mechanical properties like Density (ρ), Young’s Modulus (E), Shear modulus (G),
Specific heat (Cp ) and Thermal conductivity (k), along the thickness (z-direction)
Table 5.1 Different properties of constituent phases*

Sr. No. Properties Al Cu Unit
1 Density (ρ) 2700 8935 kg/m3
2 Young’s modulus (E) 75 130 GPa
3 Shear modulus (G) 29 46 GPa
4 Specific heat (Cp ) 963 380 J/kg K
5 Thermal conductivity (k) 150 258 W/m K
*Constituent phases properties are taken as the average of min and max values
of the Al–Cu FGM. Figure 5.3a shows the variation of density (ρ) along the z-axis
(according to Power and Exp. law). It has been observed that on increasing the value
of power law index (n), variation in effective density of Al–Cu FGM, changing
(a)
n=1 n=2 n=3 Exp. law
10000
Density ρ (kg/m3)
9000
8000
7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
-0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
z/h
(b)
n=1 n=2 n=3
10000
Density ρ (kg/m3)
8000
6000
4000
2000
-0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
z/h
Fig. 5.3 a Variation of density (ρ) along the z-axis (according to Power and Exp. law). b Variation
of density (ρ) along the z-axis (according to Sigmoid law)
from linear into a polynomial way. Density of Al (material at the bottom surface) is
becoming more predominant up-to a larger range of z/h ratio with increasing value
of power law index (n). Using Exponential law, variation in density of Al–Cu FGM
lies in between the results given by power law at n = 1 and n = 2.
Figure 5.3b shows the variation of density (ρ) along the z-axis (according to
Sigmoid law). The density of Al is more predominant up-to the value of z/h = 0
and after that Cu density is becoming more predominant when the Sigmoid law of
gradation is used.
Figure 5.4a shows the variation of Young’s Modulus (E) along the z-axis
of power law index (n), variation in effective Young’s Modulus of Al–Cu FGM,
changing from linear into a polynomial way. Young’s Modulus of Al (material at
the bottom surface) is becoming more predominant up-to a larger range of z/h ratio
with increasing value of power law index (n). Using Exponential law, variation in
Young’s Modulus of Al–Cu FGM lies in between the results given by power law at
n = 1 and n = 2.
Figure 5.4b shows the variation of Young’s Modulus (E) along the z-axis
(according to Sigmoid law). Young’s Modulus of Al is more predominant up-to the
value of z/h = 0 and after that Cu Young’s Modulus is becoming more predominant
when the Sigmoid law of gradation is used.
Figure 5.5a shows the variation of Shear modulus (G) along the z-axis (according
to Power and Exp. law). It has been observed that on increasing the value of power
law index (n), variation in effective Shear modulus of Al–Cu FGM, changing from
linear into a polynomial way. Shear modulus of Al (material at the bottom surface)
is becoming more predominant up-to a larger range of the z/h ratio with increasing
value of power law index (n). Using the Exponential law, variation in Shear modulus
of Al–Cu FGM lies in between the results given by power law at n = 1 and n = 2.
Figure 5.5b shows the variation of Shear modulus (G) along the z-axis (according
to the Sigmoid law). Shear modulus of Al is more predominant up-to the value of
z/h = 0 and after that Cu Shear modulus is becoming more predominant when the
Sigmoid law of gradation is used.
Figure 5.6a shows the variation of Specific heat (Cp) along the z-axis (according
to Power and Exp. law). It has been observed that on increasing the value of power
law index (n), variation in effective Specific heat of Al–Cu FGM, changing from
linear into a polynomial way. Specific heat of Al (material at the bottom surface) is
becoming more predominant up-to a larger range of z/h ratio with increasing value
of power law index (n).
While Fig. 5.6b shows the variation of Specific heat (Cp) along the z-axis
(according to Sigmoid law). Specific heat of Al is more predominant up-to the value
of z/h = 0 and after that Cu Specific heat is becoming more predominant when the
Sigmoid law of gradation is used.
Figure 5.7a shows the variation of Thermal conductivity (k) along the z-axis
of power law index (n), variation in effective Thermal conductivity of Al–Cu FGM,
changing from linear into a polynomial way. Thermal conductivity of Al (material at
(a)
150
Young’s Modulus E (GPa)
130
110
90
70
-0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
z/h
(b)
n=1 n=2 n=3
140
130
Young’s Modulus E (GPa)
120
110
100
90
80
70
-0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
z/h
Fig. 5.4 a Variation of Young’s modulus (E) along the z-axis (according to Power and Exp. law)
b Variation of Young’s modulus (E) along the z-axis (according to Sigmoid law)
the bottom surface) is becoming more predominant up-to a larger range of z/h ratio
with increasing value of power law index (n). Using Exponential law, variation in
Thermal conductivity of Al–Cu FGM lies in between the results given by power law
at n = 1 and n = 2.
Fig. 5.5 a Variation of Shear modulus (G) along the z-axis (according to Power and Exp. law)
b Variation of Shear modulus (G) along the z-axis (according to Sigmoid law)
Figure 5.7b shows the variation of Thermal conductivity (k) along the z-axis
(according to Sigmoid law). Thermal conductivity of Al is more predominant up-
to the value of z/h = 0 and after that Cu Thermal conductivity is becoming more
predominant when the Sigmoid law of gradation is used.
5.4 Conclusion
The gradation laws are successfully applied. It has been concluded that the Al–Cu
FGM comply with the gradation laws and the results observed are as follows:
1. It has been observed that on increasing the value of power law index (n), variation
in all the effective material properties (mechanical and physical) of Al–Cu FGM,
changing from linear into a polynomial way.
(a)
1100
Specific heat Cp (J/kg.K)
900
700
500
300
-0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
z/h
(b)
n=1 n=2 n=3
1100
Specific heat Cp (J/kg.K)
900
700
500
300
-0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
z/h
Fig. 5.6 a Variation of specific heat (Cp) along the z-axis (according to Power and Exp. law).
b Variation of specific heat (Cp) along the z-axis (according to Sigmoid law)
2. Al (material at the bottom surface) properties are becoming more predominant

up-to a larger range of the z/h ratio with increasing value of power law index
(n).
3. At the value of n = 1, power law and Sigmoid law both are predicting the same
results which are simply the rule of mixture.
4. It has been observed that following the Exponential law, variation in effective
material properties of Al–Cu FGM lies in between the results given by power
law at n = 1 and n = 2.
5. Power law predicts that effective material properties can be varied by varying
the power law index, but using exponential law, it is not possible.
6. It has been observed that properties of Al are more predominant up-to the value
of z/h = 0 and after that Cu properties are becoming more predominant when
the Sigmoid law of gradation is used.
(a)

Thermal conducvity k
240
(W/m.K)
190
140
-0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
z/h
(b)
n=1 n=2 n=3
290
Thermal conducvity k
240
(W/m.K)
190
140
-0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
z/h
Fig. 5.7 a Variation of thermal conductivity (k) along the z-axis (according to Power and Exp. law)
b Variation of Thermal conductivity (k) along the z-axis (according to Sigmoid law)
7. On the basis of results, it has been concluded that a wide range of spectrum of the
Al–Cu FGM effective material properties can be estimated using the different
laws of gradation. Indeed, experimental validation of these gradation laws to
choose a suitable gradation law is an open-end for future scope of work.
References
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2. Shen, H.S.: Functionally Graded Materials: Nonlinear Analysis of Plates and Shells. Taylor &
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Chapter 6
Thermodynamic Analysis of N2 O
Transcritical Cycle Using Dedicated
Mechanical Subcooling
Pradeep Kumar and Shivam Mishra
Abstract The thermodynamic analysis to improve the energetic performance of

N2 O transcritical cycle using dedicated mechanical subcooling is done for three
different evaporator temperatures 5, −5 and −30 °C. The analysis is done for the
environment temperature ranging from 30 to 40 °C. Propane is used as a refrigerant
in mechanical subcooling cycle. It has been found that if combined cycle is used, the
maximum increments in COP and specific cooling capacity (SCC) are 22% and 30%,
respectively. It has also been found that using mechanical subcooling cycle, the reduc-
tion in optimum heat rejection pressure is higher at lower evaporator temperature, i.e.
−30 °C and power consumption ratio is higher at higher evaporator temperature, i.e.
5 °C. Further, COP increment using different refrigerants in mechanical subcooling
cycle has been presented, where no significant differences have been found. The
increment indicates that this cycle is more efficient if the environment temperature
is more than 30 °C.
6.1 Introduction
The world is facing energy crisis and environmental challenges due to increasing
demand of power on account of rapid growth in population and industrial devel-
opment. Refrigeration and air conditioning sectors are also adding to this problem
due to high power consumption and environmental issues related to the usage of
different refrigerants. In an article regarding future refrigerants [1], it has been argued
how to consider all environmental issues or regulatory requirements together. From
these perspectives, natural refrigerants do appear more attractive than others. Several
natural refrigerants are regaining their importance because of their zero ODP and low
GWP and are on a revival path [2]. Nitrous oxide (N2 O) may also be used as a future
refrigerant [3]. While CO2 -based systems have already been developed and utilized
for simultaneous cooling and heating applications, N2 O still needs to be explored.
P. Kumar · S. Mishra (B)

G. L. Bajaj Institute of Technology & Management, Greater Noida, UP, India
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2857-3_7
56 P. Kumar and S. Mishra
However, there is a constraint with CO2 that it cannot be used below an evapora-
tion temperature of –53 °C as its triple point is nearly –56.56 °C. Since the triple
point temperature of N2 O is –90.82 °C and the boiling point temperature (BPT) is
–88.47 °C, hence N2 O can be preferred over CO2 for lower evaporator temperature.
Furthermore, as mentioned in article by [4], critical temperature, critical pressure
and molecular weight of N2 O and CO2 causes similar behaviour, and N2 O has lesser
toxicity compared to CO2 , also its GWP is more than CO2 , but N2 O still comes under
the consideration of low GWP.
6.2 Thermodynamic Analysis of the System
Thermodynamic analysis of the N2 O transcritical refrigeration cycle using dedi-

cated mechanical subcooling (DMS) is presented. Engineering equation slover (EES)
academic commercial V9.699 f-chart software has been used in the present analysis.
Figure 6.1 represents the schematic for the N2 O transcritical refrigeration cycle which
utilizes a dedicated mechanical subcooling process.
In dedicated mechanical subcooling, the main cycle and the subcooling cycle uses
it’s seperate condenser. Thornton [5] carried out a thermodynamic performance to
study the performance of a dedicated mechanical subcooling system for different
degrees of subcooling using a thermodynamic model. This system utilizes a single-
stage compression system for medium- and high-evaporating temperatures and a
two-stage compression system with intercooling for low-evaporating temperature
10
Condenser 9
mms Compressor
Expansion
Valve 8 Cold Hot
Subcooler Fluid Fluid
11
4 Gas Cooler
3
2
Two Expansion
Valve System Compression
L System
5 Evaporator
mr
Fig. 6.1 Schematic representation of transcritical refrigeration cycle using mechanical subcooling
6 Thermodynamic Analysis of N2 O Transcritical Cycle … 57
(LET) for the evaluation of N2 O transcritical cycle [6]. Both cycles reject the heat
at the environment temperature. An optimum heat rejection pressure that is obtained
from the iteration process is utilized while carrying out the calculation process. The
assumptions for the analysis are mentioned below:
• The system is assumed to be in a steady-state condition and all the processes are
considered to be steady flow processes.
• The compression process has been assumed to be non-isentropic for all the
compressors.
• Heat losses have been neglected.
• Pressure losses in the pipelines are neglected for both cycles.
• The exit gas cooler temperature is 5 °C more than the environment temperature.
• The degree of superheat in the evaporator is the same, i.e. 10 °C for both cycles.
• The expansion process is an isenthalpic process for both cycles.
By applying the energy balance equations, to the subcooler section, we can calcu-
late the performance of combined cycle depicted in Fig. 6.1. This further gives the
relation between the mass flow rates of refrigerants in both cycles [7]. By using that,
the power consumption ratio of both cycles is obtained by Eq. (6.1), and the overall
COP of the complete cycle by Eq. (6.2).
Pc.ms m ms ∗ wc,ms h sub ∗ wc,ms

= = (6.1)
Pc,r m r ∗ wc,r q0,ms ∗ wc,r
m r ∗ q0,r q0,r
COP = = (6.2)
m r ∗ wc,r + m ms ∗ wc,ms wc,r + h subq0,ms
∗ wc,ms
Suffix ms denotes mechanical subcooling cycle while suffix r denotes simple

refrigeration cycle.
6.3 Results and Discussion
Three different evaporator temperatures have been taken for the analysis that is
mentioned as 5, −5 and −30 °C with different degrees of subcooling, and the envi-
ronment temperatures range from 30 to 40 °C. Propane is taken as the refrigerant
in the subcooling cycle, and EES [8] software has been used for the analysis of the
cycle.
Fig. 6.2 Variation in COP increments with environment temperature at various degrees of
subcooling (T0 = 5 °C, single-stage)
6.3.1 Effect of Environment Temperature on Percentage

Improvement in COP at Different Degrees
of Subcooling
Variation of percentage increment in COP with environment temperature for different

degrees of subcooling at different environment temperatures has been shown in
Figs. 6.2, 6.3 and 6.4. It has been observed that the improvement in COP will be higher
for all evaporator temperatures if the cycle is operated at an environment tempera-
ture above 30 °C. Because at high environment temperature, the optimum (HRP) of
transcritical cycle is reduced. It is noticed that the improvement in COP depends on
evaporator temperature also, and it is higher for evaporator temperatures of −5 and
−30 over 5 °C. For all evaporator temperatures, the percentage improvement in COP
increases as the degree of subcooling increases.
6.3.2 Effect of Gas Cooler Pressure (GCP) on Specific

Cooling Capacity (SCC) for Different Degrees
of Subcooling
Figure 6.5 shows a change in specific cooling capacity (SCC) with GCP (SCC)
increase as the degree of subcooling increases, and also, the compression ratio is
reduced by using mechanical subcooling. The effect has been studied for an evap-
orator temperature of −30 °C and environment temperature of 35 °C. It has been
Fig. 6.3 Variation in COP increments with environment temperature at various degrees of
subcooling (T0 = −5 °C, single-stage)
Fig. 6.4 Change in COP with environment temperature at various degrees of subcooling (T0 = −
30 °C, booster with intercooling)
observed that the (SCC) increases as gas-cooler exit pressure increases. Further, it
can be concluded that COP of the cycle increases as the (SCC) increases.
Fig. 6.5 Variation in (SCC) (SCC) with GCP at various degrees of subcooling (T0 = −30 °C, Tenv
= 35 °C, booster with intercooling)
6.3.3 Effect of GCP on COP at Different Degrees

of Subcooling
Variations in GCP for different degrees of subcooling and three different evaporator
temperatures 5, −5 and −30 °C have been shown in Figs. 6.6, 6.7 and 6.8. The
environment temperature is 35 °C for all the evaporator temperatures. It has been
Fig. 6.6 Variation in COP with GCP at various degrees of subcooling (T0 = 5 °C, Tenv = 35 °C,
single-stage)
Fig. 6.7 Variation in COP with GCP at various degrees of subcooling (T0 = −5 °C, Tenv = 35 °C,
single-stage)
OHRP
Fig. 6.8 Variation in COP with GCP at various degrees of subcooling (T0 = −30 °C, Tenv = 35 °C,
booster with intercooling)
observed that the subcooling reduces the optimum heat rejection pressure (HRP) and
also reduces the specific compression work, hence, increases the COP of the system.
First, system COP increases as the GCP increases and reaches a maximum and after
that decreases. The optimum (HRP) is obtained at maximum COP for the given
conditions. The COP improvement is more with DMS if the evaporator temperature
is below −5 °C. It has also been observed that the increment in COP is not linearly
dependent on SUB, it is higher for a low value of SUB.
6.3.4 Effect of GCP on Power Consumption Ratio

at Different Degrees of Subcooling
Variation of power consumption ratio (%) with GCP at various degrees of subcooling
for three different evaporator temperatures 5, −5 and −30 °C has been shown in
Figs. 6.9, 6.10 and 6.11. Power consumption is a ratio of the power consumed in MS
cycle to the power consumed in N2 O transcritical cycle. The environment temperature
is taken as 35 °C. It has also been observed that the power consumed in MS cycle
is less than 15% of the power consumed in main cycle at the optimum HRP, but it
increases for the heat rejection pressures below the optimum value. Hence, for the
minimum power consumption, the optimum (HRP) is required.
Fig. 6.9 Variation in power consumption ratio with GCP at various degrees of subcooling (T0 =
5 °C, Tenv = 35 °C, single-stage)
−5 °C, Tenv = 35 °C, single-stage)
−30 °C, Tenv = 35 °C, booster with intercooling)
12
(T0=5°C, Single Stage)
10
R290
8 R1270
∆COP (%)
R12
6 R22
R161
4
R152a
2 R1234yf
R134a
0
20 25 30 35 40
Environment Temperature (°C)
Fig. 6.12 Variation in COP increments with environment temperature for various refrigerants at
5 °C of subcooling (T0 = 5 °C, single-stage)
6.3.5 Effect of Environment Temperature on Percentage

Improvement in COP for Different Refrigerants
The variation of percentage change in COP (COP %) with environment temperature

for different refrigerants using in mechanical subccoling (MS) cycle and the degree
of subcooling is 5 °C has been shown in Figs. 6.12, 6.13 and 6.14. This variation
has been studied for three different evaporator temperatures 5, −5 and −30 °C.
It is observed that the improvements in COP are similar for all the refrigerants
except R1234yf and R134a. Up to an environment temperature of 25 °C for all the
evaporator temperatures, the improvements in COP are similar but from environment
temperature 30 °C, the refrigerants R1234yf and R134a show degradation in the
improvements. It is considered a simple vapour compression refrigeration cycle from
environment temperature 20 to 30 °C for N2 O refrigerant.
6.4 Conclusions
The thermodynamic analysis of the given cycle has been carried out in this work. The
performance improvements of transcritical cycle have been studied for three different
evaporator temperatures and different degrees of subcooling. Finally, percentage
improvement in COP has been determined and various refrigerants are used in the
MS cycle. For this analysis, single-stage compression system has been used for the
evaporator temperatures of 5 and −5 °C, and double-stage compression system has
been used for the evaporator temperature of −30 °C. For this study, thermodynamic
16
(T0=-5°C, Single Stage)
14
12
R290
10 R1270
∆COP (%)
8 R12
R22
6
R161
4 R152a
2 R1234yf
R134a
0
20 25 30 35 40
5 °C of subcooling (T0 = −5 °C, single-stage)
14
(T0=-30°C, Booster with Intercooling)
12
R290
10
R1270
∆COP (%)
8 R12
R22
6
R161
4 R152a
R1234yf
2
R134a
0
20 25 30 35 40
5 °C of subcooling (T0 = −30 °C, booster with intercooling)
models have been developed in Engineering Equation Solver software. The following
conclusions are pointed out from the present study:
• The optimum (HRP) of the main cycle can be reduced by using MS cycle. Use
of MS cycle allows an increment in the COP and the (SCC) of the system for all
operating conditions.
• More improvement in COP is found for environment temperature above 32 °C
for all the evaporator temperatures. But the improvement in COP is high for the
evaporator temperature of −5 and −30 °C.
• Furthermore, if we use different refrigerants in MS cycle, i.e. R290, R1270, R12,
R22, R161, R152a, R1234yf and R134a, it is observed that the COP improvements
are much similar for all refrigerants except R1234yf and R134a.
• It has also been observed that the power consumed in MS cycle is less than 15%
of the power consumed in main cycle at the optimum (HRP), but it increases for
the heat rejection pressures below the optimum value.
Finally, based on the conclusion of the results, the use of DMS cycle is an efficient
way to improve the performance of N2 O transcritical refrigeration cycle, especially
for tropical countries.
References
1. Calm, J.M.: The next generation of refrigerants—historical review, considerations, and outlook.
Int. J. Refrigerat. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrefrig.2008.01.013 (2008)
2. Llopis, R., Cabello, R., Sánchez, D., Torrella, E.: Energy improvements of CO2 transcritical
refrigeration cycles using dedicated mechanical subcooling. Int. J. Refrigerat., JIJR 3004 (2015)
3. Sarkar, J., Bhattacharyya, S.: Thermodynamic analysis and optimization of a novel N2 O–CO2
cascade system for refrigeration and heating. IJR 32, 1077–1084 (2008)
4. Kruse, H., Russmann, H.: The natural fluid nitrous oxide—an option as substitute for low
temperature synthetic refrigerants. Int. J. Refrigerat. 29(5), 799–806 (2006)
5. Thornton, J.W., Klein, S.A., Mitchell, J.W.: Dedicated mechanical-subcooling design strategies
for supermarket applications. Int. J. Refrigerat. 17(8), 508–515 (1994)
6. Cabello, R., Sánchez, D., Llopis, R., Torrella, E.: Experimental evaluation of the energy efficiency
of a CO2 refrigerating plant working in transcritical conditions. Appl. Therm. Eng. 28, 1596–
1604 (2008)
7. Kumar, P., Mishra, M.: Performance investigation of N2 O transcritical refrigeration cycle using
dedicated mechanical subcooling. Int. J. Adv. Res. Sci. Eng. (IJARSE) 6(2), 85–92 (2017)
(ISSN-2319–8354)
8. EES: Engineering Equation Solver, 2014. F-Chart Software Inc.
Chapter 7
Effect of PEO Concentration
on Electrochemical and Mechanical
Properties of PVDF, PEO and LATP
Blended Solid Polymer Electrolyte
Ponam and Parshuram Singh
Abstract The usage of solid polymer electrolytes is gaining popularity because

of their safe and good performance in various batteries, especially in lithium-ion
batteries. However, all these electrolytes have some limitations such as lower ionic
conductivity at room temperature and deprived mechanical properties. In the present
research, the electrolytes are prepared with PVDF, PEO and LATP blends to address
all the mentioned issues. During the preparation of electrolytes, the contents of PEO
are varied from 5 to 20% with PVDF. To improve the electrochemical properties of
electrolyte, 10% (to the weight of PVDF and PEO mixture) of LATP is added to
the electrolyte. The effect of variation in the proportion of PVDF and PEO contents
on the electrical and mechanical properties of electrolytes is analysed in the present
research. The addition of PEO in the electrolyte improves the ionic conductivity of
the solid electrolyte. However, the yield strength of the electrolyte is decreased with
an increase in PEO proportion. The detailed results are provided in this research
article.
7.1 Introduction
The larger part of the energy requirement is fulfilled by crude oil and demand is
continuously increasing. As a result, the available natural resources of crude oils are
depleting rapidly [1, 2]. Therefore, the research is now shifting towards clean and
renewable energy sources such as solar energy, wind energy, etc. The biggest hurdle
in non-conventional energy sources is the storage of energy generated or produced.
Among all energy storage devices, batteries are the most popular because of their
durability, ease to connect and usage [3]. The batteries are categorized into primary
battery and secondary battery. Primary batteries are not rechargeable and hence are
very rarely utilized for renewable energy storage.
Ponam (B) · P. Singh

Bhagwant University Ajmer, Rajasthan, India
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2857-3_8
68 Ponam and P. Singh
The secondary batteries are rechargeable; therefore, these batteries are mostly
used for the storage of renewable and non-renewable energies [4]. Further, among
secondary batteries, lithium batteries are the first choice because of their multiple
advantages such as higher energy density, low weight to energy ratio, durability,
a lower rate of self-discharge and most important, higher working voltage. These
batteries gain popularity from the date of invention, and this is the reason for their
speedy improvements in the last three decades [5]. Therefore, its demand is continu-
ously increasing in most applications and sectors like electric vehicles, electric toys,
electronic gadgets, etc. This results in a continuous increase in the production of
lithium batteries. According to a report, the production of lithium-based batteries
surpasses the 300 Giga watt-hours annually [6]. This technique won the noble prize
in 2019 as a revolutionary technique.
Highly conductive lithium metal anode enhances the performance of batteries
compared to graphite anode which is generally used in primary batteries. The use of
liquid electrolytes in secondary lithium-based batteries makes its usage dangerous
even after many advantages. The lithium dendrites are formed during the electro-
chemical reaction because of the non-uniform stripping of the lithium anode. These
dendrites can pierce the strainer of the battery which might cause short-circuit [7].
Most of the organic electrolytes can catch fire easily. Therefore short-circuit with
combustible organic electrolyte and reactive lithium anode might lead to fire and in
some cases explosion in the batteries [8]. The probability of such incidents is even
higher in large appliances where large-size batteries are used. Much research is going
on in parallel to overcome the safety concern of secondary lithium-based batteries.
Solid electrolytes are the most optimum and best solution to the problem. The solid
electrolytes not only overcome the safety concern but also provide the extra strength
to the battery with an increase in energy density [9]. The solid electrolytes are not
only inflammable but also reduce the formation of dendrites of lithium. Apart from
this, solid electrolytes have good mechanical, thermal and electrical properties.
The solid electrolytes consist mainly of two broad categories:
• Solid electrolytes made up of organic polymer
• Solid electrolytes made up of inorganic polymers.
The solid organic polymer electrolytes have very good compatibility with the
electrolyte because of a stronger adhesive bond among them. Therefore, this advan-
tage of solid organic polymer electrolytes makes them suitable for any type of elec-
trode. These electrolytes are easy to process and design which provides an additional
benefit to the battery manufacturers and designers. Also, large-size batteries can
be produced. These electrolytes are a good choice for lithium-based batteries [10].
However, organic electrolytes have a low-temperature range of operation and lower
ionic conductivity. On the other hand, inorganic electrolytes have a wide range of
operating temperatures and very good ionic conductivity [11].
The mechanical properties of inorganic electrolytes are better than organic elec-
trolytes. Also, these inorganic electrolytes are more chemically stable which adds
extra advantages for their usage. However, the inorganic electrolytes are brittle which
makes them very difficult to process [12]. Therefore, it becomes difficult to redesign
7 Effect of PEO Concentration on Electrochemical and Mechanical … 69
the battery size and shape while using inorganic electrolytes. These electrolytes are
also having poor interface interaction and destitute processing recital, and it leads
to great impedance. Some of the solid polymer electrolytes have poor ionic conduc-
tivity that limited their use in lithium-ion batteries. To overcome this problem, some
organic and inorganic compounds can be used which enhance the ionic conductivity
of the electrolytes [4].
In the current work, the electrochemical characteristics and mechanical proper-
ties of ion-conducting polymer electrolytes of poly (vinylidene fluoride) PVDF and
poly (ethylene oxide) PEO are measured and analysed. The homogeneous mixtures
of the above-mentioned polymers are prepared in different proportions to formulate
the binary matrices. To enhance the properties such as electrochemical and mechan-
ical, submicron lithium aluminium titanium phosphate (LATP) is added to the solu-
tion for preparation of solid polymer electrolytes. The prepared electrolytes with
different compositions are analysed during the research, and the optimum propor-
tion of organic–inorganic composites is found for further research. Various properties
are measured for all the prepared electrolytes to find out the effect of these compos-
ites on the properties. Further analysis and results are discussed in detail in the result
and discussion section.
7.2 Experimental
7.2.1 Material
The PEO (molecular weight 900,000 g/mol), PVDF (molecular weight

534,000 g/mol) and LATP are obtained from Sigma-Aldrich, USA. Whereas,
dimethylformamide (DMF) is purchased from Pon Pure Chemicals Group, Chennai,
India. All the polymers are vacuum-dried before use. The chemicals such as
aluminium nitrate nonahydrate, lithium nitrate, titanium (IV) isopropoxide, phos-
phoric acid and absolute ethanol are purchased from local institute vendors.
7.2.2 Synthesis of Polymer Electrolytes
The ionic conductivity of electrolytes prepared from PVDF and PEO is not so impres-
sive as compared to other polymer electrolytes [10, 13, 14]. Hence, to overcome this
problem, LATP is added in a fixed quantity into the solid polymer electrolyte solu-
tion. First of all, the power of LATP is prepared, which is further used to enhance the
ion conduction of the electrolytes. The sol–gel method is opted to prepare the LATP
compound. First of all, 0.8 g of aluminium nitrate nonahydrate and 0.55 g lithium
nitrate are dissolved in 80 ml of absolute ethanol. The magnetic stirrer is used to
prepare the homogeneous solution and continued till a clear solution is attained. On
the other hand, 2.7 mL titanium (IV) isopropoxide and 1.5 mL of phosphoric acid
are dissolved in another 60 Ml of absolute ethanol in the separate mixture through
magnetic stirring.
Once the homogeneous mixture of titanium (IV) isopropoxide, phosphoric acid
and absolute ethanol is obtained, the first mixture is added to the solution. The solution
is kept for vigorous stirring until a colourless solution is not formed. A small amount
of phosphoric acid can also be added to the solution if required. The stirring will
not be stopped until the solution is completely converted into a transparent gel.
The completion of the process will take around 18–24 h depending on the reaction
temperature and the catalyst used. Finally, the obtained mixture is kept in a water
bath at 80 °C to convert into a gel. The obtained gel is dried at 80–100 °C. During
this process, the colourless gel is converted into a yellowish gel. The gel is then dried
at a temperature of 350 °C for 7 h. During the drying process, most reacting gases
such as water vapours, NH3 , NO2 and Cl2 are eliminated from the gel. The dried
gel is ground into powder and then calcined at 600 °C for 6 h. After that power will
bring to room temperature and grind again into a very fine powder. To get the final
LATP, the powder is calcined again at 900 °C for another 6 h in the air. This process
completely removes any moisture left in the powder.
7.2.3 Preparation of Solid Polymer Electrolytes
To check the effect of the change of concentration of PVDF and PEO on the properties
of electrolytes, five electrolyte firms are prepared. The concentration of PVDF is
varied from 50 to 90% whereas the concentration of PEO is taken in the range of
05–20%. The mixture of PVDF and PEO are prepared with different weight ratios in
the given range, i.e. PVDF: PEO (95:05, 90:10, 85:15 and 80:20). For each sample,
firstly, the mixture of PVDF and PEO is taken into a conical flask with an airtight
stopper. The mixture is dissolved into DMF at 70 °C for 10 h on a magnetic stirrer
with a heating plate at a constant speed. Further, LATP of 10% by weight to the
weight of PVDF + PEO mixture is added to the solution and let it react for another
10 h at the same reaction temperature.
Once the homogeneous slurry is prepared, spread it onto a glass plate and put it
for drying for 10 h in a vacuum oven at a temperature of 50 °C. Repeat the process
if the moisture is observed in the solid electrolyte. Cut the solid electrolytes into
circular pellets of diameter 20 mm with the help of punch. Again, vacuum dry the
pellets for another 2–4 h in a vacuum oven at 50 °C. Store the pellets into an airtight
container for further analysis. The approach followed for the preparation of solid
polymer electrolytes is very similar to the one followed by Wang et al. [15]. The
schematic diagram for the solid polymer electrolyte preparation process is shown in
Fig. 7.1. The nomenclature of the electrolytes sample prepared is given in Table 7.1.
Fig. 7.1 The schematic diagram for the preparation of solid polymer electrolyte
Table 7.1 Nomenclature of the electrolytes

S. No Name Nomenclature
1 95PVDF5PEO-10LATP (95% PVDF and 5% PEO) + 10% w/w LATP
7.2.4 Characterization of Solid Polymer Electrolytes
The prepared solid polymer electrolytes are tested to analyse the various charac-
teristics such as phase structure, electrochemical properties, thermal properties, etc.
The phase structures are characterized using an X-ray diffractometer (XRD) with a
scanning range of 10°–60°. Whereas, thermogravimetric analyser and Autolab are
used to measure the thermal stability and ionic conductivity of solid polymer elec-
trolytes. The thermal stability of electrolytes is measured in a nitrogen atmosphere
with a heating rate of 10 °C per minute. The operating range for the process is from
atmospheric temperature to 700 °C. The ionic conductivity of the electrolyte is also
measured under a controlled nitrogen environment. To measure the ionic conduc-
tivity of the electrolyte, the electrolyte is kept in between two electrodes made up
of stainless steel. The frequency range of current varies during the experiment from
10 Hz to 1 MHz. The following formula is used to measure the ionic conductivity
(γ) of the electrolyte:
t
γ =
Rb A
where, t is the thickness of electrolyte, Rb is bulk resistance and A is the cross-

sectional area of the electrolyte.
The ionic conductivity variation is studied in the temperature range of 300–353 K
similar to the study conducted by Wang et al. [15].
The crystal structure of all the samples (80PVDF20PEO-10LATP, 85PVDF15PEO-

10LATP, 90PVDF10PEO-10LATP and 95PVDF5PEO-10LATP) are analysed
through an XRD analyser, and the results are shown in Fig. 7.2. It can clearly be
observed that none of the prepared electrolytes has any sharp phase peak which
shows the homogeneity among all the materials. The possession of OH group and
fluoride present in PEO skeleton by PVDF molecules is one of the reasons for no
sharp peak in the crystallinity structure. However, with an increase in the content of
PEO in the electrolyte increases the crystallinity in the electrolyte. Because healthy
H2 bonding interaction among PEO and PVDF molecules in the electrolyte might
result in a three-dimensional cross-linked matrix with lower crystallinity. The result
obtained is very much similar to Wang et al. [15]. Also, no significant effect of the
presence of LATP molecules is observed in the crystallinity of the solid polymer
electrolyte.
However, the presence of PEO molecules and LATP molecules change the
mechanical properties of electrolytes significantly, and the same can be observed
in Fig. 7.3. The copious and asymmetrical bond in the structure matrix of the elec-
trolyte leads to higher mechanical strength to the electrolyte bonding, and this results
in improved Li+ conduction by the electrolyte. However, the young’s modulus of the
electrolyte is not symmetrically varied with a change in PEO content in the elec-
trolyte. With the increase in the composition of PEO molecules in the electrolyte
from 5 to 10%, the young’s modulus of the electrolyte decreases, and a further
increase in the content of PEO from 10 to 15% increases the young’s modulus to a
large extent. For all the samples, the highest young’s modulus is observed for the
85PVDF15PEO-10LATP sample.
The effect of change in PEO contents on the ionic conductivity of the electrolyte
to operating temperature is shown in Fig. 7.4. It can be clearly observed from Fig. 7.3
that the increase in the PEO contents in the electrolyte increases the ionic conductivity
of the electrolyte at ambient temperature which is taken 300 K in the present research.
At room temperature, the highest ionic conductivity of 1.05 × 10–2 S-m is observed
for the 80PVDF20PEO-10LATP electrolyte followed by 1.8 × 10–3 S-m, 6.8 × 10–4
Fig. 7.2 XRD analysis of all prepared electrolytes
S-m and 3.7 × 10–4 S-m for 85PVDF15PEO-10LATP, 90PVDF10PEO-10LATP and

95PVDF5PEO-10LATP, respectively. Further, the ionic conductivity of all samples
increases with the increase in operating temperature up to a melting point. However,
the difference is to start decreasing as the temperature increases. At the melting
point, the ionic conductivity of all sample become nearly equals. Therefore, it can be
concluded that the number of energetic molecules of PEO increases with an increase
in PEO content below the melting point that increases the ionic conductivity of the
electrolyte [3].
The glass transition temperature (GTT) plays a very important role in the ionic
conductivity of the electrolyte. The GTT for electrolyte is the temperature below
which the electrolytes similarly changes their physical properties those of glass and
crystal. The GTT of all samples of electrolyte is measured through differential scan-
ning calorimetry (DSC). The result obtained for the GTT of all the samples is repre-
sented in Fig. 7.4. The GTT for 80PVDF20PEO-10LATP, 85PVDF15PEO-10LATP,
90PVDF10PEO-10LATP and 95PVDF5PEO-10LATP is −80.2 °C, −77.6 °C, −
75.3 °C and −71.8 °C, respectively. From the above data, it can be concluded that
Fig. 7.3 Stress–Strain curve for all prepared electrolytes
the GTT of the electrolytes decreases with an increase in the PEO content. Also, the
presence of LATP molecules in the electrolyte has decreased the GTT of the elec-
trolytes. The ionic conductivity of the electrolyte generally is inversely proportional
to the GTT, and this can be analysed from the results.
7.4 Conclusion
The effects of variation in the composition of PEO molecules on the mechanical and
electrochemical properties of solid polymer electrolytes are analysed in the present
research. The solid polymer electrolytes are prepared with a mixture of PVDF and
PEO, also a small quantity of LATP is added to enhance the ionic conductivity of the
electrolytes. Some major findings observed during the present study is concluded as:
• The homogeneity can be observed in all the prepared electrolytes due to the
absorption of the OH bond of PEO by PVDF molecules. However, the presence
of PEO molecules can be observed in the electrolyte with an increase in the PEO
contents.
• The mechanical strength of the electrolyte decreases with an increase in the content
of PEO in the electrolyte.
Fig. 7.4 Ionic conductivity versus temperature
• The ionic conductivity of the electrolyte increases with the increase in PEO
contents in the electrolyte. The ionic conductivity also increases with an increase
in operating temperature. However, near the melting point, the ionic conductivity
of all electrolytes is found to be very similar to each other.
• The glass transition temperature of PEO is lower than PVDF, hence the increase
in the PEO contents in electrolyte also decreases the GTT of the electrolyte which
leads to higher ionic conductivity.
References
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from orange peel oil using response surface methodology. Energy Sources, Part A Recover.
Util. Environ. Eff. 0(0), 1–11 (2019)
3. Sengwa, R.J., Dhatarwal, P.: Predominantly chain segmental relaxation dependent ionic
conductivity of multiphase semicrystalline PVDF/PEO/LiClO4 solid polymer electrolytes.
Electrochim. Acta 338, 135890 (2020)
4. Liang, X., Han, D., Wang, Y., Lan, L., Mao, J.: Preparation and performance study of a PVDF-
LATP ceramic composite polymer electrolyte membrane for solid-state batteries. RSC Adv.
8(71), 40498–40504 (2018)
5. Pathak, P., Deb, R., Mohapatra, S.R.: Electrical bistability in MoS2 nano-sheets doped
polymeric nanocomposite films. Mater. Today Proc. 24, 2295–2301 (2019)
6. Yu, X., Manthiram, A.: A review of composite polymer-ceramic electrolytes for lithium
batteries. Energy Storage Mater. 34, 282–300 (2021)
7. Wang, H., Sheng, L., Yasin, G., Wang, L., Xu, H., He, X.: Reviewing the current status and
development of polymer electrolytes for solid-state lithium batteries. Energy Storage Mater.
33(June), 188–215 (2020)
8. Yao, P., et al.: Review on polymer-based composite electrolytes for lithium batteries. Front.
Chem. 7 (2019)
9. Bag, S., Zhou, C., Kim, P.J., Pol, V.G., Thangadurai, V.: LiF modified stable flexible PVDF-
garnet hybrid electrolyte for high performance all-solid-state Li–S batteries. Energy Storage
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10. Yi, S., et al.: Fast ion conductor modified double-polymer (PVDF and PEO) matrix electrolyte
for solid lithium-ion batteries. Solid State Ion. 355 (2020)
11. Ataollahi, N., Ahmad, A., Lee, T.K., Abdullah, A.R., Rahman, M.Y.A.: Preparation and charac-
terization of PVDF-MG49-NH4CF 3SO3 based solid polymer electrolyte. E-Polymers 14(2),
115–120 (2014)
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23(3) (2017)
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on PEO-based solid polymer electrolytes. Ionics (Kiel) 17(5), 399–405 (2011)
14. Wu, F., Feng, T., Bai, Y., Wu, C., Ye, L., Feng, Z.: Preparation and characterization of solid
polymer electrolytes based on PHEMO and PVDF-HFP. Solid State Ionics 180(9–10), 677–680
(2009)
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Chapter 8
Applicability of Banana Fiber
as Reinforcement in Composites
Sandeep Chauhan, Tarun Kumar Gupta, and Vishal Shankar Srivastava
Abstract The present study aims to provide a single platform for various researches
on the mechanical properties of polymer composites reinforced with the banana fiber.
The study also aims to spread awareness among future researchers, academicians,
and practitioners regarding the potential use of the banana fiber to prepare the rein-
forced hybrid composites as a suitable material for various engineering and industrial
applications.
8.1 Introduction
In the present time, engineers need some new or alternative materials for developing
new products. Products used in modern times are subjected to static and dynamic
loading and environmental conditions (dry or wet, dusty), and thus require specific
properties as per the applications. For this, composite provides a solution as a strong
material, as the weaker material of matrix is made strong by embedding the reinforce-
ment. The reinforcement imparts desired properties in the composite materials as per
the requirement of applications along with strength and the rigidity to withstand the
structural load. Properties of composite materials can be controlled by careful selec-
tion of suitable material as matrix or reinforcement. Owing to the widespread use of
composite materials in modern times, the present era is known as the era of composite
materials. Composite materials find applications in almost every walk of modern
life. Out of various composites, polymer matrix composites are widely used to make
products that find applications in modern life. Although polymers have inadequate
strength and stiffness for many structural purposes, these shortcomings are over-
come by the addition of reinforcement materials. Natural fiber-reinforced polymer
matrix composites attract the attention of modern researchers as these materials affect
the environment less. Due to it, many research studies were undertaken by various
S. Chauhan · T. K. Gupta (B) · V. S. Srivastava

Department of Mechanical Engineering, G. L. Bajaj Institute of Technology & Management,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2857-3_9
78 S. Chauhan et al.
researchers for developing natural fiber-reinforced composite materials for applica-

tions where high strength is not needed. These natural fiber-based composite mate-
rials possess properties suitable for applications like domestic appliances, cabinets,
door and window frames, bathroom accessories, wardrobe accessories, office acces-
sories, personal accessories, decorative articles, racks, etc. The polymer composites
having a natural fiber’s reinforcement are preferred in these applications due to ease
in production with the cost economy and superior mechanical properties. These
composites also find application for packaging of electronic gadgets due to the addi-
tion of reinforcement by the fibers with high thermal conductivity in a low thermal
conductivity resin matrix which helps in keeping the item cool by dissipating the
heat to the environment.
Natural fibers are less expensive, biodegradable, and possess no health hazards.
Although plenty of natural fibers like banana, sisal, jute, etc., are available in the
Indian subcontinent and African countries, these are rarely used as alternative mate-
rials. Presently, natural fibers are utilized to make yarn ropes, mats, articles like wall
hangings, handbags, etc. Fibers like cotton, banana, and pineapple find applications in
clothes and paper. Natural fibers are cellulose material and comprise microfibrils in an
amorphous matrix of lignin and hemicellulose. These fibers include many fibrils that
run parallel to the length. The hydrogen bonds impart the necessary strength and stiff-
ness to the fibers. Normally, natural fibers are extracted from various plant parts and
classified accordingly as shown along with examples in Fig. 8.1. The normally used
natural fibers are sisal, wood, hemp, kenaf, wheat straw, coconut, flax, jute, banana,
bamboo, etc. Normally, natural fibers possess some desirable properties as low-
density biodegradability, renewability along with adequate strength, and stiffness.
This leads to the widespread development of natural fiber-reinforced composites.
Although natural fiber imparts desirable properties to composites, it has less adhe-
sion with matrix due to the amorphous structure. Many researchers addressed this
problem through suitable chemical treatment that increases direct contact between
fiber and matrix.
Banana fibers possess properties like high specific strength, low elongation, fire-
resistant, high moisture absorption capacity, and biodegradability. Due to these favor-
able properties, banana fiber-reinforced composites are attracting engineers to apply
them to manufacture newer products. This paper aims to provide a detailed summary
Fig. 8.1 Classification of Seed hair

natural fibers with examples • Cotton
Natural Fiber
Bast fibers
Leaf fibers
• jute
• sisal
• flax
• banana
8 Applicability of Banana Fiber as Reinforcement … 79
of researches carried out recently to analyze the reinforcement effects of banana

fibers on the mechanical properties of developed composites. Section 8.2 describes
the important chemical and mechanical properties of the banana fibers while Sect. 8.3
comprises a discussion regarding the studies conducted by different researchers to
study the performance of banana fiber-reinforced composites. Section 8.4 presents
the discussion on conclusions drawn from the present work.
8.2 Characteristics of Banana Fiber
This section presents a discussion on the important properties of the banana fibers.
Chemically, banana fiber consists of cellulose, lignin, and hemicellulose. The usual
ranges of components of banana fiber are presented in Table 8.1 along with other
properties of the banana fibers. It is adequately strong with lightweight. It shows little
elongation when subjected to tensile loading. Its shiny appearance depends upon the
extraction process [1]. It easily absorbs moisture contents. It is recognized as an
eco-friendly fiber due to its biodegradable properties.
8.3 Fiber Preparation
Banana fibers are extracted from the banana trunk in two phases. Firstly, the banana
trunk is allowed to dry in sunlight for two weeks, and then it soaked into water for
another two weeks and again dried in the sunlight to get the fibers [3, 4]. Afterward,
the dried fibers are cut into the required length and passed through a rolling machine
for thinning.
8.4 Methods of Composites Preparation
Two methods are frequently used by various researchers [5, 6] for producing the
banana fibers composite—the hand layup molding technique and the compression
molding technique. In the former technique, first, a de-bonding agent is applied to
mold followed by a pigmented gel to obtain a good surface finish. When the gel
Table 8.1 Banana Fiber Properties (Kumar and Rajesh [2])

Particular Cellulose Hemi Lignin Moisture Density Lumen Tensile Young’s
% cellulose % content (kg/cm3 ) size strength modulus
% % (mm) (MPa) (GPa)
Value 63–64 6–19 5–10 10–11 1350 5 529–914 27–32
becomes tacky, the fibers and resins are manually applied in layers on the surface.
When sufficient layers are added, then the mold was closed and left to cure for suffi-
cient time at the required temperature under calculative load. The cured composite
was ejected from the mold for further process.
In the later method, the known weight ratio of resin, hardener, and fiber was well
mixed by a mixer and then poured into the mold cavity and closed. Sufficient pressure
is applied for a known time for curing purposes. After that, the composite was ejected
from the mold for further process.
It has been observed that the surface finish obtained by the former method is
better than the later while the time taken to complete the process is more in the
former method.
8.5 Banana Fiber-Reinforced Composites
In this section, some of the studies are discussed that took place to analyze the
effects of banana fiber parameters on the behavior of composites manufactured. The
summary of the studies carried out by different researchers in recent times to analyze
the effects provided by the banana fibers used as reinforcement to the composites
produced are presented in Table 8.2. Normally used matrix materials for devel-
oping banana fiber-reinforced composites are Epoxy resin, Polyester, Polypropy-
lene, Phenol formaldehyde, and Vinyl ester. Although some research studies utilized
cement and natural rubber as a matrix material to develop composite material for
specific applications while some of these studies used hybrid matrix material as Vinyl
ester and epoxy resin, Cashew nut shell resin liquid mixed with resin.
The length of fiber and fiber loading significantly affects the mechanical properties
of composites. To understand the influence of the length of fiber on the mechanical
behavior of the composites, Sumaila et al. [26] performed a study and introduced the
concepts of the critical length of the fiber. While Ghosh et al. [8] undertook a study
to analyze the effects of fiber percentages in a matrix on the mechanical behavior of
the composite and observed an increasing trend in tensile strength with increment in
the fiber fraction after an initial dip. This leads to the concept of critical volume of
fibers.
Many research studies conducted by various researchers found improvement in
the properties of banana fiber-reinforced composite if banana fibers are chemi-
cally treated before introducing into the polymer matrix. Some important studies
conducted on this are discussed here. Among them, Joseph et al. [12] conducted
a study to compare the performance of composites reinforced by banana fibers
with various coatings and compared their performance with that of untreated fiber
composite. They observed improvement in the mechanical behavior of composites
with all coatings except latex coating. While Rajesh et al. [19] investigated the effects
of pre-treatment of fibers with sodium hydroxide on strength and vibration behavior
of composite. Short Banana and Sisal fibers with random orientations were used to
develop the composite. They observed improvement in the behavior of composites
Table 8.2 Summary of research work carried out to analyze performance of banana fiber-reinforced composites
Sr. no. Year Author Matrix material Reinforced material Curing time Tests Outcomes
1 2017 Amir et al. [7] Polypropylene Continuous banana fibers Tensile, flexural, SEM The work studied
different reinforcement
configurations of banana
fiber, and results shows
that the highest tensile
and bending strength are
obtained from banana
yarn composites
2 2011 Ghosh et al. [8] Vinyl ester resin Banana fibers 24 h Tensile Volume fiber fraction
influences the tensile
strength greatly, and
strength increases with
increasing fiber volume
fraction after an initial
dip
3 2011 Hanifawati et al. [9] Polyester Banana fibers and glass 24 h Tensile, flexural Improvement in
8 Applicability of Banana Fiber as Reinforcement …
fibers mechanical properties

observed by
incorporation of small
amount of glass fiber in
banana fiber-reinforced
composites
4 2005 Idicula et al. [10] Polyester Banana/sisal hybrid fiber 24 h Tensile, dynamic, Developed hybrid
mechanical analysis, composite by adding
SEM banana and sisal fibers
together as reinforcement
agent in polyester
(continued)
81
82
5 2002 Joseph et al. [11] Phenol formaldehyde Banana fibers and glass Tensile, impact, SEM The banana
fibers fiber-reinforced
composites was
developed which have
mechanical properties to
use as a structural
material
6 2005 Joseph et al. [12] Phenol formaldehyde Banana fiber SEM, tensile On comparing
performance of
differently coated banana
fiber-reinforced
composites with
untreated banana
fiber-reinforced
composite, they observed
improvement in
properties of the
composites for all the
modifications except
latex coating
7 2018 Karthick et al. [13] Epoxy resin Banana fibers, Glass Tensile, flexural, impact, Developed and analyzed
fiber hardness Banana–Glass
fiber-reinforced hybrid
epoxy composites.
Results showed
composite with 10 mm
fiber length and 15%
fiber loading possessed
better mechanical
properties
(continued)
S. Chauhan et al.
8 2016 Kumar and rajesh [2] Natural rubber Banana fibers Abrasive wear, The studies and results
compressive strength, strongly advocate that
hardness Banana fiber has
immense potential for
using as natural fiber to
make reinforced rubber
composites and find
many applications
9 2012 Olusegun et al [14]. Epoxy resin Ukam, hemp, banana, 20 days Tensile, bending, impact Ukam and sisal
sisal coconut, and fiber-reinforced
E-glass fiber composite materials have
good mechanical
properties, and these
properties are enhanced
by alkalization treatment.
Thus, it can be
considered as
reinforcement for high
performance polymer
composites
(continued)
83
84
10 2020 Ortega et al. [15] Polypropylene Banana, Banana with Flame resistance, Impact, They developed and
cotton, and linen fibers Tensile, Flexural analyzed composites by
utilizing magnesium
hydroxide with matrix
material and alkali
treatment to the fiber
material, and observed
reduction in
combustibility of the
composites. They
observed reduction in the
flame propagation speed
with percentage
increment of magnesium
hydroxide along with
reduction in the
mechanical properties.
They established the
relationship of fire
properties with fiber
types and number of
layers
11 2015 Patel et al. [16] Polyester resin Banana fiber Damage Test by machine Developed and analyzed
vision technique banana fiber-reinforced
composite. They also
determined optimum
drilling parameters for
the composites by
utilizing ANOVA
technique
(continued)
S. Chauhan et al.
12 2006 Pothan et al. [17] Polyester resin Banana fiber 24 h Dynamic mechanical Developed composite by
analysis, SEM introducing banana fiber
as reinforcement agent in
polyester as matrix
material for utilization as
building material
13 2014 Prasad et al. [18] hybrid polymer (Cashew Jute and banana Tensile, FEA, ANOVA Developed jute and
Nut Shell Resin Liquid banana fiber-reinforced
mixed with resin) hybrid polymer matrix
composite with variation
in matrix composition
and determined optimum
composition through
ANOVA technique
14 2016 Rajesh et al. [19] Polyester resin Banana and sisal fibers 5h Flexural, vibration The work showed that
stiffness of composite
increases with (weight

ratio) fiber up to 50%
and then starts
decreasing. It showed
that maximum natural
frequency was obtained
for composites with 50%
of fiber. The work also
showed improvement in
properties with chemical
treatment of fibers with
sodium hydroxide
solution
(continued)
85
86
15 2016 Ramachandran et al. [20] Epoxy resin Bamboo fiber, banana 11–12 h Impact, hardness, and Results showed that
fiber and linen fiber fourier transform Bamboo–banana epoxy
infra-red resin have highest
strength along with
better bonding between
fibers and polymers.
Results showed that
bamboo–linen epoxy
resin composite have
highest hardness among
all variants of composites
16 2013 Sakthivel and Ramesh [5] Epoxy resin banana, coir, sisal 24 h Flexural test, impact test, Developed and analyzed
hardness test, water epoxy resin-based
absorption test, density composites with different
test natural fibers as the
reinforcing agent. They
found banana
fiber-reinforced
composite the best
among the different
composites
17 2014 Santhosh et al. [21] Vinyl ester and epoxy Banana fibers, coconut 24 h Tensile test, flexural test, They observed
resin shell powder impact test improvement of
properties in the
composite when alkali
treatment is provided to
the fibers
18 2006 Sapuan et al. [3] Epoxy resin Woven banana fiber 24 h Tensile and flexural, Developed woven
Anova banana fiber-reinforced
composite and obtained
maximum value of stress
S. Chauhan et al.
as 14.14 MN/m2
(continued)
19 2007 Sapuan et al. [22] Epoxy resin Banana fiber 24 h They showed suitability
of banana
fiber-reinforced
composites for
furniture-making
20 2000 Savastano et al. [23] OPC cement, Adelaide Sisal, banana, waste 7 days Flexural, water Sisal and banana fibrous
Brighton brand Type GP eucalyptus grandis pulp absorption wastes were suitable for
composite manufacture,
whose physical
properties are sufficient
to use it in low-cost
housing construction
21 2012 Shih et al. [24] Epoxy resin Banana fiber, pineapple 25 min TGA, tensile, SEM, Developed epoxy
leaf fiber, and disposable resin-based composites
chopsticks fiber with different fibers as
reinforcement and
observed better thermal

properties in pineapple
leaf fiber-reinforced
composites while better
mechanical behavior in
recycled disposable
chopstick
fiber-reinforced
composites
22 2014 Srinivasan et al. [25] Epoxy resin Banana and flax fibers 24 h Tensile, flexural, impact, Observed better strength
double shear, thermal in case of hybrid
analysis, SEM composite in comparison
to single fiber composites
(continued)
87
88
23 2013 Sumaila et al. [26] Epoxy resin Banana fibers 24 h. Moisture absorption test, The study showed
density, tensile, flexural, increment in moisture
impact, hardness absorption and the
compressive strength
with increment in fiber
length along with a
decrement in density.
However, the tensile
strength attain their
highest values of
67.2 MPa at 15 mm fiber
length
24 1994 Zhu et al. [6] Portland cement Banana fiber 21 days Flexural strength, Experimentation result
fracture energy, elastic shows that the kraft
modulus pulped banana fiber
when loading between 8
and 16% by mass
resulted in composites
suitable to use as
building material
25 1995 Zhu et al. [27] Polyester Banana fibers 36 h Flexural, density Developed banana
fiber-reinforced
composite suitable for
industrial applications
S. Chauhan et al.
due to the enhanced interfacial bond between matrix and fibers caused by chemical
treatment.
Amir et al. [7] conducted a study to evaluate the influence of fiber orientation on the
behavior of Banana Fiber-PP-MAPP composites and found that fiber configuration
affects the tensile and flexural strength of the composites. They also proved that yarn
fiber configuration provides the best mechanical properties in the composite.
Joseph et al. [11] developed banana fiber-reinforced composites that possess
mechanical properties, comparable with synthetic glass fiber-reinforced compos-
ites, used as a structural material. While Zhu et al. [27] used kraft pulped banana
fiber at a loading of 14% by mass with Portland cement to develop composites as
commercially viable building materials. Zhu et al. [6] also developed banana fiber-
reinforced polyester composites that exhibit the properties, which makes them suit-
able for industrial applications. Similarly, Olusegun [11] evaluated the mechanical
behavior of banana, hemp, sisal, coconut, and E-glass fiber-reinforced laminates to
ascertain the suitability of these materials for engineering applications, and Savas-
tano et al. [23] used sisal and banana fibrous wastes with OPC cement for composite
manufacture, whose physical properties are sufficient to use it in low-cost housing
construction.
Kumar and Rajesh [2] produced composites by adding 30% loading of short
fibers of banana with natural rubber matrix to prepare composites and performed
various mechanical tests to understand the influence of the different treatments on the
fiber surface. While Patel et al. [9] proposed a mathematical model using regression
analysis and ANOVA to optimize drilling parameters for banana fiber-reinforced
composites.
Some studies were initiated to develop hybrid composites by using two or more
reinforcing elements with polymers. Idicula et al. [10] developed composites by
adding short and thoroughly mixed banana and sisal fibers with random orientation
in polyester to analyze the effects of relative volume fraction of the two fibers on
the properties of the composites. While Ramachandran [20] developed and analyzed
two-hybrid composites where the first one is developed by adding bamboo and banana
fibers with epoxy resin while the second one is developed by adding bamboo and
linen fibers with epoxy resin. They observed better Impact strength and compatibility
of fibers with polymers in the case of bamboo–banana epoxy resin composite while
better hardness properties were observed for bamboo–linen epoxy resin composite.
8.6 Conclusions
The present study explores the uses of the banana fiber as a reinforcement with the
polymer resin and cement to develop composites with an emphasis on the chemical
composition and their mechanical properties. The study also explores the effects
of the chemical treatment of the banana fiber on the properties of composites and
concludes that the chemical treatment of fibers augmented the reinforcement effect.
The present study also demonstrates the potential of the banana fiber-reinforced
composites in various areas like decoration and structural work due to less cost
and lightweight with comparable tensile strength. This can be a great benefit to
a country like India by producing useful components by using the banana fiber
and its wastes in composites. Thus, the present work concludes that deterministic
and sustained research in the future will augment the applications of banana fiber-
reinforced composites.
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Chapter 9
State of Art on Microstructural
and Mechanical Characterization
of Wire and Arc Additive Manufacturing
(WAAM)
Aman Verma, Himanshu Yadav, Kuldeep Kumar, Prince Kumar Singh,

Mayank Sharma, Vishal Shankar Srivastava, and Ashish Kumar Srivastava
Abstract Wire and arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) technology is quite impres-
sive and investigated in the last 30 years of development. It fascinates the scientists
and manufacturers as it can produce densely deposited metal parts, and the objects
produced are almost similar to the desired one. It is a process that includes the deposi-
tion of material layer-by-layer. It is gaining importance at a very fast pace as manufac-
turing industries find it cost- and time-efficient. Here, in this review paper, the mech-
anism of WAAM techniques, its type, and various components produced by WAAM
have been discussed. It also includes the discussion on different surface deposit prop-
erties and microstructural properties of the products produced by WAAM. At last,
the industrial application and future scope of this technique are also explored.
9.1 Introduction
Industry 4.0 has been known for digitalization of manufacturing industry [1]. It
became the turning point in the field of automated manufacturing with innovations
in additive manufacturing (AM). In the last two decades, the AM technique has
shown great growth in industry because of directly able to produce objects from
the CAD model [2]. Wire and arc additive manufacturing technique is one of the
prominent and effective methods of AM that involves melting of metal parts and
depositing the bead layer-by-layer [3]. Previously, subtractive manufacturing (SM)
can be seen usually in every manufacturing industry. SM includes the raw material
with a large size from which desired object is going to be made and then, unwanted
material is machined out. Unlike SM, AM came as a revolution after SM, as it is
highly cost-effective and uses the layer-by-layer method which saves lots of time as
well as material [3]. AM also can obtain complex shapes better than SM does [4].
A. Verma · H. Yadav · K. Kumar · P. K. Singh · M. Sharma · V. S. Srivastava ·

A. K. Srivastava (B)
GL Bajaj Institute of Technology and Management, Greater Noida, U.P., India
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2857-3_10
94 A. Verma et al.
There are various AM techniques which are famous to develop the 3D components
such as Binder jetting is an additive manufacturing process which includes a liquid
binding agent that deposit on a layer of metal or sand powder particles to form a
final product. However, it has certain limitations like low parts strength, not suitable
for structural parts. Due to the use of binder material, it became less accurate than
material jetting, as the part made requires post-processing which leads to significant
time to the process [5].
Similarly, Powder bed fusion is an AM process where focused energy is used to
melt a layer of powder. PBF is one of the AM techniques in which laser heat and
electron bombardment are used as a heat source to melt and fuse the powder and
material to produce a final component [5, 6]. Conventional manufacturing includes
forging, casting, and machining. Components are usually manufactured by putting
the molten metal into a casting mold of the required shape in the casting process
[7, 8]. In forging, the required shape is produced by using compressive force with
help of a hammer and die. Machining includes removal of wanted shape and mate-
rial [9]. Wire and arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) includes great advantages
in material and cost efficiency, good deposition rate, and have higher flexibility in
design compared to traditional technique [10, 11]. WAAM generally includes robot
manipulating devices and power sources used in other welding techniques like TIG
and MIG [12]. In the last few years, WAAM technology has fascinated most of the
manufacturing industries, as it can produce a complex part with ease and huge compo-
nents with high deposition rate with almost 100% material usage [2, 5]. WAAM is
a process of deposition of molten metal in a layer-by-layer form to achieve the final
component [13]. Due to the increasing demand of novel materials in today’s market
leads to the rapid production of components with low material waste and low equip-
ment cost [10]. WAAM for dissimilar alloys is one of the trending topics. WAAM
components of dissimilar alloys are mostly used in special applications [14]. The high
“investment-to-return” ratio, a ratio of initial required material cost to the material
obtained as a finished product, is one of the biggest drawbacks of traditional and SM
technologies, resulting in high cost and material waste [15, 16]. A study shows that
20:1 for conventional production of titanium aerospace brackets and 33:1 for titanium
duct flanges for aero-engine components were recorded [17, 18]. WAAM has been
recognized in recent years as a very efficient method of manufacturing large-scale
structural parts of aluminum alloy that are large in shape and size, such as wing ribs,
turbines blade, which are usually used in aircraft [13, 14]. The aerospace industry
attracts toward WAAM as it has desired material strength, which is required for the
components of WAAM aluminum alloy. Figure 9.1 shows the schematic represen-
tation of the WAAM process. WAAM has the main components like welding gun,
shielding gas, and a special platform to perform its operation [19].
9 State of Art on Microstructural and Mechanical Characterization … 95
Fig. 9.1 Schematic representation of the WAAM process
Most of the study and research has found that there is not any noticeable difference
in the WAAM component properties with the changes in heat source temperature
[20, 21]. Previous experiments on WAAM aluminum alloys, such as 2000, 4000,
and 5000 series, have shown that their mechanical properties are typically greatly
altered with the chemical composition [22]. The aluminum alloy Al-Si5 has shown
lower ultimate tensile strength that was 142 MPa using GTAW, as observed by Wang
et al. [23]. The tensile and yield strength of the alloy Al-Cu6 deposited by the pulse
advanced CMT (CMT-PA) were 240 MPa and 114 MPa, respectively. These findings
were identical to those of alloys with the same GTAW-manufactured composition
and the electronic beam [24].
In comparison to other AM technique that is of particular interest, there are
several advantages of WAAM [25]. WAAM component has a much more mate-
rial volume, usually two to three times greater than other AM processes since it was
not constrained with the viability and expense of a bed of powder or vacuum [26, 27].
The deposition rate of WAAM process is also high, especially in comparison with
SLM [28]. The cost of capital is considerably lower with WAAM equipment costing
about two to three times less [29]. Apart from these advantages, WAAM technique
is associated with several issues related to application and assesories. WAAM is
capable of producing larger components but complex and intricates shapes are still
a challenging task [30–33].
There are several process parameters involved in WAAM process. Figure 9.2
shows the process parameters of WAAM. CMT (Cold Metal Transfer) technology
has revolutionized the welding technique of similar or dissimilar metals [34]. It
uses controlled metal deposition for producing good bead with low heat input for
welding. Travel speed is the rate at which the welding torch moves with depositing
the metal layer-by-layer [35–37]. Wire feed speed is responsible for the variation
of current amperage and deposition temperature. Current plays an important role in
96 A. Verma et al.
Fig. 9.2 Process parameters

of WAAM
welding and melting the metal by providing high current value from 50 to 300 A and
comparatively low voltage around 10–50 V [22]. Gordon et al. studied and found
some optimum value regarding WAAM process base current as 50 A and voltage as
19 V, wire feed speed as 4.6 m/min and welding speed as 300 mm/min.
In the WAAM technique, these parameters identify the characteristics of the
component [38]. The microscopic and structural characterizations by optical
Microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, x-ray diffraction and x-ray photoelec-
tron spectroscopy are reported by various authors working in this field [39–41]. The
detailed description of characterization techniques of the WAAM-based component
is shown in Fig. 9.3.
By using optical microscopy, the surface finish along with the cross-section and
porosity of the component can be measured [42]. Scanning electron microscopy also
Fig. 9.3 Different characterization technique for WAAM

finds and analyzes the surface deposits, porosity, and the wire, as it used to provide the
highly magnified image, with a great field of depth and structural formation [43–45].
Baei et al. [46] studied XPS (x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy) used for the chemical
analysis and the chemical composition, particularly for analyzing the composition
of wire and surface deposit. This technique is used to find the composition of raw
materials. X-ray diffraction analysis (XRD) is a technique used to determine the
microphysical structure of a material. It works by irradiating the component with
falling X-rays on it and then measure the intensity and scattering angle of X-rays
that leave the component [47].
9.3 Discussion
Analysis of development over the WAAM process focusing on the mechanical and
microstructural properties of WAAM component has been done. In the WAAM
process, the relation between the composition of material and microstructure of
the material is responsible for the different properties of the component and quality
of the component. Since the inter-pass or interlayer temperature varies along with
the process, it becomes tough to control the microstructural evolution of the compo-
nent deposited that is predominantly causing the variation of mechanical properties
of the component produced [45]. Impurities generated in WAAM component nearly
occurred due to the selected material properties and parameters of different processes
used [46]. The improvement parameters of the WAAM process must be focused on
the defect formation and its elimination. Seeing the need for the highly finished
part, further analysis on it will result in a bunch of applications of WAAM process in
upcoming years. Till now, many types of research have been done over various param-
eters such as different process planning like TIG, MIG, PMIG, CMT, GTAW, GMAW,
etc. [43]. With the need for a variety of engineering materials and varying fabrication
of material in the manufacturing industry, different WAAM process models will be
developed [42].
In the context of the microstructural and mechanical properties, various authors
have reported the improved tensile strength and hardness with homogeneous and
isentropic microstructural features. Zhao et al. [47] studied the impact of various
control techniques on the characteristic of delivered walls, evaluated by applying
microstructural and tensile power along the horizontal line. Figure 9.4 shows the
microstructural characterization of the WAAM component at different cooling condi-
tions. Parts a-3 and b-3 depict the microstructure of the walls at various altitudes,
and c-3 displays lower wall density and greater deposit over the first layer because of
the greater heat exchanged to the base substance [47]. Moderately stretched surface
grains can be observed around the heat impacted region. In between the median zones
Fig. 9.4 a-2, b-2, and c-2, a powdery microstructure is retrieved, as the substance
was burned many times throughout the process of deposition to the top layers and it
increased the temperature in the walls. The part a-1, b-1, and c-1 in Fig. 9.4 depict the
microstructure of the top deposit layer which show growth of large extended grains
98 A. Verma et al.
Fig. 9.4 Microstructure of the component using different cooling methods, a Forced air-cooled
region, b Without forced air-cooled region, and c Natural cooled region [13]
toward the heat exchange point. All these three walls show identical microstructure
all along with the wall height since the same amount of heat was used for depositions,
and the inter-pass heat, element, and heat sink were alike. The static tensile test was
useful for examining the mechanical properties of the walls [47]. As anticipated,
no serious differences in the outcome and microstructures were set up. This can be
concluded by the fact that inter-pass temperatures were not dissimilar for various
samples developed by diverse control methods [26, 27]. The thermal range was quite
high to affect the deposited shape, but not adequate to make a significant variation
in the microstructural and mechanical characteristics of the wall produced.
Most important causes for suitable huge scale WAAM process is base plate distor-
tion or control of distortion. The temperature variation while moving towards layers
causes the distortion and results in residual tension, and to know about these changes,
the study of AM layers is necessary [46]. While studying the thermal analysis for
different deposition layers, it is found that temperature gradient always decreases
with the increase of Number of layers as shown in Fig. 9.5.
A wire having a composition of AlCu-4.3% and Mg-1.5% was made and used to
deposit the WAAM component. Microhardness test is conducted in the vertical direc-
tion of the deposited component. Value of microhardness of heat-treated components
is increased by 52% from 106 to 165 HV [48]. There was a varying range 10HV
Fig. 9.5 Variation of a

temperature gradient with
layer number [25]
between 158 and 168 HV as shown in Fig. 9.6. The main reason for incrementa-
tion in microhardness is the heat treatment of the deposited component, as it evenly
distributed the microhardness of the component. Because of the continuous scattering
of grains structure, the variation of microhardness occurs, and significant numbers
of defects and micro-pores might weaken the WAAM alloy component.
Nejc Kozamernik et al. [13] have done shape distortion analysis by analyzing
the shape of a deposited component with the CAD software model. The component
has a spiral cylindrical shape with a particular diameter. Here, inter-pass temperature
control method at 140 °C and forced cooling is adopted. Figure 9.7 shows the scanned
material color in reference to the difference between the printed component and 3D
CAD design. This figure shows the variation of the net shape is mainly on the top
side of the object that happened due to the cladding process.
Fend et al. [49] have used DWF-PAM and SWF-PAM with H00Cr21Ni10 stainless
steel material focusing on Scanning Speed factor and found Ultimate Tensile Strength
Fig. 9.6 Micro hardness at

different points of the wall
[48]
100 A. Verma et al.
Fig. 9.7 CAD model to final

object difference on a scale
of the color [13]
similar in the vertical and horizontal directions. Wang et al. [23] have used Speed
pulse WAAM with 315 stainless steel material focusing on Heat input and cooling
rate factor, and found Ultimate Tensile Strength Horizontal 552 + 3. Caballero et al.
[24] have used CMT with 17–4 PH stainless steel material focusing on Shielding gas
25% Co2 + Ar factor and found Ultimate Tensile Strength Average 994.
Based on the above literature, it has been observed that the WAAM technique
can provide the fruitful increment to the mechanical properties with fewer defects
and wastage. A summary of the WAAM process, the material used, and the focusing
process parameters are given in Table 9.1.
The improved mechanical properties like ultimate tensile strength (UTS), yield
strength (YS), and elongation of two materials Al-Si5 and Al-Cu6.3, named A2
and B2, are analyzed. It is observed that elongation in the horizontal direction is
much greater than the vertical direction and YS of material A2(Al-Si5) is greater
than B2(Al-Cu6.3). Similarly, the UTS of A2 is greater than B2. Results of the
comparative study are shown in Fig. 9.8.
Table 9.1 Summary on WAAM process, the material used, and focusing process parameters
Different process used Material used Focusing process factor References
SWF-PAM Method H0Cr21Ni10 Scanning speed [49]
Steel
Speed pulse WAAM Technique 317 steel Heat input, cooling rate [23]
CMT method 17–3 PH steel SG1 + post-deposition heat [24]
treatment
CMT method 17–3 PH steel SG1 + solution treated [24]
300 250
250 200
200
150
150
100
100
50 50
0 0
Substrate A2 V A2 H B2 V B2 H
Enlogaon Ulmate Tensile Strength [Mpa]

Yield Srength [Mpa]
Fig. 9.8 Tensile Properties of the substrates, A2 and B2, in both vertical and horizontal direction
1. The history of WAAM module was solved in an elaborate form for a single
set of specifications. The guidelines which defined the resulting microstructure
were found to be the peak temperatures, heating and cooling rates, temperature
gradients, strength, hardness, microhardness, and the surface parameter.
2. 386 °C/mm is liable for the emergence of the columnar microstructure during the
process of solidification. For an equiaxed, the requirement would be 100 °C/mm.
3. Studies recommended inter-pass rolling as a methodology for issues concerning
isotropic properties, while other analysts proposed inclusion of non-destructive
testing in the process which could help find porosities in the early stage.
4. Further analysis should incorporate works on these objectives, besides improve-
ment factors such as optimization, monitoring, process control, part plan, and
thermal treatment, all of which if taken together can improvise understanding
and execution of WAAM technology.
5. With advancements in these domains, WAAM can prove to be a better substitute
for conventional production techniques such as casting, welding, and forging
in specific applications. Present-day issues hinder the commercial usage and
market approval of WAAM, whereas different analysis has already suggested
lessening and eliminating them, so WAAM can be quite similar to the traditional
system.
102 A. Verma et al.
6. Enforced air cooling improved the productivity up to 25% in comparison to the

process without forced air cooling. Cooling is a primary factor in decreasing
the temperature of the base to the top layer of deposition, and air convection is
the only easy way for heat exchange. Compressed air cooling is guarded, and
there is no harmful effect on the microstructural and mechanical properties of
manufactured components.
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Chapter 10
Effect of La3+ Substitution on Structural,
Magnetic, and Multiferroic Properties
of Bismuth Ferrite (Bi1-x Lax FeO3 )
Nanoceramics
Shama Farozan, Harendra Kumar Satyapal, Om Priya, Saurabh Sharma,

and Singh Sonu Kumar
Abstract Bi1-x Lax FeO3 ceramics with (x = 0.0, 0.025, 0.050, 0.075, 0.100) is
prepared using citrate precursor-based sol–gel method. X-ray diffraction patterns
reveal phase purity of all samples with rhombohedral crystal structure indexed to
the R3c space group. FE-SEM micrographs confirm the average crystallite size to
be ~57 nm. FTIR spectrum justifies structural distortion in BiFeO3 crystal lattice
with La3+ increasing composition. EDAX analysis confirms proper substitution of
La3+ at bismuth site. Remanent magnetization (Mr ) ranges from 5 × 10–3 to 9 × 10–3
emu/g, whereas Coercivity (Hc ) ranges from 252 to 875 Oersted with La3+ increasing
content. Moreover, doping of La3+ at the bismuth site causes an appreciable reduction
in electrical leakages, resulting in clear observation of the ferroelectric polarization
loop. Electrical polarization loops convert to a typical concave nature from an oval
pattern with increasing La3+ ions, yielding remanence polarization (Pr ) and coercive
polarization (Pc ) of the order 0.15 μC/cm2 and 7.5 kV/cm, respectively.
10.1 Introduction
Materials showing multiferroic behavior have gained appreciable attention of

researchers owing to their usefulness in electronics devices, as storage media, as
magnetic sensors, etc. [1, 2]. The basis of ferromagnetism in any material is the
availability of partially filled d-orbitals, on the contrary, the absence of electrons
in d-orbitals is essential for ferroelectric nature [3]. As such, these two demands
are difficult to get accomplished by any single material. However, few materials do
exhibit ferromagnetic and ferroelectric properties simultaneously. One such mate-
rial is bismuth ferrite (represented as BiFeO3 ); with rhombohedral distorted struc-
ture indexed to the R3c space group. BiFeO3 possesses appreciable multiferroic
S. Farozan (B) · H. K. Satyapal · O. Priya · S. Sharma · S. S. Kumar

Aryabhatta Center for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, Aryabhatta Knowledge University,
Patna 800001, Bihar, India
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2857-3_11
106 S. Farozan et al.
properties, with simultaneous ferroelectric polarization (TC ∼1103 K) and anti-

ferromagnetic ordering (TN ∼643 K) [4]. On one hand, the basis for ferrimagnetic
polarization in BiFeO3 crystals is the structural strain mediated by Bi3+ (6s2 ) lone
pairs, while the basis of ferromagnetism is the super-exchange network of Fe3+ –O–
Fe3+ causing G-type anti-ferromagnetic strains [5]. The emergence of extra phases
and vacant oxygen sites amplifies leakage currents in BiFeO3 at 300 K. The small-
order ferromagnetism observed in BiFeO3 is because of its spiral spin arrangements
periodic with 620 Å along the [110]h axis [6]. But this phenomenon affects satura-
tion magnetization and prohibits the generation of linear magnetoelectric behavior
in bismuth ferrite. To combat this critical balance, nanoparticles of size < 600 Å (less
than cycloid spin structure) are effective in dominating spiral spin patterns. Research
works have been reported on enhancement in structural and magnetic properties of
BiFeO3 by substituting the Fe3+ and/or Bi sites with Gd3+ , Sm3+ , Eu3+ , Ca2+ , Pb2+ ,
La3+ , Cr3+ , etc. [7–13]. Recently, R. Pandey et al. have reported that La3+ doping
at Bi3+ site easily dominates the cycloid structure of BiFeO3 yielding refinement in
the magnetic property. But an improvement in multiferroic property was dealt with
only when bismuth ferrite crystal lattice was simultaneously substituted with Ti4+ at
the iron site [14]. Therefore, in this paper, we report magnetic as well as multifer-
roic property enhancement in BiFeO3 substituted with single cation La3+ at Bi3+ site.
Doping with lanthanum, having a bigger ionic radius (1.16Å) as compared to Bi (1.06
Å), causes stabilization in the crystal symmetry and tuning of spiral spin arrange-
ments within BiFeO3 to yield appreciable improvement in the structural, magnetic,
and multiferroic properties. Our efforts is to address the depleting research works
available on physical property refinement in La3+ -substituted BiFeO3, to the best of
our knowledge.
10.2 Experimental
Bi1-x Lax FeO3 nanoceramics with (x = 0.025 to 0.100) are prepared using high purity
grade Bi (NO3 )3 , Fe (NO3 )3 , La (NO3 )3, and Citric acid as reactants. These reactant
chemicals are first weighed in stoichiometric proportion and dissolved in individual
beakers containing just suffice amount of de-ionized water. La (NO3 )3 was preferably
dissolved in HNO3 for easy dilution. Next, all solutions were converted into a single
beaker and kept on a magnetic stirrer set at 120 °C temperature for continuous stirring
at 200 rpm, till a viscous jelly-like substance is obtained. Then, this jelly substance
was kept in a hot air oven chamber at 200 °C for 30 min for auto combustion process.
The resulting ash-like material was crushed and annealed in a microprocessor-based
muffle furnace at 700 °C for 4 h to improve the crystallinity of BiFeO3 material. Also,
few amounts of each sample were pressed as a disk-like pellet (1 mm thick and 5 mm
radius) and calcined at 900 °C for 6 h for multiferroic testings. The X-ray intensities
were recorded at a wavelength (λ = 1.5418 Å) with X-ray Diffractometer (Bruker).
The surface morphology of samples was scanned using Field Emission SEM (Carl
Zeiss). The bond lengths and bond stretching in samples were traced with FTIR
10 Effect of La3+ Substitution on Structural, Magnetic, and Multiferroic Properties … 107
spectroscopy, Perkin Elmer. The Magnetic hysteresis loops at 300 K were measured
using a Vibrating Sample Magnetometer (Lake Shore) of magnetic field up to 3.2 T
capacities. The ferroelectric polarization patterns were obtained with Radiant Tech
Precision 10 kV Multiferroic instrument.
10.3 Results and Discussions
10.3.1 XRD Analysis
The X-ray diffraction pattern of samples Bi1-x Lax FeO3 with (x = 0.025 to 0.100)
is shown in Fig. 10.1, which reveals crystallinity and pure phase synthesis of
the samples. All signature peaks related to bismuth ferrite are reflected in the
XRD pattern. The samples were found to possess rhombohedral crystal symmetry
belonging to the R3c space group, which is consistent with research groups [15]. All
the prominent diffraction peaks of BiFeO3 , such as [012] and [110], diminishes in
its intensity with La3+ doping. This suggests that substitution with La3+ prohibits the
growth of other phases. Few secondary phases which are noticed in XRD pattern of
samples Bi1-x Lax FeO3 with (x = 0.0, 0.025) is absent in samples with higher La3+
content. Merging of diffraction peaks into single peak near 2θ = 40° and 2θ = 57°
in the X-ray diffraction patterns of the samples with La3+ content (x = 0 and 0.25) is
evident in Fig. 10.1. The lattice constants are determined to be a = b = 5.569 Å and
Fig. 10.1 XRD pattern of Bi1-x Lax FeO3 with (x = 0.025–0.10)

c = 13.801 Å for parent sample BiFeO3 . For finding lattice parameters of this rhom-
bohedral crystal system, Eq. (10.1) is utilized. Crystal planes preferably selected to
be replaced in Eq. (10.1) are [110], [012], [116], [024], [220], and [214].

1 4 h 2 + hk + k 2 l2
= + (10.1)
d2 3 a2 c2
When we obtain lattice constants, we use Eq. (10.2) for calculating the lattice
volume
√
3 2
V = a c (10.2)
2
Williamson-Hall plot helps find crystallite sizes [16]. The average crystal size
is observed to be ~57 nm, which is further supported by FE-SEM morphological
images.
10.3.2 FE-SEM Analysis
Figure 10.2(a, b) represents high resolution field emission SEM micrographs for
sample Bi1-x Lax FeO3 with (x = 0.025) at different magnifications. Particles are seen
as agglomerated owing to the annealing effect in the entire sample at 700 °C for 4 h.
Proper incorporation of La3+ in BiFeO3 crystal structure is visible in FE-SEM surface
images describing grain boundaries clearly. Average crystal dimensions obtained
using FE-SEM are consistent with the size obtained using the Williamson-Hall plot
(W–H). ImageJ software is used for drawing histograms to idealize grain size with
microscopy images Fig. 10.2(a, b).
Fig. 10.2 a, b FE-SEM micrographs of Bi1-x Lax FeO3 with (x = 0.025) at different magnifications
Fig. 10.3 FTIR spectra for Bi1-x Lax FeO3 with (x = 0.025 to 0.10)
10.3.3 FTIR Analysis
The FTIR spectrum of samples at 300 K is presented in Fig. 10.3 for the wavenumber
400–750 cm−1 . Generally, the absorption peak below 750 cm−1 belongs to the inor-
ganic bonds. The absorption peak ~ wavenumber 450 cm−1 belongs to Fe–O bond
stretching, and peak ~550 cm−1 signifies bending vibrations of Fe–O bonds in the
crystal structure of BiFeO3 [17, 18]. Such observations agree with characteristic
FTIR bands of BiFeO3 [8]. Moreover, the absorption peak ~450 and 550 cm−1 also
signify the vibrational mode of Bi-O bonding of BiO6 octahedral sites. The shift
in these absorption peaks towards the right on the wavenumber axis can easily be
visualized with respect to increasing La3+ content in BiFeO3 crystal lattices.
10.3.4 EDAX Analysis
Chemical elemental analysis was done using an EDAX analyzer equipped in FE-
SEM, as shown in Fig. 10.4. Atomic percentage and weigh percentage of constituent
elements for sample Bi1-x Lax FeO3 with (x = 0.10) are mentioned in Table 10.1,
which justifies proper substitution of La3+ in BiFeO3 . The atomic (%) composition
obtained is consistent with the stoichiometric proportion used during the synthesis
of sample Bi0.9 La0.1 FeO3.
Fig. 10.4 EDAX spectrum for sample Bi1-x Lax FeO3 with (x = 0.10)
Table 10.1 Elemental

Element Weight (%) Atomic (%)
composition for sample Bi1-x
Lax FeO3 with (x = 0.10) O 13.94 56.49
Fe 19.56 22.70
La 1.14 0.53
Bi 65.36 20.28
10.3.5 Magnetic Properties
Magnetic hysteresis (MH) loops in the range ±1.5 T were obtained using VSM (Lake
Shore) for sample for Bi1-x Lax FeO3 with (x = 0.0, 0.10) as shown in Fig. 10.5, which
suggests weak ferromagnetic nature of BiFeO3 . The MH loops appear unsaturated
in the magnetic field of ±1.5 T. A magnetism of order ±5 T is generally reported to
saturate such samples. Further, remanent magnetization (Mr ) ranges from 5 × 10–3
to 9 × 10–3 emu/g, whereas coercivity (Hc ) ranges from 252 to 875 Oersted with
La3+ increasing composition. We can see in Fig. 10.5 that the virgin curve deviates
from a linear relationship of the magnetic moment versus the applied magnetic field,
indicating the hysteresis effect in La3+ -substituted bismuth ferrite. An improved
MH loop is observed with La3+ (x = 0.10) with respect to pure phase BiFeO3 .
The coercivity of the order 875 Oersted was noticed for BiFeO3 with x = 0.10
composition.
Fig. 10.5 Hysteresis loops for Bi1-x Lax FeO3 with (x = 0.0, 0.10)
10.3.6 Multiferroic Analysis
P-E loops of Bi1-x Lax FeO3 with (x = 0.025 to 0.100) were measured at 300 K, as
shown in Fig. 10.6(a–e). The P-E loop of BiFeO3 was obtained as full convex nature,
indicating the samples have electrical leakage, and with increasing La3+ doping in
BiFeO3, the ferroelectric loop becomes more typical, suggesting reduction in elec-
trical leakage. La3+ substitution in Bi1-x Lax FeO3 crystal geometry has considerably
enhanced electrical polarization by significant inhibition of electrical leakage. It can
be also visualized that incorporation of La3+ in BiFeO3 lattice supports phase purity
in samples and inhibits the generation of secondary phases.
10.4 Conclusion
Sol–gel technique has been utilized to successfully synthesize Bi1-x Lax FeO3 with
(x = 0.025 to 0.100) with rhombohedral symmetry indexed to R3c space group.
X-ray intensity pattern confirms pure phase synthesis of all samples. FTIR spectrum
well supports the proper substitution of La3+ in BiFeO3 crystal lattices with minor
structural distortion. EDAX analysis confirms the proper incorporation of lanthanum
in the BiFeO3 lattice. Hysteresis loops suggest appreciable increment in magneti-
zation with La3+ substitution. Moreover, La3+ doping in BiFeO3 solid solutions has
considerably enhanced electrical polarization by significant inhibition of electrical
leakages. Hence, it can be inferred that the substitution of La3+ profitably tunes struc-
tural, magnetic, and multiferroic properties of bismuth ferrite for multifunctional
applications.
Fig. 10.6 a–e Ferroelectric loops for samples Bi1-x Lax FeO3 with (x = 0.025 to 0.100)
Acknowledgements The authors are thankful to Aryabhatta Knowledge University for providing
all experimental facilities.
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Chapter 11
Experimental Analysis of Wear
and Mechanical Characteristics
of Aluminium Matrix Composite
Fabricated Through Powder Metallurgy
Harvendra Singh, Harshit Bahri, and Kaushalendra Kumar Singh
Abstract Aluminium metal matrix composites have picked up significance in

different industries due to their great mechanical properties. Aluminium metal matrix
composites are favoured in the fields of aviation, military, car, marine and other
homegrown applications. The various reinforcements with Aluminium metal matrix
composites by powder metallurgy procedure brings about improved mechanical
properties, for example, ultimate tensile strength, compressive strength, hardness,
wear rate. Powder metallurgy is an ideal technique for manufacture for MMCs on
account of the capacity to create close to net shapes and minimal material waste
related with this cycle. In this paper, an endeavour has been made to unite a portion
of the parts of mechanical properties of Aluminium MMCs manufactured by utilizing
Powder Metallurgy Technique. This paper is also focused on the comparative analysis
of different parameters on the AMCs.
11.1 Introduction
Traditional solid materials have restrictions in accomplishing great mix of soli-

darity, firmness, sturdiness, thickness and so forth. To defeat these weaknesses and to
satisfy the regularly expanding need of advanced innovation, composites are the most
encouraging materials of ongoing interest. Metal matrix composites (MMCs) have
altogether improved properties including high specific strength, specific modulus,
damping capacity and great wear resistance in contrast to composite compounds.
Magnesium and its compounds did not contrast well with aluminum composites
regarding outright quality, however; they are the lightest materials and have a great
mix of low thickness and superb machinability in contrast with other basic mate-
rials. Elango et al. [1] investigated the behaviour of aluminium alloy LM25 with SiC
and observed that when load and particle reinforcement increase, coefficient of fric-
tion decreases. Baradeswaran et al. [2] investigated the effect of graphite and Al2 O3
H. Singh (B) · H. Bahri · K. K. Singh

Department of Mechanical Engineering, G. L. Bajaj Institute of Technology and Management,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2857-3_12
116 H. Singh et al.
on hybrid composite hardness increase and wear resistance. Sudha et al. [3] investi-
gated the behaviour of aluminium matrix material and identified the main influencing
parameter as sintering temperature, particle size, heat treatment condition and milling
time. Chelladurai et al. [4] reviewed the mechanical properties and wear behaviour
of aluminium-based matrix composites and concluded that stir casting is the cost-
effective methodology for particulate and fibre-reinforced composites, and squeeze
casting gives good surface finish and mechanical properties. Nayak et al. [5] worked
on four types of powder metallurgy-based cylindrical sintered hybrid composites
which were made through five different combinations of sintering temperature and
time span and reported that the density and hardness of each specimen increased
through the suggested powder metallurgy route. They also found that the powder
metallurgy method efficiently reduces cluster formation in material when nano-
size particle is used through milling process which results in densification of the
material. Vasanth et al. [6] performed similar study and concluded that particle
size, compaction pressure and sintering time potentially influenced the behaviour
of proposed material. They also found optimum sintering time and compaction
time in order to maximize the hardness of the material. They also reported that
the material properties such as hardness and compressive strength can be improved
by reinforcing aluminium matrix with the compounds like boron carbide, silicon
carbide and aluminium oxide. The preparation of MMCs by conventional methods
such as stir casting, squeeze casting and other techniques may lead to defects such
as poor wetting, porosity and poor interface bonding between reinforcement and
matrix material. The powder metallurgy method which includes ball milling gives
homogenous distribution of the reinforcement particle in matrix alloy. Due to this,
proper bonding between the matrix material and reinforcements will occur. It also
improves mechanical and tribological properties.
11.2 Methodology and Experimental Setup
This section depicts the trial methodology in the current work. A point-by-point report
is likewise given on the portrayal of crude materials utilized for creation of the MMC
test examples. This part houses a depiction of the itemized venture savvy techniques
embraced for manufacture of the test examples, the heat treatment conferred and the
mechanical and electrical testing did. All the experimental work has been performed
in Al-Falah School of Engineering and Technology, Dhauj, Faridabad, Haryana,
India.
11 Experimental Analysis of Wear and Mechanical Characteristics … 117
11.2.1 Rule of Mixtures
Rule of mixture is a strategy to deal with inexact assessment of composite material

properties. This improves the reproducibility of the composite and helps to achieve
identical properties. The mixture properties are as follows:
Density
dc = dm × Vm + d f × V f (11.1)
where,
dm , dc , d f —Matrix, composite and dispersed phase densities.
V f andVm —The volume fraction of the dispersed phase and matrix.
Thermal Expansion coefficient
Thermal Expansion coefficient (TEC) in linear direction
αm × E m × Vm + α f × E f × V f
αcl = (11.2)
E m × Vm + E f × V f
αcl, αm , αf —TEC of composite in linear direction, matrix and dispersed phase

Em , Ef —modulus of elasticity of matrix and dispersed phase
Thermal Expansion coefficient (TEC) in lateral direction
αct = (1 + Pm )αm × Vm + α f × V f (11.3)
where, Pm —Poisson ratio of matrix.

Modulus of Elasticity (Ecl)
E cl = E m × Vm + E f × V f (11.4)
1 Vm
= + V f /E f (11.5)
E ct Em
Tensile Strength
Tensile strength of composite in linear direction.
σc = σm × Vm + σ f (11.6)
where, σm , σc , σf —matrix, composite and dispersed phase tensile strength.

Selection of material: During my literature survey, I have noticed that in most
high-precision applications of kinematics chain, the aluminium alloys from series
6000, namely Al 6063 and Al 6061, were used. These have good corrosion resistance
118 H. Singh et al.
Table 11.1 For composite

Material Density Mass of LM25 Mass of B4 C in
material density and mass of
(g/cm3 ) in gms gms
LM25 and mass of B4 C
LM25 2.68 42.09 0
LM25 + 5% 2.67 40.00 2
B4 C
LM25 + 10% 2.66 38.00 4.2
B4 C
LM + 25 + 2.65 35.46 6.25
15% B4 C
and extrusion properties with good strengths. However, they have high-temperature
resistance and start losing their strength with increase in temperature. To overcome
this limitation of Al 6000, I am considering LM 6, LM13 and LM25 from cast
aluminium series at the initial stage because these materials can sustain high strength
at high temperatures. After checking the compatibility of these matrix materials, I
am going to reinforce fibrolite used as refractory to one or more aluminum alloy
matrix materials to further enhance the heat resistance.
The material used in the current study is LM25 with different compositions of
B4 C which has been listed in the Table underneath. The LM25 with B4 C has an
outstanding mix of mechanical properties in the cast condition. This network was
picked in light of the fact that it gives a superb blend of solidarity and harm resistance
at raised and cryogenic temperatures. To do the investigation, unadulterated and three
sorts of composites were readied. The composition of four samples are listed in Table
11.1.
Pure LM25
Al alloy LM25 95 wt% and 5 wt% of B4 C composite
11.2.2 Powder Metallurgy Method
The following steps are taken into consideration:

Mixing of powder
The MMC test specimens are produced by the powder metallurgy technique. 95%,
90% and 85% Aluminium alloy LM25 powder and 5%, 10% and 15% B4 C by
weight are mixed for fabricating the composite. In total, four categories of mixture
were prepared (pure LM25), 95% LM25 + 5% B4 C, 90% LM25 + 10% B4 C and
85% LM25 + 15% B4 C. Blending is performed in a ball planetary mill with the
ball to power ratio of 15:1 and ball (chrome steel) size 10 mm. The mixing machine
proceeds on 200–300 rpm to have a good homogeneous blend. Figure 11.1 shows
the ball mill used for mixing.
Compaction of the powder
Compaction is done on cold uniaxial press in steps rather than pressing the whole
powder mix in a single go. In each step, around 50 g powder mix is added and pressed
to complete the specimen. The punch and die arrangement is shown in Fig. 11.2.
Cold uniaxial pressing
The powder test is squeezed in the cold uniaxial squeezing machine (UTM hydro-
electromechanical) to deliver the green round tests of 20 mm external diameter across
Fig. 11.1 Ball mill
Fig. 11.2 Punch and die

assembly
120 H. Singh et al.
Fig. 11.3 Universal testing

machine
applying a load of 60 kN. A treated steel pass-on of 20 mm internal diameter was

utilized for this reason. To allow the powder to stream uninhibitedly and to shield
the model from holding fast onto the dividers, Graphite Grease was used as an oil
that was applied to the dividers of the pass-on and punch. The squeezing machine is
shown in Figs. 11.3.
Sintering of the green samples
The green sample is prepared at an elevated temperature in a controlled air climate
below the melting point of matrix material for an adequate time. It is done in a
muffle furnace as shown in the Fig. 11.4. A group of four samples was sintered at
temperatures 580–600 °C individually. The time of holding was 2 h. By increasing
boron caride content, the sintering temperature increases and high quality composite
is obtained. At that point, heater is permitted to cool to room temperature for a range
of 24 h. At that point, occupations are eliminated from the heater. The normal dia.
and height of samples are 20 and 50 mm. Figure 11.5 shows the furnace used for
sintering, and Fig. 11.6 shows the sample after the sintering.
11.2.3 Wear Test
Wear is a pattern with material removed from the two contact surfaces in solid
state. Due to the cost factor and complexity in making wear resistance material, it is
suitable to make the surface of material to be wear-resistant as wear is a phenomenon
of surface removal.
Fig. 11.4 Specimen after

green compaction
Fig. 11.5 Specimen in

muffle furnace
Fig. 11.6 Sample after

sintering
122 H. Singh et al.
Table 11.2 Value of

Material of pin LM25, LM25/5B4 C, LM25/10B4 C,
parameters during sliding
LM25/15B4 C
wear test
Material of disc EN 31 Steel
Dimensions of pin Cylinder with diameter 12 mm and
height 30 mm
Sliding speed (m/s) 2,4
Applied load 20,40,60
Distance travelled (m) 2000
Experimental Procedure of Wear Test

The normal loads at which wear test was conducted were 20 N, 40 N, 60 N with a
sliding velocity of 2 and 4 m/s. The total sliding distance for which the wear tests
were carried out was 2000 m approx. The pin models were 50 mm in length with
a diameter of 20 mm. Before the test, it was ensured that the surfaces are smooth
for effective contact of flat surface with the steel disc. The process of cleaning the
surfaces with C3 H6 O and weighing samples (up to an accuracy of 0.0001 gm using
microbalance) is carried out after each test. The height loss technique is used to
calculate the wear rate and expressed in terms of wear volume loss per unit sliding
distance. The parameters involved in this experiment are applied load, speed of
rotation and distance travelled. Values of these parameters assumed in the present
study are shown in Table 11.2.
Pin-On-Disc Test
For tribological characterization, the Pin-on-Disc test (shown in Fig. 11.7) was
performed with the following steps:
Fig. 11.7 Diagram of the pin on disc

• In the first stage, the pin surface was made level with the end goal that it will
uphold the heap over its whole cross-area. It is gotten by utilizing emery paper
(80 coarseness size) before testing
• In the second stage, a wear test was performed.
• In the final stage, both disc and pin were cleaned with ethanol. This stage is the
dynamic competition between material transfer processes.
11.3.1 Weight Loss
The composite and alloy samples are cleaned with acetone. Each sample is weighed
using a digital balance having an accuracy of ± 0.1 mg. After that, wear test is
performed on tribometer. For all experiments, the sliding velocities are 2 m/s and
4 m/s, and loads are 20 N, 40 N and 60 N, respectively. Table 11.3 presents the results
of wear test for 2 m/s and 4 m/s velocities and 20 N load. Similarly Tables 11.4 and
11.5 present the results of wear test for 40 N and 60 N loads at 2 m/s and 4 m/s
velocities respectively.
Table 11.3 Data of wear loss of composite and alloy for 20 N

Weight loss of composite and alloy
Specimen Sliding speed 2 m/s Sliding speed 4 m/s
name Initial Final Weight loss Initial Final Weight loss
weight (g) weight (g) (g) weight (g) weight (g) (g)
LM25 42.2712 42.246 0.0248 42.2712 8.2422 0.029
LM25/5B4 C 41.9724 41.962 0.0198 41.9724 7.985 0.0206
LM25/10B4 C 41.3557 41.344 0.0113 41.3557 8.3363 0.0194
LM25/15B4 C 41.2057 41.196 0.0101 41.2057 8.2047 0.0175
Table 11.4 Data of wear loss of alloy and composite for 40 N

Name Initial Final weight Weight loss Initial Final Weight loss
weight (g) (g) (g) weight (g) weight (g) (g)
LM25 42.2712 42.2439 0.02732 42.2712 42.2371 0.03412
LM25/5B4 C 41.9724 41.95655 0.01585 41.9724 41.9469 0.02555
LM25/10B4 C 41.3557 41.34237 0.01335 41.3557 41.3343 0.02143
LM25/15B4 C 41.2057 41.1923 0.01342 41.2057 41.1862 0.01952
124 H. Singh et al.
Table 11.5 Data of wear loss of alloy and composite for 60 N

Name Initial Final Weight loss Initial Final Weight loss
weight (g) weight (g) (g) weight (g) weight (g) (g)
LM25 42.2712 42.2361 0. 03516 42.2712 42.2398 0.03142
LM25/5B 4 C 41.9724 41.9459 0.02653 41.9724 41.9493 0.02312
LM25/10B4 C 41.3557 41.3337 0.02203 41.3557 41.3356 0.02013
LM25/15B4 C 41.2057 41.1862 0.01953 41.2057 41.1873 0.01842
After performing the wear tests of the aluminium alloy materials with reinforce-
ment of different amounts of B4 C, following results were obtained.
Micro Hardness Measurement
Micro hardness testing is a procedure for assessing the hardness of a material. A
micro hardness analyser MVH-1is used for the miniature hardness assessment. To
check hardness, model with estimation (50 mm × 20 mm) is prepared. The required
metallographic finish of the surface being pursued is obtained with the help of 100,
220, 400, 600 and 1000 coarseness size emery paper. Weight used on Vickers small-
scale hardness analyser was 200 grams at 10X optical zoom with stay time 20 s
for every model. The after-effect of Vickers micro hardness test for amalgam LM25
without support, and the wt% variety of reinforcement with B4 C in Al compound
MMCs are shown in Table 11.6.
In the testing of Al-based MMCs reinforced with B4 C and micro hardness of Al
alloy, it was seen that hardness of B4 C-strengthened composite is more than that of
Al compound. Hardness of composite relies upon the hardness of the reinforcement
and the lattice. The variation of Mean Micro Hardness No. with increasing B4 C is
shown in Fig. 11.8.
It has been observed that the hardness of composite depends on the particle–matrix
interface. Due to dislocations, hardening increases with increase in particle–matrix
interface. As in the case of alumina reinforcement, if the composite is reinforced
Table 11.6 Data of micro

Sample number Sample name Mean micro hardness
hardness
no.
1 100%LM25 + 90
0%B4 C
2 95%LM25 + 94
5%B4 C
3 90%LM25 + 97
10%B4 C
4 85%LM25 + 100
15%B4 C
Fig. 11.8 Comparison of mean micro hardness of alloy and composite
with smaller ceramic particles, then it will have more particle–matrix interface as
compared to reinforcement of large particles. Therefore, the hardness of composites
can also be increased by decreasing the size of reinforced particles and increase the
volume ratio of the reinforcement.
11.3.2 Wear Characteristics
The addition of boron carbide with the help of powder metallurgy results in cumu-
lative weight loss. Further, the increase in boron carbide may lead to significant
decrease in weight loss. Figure 11.9 shows the values of weight loss for different
specimens for 20 N load at 2 m/s velocity. It can be seen that the weight loss is
highest for LM25 and minimum for LM25/15B4C. Similarly the weight losses in
different specimens for 40 N-2 m/s, 40 N-4 m/s, 60 N-2 m/s and 60 N-4 m/s; load-
velocity combinations are shown in Figs. 11.9, 11.10, 11.11, 11.12, 11.13 and 11.14
respectively.
11.4 Conclusion
The following conclusions may be drawn from the work:

1. LM25 aluminium alloy has superior mechanical properties, high hardness, low
weight and high wear resistance which can be improved with reinforcement of
B4 C.
126 H. Singh et al.
Fig. 11.9 Weight loss at

2 m/s for 20 N

4 m/s for 20 N
2. B4 C has outstanding hardness, so as reinforcement material is used to improve

the hardness of LM25. The hardness of composite is increased by decreasing the
size of reinforced particles and increasing the volume ratio of the reinforcement.
3. Powder metallurgy gives the proper bonding between matrix material and
reinforcement, and also, improves mechanical and tribological properties.

2 m/s for 40 N

4 m/s for 40

2 m/s for 60 N
128 H. Singh et al.

4 m/s for 60
4. The Wear and Hardness of the LM25 material increase very effectively by
reinforcing B4 C, and within the range of our interest, best result is obtained at
15% B4 C and 85% LM25.
5. Further increasing the amount of B4 C will result in cost elevation.
11.5 Future Scope of Work
In the present work, reinforcement of B4 C has been done to improve the wear and
mechanical properties of Aluminium alloy. There is an enormous scope of many more
alloying materials with different amounts of weight percentage and compositions
to improve the different properties of LM25. There is also a possibility of getting
optimum results of reinforcements to obtain an Aluminium Matrix material having
good mechanical, thermal and wear properties.
References
1. Baradeswaran, A., Perumal, A.E.: Composites: Part B study on mechanical and wear properties
of Al7075/Al2 O3 /graphite hybrid composites. Compos Part B 56, 464–471 (2014)
2. Celladurai, S.J.S., Kumar, S.S., Venugopal, N., Ray, A.P., Manjunath, T.C., Gnansekaran, S.:
A review on mechanical properties and wear behaviour of aluminium based metal matrix
composites. Materials Today: Proceedings (2020)
3. Elango, G., Raghunath, B.K.: Tribological behavior of hybrid (LM25Al + SiC + TiO2 ) metal
matrix composites. Procedia Eng 64, 671–680 (2013)
4. Nayak, K.C., Pandey, A.K., Date, P.P.: Mechanical and physical characterization of powder
metallurgy based aluminium metal matrix hybrid composite. Mater. Today: Proc. (2020)
5. Sudha, G.T., Ravichandran, M., Balasubramanian, M.: Mechanical properties, characterization
and wear behavior of powder metallurgy composites: a review. Mater. Today Proc. 22, 2582–2596
(2020)
6. Vasanth, K.M.J., Ram, P.S.L., Anand, V.P., Prabhu, M., Rahul, S.: Experimental investigation
of mechanical and tribological properties of Aluminium metal matrix composites fabricated by
powder metallurgy route: a review. Mater. Today Proc. (2020)
Chapter 12
Recent Advancements on Structural
Health Monitoring Using Lamb Waves
Deepak Kumar, Sahil Kalra, and Mayank Shekhar Jha
Abstract Structural health monitoring (SHM) is an inspection study that deals with
the diagnosis and prognosis of damages/faults in structures. SHM plays a crucial role
in diagnosing the metallic and composite-based thin/shell structure. In this paper,
critical analysis and discussion are provided on the SHM methods focusing on state
of the art Lamb waves. The sensors and actuators, especially piezoelectric sensors,
are explained from the viewpoint of health monitoring on thin structures. A tabular
survey of the findings from the literature and existing lacunas are reported for the last
5 research years. It becomes evident from the research work that SHM methods with
piezoelectric material-based sensors and actuators are more pronounced techniques
in comparison to optic sensors, electrical resistance, electromagnetic techniques, and
capacitive methods.
12.1 Introduction
Structural health monitoring (SHM) is the interdisciplinary field of carrying out

diagnosis and prognosis processes in different domains, including aerospace, civil,
mechanical, and naval structures. By definition, it is the mechanism of enforcing
damage revelation techniques and characterization methods for monitoring defect-
prone systems affected by external factors [1]. It utilizes the concept of failsafe
design, which affirms that any structure can have defects as long as they do not
lead to failure to the system. In other words, SHM intends to move toward the
performance-based design philosophy [2]. Various state of the art technologies such
D. Kumar (B) · S. Kalra

Indian Institute of Technology Jammu, Jammu & Kashmir, India
e-mail: 2019rme0031@iitjammu.ac.in
S. Kalra
e-mail: sahil.kalra@iitjammu.ac.in
M. S. Jha
Centre de Recherche en Automatique de Nancy, Université de Lorraine, Nancy, France
e-mail: mayank-shekhar.jha@univ-lorraine.fr
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2857-3_13
132 D. Kumar et al.
as acoustic emission, ultrasonic, thermal imaging, etc., are being utilized to monitor
structural health. The diagnosis is generally carried out either actively or passively.
In the passive system, the measurement of various parameters is carried out on the
passive structure. However, in the active system, the measurement is done in real time.
Hence, the methodologies focused on the active process are generally non-destructive
based in nature.
The main objective of performing SHM is to decline the growth of maintenance
needs and hence reduce the overall cost required for prolonged functioning of the
system or structure. It also aims to enhance existing design performance and provide
feedback that helps improve the future design based on the experience. The tech-
niques for SHM vary from simple human sense like visual inspection to machining
operations, which require skill like in the case of non-destructive evaluation (NDE).
Based on the premise that damage will alter the characteristic properties of the struc-
ture, SHM is classified into two main categories [3]. The first category is the static-
based SHM performed when the damage affects the static properties of structure like
displacement and rotation. The second category is vibration-based SHM which is
done when the damage affects the dynamic properties of the structure like frequency,
modes and mode shapes, etc. In each of these categories, SHM is performed in four
fundamental and essential steps [4]:
(i) Detection: determining whether there is any damage present in the structure,
(ii) Localization: localization of the damage (if detected),
(iii) Characterization: quantification of damage severity, and
(iv) Prognosis: prediction of remaining functioning life of the structure.
To detect any fault, the array of sensors is placed strategically on the structure that
collects dynamic structural response either continuously or at regular intervals. By
smartly analyzing these measured responses, one can identify damage occurrence.
During data acquisition, environmental effects, such as temperature and humidity
levels, and measurement noise create uncertainty which causes error in the signal
processing. If non-stationary inputs like traffic, wind, and earthquake are avoided and
if every point on the structure is observed, it is possible to detect any damage and its
location. Though it is computationally expensive, it may even be used to assess the
damage type and estimate the structure’s remaining life if used under the supervision
of high user expertise. Too many unknowns and modeling assumptions from physical
to modal domain like boundary conditions, number of DOFs and material properties,
etc., affect the analysis method. SHM can be used for monitoring metals, composites,
laminates, and sandwich materials.
12 Recent Advancements on Structural Health Monitoring … 133
12.2 Structural Health Monitoring Using Lamb Waves
Lamb waves are unique ultrasonic waves that travel the controlled path between
two free parallel surfaces, such as a thin plate or shell’s upper and lower surfaces.
For this reason, Lamb waves are often referred to as guided plate waves [5]. It was
discovered by Horace Lamb in 1917, taking inspiration from the Rayleigh wave by
Lord Rayleigh [6, 7]. The detailed theoretical development of the wave was set up by
Mindlin in 1950 [8], supported by the experimental work carried out by Schoch in
1952 and Frederick in 1962 [9, 10]. After its discovery, most further improvements
and applications were aimed mainly at the medical field during World War II [11–
13]. Later in 1961, Worlton introduced Lamb waves as a damage detection means,
which may be extended for smart structures [14, 15]. Subsequently, all these initial
studies helped establish the basics of Lamb waves as an outstanding NDE technique.
Lamb waves comprise elastic-wave-based propagation, which causes specific
scattering of wave and mode reconstruction depending upon structural damages,.
A quantifiable assessment of faults and defects can be achieved by processing and
analyzing the wave signals dispersed by damage.
Advantages of Lamb waves: some of the advantages are: cost-viability, quick and
repeatable, a short-term inspection of huge structures, responsive to smaller defects,
no need for transducer movement, using up little energy, capable of detecting surface
and internal defects.
Limitations of Lamb waves: some of the limitations include: the need for prac-
tical and refined signal analysis techniques because of composite wave signal genera-
tion and output, collectively more than one wave modes accessible concurrently, wave
propagation in complex structures difficult to simulate, heavy reliance on previous
models or standard signals.
12.3 Sensors and Actuators in SHM
Following sensors are generally used for various signal detection in the devices [16]:
1. Fiber optic sensors,
2. Piezoelectric sensors,
3. Electrical resistance,
4. Electromagnetic techniques, and
5. Capacitive methods.
Out of these sensors, piezoelectric sensors are the extensively used active sensors
for monitoring the health of various structures, thus have been discussed in detail in
the present paper.
134 D. Kumar et al.
Piezoelectric wafer active sensors (PWAS) are the most used transducers for
detecting acoustic signals. The specialty of these sensors is that they can be used for
both actuation and sensing purposes. These transducers work on the piezoelectric
concept and bring together the effects of the electrical and mechanical output. When
working as an actuator, these piezoelectric devices convert electrical energy directly
into mechanical energy, stimulating waves and vibrations in a structure. These can
act as high-frequency vibrations generators in the supervised structure. Similarly,
PWAS transducers can further be used for perceiving stress–strain because they
directly convert the mechanical stress–strain energy into electrical energy. Since
the output voltage and the strain rate are proportional, this type of measurement
would be highly useful at high frequencies. In the case of Lamb waves, PWAS
transducers act as both transmitting and receiving devices for the Lamb waves passing
through any structure. When PWAS transmitters are excited with an electrical signal,
it generates Lamb waves in the structure. These Lamb waves travel in the thin-line
structure following a guided path and are reflected or diffracted when they encounter
its boundaries, any discontinuities, and damages. These reflected or diffracted waves
then reach the PWAS receiver, where they are all converted into electric signals. The
receiving of reflected signals is performed using either of the two configurations—
pitch-catch configuration, where one device transmits the signal, at the same time,
another one captures it, or a pulse-echo configuration where the same device is used
for transmitting as well as receiving the signal [3].
PWAS transducers are mostly used nowadays because they have few useful
advantages over conventional ultrasonic transducers. By adhesive bonding, PWAS
is strongly joined to the structure, whereas traditional ultrasonic transducers are
joined by gel, water, or air which provides weaker bonding. These modern non-
resonant devices can be tuned selectively into multiple guided-wave modes, whereas
the conventional transducers are single-ultrasonic-resonance devices. The PWAS are
small in size, light in weight, and economical to use, so more number of these trans-
ducers can be used simultaneously on structures, which was a limitation in conven-
tional ultrasonic transducers because of being relatively expensive bigger in size. A
detailed summary of the research work done in detecting and locating damages in
various structures using Lamb waves is provided in a tabular form in Table 12.1.
Table 12.1 Detecting and locating damages in various structures using Lamb waves
Sl. no. Author(s) Material and Method of Result/Remarks
structure detection/location
1 Zhang et al. [17] Steel pipe Used bidirectional CSH0 is more useful
piezoelectric than CSH1 in order
transducer for CSH0 to monitor the defect
and CSH1 waves to depth change
monitor corrosion
depth change
2 Majhi et al. [18] Steel pipe Evaluation of spread Destructive test
of corrosion by
time–frequency
analysis using
guided waves, and
tensile test
3 Zhao et al. [19] Grounded rod Detection of Principal
corrosion pit using longitudinal mode
acoustic pulse-echo L(0,1) at low
signal, additionally frequencies is best
for simulating the suitable for detecting
soil influence corrosion damage
wet-clay wrapped
rods are used
4 Livadiotis et al. Steel pipe (D = 12 Damage monitoring ART imaging
[20] in.) by algebraic algorithm precisely
reconstruction localizes defects on
technique (ART) the circumference of
using helical guided the pipe
ultrasonic wave
(HGUW)
5 Zhang et al. [21] Galvanized steel Detection of the Instead of mode L(0,
wire severity of depth 2), mode L(0, 3) is
increment by turned out to track
time-reversal the deep inside
method (TRM) defects
while using
longitudinal
ultrasonic guided
waves
6 Li et al. [22] Aluminum pipe Quantitative The changing
detection of the wavenumber of the
defect by modes reveals the
wavenumber existence of a defect
analysis
(continued)
136 D. Kumar et al.

7 Li et al. [23] Composite Use of non-linear ANPs increase with
Lamb wave and micro-crack density
characterization by and with a
acoustic propagating distance
nonlinearity of wave
parameters (ANP)
8 Chen et al. [24] Stainless steel pipe Detection of axial as Cracks successfully
well as detected and located
circumferential on the interior
cracks by using surface of the pipe
linearly polarized
circular TE11
microwaves
9 Rommeler et al. Polymer Detection of crack Contactless
[25] and weld inspection inspection
by the method of
air-coupled
ultrasonic (ACUS)
inspection
10 Du et al. [26] Steel pipe Damage Multi-crack
identification using detection
piezoceramic
transducers for
stress waves-based
active sensing
method
11 Nirbhay et al. [27] Brass Detecting shallow to Also reported
deep cracks by finite spectrogram
element simulation analysis, Fourier and
of Lamb wave Hilbert transforms
response
12 Ni et al. [28] Steel Detect and locate Configuration type:
bend and cracks by Space-Z, plane-Z,
finite element and U type
simulation of modes
in different bend
condition
(continued)

13 Liu et al. [29] Stainless steel Circumferential Accurate
crack identification circumferential
using location of small
cross-sectional cracks in pipe weld
diagnostic imaging
algorithm and an
angular profile
based frequency
selection method
14 Zhou et al. [30] Aluminum Damage detection More sensitive to L
using ultrasonic mode guided waves
fiber optic sensors
(UFOS) based on
Mach–Zehnder
interferometer
15 Li et al. [31] Aluminum Use of flexible Thermal fatigue
polyvinylidene damage assessment
fluoride (PVDF)
comb transducers
for measuring
fundamental and
second harmonics
of guided-wave
propagation
16 Hu et al. [32] Aluminum and Tomographic For the aluminum
Carbon Fiber reconstruction of cylinder, S0 mode is
Reinforced Plastic internal surface found to be more
(CFRP) damage images by sensitive to the
the two-stage internal surface pit
inverse algorithm
for Lamb wave
tomography (LWT)
17 Li et al. [33] Metal laminated Detect and locate Better identification
composite interlaminar than Lamb wave
damage using finite
element simulation
of Stoneley wave
18 Baltazar et al. [34] Aluminum Reduced thickness Short time wavelet
detection by using entropy (STWE)
macro fiber analysis gives faster
composite (MFC) defect detection
sensors and
Time–frequency
representation
(TFR) using
wavelets
(continued)
138 D. Kumar et al.

19 Golato et al. [35] Aluminum pipe Using a sparse array The superior
of transducers to performance of the
record signals proposed spiral path
scattered by defects block reconstruction
approach
20 Wang et al. [36] Steel Quantitative mono Feasible and
and multi-damage convenient for large
detection by a cylindrical structures
sparse sensor
network, based on
the principle of
semi-decentralized
and standardized
sensing
21 Yaacoubi et al. Composite Optimizing damage Hydrogen-powered
[37] detection by finite aircrafts
element method
22 Eybpoosh et al. Aluminum Online damage Can only
[38] detection by compensate
proposing an 0.5–1 °C
unsupervised temperature
feature-extraction variation
method
23 Gresil et al. [39] Composite Damage inspection Longitudinal guided
by FE simulation modes L(0, 1) has
techniques high sensitivity
24 Munoz et al. [40] Austenitic stainless Detection, location, Identification of
steel and size edges or welds of the
determination of pipe
cracks using novel
signal processing
approach for a short
distance
25 Rojas et al. [41] Stainless steel Damage detection Signals detected by
by use of 1st order micro-fiber
torsional mode and composite (MFC)
post-processing of sensor
signals with Fourier
transform analysis
26 Chandarana et al. Composite Impact damage Location of damage
[42] detection and by triangulation of
monitoring by use AE signals
of piezoelectric
transducers for
SHM
(continued)

27 Song et al. [43] Steel Transversal defect Analysis of vacant
detection by and liquid-filled
time–frequency pipes
analysis for guided
waves
28 Wang et al. [44] Composite plate Structural damage Use of principal
detection by use of component analysis
Gaussian mixture (PCA) for reducing
model (GMM) the dimension
29 Carrino et al. [45] FRP Composite Location of the Effective in locating
artificial defect by the source of
use of piezoelectric nonlinearity with
wafer active sensors reliance
(PWAS)
30 Vogelaar et al. [46] Steel Locating internal Reflection
damage by the co-efficient
reflection of gradually decreases
torsional wave with increasing wall
loss
140 D. Kumar et al.
12.4 Conclusion
The present paper has provided a brief survey of the SHM methods considering
Lamb waves and piezoelectric material-based sensors and actuators. The thin struc-
tures comprising metallic and composite-based material were focused on revealing
the efficacy of Lamb waves-based SHM monitoring for passive and active structures.
Thus, the Lamb wave-based SHM technique is valid when the wavelength is five to
ten times the element size. In the near future, the diagnostic and prognostic proce-
dure for SHMs can be explored from the viewpoint of different domains, including
mechanical, food, or aerospace industries.
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Chapter 13
Global Overview of Large-Scale
Photovoltaic System and Its Electrical
Energy Storage Implementation
Bajrangi Maurya
Abstract Carbon-emission reduction is one of the great challenges emitted by fossil

fuels during power generation. This can be mitigated at a large scale by using solar
photovoltaic technology, which is one of the unmatched electrical energy generation
techniques with the help of solar energy. Energy crises are increasing day by day as
the demand for electrical energy is increasing, and hence to meet the global demand,
we need to expand the capacity of PV generation at a large scale. The increased
capacity of the solar photovoltaic system may vary from few megawatts (MWs) to
few kilowatts (KWs) depending upon the types of level of generation. A traditional
generating plant emits carbon and to eliminate this carbon emission, solar PV pene-
tration in the power system can be done at a large scale. Since solar energy is a daily
phenomenon and due to this uncertainty in PV power generation, electrical energy
storage (EES) systems need to be installed to enhance system capacity and perfor-
mance. Due to advanced technological development in the electrical storage system,
such as Li-ion batteries, lead acid, and nickel–cadmium batteries, has given increasing
energy sector participants by providing a cost-effective approach, quality improve-
ment, and energy management. This paper focuses on the PV system penetration at
a large scale to the existing grid system and a complete and comprehensive overview
of the electrical storage system. Forecasting of new technologies and recent devel-
opment in EES has been discussed. The current scenario and basic building block
of the PV solar system have also been focused. Different gaps in recent work have
been identified and indicated about the future development of EES for large-scale
PV systems.
13.1 Introduction
Electrical energy is one of the essential things for human, and without electricity, it is
difficult to complete daily routine either in home or in office. Due to industrialization
and increased population, demand for electricity is increasing, and hence to fulfill
B. Maurya (B)
G.L. Bajaj Institute of Technology and Management, Greater Noida, India
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2857-3_14
144 B. Maurya
this requirement, more electricity capacity needs to be increased. For several years,
conventional energy sources have been harnessed to generate electricity, but the
emission of carbon dioxide gases from such generating plants has a significant impact
on the environment. Due to carbon emission from burning fossils fuels, several
other adverse effects on the environment have been created, such as global warming,
environmental pollution, and greenhouse effect. Government from a different country
are thinking about such issues to minimize carbon emission and country like India
is giving entitlement their people to set up a solar PV system.
In recent years, it has been seen that there is a boom in renewable energy industries,
and penetration of renewable energy with the grid system has been increased in both
developing and developed countries. A developing country like India has great use
of renewable energy sources, especially solar energy, to meet the increasing demand
for electricity. Although, penetration of renewable energy with the grid creates tech-
nical and economic challenges. However, the modern power system uses energy
storage systems, power electronics converter, intelligent communication networks,
and advanced controllers to beat these challenges and revolutionary changes in renew-
able energy utilization. As we know that, solar energy is a neat and clean source of
energy and sustainable in nature. Solar energy falls on earth, when there is clear sky
irradiance. Nearly 50ZJ amount solar energy reaches on earth, which is the maximum
annual potential on land having clear sky irradiance [1]. This amount of solar energy
falling on earth before conversion into other forms is much larger than the total
energy consumed annually worldwide [2].
The scope of capacity adjustment of power output regularly avoids fluctuations
of dispatchable generating plants such as coal-fired plants or gas power plants. Solar
energy can be utilized at a large scale by generating electricity with the help of photo-
voltaic (PV) solar panels, and this can be penetrated into the grid for mass consump-
tion. Penetration of large PV-generated energy with grid may cause hindrance, and
it is up to policymakers to increase system flexibility for proper functioning with
an improved capacity [3]. Using electrical energy storage (EES) in connection with
large-scale PV system penetration may provide energy management and quality
improvement of electrical energy services. In the current scenario of the electricity
market, the smart grid and EES play a key role in maintaining the quality and services
of the electricity supply. In this paper, the installation of together with large-scale
PV power plants has been reviewed [4].
Different storage system used to improve energy management generated by PV
power plant has been discussed briefly. Due to the sporadic nature of solar energy,
EES uses in power systems improve grid stability. Under irregular solar energy,
EES can help in maintaining the stability and quality of the power system grid in
an effective and economical way under irregular solar energy. The application and
contribution of EES could be found in different stages of generation, transmission,
and distribution in power systems. Details description of PV module power genera-
tion and its penetration with grid system at large-sale has been overviewed. Recent
development in PV module system to increase solar energy generation capacity has
been reviewed in Sect. 2. Technology plays a crucial role in fulfilling the target, and
Sect. 3 describes different technologies used for PV cell. Due to the irregularity of
13 Global Overview of Large-Scale Photovoltaic … 145
solar irradiance, electricity generation through PV module is instable, and hence to

minimize such effect, different issues and techniques have been discussed in Sect. 4.
Integration of EES with PV system and different advantages of EES-PV system
has been review in Sect. 5. Section 6 explains an overview of the technology used
to improve energy management and power quality of system. The future scope of
large-scale photovoltaic power plants interconnected with energy storage systems
has been reviewed in conclusion. How to increase the potential of PV generation and
make the use of EES economically, all feasible scenarios have been included in this
research work.
13.2 Global Scenario of PV System
Different countries working toward the maximization of heir’s solar energy depart-
ment to harness solar energy and convert it into electrical energy. It is expected that
by 2050, renewable energy contributes 100% to the power generation sector, and
hence installation of renewable energy, especially solar energy, is increasing rapidly
throughout the world. The impact of increased PV capacity in power systems has a
significant effect and is termed as PV penetration [5, 6].
13.2.1 Germany
Germany has long been at the forefront of solar power producers and produced a total
of 38.2 GW power out of 177 GW produced globally in 2014 [7, 8]. Germany has
met over 50% of the nation’s daily energy needs from solar power [9]. Its long-term
shift to cleaner energy has made Germany’s economy the world’s largest to rely on
renewable energy. Germany can achieve nearly 80% production of electricity with
the help of renewable energy till 2050, and 52GW electrical energy may gain by
2020 by PV penetration [10]. Although Germany is far from a Sun-drenched nation,
it is still aiming to expand the EES market to improve the performance and efficiency
of the PV system.
13.2.2 China
Solar energy capacity in China is 44 GW, according to data released in 2020 [11].
It has ample solar energy, and it is harnessing this solar energy to increase its power
sector capacity. China has nearly 60% share of coal to produce electrical energy
as compared to 5% of solar energy of total its power generating capacity [12].
Keeping its reputation as the leading market, China made a big splash announcing the
world’s largest solar installation up to 2.2GW in the northwestern Chinese province of
146 B. Maurya
Qinghai. With rapid development in new technology, China’s solar power industry
is developing fastly, producing more than 18% of world’s total PV module [13].
Hundreds of companies in this country are involved in PV items manufacturing and
exporting globally [14]. The top listed companies for PV cell manufacturing are
Suntech, Canadian Solar, Jinco Solar, Trina Solar, Yingli Solar, etc. [15]. Technical
research work and development put a great involvement for PV industries in China. It
is expected that 85% contribution in the energy sector will be from renewable energy
by 2050, in which solar energy plays a big role [16].
13.2.3 United States
USA had over 71.3 GW capacities by solar energy to generate electricity. The country
is planning to achieve 70% energy demand with the help of PV at the end of 2050
[16, 17]. In terms of cumulative installed capacity, the USA is the second largest
country after China to use solar energy. The country is working to increase PV instal-
lation capacity to eliminate carbon dioxide emissions. Many states of the country
are working individually to raise the capacity of renewable energy usage with the
inclusion of solar power [18].
13.2.4 Italy
Italy is the fourth largest country in terms of solar energy utilization. Italy produces
7% of total electricity energy by solar PV system during 2013–14 [18]. It has
increased its capacity gradually up to 20GW till 2018. According to National Energy
Report, Italy will install 31GW by 2020 [19]. The share of electricity consumption
converted by PV power in Italy was 9.2% in 2018 [20].
13.3 Technologies Used in PV Cell
Photovoltaic cells are made of semiconductor materials that convert solar energy
into electricity by the photovoltaic effect. In few decades, PV cell becomes the most
powerful items to convert solar energy into electrical energy. Due to advancements
in technologies, PV cell qualities improved a lot in terms of electricity generation
[21]. Crystalline silicon is used for PV manufacturing in large amounts, but its cost is
high comparatively. About 90% of solar panels use crystalline silicon [22]. Thin-film
solar cells like cadmium telluride (CdTe) are the most effective and least expensive to
produce electricity are amorphous silicon, copper indium-gallium selenide (CIGS),
and gallim arsenide (GaAs). But cadmium is toxic in nature and creates problems in
PV cell design. For residential and commercial use, CIGS solar cell play a prominent
role with high efficiency and better economy [23]. A different emerging technology
in PV cell has been reviewed as follows:
13.3.1 Multi-Junction Solar Cells
For utilizing the full potential of CPV (concentrator photovoltaic) technology, it is

better to use multi-junction solar cell. It contains multiple p-n junctions connected in
series/parallel combinations. These are made up of semiconductor materials. Tradi-
tional crystalline silicon (c-si) solar cells show 20–25% efficiency; on the other hand,
up to 46% efficiency has been shown by multi-junction cells in full concentrated
sunlight [24].
13.3.2 Organic Cells
Organic cells are manufactured with organic electronics, a field of electronics, linked
with small organic molecules. It is also known as a conductive organic polymer. An
example of an organic solar cell is polymer solar. Using organic cells in PV is due to
high throughput for module creation possibility. It is obtained by coating or printing
from continuous production solutions. The module cost may reduce to $1.1/watt with
the help of a cheaper manufacturing process in addition to the use of a low amount
of organic semiconductor operator [33]. It was confirmed that the tested product
typically produced about 25 or 60% more than amorphous silicon solar cells [25].
13.3.3 Quantum Dot Solar Cell
A quantum dot solar cell (QDSC) is a solar cell designed to use quantum dots as
an absorbing photovoltaic material. QDC is highly accepted for implementing solar
cells due to the tunable band gap, which can be achieved by varying the size of the dots
[26]. The reviewed stream on solar cells showed that penetration of PV cells globally
in order to be affordable, highly efficient, and ergonomically friendly, important work
needs to be done to accelerate PV panel [27]. The performances of the solar cell are
prominently affected by external factors such as ambient temperature [28]. Quantum
dots have intermediate properties between bulk semiconductors and discrete atoms
or molecules [29]. Their optoelectronic properties change as a function of both size
and shape. The power conversion efficiency of this solar cell technology is about
10– 11% [30].
148 B. Maurya
13.4 Stability and Integration Issue for PV
There are different challenges faced by PV systems to generate electricity. The cloud
shape and size speed of cloud cover and many other factors effect PV power genera-
tion highly [31]. Irregular irradiance of solar due to continuous passing of clouds can
largely affect power quality, regular supply system, and VAR control and system oper-
ation [32]. Technical designing issues are also great challenges. Different research
organizations such as IEEE and Underwriters Laboratories are helping in designing
PV cell, defining the performance, and analyzing the capacity of PV systems.
13.4.1 Intermittent Issue for Solar Power
A policy of interconnection with grid systems, which is beneficial for both distributed
generation owners and operators, is a big issue and needs to be addressed. Such issues
include communication problems, control, and coordination, short-circuit protection,
electrical isolation, and protection due to surge [33]. For the connection of PV panels,
utility companies must follow the standards as EN61000-3-2, IEEE1547, IEC61850,
National Electrical Code 690, and the potential international standard IEC61727 [34].
In the current scenario, many software packages are used for power system stability
to deal with grounding, power quality, and detection of islanding operation issues
[35].
13.4.2 Irradiance Forecasting of Solar Light
For the planning of PV penetration and EES systems and their operation, irradiance
of solar energy plays a major effect. Irregular irradiance and forecasting could result
in inappropriate designing of size and operation of PV cell components. The discon-
tinuous and dynamic nature of solar resources creates unpredictable situations. Some
accurate prediction methods need to be discovered to better estimate solar irradiance
for PV systems. In [36, 37] a detailed and comprehensive forecasting methods for the
solar resource have been reviewed. Different techniques need to be implemented for
better forecasting for PV power systems applications, reviewed in detail [44]. Arti-
ficial intelligence (AI) approach, physical approach, and hybrid approach are some
techniques used in irradiance forecasting are the statistical approach. Depending
on the types of parameters such as long-term planning or short-term scheduling,
forecasting techniques are used for the system for better operation [38]. Recent
advancements in technological development and using satellite images are effective
techniques for computation and physical approach toward forecasting. The alliance
between forecasting time horizon and the applications to PV renewable power system
has been shown in Fig. 13.1 [42].
Seconds to Years
Long Term Medium-term Short-term Very-term

(Months to years) (up to 1 to 2 week (3 to 4 days ahead) (Seconds to
Time Horizons ahead) minutes)
Renewable power System Unit commitment, Real time power

system sizing and maintenance, economic dispatch smoothing,
planning scheduling of balancing and
Applications generators dispatch
Fig. 13.1 PV system applications and forecasting horizons
13.5 Integration of EES with PV System
Solar energy is present during day, and due to this uncertainty in PV power genera-
tion, electrical energy storage (EES) systems need to be installed to enhance system
capacity and performance. Using electrical energy storage (EES) in connection with
large-scale PV system penetration may provide energy management and quality
improvement of electrical energy services [39]. In the current scenario of the elec-
tricity market, the smart grid and EES play a key role in maintaining the quality and
services of the electricity supply. EES have many applications and can be utilized
at each stage of generation, transmission, and distribution of power system, whereas
conventional generators are only generate electricity at a particular place. In [40] 100
KW distributed self-governing micro-grid in association with 50KW EES has been
studied in terms of the impact of short-term frequency stability.
13.6 Various EES Technology
Rechargeable batteries are enormously used for storing surplus energy in PV systems.
Grid-connected storage batteries play an important role as they are charged during the
minimum demand of electricity, and energy has been supplied to customers through
the grid at the time of high demand. In this section, various technologies used to
improve the performance of storage systems have been discussed [46].
150 B. Maurya
13.6.1 Redox Flow Technology
In redox flow technology, carbon electrodes exchange ions through a membrane [47].
Redox flow battery is an electrochemical type in which cell voltage is chemically
determined by the ‘Nernst equation’ and it varies from 1.0 to 2.43 V for practical
applications [41]. Due to ion exchange by membrane, electric current flows as liquids
circulate in each half-cycle. To increase the capacity at a high level, huge volumes of
electrolytes need to be circulating with the help of a pump in storage tanks [48]. In
RFB, oxidation, as well as reduction reaction, may take place at both electrodes. Zinc-
bromine, all-iron and iron-chromium, all cooper, and many other chemical elements
are used in a redox flow battery [49].
13.6.2 Lead-Acid Battery
Due to high energy density, lead-acid batteries have been in use for a long time in
terms of energy storage devices [51]. One of the main advantages is having low
cost, and hence this makes the lead-acid battery a range of applications such as
UPS, off-grid power systems and electric vehicles, etc [52]. The lead-acid battery
has low self-discharge characteristics and having a large current capability [53].
This battery has a mature technology that works on the basis of recycling format. In
addition of ultra-capacitors in a standard lead-acid battery provide good advantages
and enhanced quality. However, it is not environment friendly and has a short lifespan
and low depth of discharge issues [54].
13.6.3 Nickel–cadmium (Ni–Cd) Used Technology
Nickel–cadmium (Ni–Cd) batteries are rechargeable, and for a long time, these
are used in portable electronic gadgets as well as in EES technology. This energy
storage technology found a wide range of applications in communication systems
and UPS for storing electrical energy for future used. Nickel–cadmium (Ni–Cd)
batteries are having higher energy density (nearly 50–75 wh/kg) and longer life
(2000–2500 cycles) as compared to lead-acid batteries. Hence, they are extensively
used in generator-starting applications and uninterruptible power supply [45]. The
27 MW rated capacity battery used for spinning reserves and grid stabilization is
a nickel–cadmium type battery. This is the second largest power saving battery set
in 2003 in Golden Valley, Fairbanks, Alaska. Since metals (Cd and Ni) used in this
batteries are more toxic, they create the environmental problem and have expensive
EES technology compared to other EES technology [50].
13.7 Conclusion
This paper overviews the global scenario of large-scale photovoltaic system pene-
tration with smart grid, PV generating system and focuses on its electrical energy
storage implementation. Different electrical energy storage systems and technology
have been discussed in this research work. This paper focuses on the PV system
penetration at a large scale to the existing grid system and a complete and compre-
hensive overview of the electrical storage system. Forecasting of new technologies
and recent development in EES has been discussed. The current scenario and basic
building blocks of the PV solar system have also been focused. However, there are
many challenges regarding the PV penetration issue with the grid system that need
to be focused. Recent developments in the electrical storage system, such as Li-
Ion batteries, lead acid, and nickel cadmium batteries, have given increasing energy
sector participants by providing cost-effective approaches, quality improvement, and
energy management. PV-EES integration and solar irradiance forecasting are the big
issues in the successful operation of the PV system. There is s scope of research
to meet PV adoption at a large scale for commercial purposes. Different cons in
recent work have been identified and indicated for the future improvement of EES
for large-scale PV systems. Using excellent prediction model with the help of better
knowledge of the risks and uncertainty, solar irradiance forecasting can be improved.
The future scope of large-scale photovoltaic power plants interconnected with energy
storage systems has been reviewed in the section. How to increase the potential of
PV generation and make the use of EES economically, all feasible scenarios have
been included in this research work.
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099/-axzz4BLrsOucx
Chapter 14
Consideration Analysis of Stress
Distribution Using Automotive Chassis
for Heavy Vehicle Transports
Manish Saraswat, Pradeep Kumar Singh, and Rajat Yadav
Abstract The automotive chassis work to support the body and various parts of the
vehicle. Additionally, it needs to withstand the stun, contort, vibration, and different
anxieties caused because of unexpected braking, speeding up, stunning street condi-
tion, radiating power while cornering, and powers initiated by its segments. The
undercarriage goes about as the foundation of a substantial vehicle which conveys
the most extreme burden for all planned working conditions. This paper depicts the
plan and examination of weighty vehicle frames as the prime goal of any car business
in the present quick evolving world. In the current paper, the relevant data of a current
substantial vehicle suspension supplanting materials of high explicit load with lower
thickness materials without decreasing inflexibility and solidness. Supplanting of
steel with aluminum, magnesium, composites are taken for displaying. Planning
utilizing PC helped plan programming Catia and investigation by exposed to the
indistinguishable burden as that of a frame. The mathematical outcomes are approved
with expository figuring thinking about the pressure dissemination and distribution
utilizing the ANSYS programming.
14.1 Introduction
Otherwise called its frame, a case is the primary supporting structure motor vehicle
to which each and every other part is associated skeleton’s life.
Edge Basic Framework Automobile. It underpins all parts vehicle connected. It is
made Drop Forged Steel. All parts for cars can just append car-related frameworks;
M. Saraswat
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Lloyd Institute of Engineering and technology, Greater
Noida, UP, India
P. K. Singh · R. Yadav (B)
IET Department of Mechanical Engineering, GLA University, Mathura, India
e-mail: rajat.yadav@gla.ac.in
P. K. Singh
e-mail: pradeep.kumar@gla.ac.in
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2857-3_15
156 M. Saraswat et al.
for example, power plant, transmission, directing, suspension stopping mechanism

are joined and bolstered it was [1–4]. The skeleton gives quality expected to help
payload alongside various vehicle parts assists keep with auto mobiling unbending
and tight. Thus, the suspension is a significant part by and large security frame-
work. Besides, it guarantees low clamor levels, vibrations, and unpleasantness all
through the vehicle [5–7]. The skeleton must adequately be unbending endure daze,
curve, shaking diverse trouble. Notwithstanding excellence, one significant thing is
suspension configuration must have enough adaptability and inflexibility for good
taking care characteristics [8–10]. Along these lines, quality inflexibilitysignificantly
measures undercarriage structure. Heap bearing structure is a frame, so undercarriage
must be planned withstand stacks on it [11–13].
14.1.1 Layout of Chassis and Its Main Components
“Frame” is French word important full body autos, and incorporates all frameworks,
for example, power plant, transmission, guiding, suspension, wheel tires, auto electric
framework. Including body is called explicit configuration [14] (Fig. 14.1).
Fig. 14.1 Chassis and its main components

14 Consideration Analysis of Stress Distribution … 157
14.1.2 Materials
Distinctive suspension materials can lessen the weight vehicle, improving vehicle
capacity to weight proportion. Material choice likewise profits by lessening part
redirection, expanding outline quality, and deciding measure of support required
[14].
14.1.3 ALUMINUM 6060
Unadulterated aluminum is also practical material sensibly moderate lightweight yet

powerless and requires additional support to deliver an inflexible frame. Aluminum
is hard to work within the light fact that it requires exceptionally talented welding
entire delicate metal. There are normally few sorts of aluminum. For this venture, I
chose to test with an aluminum amalgam 6060.
Aluminum composite 6060 is the most affordable and generally flexible of warmth
treatable aluminum combinations. It has great properties aluminum. It offers great
mechanical properties great consumption obstruction. This is encouraged by most
ordinarily utilized strategies [15, 16]. It has great working capacity in the state.
The unmistakable highlights aluminum composite 6060 are medium to high quality,
great unbending nature, great surface completion, fantastic consumption protection
from climate conditions, great usefulness, and broadly accessible. It tends to welded
techniques heater can be brassed. It comes in a wearable structure (“Alclad”) with a
slight surface layer of high-immaculateness aluminum improve both appearance and
erosion obstruction. This aluminum type is utilized for assortment items applications,
from truck bodies edges to screw machine parts basic parts. 6060 is utilized acceptable
consumption opposition with great quality. The highlights Al-6060 are appeared
underneath in the table STEEL.
Composite steel iron and various parts, prevalently carbon is commonly used being
developed various applications due to its high tenseness simplicity. Steel’s base is
metal, which can take two crystalline structures (allotropic structures), body-centered
cubic (BCC) and face-centered cubic (FCC), dependent upon its temperature. Carbon
in like way, steel composites contributes up to 2.1% of its weight. Changing the total
alloying segments, either as dissolvable components quick strides in steel, lessens
development those separations that make iron generally flexible frail, in this manner
controlling its hardness, malleability, and rigidity. The outcome is steel. The quality
steel diverged from unadulterated iron is simply possible at cost pliability iron, which
iron is high.
The attributes of steel have appeared beneath the table (Table 14.1).
Table 14.1 The attributes of steel have appeared beneath the table
Density Young’s modulus, Shear modulus, Bulk modulus, Poisson’s ratio
GPa GPa GPa
Min 2.71 66.1 22 96.8 0.27
Max 2.71 70 26.1 153 0.31
Min 7.75 207 40 150 0.27
Max 8.1 210 45 172 0.31
Table 14.2 Ti-6Al-4V have appeared

Density Young’s modulus, Shear modulus, Bulk modulus, Poisson’s ratio
GPa GPa GPa
Min 4.429 104 40 96.8 0.31
Max 4.512 113 45 153 0.37
14.1.4 TITANIUM-6AL-4V
Ti-6Al-4 V, sometimes called Ti64, is an alpha–beta titanium combination with high

proportion and astounding erosion obstruction. It is one most regularly utilized tita-
nium composites and is applied in wide scope utilizations that require low thickness
great erosion obstruction. Avionic business and biomechanical applications.
Ti-6Al-4V titanium amalgam is, for the most part, in alpha, with hcp valuable
stone structure and beta, with bcc jewel structure. The mechanical properties may
differ contingent upon capacity and attribute heat treatment state compound, and the
general property goes very much prepared Ti-6Al-4V have appeared underneath the
table (Table 14.2).
Most early exploration take a shot at undercarriage plan examination is restricted

figuring pressure conveyance and exhaustion life in the case with few ump Minor
(1945) depicted weariness misfortune during break commencement stage. Harm
during the commencement stage may identify with disengagement, slip groups,
and micro cracks. Since these marvels can estimate in exceptionally controlled
research center conditions, most harm summation methods for the inception stage
are observational in nature [17].
These methods can harm the life spent for little research facility tests. For this
reason, life is characterized as crossing point design, which is equal to the develop-
ment of little splits in huge part structure examined in this work is restricted to results
acquired for K butt joints under hub stacking and transverse non-load bearing filet
welds under the hub and bowing burdens. Notwithstanding, welded transverse filet
welds under hub stacking are connected. The thickness goes considered in all cases
did not expand more than 10–26 mm.
Contemplated pressure investigation truck skeleton with inflexible joints using
FEM. The business restricted segment group ANSYS form 5.3 has been utilized
for critical thinking. Because of plan enhancements, it is imperative to decide pres-
sure truck suspension before production. Sidebar thickness, association plate thick-
ness, and association plate length were differed to lessen sum pressure close to
the bolted joint edge. The numerical outcomes show expanding sidebar thickness
locally can lessen pressure on the side part. On the off chance that thickness change
is unimaginable, expanding association plate length is an acceptable other option
[18].
Portrayed static unique burdens vertical even and torsion powers following up on
outline outlines. The torsion that conducts most business vehicle outlines is ruled by
distorting torsions, since twisting is forestalled in joints where cross-individuals are
appended to side-individuals. This paper presents half breed strategy examination
that consolidates limited component admiration joint districts with diagnostically
acquired bar components for cross-part and side part segments. The bar compo-
nent incorporates distorting torsion power uprooting ties. The adaptability joints are
combined with their uprooting similarity. The technique gives close concurrence
with test results [19, 20].
Spatial elements of high portability track vehicle suspension frameworks.
Utilizing the outcomes from the partner paper, conditions movement for suspen-
sion framework with discretionary number street wheels are methodically inferred.
The track is a spoken mind-boggling interior vitality component that works between
grounds, wheels body vehicle. Track strain is determined from Relaxed Caterers
Relationship track crossing over impacts are displayed. Numerical outcomes for
driver increasing speed retention, just as track strain, are introduced. A 90 calculate
decrease register time is accomplished on multi-body model single-vehicle diagrams
generally speaking way thinking producing knowledge from car guarantee informa-
tion and gives instrument upheld by situational models, where investigation guarantee
information has prompted extra understanding into hierarchical hazard appraisal and
past activity. The underlying progress to handle solidness issue, evaluation guarantee
hazard from weakened “quality breaks,” has been utilized for quite while is addi-
tionally improved by considering double nature car guarantee chance in wording
contingent time and use [21].
14.3 Methodology
Specification of Chassis frame

• Model: TATA ACE HT
• Length: 3800 mm Width (mm): 1500
• Height(mm): 1845 Wheelbase (mm): 2100
Fig. 14.2 Dimensions of

chassis given in CATIA
Fig. 14.3 Design of chasis

in CATIA
• Loading Deck Length (mm): 2140 Loading Deck Width (mm): 1430 Height of
Side Panels (mm): 300
• Min. Turning Circle Diameter (mm): 8600
• Gross vehicle weight (G.V.W) = 1200 kg
• Kerb weight = 800 kg.
There is a different component in CATIA using which different assignments can
execute. The essential transom and component CATIA showed up in the outline
(Figs. 14.2 and 14.3):
These grants decrease chance level cost trivial structures. The adaptable nature
ANSYS offers to ensure customers can see influence structure on, for the most
part, direct thing, be it electromagnetic, warm, mechanical, etc. (Figs. 14.4, 14.5,
14.6 and 14.7).
Now that the part exists define a library of the necessary materials that compose the
object (or project) being modeled. This includes thermal and mechanical properties.
Fig. 14.4 Total deformation

1

2

3

4
14.5 Conclusion
In the current work, the stepping stool type case outline for the car truck was
broken down utilizing ANSYS 2019 R3 programming. The part is protected in given
stacking circumstances. To improve execution, geometry has been altered, permitting
constrain levels to be diminished beneath the yield limit. The structure is alright for
every three materials since produced van pressure, and most extreme shear pressure
are not exactly suitable. Natural frequency mode shapes obtained by analysis model
and temp Although previous tests have found that material is not solid due to chipping
problem on rough streets, it is satisfactory. These specific looks are made especially
for context research/Tata Ace/light vehicles. Can simulate loading condition without
prototyping make necessary changes to design level if necessary, for proper opera-
tion original frame investigate frequency and mode shapes truck chassis, mounting
areas components on truck chassis, and observe response truck chassis under static
loading conditions.
References
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2. Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design.: 8th edn. McGraw-Hill (2006)
3. The Finite Element Analysis and The Optimization Design of The Yj3128- type Dump Truck’s
Sub-Frames Based on ANSYS—Science Direct (2011) by Chen Yanhong, ZhuFeng
4. Rajappan, Dr. R., Vivekanandhan, M.: Static and modal analysis of chassis by using Fea. Int.
J. Eng. Sci. (Ijes) 2(2), 63–73 (2013)
5. Singh, P.K., Sharma, K.: Mechanical and viscoelastic properties of in-situ amine functionalized
multiple layer grpahene/epoxy nanocomposites. Curr. Nanosci. 14(3), 252–262
6. PATEL, R.L., Gawande, K.R., Morabiya, D.B.: Design and analysis of chassis frame of TATA
2516TC. Int. J. Res. Appl. Sci. Eng. Technol. (IJRASET) 2(III) (2014)
7. Singh, P.K., et al.: Effect of sonication parameters on mechanical properties of in-situ amine
functionalized multiple layer graphene/epoxy nanocomposites. J. Sci. Ind. Res. (79), 985–989
(2020)
8. Singh, A., Soni, V., Singh, A.: Structural analysis of ladder chassis for higherstrength. Int. J.
Emerg. Technol. Adv. Eng. 4(2) (2014)
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2(4), 05–08 (2012). ISSN: 2231-2587. Last accessed 21 April 2012
10. Agrawal, M.S.: Finite element analysis of truck chassis frame. Int. Res. J. Impact Factor (JCC):
3.6234 NAAS Rating: 2.02 Eng. Technol. (IRJET) 02(03) (2015)
11. Yadav, A., Kumar, A., Singh, P.K., Sharma, K.: Glass transition temperature of functionalized
graphene epoxy composites using molecular dynamics simulation. Integr. Ferroelectr. 186(1),
106–114
12. Chaturvedi, R., Islam, A., Sharma, A., Sharma, K., Sharma, R.: Design and Analysis of
Mechanical Gripper of Aristo-Robot for Welding (2020) ISSN: 0193-4120, Article Info vol.
83, pp. 23202–23209
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defect in carbon nanotubes/epoxy composites. Mater. Today: Proc. 4(9), 9423–9428 (2017)
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thicknesses. IOSR J. Mech. Civ. Eng. 6(1), 44–49 (2013)
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Emerg. Technol. Adv. Eng. 4(2), 253–259 (2014)
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Chapter 15
A Review on Gas Sensor Technology
and Its Applications
Pooja Saxena and Prashant Shukla
Abstract Gas sensors have drawn the researchers’ community’s attention for a few
decades due to their numerous applications in different areas of environmental moni-
toring, biomedical devices, and pharma industries, etc. Normally gas sensing research
includes polymers, metal-oxide-based semiconducting materials, porous silicon, etc.
The performance of gas sensors is characterized by considering various scientific
parameters, such as its sensitivity, lowest detection value, response time, recovery
time, selectivity, and working temperature. Polymers are known for their sensitive
thermal, electrical, mechanical, and dielectric properties. Due to such characteris-
tics, they have gained a wide interest in theoretical research as well as practical
applications in sensor technology and devices. This paper reveals a wide research
review about the gas sensor structure as a sensing device in the field of the sensor.
In the end, the current status, future perspectives as well as advantages of particular
polymer-based sensors are summarized.
15.1 Introduction
Gas sensors have extensive significant applications in the following areas which
includes industrial production, such as detection of methane gas in mines [1–6], auto-
mobile sector in detections of toxic gases from vehicles [7–12], medical field appli-
cations [13–16], indoor air quality monitoring devices [17–20], and environmental
monitoring, such as greenhouse gas monitoring, etc. [21–24].
In addition to this, many studies have been performed in the last 50 years to
understand a detailed view of gas sensing technology and its various branches. The
most important areas cover the analysis of different sensors, working principles,
and fabrication techniques [25, 26]. This article comprehensively reviews the sensor
P. Saxena (B)
G. L. Bajaj Institute of Technology and Management, Greater Noida, UP, India
P. Shukla
Amity Institute for Advanced Research and Studies (M&D), Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Sec
125, Noida, UP, India
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2857-3_16
166 P. Saxena and P. Shukla
technology and its classification based on polymer gas sensors [27, 28]. This presents
the classification of gas sensing methods, introduces performance assessment of
various gas sensing methods, technologies proposed to improvise the selectivity and
sensitivity of gas sensors, and then finally concluded.
15.2 Gas Sensors: Physical Significance
Gas sensors have proved to be a significant device due to their wide application areas
in the industrial sector [29], environmental monitoring [30, 31], biomedical devices
[32], Pharma industry [33], Space exploration [34], food industry [35], biomedicines
[36], etc. The performance of gas sensors depends on various technical parameters,
such as sensitivity, selectivity, lowest detection value, response time, recovery time,
and the most important factor is working temperature. The fabrication technology
of gas sensors has been well established, but it still has several disadvantages and
limitations, due to which it needs to be studied more broadly. Since there are many
gas sensors available in the markets, metal-oxide-based sensors work at very high
temperatures. It is very difficult to keep the sensor at this high temperature day
and night continuously using Ac mains; otherwise, it is not sensitive to gaseous
analytes. The high temperature is maintained by a microheater below the sensing
material. Due to this heating, these sensors cannot be used on batteries. Apart from
the heating problem, there is another issue with the currently available sensors is the
proper mounting of the overall hot ceramic plate to maintain good thermal separa-
tion between the sensor element and housing. The highly sensitive sensors are also
in demand for the exposure of explosive and poisonous gases [37], which is a chal-
lenging problem relates to human health and safety. Gas sensors also contribute to
the environmental monitoring sector since it can detect the toxic gases released by
the different kinds of pollutions and thus can help reduce global warming. Since the
proper monitoring and detection can help us to find a way to control or reduce the
pollutants level.
15.3 Criterion of Selection of an Efficient Gas Sensor
• It should have a simple fabrication technique.

• It should be a low-cost device.
• It should be highly sensitive and selective.
• It should have a fast response and recovery time.
• It should be preferably a compact battery-operated device.
• It should work at ambient temperature for minimum power consumption.
• User and Environment Friendly.
• It should have a low detection threshold value.
• It should be stable while repeatedly used.
15 A Review on Gas Sensor Technology and Its Applications 167
Fig. 15.1 Schematic of the contact between the target gas molecules and gas sensing material
To meet the above criterion for gas sensors, generally a polymer, semiconducting
based metal oxides [38, 39], and porous silicon as sensing materials are used [40]. A
typical metal-oxide-based gas sensor [41] consists of a substrate, sensing material,
electrodes, and heater, as shown in Fig. 15.1. To enhance the sensitivity of the gas
sensor, the contact between the target gas molecule and gas sensing material should
be maximized.
Detection of air pollutants originating from sources such as vehicles, power plants,
refineries, industries, and laboratories, include HCl, H2 S, and VOCs, such as benzene,
toluene, xylene, etc., NH3 , CO, CO2 , NOx, etc. These pollutants may have delete-
rious effects on ecology, flora and fauna, and human health. Therefore, environ-
mental monitoring is crucial to protect public health from toxic contaminants that
are continuously released into breathable air. Consequently, there is a considerable
need to find a user-friendly and eco-friendly sensing system for real-time monitoring
of air pollutant emissions, which are very dangerous for the environment and human
health. Recent studies in the literature have reported the harmful effects on human
health internally as well as externally, such as irritation in the eyes, restless on being
exposed to acetone for quite a long time, breathlessness in patients with respiratory
problems, asthmatic patients, etc. Proper monitoring and early detection have thus
become necessary for the well-being of human health and society [42, 43] (Fig. 15.2).
15.4 Performance Parameters for Gas Sensing
Gas sensors are utilized and widely used in gas detection. But due to some inherent
limitations of gas sensors, many researchers are working to enhance the performance
of gas sensing devices based on their technical parameters. For an effective gas sensor,
we need to assess several characteristics parameters to check materials’ performance
and be selective [3]. Brief descriptions of few technical parameters are listed under
in Table 15.1.
All above technical parameters discussed above are generally used to define the
characteristics properties of a sensor device. For a perfect chemical sensor, it should
have all these properties. Researchers have built up an approach to reach up to these
characteristics, but cold get succeeded in touching the few only. Also, the designing
Fig. 15.2 Schematic of few polymer-based gas sensing material showing detection of gases [42]
of the sensor for some specific gases also very difficult, along with the fact that the real
applications generally do not involve sensors with all the perfect characteristics, such
as for industrial applications, the sensors required do not need a very low detection
limit such as at ppb level, but they require very large response time in the seconds. On
the other hand, in the case of environmental monitoring systems, there is a slower rate
of change of pollutants, so the required detection limit will be higher, but response
time could be acceptable.
15.5 Classification of Methods Applicable for Gas Sensing
The classification of gas sensing methods can be done broadly into two groups:
methods based on the change of ohmic resistance with different materials and
methods based on other kinds of variation parameters. A table for the classification
of sensing methods is shown below in Table 15.2.
Several materials can be used for sensing methods. They can be chosen based
on their performance, structure, and synthesis properties. A schematic of different
materials is shown below in Fig. 15.3.
In addition to that, there are many pros and cons of different materials, and their
applications are also limited to some specific areas. Thus, a brief statement of some
basic methods of gas sensing [44] are summarized in Table 15.3
Table 15.1 Performance criterion for gas sensing

S. Parameter Description
No
(a) Sensitivity It may be defined as the measurable change in signal response per
unit analyte concentration. This analyses a parameter which can
detect the lowest concentration of target gas
(b) Selectivity It is measured in terms of the selective response of the gas sensor
toward a particular target gas among a group of different gases
(c) Stability It is defined as the ability of a sensor to sustain its reproducible
performance of response through certain repeated cycles or a
specific period. It explains that for how much time a sensor can be
repeatedly used
(d) Working temperature It can be defined as the temperature at which the sensor shows the
maximum level of sensitivity for a particular concentration level
of the target gas. Power consumption is also directly related to its
working temperature. High temperature requires more power
consumption
(e) Response time It is defined as the time taken by the sensor to obtain 90% of the
saturated value of resistance during its change on being exposed
to a specific target gas
(f) Recovery time It may be defined as the time required to achieve 90% of the
baseline value of resistance past the release of the target gas. This
criterion also makes a gas sensor responsive and makes it ready to
use in a short period
Both response and recovery times determine the speed of the
sensor toward its cyclic operation
(g) Detection limit The lowest concentration of the analyte can be detected by a
sensor at a specific value of operating temperature
(h) Dynamic range It defines the performance of the sensor through an extended
concentration zone of target gas b/w the detection limit and
highest value of limiting concentration
(i) Linearity The variation of the experimentally determined calibration graph
versus target gas concentration
(j) Resolution It is defined as the difference of lowest concentration that can be
detected by the sensor
(k) Hysteresis The maximum difference obtains in output value when the value
has reached a level of increase and a decreasing analyte range of
concentration
(l) Life cycle It can be explained as the time over which the sensor can be
continuously operated
15.6 Approach to Improve Sensitivity and Selectivity
For a good and efficient sensor, it must be highly sensitive and selective. It should have
good stability with a very fast response and recovery time. These few characteristics
make the sensor viable and applicative in different fields of application. To get this
Table 15.2 Classification of methods for gas sensing

Methods of gas sensing Change of electrical resistance with Metal oxides-based
different materials and their semiconductor
compositions Polymers
Carbon nanotubes
(CNT’s)
Moisture absorbing
material
Other parameters Based on optic methods
Based on acoustic
methods
Based on calorimetric
methods
Based on gas
chromatography
Fig. 15.3 Schematic

showing the performance,
structure, and properties
synthesis of different
materials [43]
improvement, some measures need to be taken, which are summarized below in

Table 15.4.
Table 15.3 Summary of basic gas sensing methods

Material Advantages Disadvantages Application areas
Metal-oxide Relatively cheaper Comparatively less Industry sector and
semiconductor Short response time selective and sensitive civil sector
Long lifetime response
High sensitive
response to an
environmental issue
Needs high energy
consumption
Polymers Wide range of available Large instability Indoor air quality
target gases Low selective response monitoring
Higher sensitivity Irreversibility Best suited to store
Short response time synthetic products like
Minimal fabrication paints, wax, and fuels
cost Place of work such as
Very simple, compact, chemical industries
and manageable
configuration
Less power
consumption
CNT’s Highly sensitive Expensive Partial discharge (PD)
Good absorbent Difficult to fabricate monitoring
Large surface area to Repeatability
volume ratio
Fast responsive
Lightweight
Moisture absorbing Relatively cheaper Sensitive to friction Humidity sensor
material Lightweight Irreversibility in
Highly selective to absolute humid
vapors
Optical methods Highly selective, Difficulty in fabricating Air quality monitoring
sensitive, and stable and miniaturize in remote areas
Longer lifespan Higher cost-value Gas leakage detector
Not sensitive to High-end market
environmental change product or the most
expensive product
range
Calorimetric Shows higher stability Prone to catalyst Can detect the most
methods at ambient temperature poisoning and combustible gases
Relatively cheaper explosion under industrial
High sensitive response Inherent deficiencies in environment
for industrial gas selectivity Petrochemical plants
detection Mine tunnel, Kitchen
Gas chromatograph Exceptional separation Higher cost-value Common laboratory
performance Difficult to test
Highly sensitive & miniaturization for
selective portable devices
(continued)

Material Advantages Disadvantages Application areas
Acoustic methods Longer lifespan Low sensitive response Mechanism of the
Avoiding secondary High sensitive wireless sensing
pollutants response to network
environmental changes
Table 15.4 Summarized approaches to improve sensitivity and selectivity

Approach Sensitivity Selectivity
Dielectric resonator Large surface area Nil
Dielectric constant varies with
the concentration of gas
World Gas Model used in gas
generators
Thermostatic cycle Highly sensitive to all target Highly selective of all target
gases in each gas cycle gases in each gas cycle
Good sensitive response for For gases with relatively
gases with a quite different different sensing temperature
sensing temperature
Pre-concentrator Comparative absorption of If the pre-concentrator is
target gases is enhanced selective
Photoacoustic spectroscopy Cover advantage of both optic Nil
and acoustic methods
Sensor array Nil Offer with multidimensional
signatures
For gases with diverse sensing
conditions, the difference is
either large or small
15.7 Conclusion
The gas sensors are being constantly focused to lower down the working temper-
ature, improve response time and sensitivity. Efforts have been put by researchers
in this field are continuously growing to explore new and novel sensing materials,
which would probably bring out the solution to many unsolved technical and indus-
trial issues. The remarkable properties of polymer/CNT nanocomposite-based gas
sensing devices have captured the attention of researchers and have been the focus
of the sensor research area. The purpose of all the efforts is to bring down the
working temperature to reduce the power consumption and thus to improve the other
sensing parameters. Also, there is a need for detailed theoretical and experimental
examination for the in-depth understanding of the best possible chemical and phys-
ical processes in real systems to enhance the specificity of sensor which include
metal oxides, doping materials, various analytes, and other molecules which could
be possibly present in the atmosphere in specific target applications. This analysis
will also contribute to finding solutions for the problems with other issues, such as
sensitivity, selectivity, and stability of sensor materials. Our potential approach must
be to pay more attention to sensor stability. Higher stability can reduce the frequency
needed for verification and re-calibration of sensors. Another significant point is
to develop easy and cheaper fabrication methods so that they can be readily avail-
able and in reach with the normal population. The development of novel sensitive,
selective, and stable gas sensing materials is one of the key factors in the field of
nanochemistry and nanotechnology.
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Chapter 16
CFD Study of Two-Dimensional Profile
Geometry of an Airfoil
Harshit Bahri, Kaushalendra Kumar Singh, and Harvendra Singh
Abstract In this paper, two-dimensional numerical analysis of airflow over an airfoil

has been done. Profile of airfoil has been generated from a fabricated prototype, and
the analysis is carried out using computational fluid dynamics software in ANSYS
14.0 workspace. An in-built standard k − ε model has been used for simulation work
and the results show good aerodynamic properties of the airfoil with 0.18 coefficients
of lift and a lift to drag ratio as 8.38 at an air speed of 44 m/s at 5-degree angle of
attack.
16.1 Introduction
Airfoils are aerodynamic components used in the airplane that produce lift to the
airplanes and play a very important role in the efficient design and optimization of
airplane wings. The air dynamics over the airplane wings have attracted researchers
working in the area since the very early days of aviation. Earlier, it was done through
experimentations on different fabricated working models or prototypes in high-
precision laboratories. They were highly demanding in terms of cost as well as time.
But nowadays, computational techniques have accelerated the study with lower cost
and higher accuracy due to a reduction in human intervention in the process. CFD
is one of the most efficient tools that enhance designer capability for testing various
airfoil shapes with higher accuracy in less time. CFD analysis uses in-built basic
governing equations of aerodynamics backed with advanced mathematical tools.
Due to these advantages, many works based on computation fluid dynamics have
been reported in the last few decades. Many studies have been performed by the
CFD tool in order to get the best results and validation, as it is an important tool
for analyzing fluid behavior. Modeling of airfoil geometry and analyzing with CFD
gives results to find CD and CL values. A reduction of 1.7% and 4% in values of
CD and CL, respectively, were found by Hu and Wong [1]. According to a similar
study performed later with different models of the airfoil, it was found that drag was
H. Bahri (B) · K. K. Singh · H. Singh

G. L. Bajaj Institute of Technology and Management, Greater Noida, UP, India
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2857-3_17
178 H. Bahri et al.
Fig. 16.1 Air dynamics and

lift on an airplane wing
reduced by 2.02% while the reduction in the lift was found as 14.06% Ramani and
Kumar [2]. Relation between CD and CL was established with variable wind speed,
and it was found that change in CD was negligible at a certain wind collision angle
as speed increases. However, the lift force increases significantly as speed increases
Theera-Apisakkul and Kittichaikarn [3]. The study on the comparison of various
aspects (likes shape, material) found that magnitude of drag depends on the phys-
ical appearance of the profile, such as the shape of the body Alam et al. [4]. It is
also observed that drag increases with an increase in lift up to the stalling angle,
and the generation of lift affect the flow separation Madhanraj and Shah [5]. At the
stalling angle is obtained, the maximum value of lift coefficient gets reduced by flow
separation occurring away from the trailing edge Kanimozhi [6].
16.2 Methodology
16.2.1 Airfoil
An airfoil is the cross-sectional shape of airplane wings, blades, or sails; aerodynamic

devices are used to give a required force upwards when some fluid flows around it. It
also reduces the parallel drag force due to air turbulences and wake formations when
the fluid flows around it. The profile of the airfoil greatly influences the lift and drag
forces acting on it, which is shown in Fig. 16.1. The basic terminologies used for
defining an airfoil geometry are as shown in Fig. 16.2.
16.2.2 Details of the Airfoil Used in the Analysis
Table 16.1 shows the important details of the airfoil used in this study.
16 CFD Study of Two-Dimensional Profile Geometry of an Airfoil 179
Fig. 16.2 ANSYS 2D

model of the airfoil
Table 16.1 Details of the airfoil

Attributes Details
Way to compute airfoil coordinates with The cross-sectional profile of fabricated airfoil is
equation and tool utilized drawn on a graph paper, and 200 data points are
noted down. Thereafter an excel sheet of all the
data points is prepared and imported on solid
works. The two-dimensional cross-sectional
surface model of a fabricated airfoil is generated
on solid works imported directly in ANSYS 14.0
Fluent workbench
Name the type of airfoil NACA2213
Geometrical details of the profile Chord length (C): 20 cm, Thickness (T): 4.4 cm,
Span (S): 20 cm, plan form area (Ap ): 0.04 m2
2x FD 2x FL
Calculation lift and drag CD = A p x pa x V 2
, CL = A p x pa x V 2
The concepts used to define the shape of the airfoil are:

i. The mean camber line is obtained by the locus of point’s midway between the
upper and lower surfaces. The thickness distribution along the chord provides
it a required shape.
ii. The thickness of airfoil varying along the chord is measured in either of two
ways:
• By measuring thickness perpendicular to the camber line, also described as
the “American convention”.
• By measuring thickness perpendicular to the chord line, also described as
the “British convention”.
The behavior of airfoil’s while moving through a fluid is described by:
180 H. Bahri et al.
1. The aerodynamic center.

2. The center of pressure.
16.2.3 Boundary Layers
The boundary layer is the region of the flow of fluid formed due to the effect of
viscosity. It is classified into two types based on the flow:
i. laminar, and
ii. turbulent.
In the boundary layer of a laminar, the molecules of the fluid closest to the surface
will slow down a great deal and show zero velocity due to the fluid’s viscosity. In turn,
these surface molecules create a stretch on the upward flowing particles and slow
down these particles. The surface effect on the circulation of fluid molecules even-
tually disintegrates with distance from the surface. The region where these viscous
effects are important is called the boundary layer.
In a turbulent boundary layer, eddies are formed, which are larger than molecules.
Slow-moving edges close to the surface merging with the rising mass of air. Thus, in
the turbulent boundary layer, the motion of air molecules next to the wing surface is
faster than that in the case of laminar. The properties of a turbulent boundary layer
over a laminar boundary layer are:
i. The higher amount of drag, and
ii. Low susceptibility to flow separation.
16.2.4 Bernoulli’s Equation
This equation states that for a steady, incompressible, and frictionless flow, the total
head, that is, the sum of pressure head, potential head, and kinetic head remains
constant throughout the flow. Mathematically, this equation is discussed as:

P V2 P V2
+ + gz at state 1 = + + gz at state 2 = Constant (16.1)
ρ 2 ρ 2
where P, pressure of the fluid expressed in Pa; ρ, density of fluid expressed in kg/m3 ;
v, velocity of fluid relative to airfoil expressed in m/s; z, height at that point expressed
in m.
16.2.5 Euler’s Equations
The Euler’s equation named after Leonhard Euler is derived from the Newton’s
second law of motion applied to an element in the fluid and is a set of differential
terms that express the force analysis on that element.
Mathematically,
dp dz dV
+ ρg + ρV =0 (16.2)
ds ds ds
16.2.6 Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD)
Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) is the computer-based process to generate

flow simulations. CFD involves the numerical solution of the governing laws of
fluid in motion. CFD employs the geometrical domain divided into small volumes
(mesh) to solve the complex set of partial differential equations. It helps to analyze
and simulate the complexity of fluids without any real infra for measurement by
instruments.
In this study, ANSYS 14.0 fluent workspace is used to carry out the CFD analysis
of a two-dimensional airfoil model. The main features of CFD are:
• The numerical simulation is done in CFD and can also be saved for future refer-
ences, even after completing the analysis. CFD allows numerical simulation of
fluid flows, results of which are available for study even after the analysis is over.
• In CFD, the flow properties can be observed without disturbing the flow, which
is advantageous over conventional measuring instruments.
• The flow properties at inaccessible locations (such as inside a combustion
chamber) can also be observed using CFD.
16.3 ANSYS Modeling of Airfoil
16.3.1 Two-Dimensional Analysis
For CFD analysis 2D model of the airfoil is first made in solid works, and this model
is imported directly in ANSYS Fluent Workbench for 2D analysis. The obtained
pressure, velocity contours, and lift drag coefficients are analyzed.
182 H. Bahri et al.
Fig. 16.3 Fluid domain
16.3.2 Geometry
The cross-sectional profile of fabricated airfoil is drawn on graph paper, and 200 data
points are noted down. Thereafter an excel sheet of all the data points is prepared
and imported on solid works. The two-dimensional cross-sectional surface model of
a fabricated airfoil is generated on solid works, which is further imported directly
in ANSYS 14.0 Fluent workbench shown in Fig. 16.2. Further steps involved in the
modeling of profile in ANSYS 14.0 workbench are as follows.
16.3.3 Fluid Domain
The second step is to make a fluid domain for the airfoil. The domain for spoiler
2d analysis is made C-shaped on the front side and rectangular on the rare side.
The airfoil surface is subtracted from the domain resulting in a small hole in the air
domain (Fig. 16.3).
16.3.4 Mesh
The third step is to generate the mesh. The mesh is generated so that cells are finer
near the spoiler’s boundary and coarser in the outer boundary. The front and rare
faces of the mesh domain are named as inlet and outlet, and the inner and outer
surfaces of the domain are named as airfoil wall and wall (Fig. 16.4).
Fig. 16.4 Mesh
Table 16.2 Boundary

S. No. Description Values
conditions for airfoil’s 2D
CFD analysis 1 Model Viscous–Laminar
[k-E Model (2 equations)]
2 Material Air
3 Inlet velocity 44 m/s
4 Outlet pressure 0 Pa (Gauge pressure)
5 Angle of attack 5°
16.3.5 Boundary Conditions
Table 16.2 shows the boundary conditions used in the analysis.
16.4 CFD Study
A two-dimensional CFD analysis was carried out on the airfoil geometry using
ANSYS 14.0 workspace. The governing equations and setting used in the study are
as follows:
Transport equations for standard k-E Models are as follows:

∂ ∂ ∂ μt ∂k
(ρk) + (ρku i ) = μ+ + Pk + Pb − ρ − Y M + Sk
∂t ∂ xi ∂x j σk ∂ x j
(16.3)
For dissipation E:
184 H. Bahri et al.

∂ ∂ ∂ μt ∂ 2
(ρ) + (ρu i ) = μ+ + C1e (Pk + C3e Pb ) − C2e ρ + Se (16.4)
∂t ∂ xi ∂x j σ∫ ∂x j k k
Production of K:
∂u j
Pk = −ρu i u j (16.5)
∂ xi
Pk = μt S 2 (16.6)
where S is the modulus of the mean rate of the strain tensor, defined as:

S= 2Si j Si j (16.7)
Type of Mesh: Structured (quadrilateral).

Mesh size: Mesh is generated directly from default settings (scale 1.0), keeping
the relevance size as fine. The cells are finer near airfoils’s boundary and coarser in
the outer boundary.
Convergence criteria: 1e−3.
The solution was converged in 98 iterations, and the following results were obtained.
Figures 16.5, 16.6, and 16.7 show the contours of static pressure, dynamic pressure,
and total pressure around the airfoil. As can be seen, static and total pressures are
highest at the front portion of the airfoil whereas the dynamic pressure is highest at
the top portion of the airfoil geometry.
Fig. 16.5 Contours of static

pressure
Fig. 16.6 Contours of

dynamic pressure
Fig. 16.7 Contours of total

pressure
Figures 16.8 and 16.9 show the contours of velocity magnitude and path line
around the airfoil geometry. It can be seen that velocity is maximum on the top
portion.
Details of Lift, Drag forces, and Coefficients
As represented in Table 16.3, the aerodynamic properties of the fabricated airfoil are
good because it creates a nice lift to drag ratio (CL /CD = 1.09/0.13 = 8.38) up to 8.38.
On the other hand, this ratio decreases with an increase in velocity. A good airfoil is
supposed to give a greater lift to drag ratios at high speeds. There may be a possibility
that the velocity range in which experiments were done does not suit the airfoil, and
it can possibly give improved results in some other velocity domains. This is because
of the fact that the lift and drag coefficients are both functions of velocity. Hence
sometimes they come in a bad proportion for a certain velocity range and sometimes
excellent proportion for the other particular velocity domain. All these facts are a
186 H. Bahri et al.
Fig. 16.8 Contours of

velocity magnitude
Fig. 16.9 Path line
Table 16.3 Results of spoiler’s 2D CFD analysis

Inlet velocity Angle of Drag force (N) Lift force (N) Drag Lift coefficient
attack coefficient
44 m/s 5° 4.24 12.14 0.08 0.18
matter of optimization of velocity against lift to drag ratio. All above means that the
results may be improved by experimenting at different velocity domains and attacks,
but that will take excessive time and money.
16.6 Conclusions
Following are the conclusions made on the basis of the results obtained:
i. Static pressure is highest at the frontal portion of the airfoil and lowest at the
top of the airfoil.
ii. Dynamic pressure is maximum at the top and minimum at the front.
iii. Velocity is maximum at the top of the airfoil and minimum at the front.
iv. The small changes made in the geometric construction at any stage can help
in finding out the required analysis using CFD. This saves much time and
fabrication cost in real-time analysis.
v. However, the boundary condition data required for the analysis at boundary
conditions can be obtained experimentally.
vi. Sill in the case of turbulent flows, the validation of data through CFD is needed
with the data for wind tunnel experiments.
vii. The cross-sectional profile is responsible for the aerodynamic properties of
airfoils.
References
1. Hu, X., Wong, E.T.T.: A numerical study on rear-spoiler of passenger vehicle. World Acad. Sci.
Eng. Technol. 57, 636–641 (2011)
2. Ramani, H.B., Kumar, N.: Using shape optimization tool in Ansys software for weight reducation
of steel connecting rod. Int. J. Eng. Res. Technol. 2(2), 1–5 (2013)
3. Theera-Apisakkul, K., Kittichaikarn, C.: Numerical analysis of flow over car spoiler. Kasetsart
University, Bangkok (2009)
4. Alam, F., Chowdhurya, H., Guillaumea, E., Yanga, J., Zimmer, G.: On-road and wind tunnel
aerodynamic study of human powered vehicles. Procedia Eng. 60, 473–478 (2013)
5. Madhanraj, V.R., Shah, D.A.: CFD analysis of NACA 2421 aerofoil at several angles of
attack. Department of Aeronautical Engineering, Hindustan Institute of Technology and Science,
Chennai, Tamil Nadu (2019)
6. Kanimozhi, V.G.: Analysis of airfoil flow pattern using CFD. Department of Aeronautical
Engineering, Parisutham Institute of Technology and Science, Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu (2019)
Chapter 17
Tunable Filter at Second Transmission
Window Containing 1D Ternary
Superconductor/Dielectric Photonic
Crystals
Vimal, Sanjeev Sharma, Anil Kumar Sharma, and Rajesh Tiwari
Abstract A tunable optical filter at the second transmission window containing

a superconductor/dielectric one-dimensional ternary photonic crystal is designed
using the TMM method. The thermal tenability of the structure is controlled by an
external temperature of the superconductor Yttrium Barium Copper Oxide (YBCO).
The defect layer of the YBCO superconductor plays an important role in designing
an optical filter within a bandgap of the structure. The designed structure can be
used as a tunable optical filter at the second transmission window in optical fiber
communication.
17.1 Introduction
Photonic crystals (PCs) are generally periodic nanostructures of dielectric materials

[1, 2]. The dielectric materials possess a photonic bandgap in which we have designed
many optical properties like waveguides, ODR mirror, WDM, phase retarders,
and filters [3–7]. Both types of photonic crystal conventional like dielectrics and
metals and unconventional like magnetic materials, ferroelectric materials, super-
conductor, semiconductor, and plasma have been studied [8, 9]. The conventional
constituents for PC filter having traditional positive index materials but researchers
find some drawbacks in conventional PC filter while unconventional constituents
have been used to design new types of photonic crystals filters [10, 11]. Some types of
conventional PCs are superconductors; they are also called Superconductor-dielectric
photonic crystals (SDPCs) [12]. The SDPCs have more advantages compared to
Vimal (B) · S. Sharma

Department of Physics, GL Bajaj Institute of Technology and Management, Greater Noida, Uttar
Pradesh, India
A. K. Sharma
Department of Mathematics, SPC Degree College, Baghpat 250101, Uttar Pradesh, India
R. Tiwari
Department of Applied Science (Physics), ABES, Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh, India
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2857-3_18
190 Vimal et al.
metal-dielectric PCs. The metallic loss in these SDPCs is very small [8], and the
optical properties of an SDPC can be tunable [13] at the desired wavelength. A defec-
tive layer of the superconductor is established into the periodic structure of photonic
crystal, called defect mode, and originates narrowband transmission filter [14]. A
multi-channel filter has emerged when a single defect layer of dielectric photonic
crystal is restored by photonic quantum well structure [15]. The 1D photonic crystal
structures are easier to fabricate in comparison to 2D and 3D structures. Xu et al. [16,
17] theoretically design defect modes one-dimensional photonic crystals containing
a defect layer with a negative refractive index.
The photonic crystal consists of two different types of single negative materials
that can be used to design an omnidirectional (ODR) filter [12]. Some researchers
suggested that photonic heterostructures are also used as a terahertz filter; these
photonic filters based on the PBGs are used to design various types of optical filters
such as wavelength division multiplexers. R. Kumar et al. theoretically design a
terahertz tunable filter based on ternary photonic crystal [18]. Recently, Y. Trabeilsi
et al. design a narrowband optical tunable filter using superconductor/dielectric Thue-
Morse based photonic crystals [19].
We have theoretically designed a narrowband tunable filter using 1DTPCs
containing superconductor layers [13]. The superconductor, which is a function of
temperature is also depending on the external temperature of the structure, and it is
possible to design a thermally tunable optical filter. The complete 1D ternary photonic
crystal consists of three layers of dielectric/superconductor materials, and a defect
layer of the superconductor is introduced between them in a periodic manner. The
photonic crystal consists of superconductors and dielectric materials have attention
to a new concept in the field of research [17–19].
17.2 Theoretical and Numerical Method
In this work, a one-dimensional ternary photonic crystal is arranged in a periodic

manner. It consists of alternate three layers of dielectric/superconductor materials,
and a defect layer of a superconductor is introduced between them, which are shown
in Fig. 17.1.
The optical properties of 1D ternary photonic crystal are determined by using
the TMM method. Here, the property of the YBCO superconductor is described
without using an external magnetic field. The Gorter Casimir two-fluid model
[20] well explains the material properties of the superconductor in the absence of
external magnetic field. Using two-fluid model, the relative permittivity of a lossless
superconductor is defined as [20, 21]
ωth
2
εc = 1 − (17.1)
ω2
17 Tunable Filter at Second Transmission Window Containing 1D Ternary … 191
Fig. 17.1 Schematic arrangement of 1D ternary photonic crystal with defect layer
where, ωth is the threshold frequency of the bulk superconductor,
c2
ωth
2
= (17.2)
λ2L
c is the speed of light in free space. λL denotes the temperature-dependent

penetration depth, which is described by
λ0
λL = √ (17.3)
1 − S(T )
p
where, λ0 is the London penetration depth at T = 0 K, and S(T ) = TTc , where
T c denotes the critical temperature of the superconductor and p depends on the
superconductors (for YBCO, it is 4).
The refractive index of this superconductor YBCO related to temperature-
dependent penetration depth is defined as [20]:

1
nS = 1− (17.4)
ω2 μ0 ε0 λ2L
At 0 K, the critical transformation temperature and London penetration depth of

this superconductor YBCO is 92 K and λ0 = 140 nm, respectively [20, 21].
The reflectance and transmittance of this ternary photonic crystal are calculated
by using TMM. Applying the transfer matrix method (TMM), the coefficient of
reflection and the reflectance of the structure is given by [22],
(m 11 + m 12 p0 ) p0 − (m 21 + m 22 p0 )
r (ω) = (17.5)
(m 11 + m 12 p0 ) p0 + (m 21 + m 22 p0 )
Also, the reflectance and transmittance of the proposed 1D ternary photonic crystal
is evaluated by,
192 Vimal et al.
R = |r (ω)|2 (17.6)
& T = |1 − R| (17.7)
In this paper, we have taken the refractive index and thicknesses of Si and SiO2
materials to be 3.5, 1.45 and 620 nm, 760 nm, respectively. The refractive index of
superconductor Yttrium Barium Copper Oxide (YBCO) material depends on temper-
ature. For YBCO materials, the range of refractive index and temperature varies from
1.25–1.4 µm and 20–92 K, respectively. Also, the thicknesses of the YBCO super-
conductor layer be 93 nm and for the defect layer, it is also 93 nm. Figure 17.2
shows the photonic bandgap of this ternary photonic crystal when the defect layer of
superconducting materials is not introduced in the periodic manner of these photonic
crystals. When a defect layer of superconducting materials is introduced in the mid of
this photonic crystal, it is tuned with temperature. The transmittance of the proposed
structure is shown in Fig. 17.3. In this figure, it is clear that the bandgap and defect
layer shifted toward a higher wavelength range of the spectrum when the temperature
varies from 20 to 90 K. The peak of the defective layer has appeared at wavelength
1297.2 nm with a transmission efficiency of 90% at temperature 20 K. When tempera-
ture increases from 20 to 30 K the transmission peak shifted to 1297.8 nm wavelength.
Similarly, at temperature 40 K, 50 K, 60 K, 70 K, 80 K, and 90 K, the defect mode
layer has been tuned and observed at wavelengths 1298.2 nm, 1298.6 nm, 1301.3 nm,
1304.1 nm, 1307.5 nm, and 1312.3 nm with the transmittance of 0.93, 0.94, 0.98,
Fig. 17.2 Structure of 1D ternary photonic crystals without defect layer

Fig. 17.3 Structure of 1D ternary photonic crystal with defect layer at different temperature
0.99, 0.99, and 1.0, respectively. It is clear that when the temperature of the supercon-
ductor increases, the defect mode layer shifted toward the higher wavelength range
of the spectrum.
Also, from Table 17.1, it is clear that when temperature increases, the efficiency
of the defective layer also increases, and at temperature 90 K, it approaches 100%
transmission efficiency. So, it works as a tunable optical filter in the range of photonic
bandgap at the second transmission window. In this photonic bandgap, we can
design wavelength division multiplexer, optical filter, dense wavelength division
multiplexer, etc.
The quality factor of this photonic crystal at various transmission wavelengths is
shown in Table 17.1. From Table 17.1, it is clear that when the temperature of the
superconductor increases, the efficiency and quality factor of the proposed structure
increase. This high-quality factor indicates low attenuation loss in the bandgap of a
photonic crystal which is used in optical communication.
Table 17.1 Transmission

Temperature T Resonant Transmission Quality factor
efficiency and quality factor
(K) wavelength efficiency %
of ternary PCs at different
(nm)
temperatures
20 1297.2 90 3727
30 1297.8 91 3526
40 1298.2 93 3435
50 1298.6 94 3224
60 1301.3 98 3110
70 1304.1 99 2974
80 1307.5 99 2633
90 1312.3 100 2497
194 Vimal et al.
Fig. 17.4 3D View of 1D ternary photonic crystal with defect at different temperatures
The 3-dimensional schematic diagram of this photonic crystal is illustrated in

Fig. 17.4. The proposed structure shows the variation of the defect layer with temper-
ature. It is clear that when temperature increases, the defect layer of superconductor
material shifted toward the higher wavelength range of the spectrum. Hence the
proposed structure works as a tunable filter in optical fiber communication.
17.4 Conclusions
This paper, the optical properties of 1D ternary photonic crystals are analyzed by
using the TMM method in this paper. The theoretical result shows that the proposed
structure works as a tunable optical filter when the temperature of the supercon-
ductor increases with wavelength. In this work, the defect mode layer shifted toward
the higher wavelength range of the spectrum, and the efficiency of the layer also
increases with the increased temperature of the superconductor. At a certain tempera-
ture (92 K), it approaches to 100%. By tuning the wavelength, we design a wavelength
division multiplexer or optical filter which is used in optical fiber communication.
So, the designed structure can be used as a tunable multi-channel filter at the second
transmission window in optical fiber communication.
References
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crystals. Science 300(5625), 1537 (2003). https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1083066
2. Li, C., Xue, Q., Ji, Z., Li, Y., Zhang, H., Li, D.: Construction of photonic crystals with thermally
adjustable pseudo-gaps. Soft Matter 16(12), 3063–3068 (2020)
3. Sharma, S., Kumar, A., Singh, K.S.: Design of a tunable DWDM multiplexer using four defect
layers of GaAs nonlinear photonic crystals. Optik-Int. J. Light Electron Opt. 212, 164652
(2020)
4. Kalhan, A., Sharma, S., Kumar, A.: 16-channel DWDM based on 1D defect mode nonlinear
photonic crystal. AIP Conf. Proc. 1953,(2018). https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5032777
5. Zhang, X., Chen, Y.: Broadband phase retarder based on one-dimensional photonic crystal
containing mu-negative materials. J. Opt. Soc. Am. B. 29(10), 2704 (2012)
6. Sharma, S., Kumar, R., Singh, Kh.S., Kumar, A.: Temperature dependence ODR reflection
by using 1D binary and ternary photonic crystal. Optoelectron. Adv. Mater.-Rapid Commu.
19(5–6), 319–324 (2017)
7. Sharma, S., Kumar, A., Singh, Kh.S., Kumar, V., Kumar, A.: Omnidirectional reflector using
linearly Graded refractive index profile of 1D binary and ternary photonic crystal. Optik-Int.
J. Light Electron Opt. 126(11–12), 1146–1149 (2015)
8. Bilotti, F., Sevgi, L.: Metamaterials: Definitions, properties, applications, and FDTD-based
modeling and simulation. Int. J. RF Microw. Comput. Aided Eng. 22(4), 422–438 (2012)
9. Jutze, G.A., Foster, K.E.: Recommended standard method for atmospheric sampling of fine
particulate matter by filter media—high-volume sampler. J. Air Pollut. Control Assoc. 17(1),
17–25 (1967)
10. Sharma, S., Gupta, S., Suther, B., Singh, Kh.S.: Design of a tunable transmission mode filter
using 1D Ge based nonlinear photonic crystal. AIP Conf. Proc. 2220,(2020). https://doi.org/
10.1063/5.0001128
11. Sharma, S., Kumar, R., Singh, Kh.S., Kumar, V., Jain, D.: Design of a transmission TM mode
filter using one-dimensional ternary photonic crystal. AIP Conf. Proc. 1536, 705 (2013). https://
doi.org/10.1063/1.4810422
12. Zhang, H.-F., Liu, S.-B., Yang, H.: Omnidirectional photonic band gap in one-dimensional
ternary superconductor-dielectric photonic crystals based on a new Thue-Morse aperiodic
structure. J. Supercond. Novel Magn. 27, 41–52 (2014)
13. Hung, H.-C., Wu, C.-J., Chang, S.-J.: A mid-infrared tunable filter in a semiconductor–dielectric
photonic crystal containing doped semiconductor defect. Sci. Direct Solid State Commun.
151(22), 1677– 1680
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Appl. Phys. 108(9), 093117 (2010)
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analysis of thin-walled box with transverse ribs subjected to load factors. Finite Elem. Anal.
Des. 95, 1–11 (2014)
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photonic crystal. Int. J. Phys. Res. (IJPR) 6(3) (2016)
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Chapter 18
A Numerical Method for a Problem
Occurring in Conduction of Heat
Through a Solid and Other Applications
Shradha Gupta and Sanjeev Sharma
Abstract A singular boundary value problem arises in the conduction of heat

through a solid and having other important applications is solved using a novel spline
method. The removal of the singularity is done before applying a cubic B-spline and
then a B-spline with a free parameter. The numerical examples show that the results
have a very close agreement with exact solutions.
18.1 Introduction
Singular boundary value problems have some important applications, including the
conduction of heat through a solid, tumor growth problems, and heat sources’ distri-
bution in the human head in physiology. Several researchers applied various numer-
ical techniques for this class of differential equations. These methods are difference
methods [1, 2], collocation method [3], variational iteration method [4], adomian
decomposition method [5, 6], homotopy perturbation method [7], and various spline
methods [8–11]. In this paper, the series expansion is first used in a small neighbor-
hood of the singular point to make it a regular problem without singularity. Then,
we have first solved the differential equation using cubic B-spline. Further, a method
using B-spline with free parameter is also proposed, which improves results further.
The detailed elaboration of properties, including the definition of such extended
spline, can be found in [12]. Two numerical problems are solved to explain the
methods and to demonstrate the advantage of the extended B-spline method when
one can choose the free parameter suitably.
S. Gupta (B) · S. Sharma

Department of Applied Sciences, GL Bajaj Institute of Technology and Management, Greater
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2857-3_19
198 S. Gupta and S. Sharma
18.2 Conversion to Regular Problem and Cubic B-Spline

Method
Consider the following differential equation having a regular singular point

u (t) + p(t)u (t) + q(t)u(t) = r (t) (18.1)
with the condition
u(a0 ) = α, u(b) = β, (18.2)
where coefficients p(t), q(t) are analytic at t = a0 . The removal of the singularity
is done by expanding in series in a small neighborhood near t = a0 in the interval
[a0 , δ]. Now, Eq. (18.1) has the following form of solution
∞

u(t) = (t − a0 ) p
lk (t − a0 )k , a0 = 0. (18.3)
k=0
Differentiating Eq. (18.3) and substituting in Eq. (18.1) and by comparison of the
coefficients of same degrees of t = a0 on LHS and RHS, we obtain the roots of the
indicial equation in the form of the value of p.
Now, the solution for (18.1) is

m
u(t) = αi Ri (t) + Rs+1 (t), m ≤ 2 (18.4)
i=1
for t ∈ [a0 , δ] where R1 (t), R2 (t) are the independent solution of the homogeneous
part and Rs+1 (t) is PI to (18.1).
Now we derive the condition at the boundary to convert the singular problem to
the regular problem on the interval [δ, b], where δ lies the interval (a0 , b).
α1 R1 (δ) + α2 R2 (δ) = u(δ) − Rs+1 (δ), (18.5)

α1 R1 (δ) + α2 R2 (δ) = u (δ) − Rs+1 (δ). (18.6)
On solving Eqs. (18.5) and (18.6) we get

u(δ) − Rs+1 (δ) R2 (δ) − u (δ) − Rs+1 (δ) R2 (δ)
α1 = (18.7)
R1 (δ)R2 (δ) − R2 (δ)R1 (δ)
18 A Numerical Method for a Problem Occurring in Conduction of Heat … 199

u (δ) − Rs+1 (δ) R1 (δ) − u(δ) − Rs+1 (δ) R1 (δ)
α2 = (18.8)
R1 (δ)R2 (δ) − R2 (δ)R1 (δ)
Using boundary condition and Eq. (18.4), we get
α1 R1 (a0 ) + α2 R2 (a0 ) = u(a0 ) − Rs+1 (a0 ). (18.9)
Now, Eqs. (18.8), (18.9) and (18.10) give

g(δ)R2 (δ) − g (δ)R2 (δ) g (δ)R1 (δ) − g(δ)R1 (δ)
R1 (a0 ) + R2 (a0 )
h(δ) h(δ)
= α − Rs+1 (a0 ),
(18.10)

here g(t) = u(t) − Rs+1 (t) and h(t) = R1 (t)R2 (t) − R2 (t)R1 (t).
Now, rewriting the equation as

[R1 (δ)R2 (a0 ) − R2 (δ)R1 (a0 )]g (δ) + R2 (δ)R1 (a0 ) − R1 (δ)R2 (a0 ) g(δ)

= α − Rs+1 (a0 ) h(δ).
(18.11)
Equation (18.11) gives

Au(δ) + Bu (δ) = D, (18.12)
where

A = −R1 (δ)R2 (a0 ) + R2 (δ)R1 (a0 ), B = −R2 (δ)R1 (a0 ) + R1 (δ)R2 (a0 )
and

D = h(δ) α − Rs+1 (a0 ) + A Rs+1 (δ) + B Rs+1 (δ)
So BVP without singularity over the interval [δ, b] is expressed by Eq. (18.1) with
the boundary condition given by (18.12) and u(b) = β.
B-spline formulation: Let us partition [δ, b] with equidistant points given by π =
{t0 , t1 , t2 , ..., t N }, where t0 = δ and t N = b and h = (b−δ)
N
is the length between two
consecutive nodes.
Now, define [13] the basis of spline function for the values of i = 0, 1, 2, ..., N
⎧
⎪
⎪ (t − ti )3 t ∈ ti , ti+1
⎪
⎪
⎪ h + 3h (t − ti+1 ) + 3h(t − ti+1 )2 − 3(t − ti+1 )3
3 2
t ∈ ti+1 , ti+2
1 ⎨ 3
Bi (t) = 3 h + 3h 2 (ti+3 − t) + 3h(ti+3 − t)2 − 3(ti+3 − t)3 t ∈ ti+2 , ti+3
6h ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ (ti+4 − t)3 , t ∈ ti+3 , ti+4
⎪
⎩ 0, otherwise.
(18.13)
Let us interpolate the function u(x) at nodal points by S(x) given as

n+1
S(t) = ci Bi (t),
i=−1
= c−1 B−1 (t) + c0 B0 (t) + ... + c N B N (t) + c N +1 B N +1 (t). (18.14)
Putting Eq. (18.14) in (18.1), we get

S (t) + p(t)S (t) + q(t)S(t) = r (t). (18.15)
Now putting the value of S(t) and its derivatives, we get for ith nodal point

ci−1 Bi−1 t j + pi t j Bi−1 t j + qi t j Bi−1 t j

+ci Bi t j + pi t j Bi t j + qi t j Bi t j

+ci+1 Bi+1 t j + pi t j Bi+1 t j + qi t j Bi+1 t j = ri t j . (18.16)
Now Eq. (18.12) and 2nd boundary condition give

A ci Bi (δ) + B ci Bi (δ) = D (18.17)
i=−1,0,1 i=−1,0,1
Together with
c N −1 + 4c N + c N +1 = β. (18.18)
Equations (18.16), (18.17), and (18.18) lead to a tridiagonal system. The solution
of the system gives the required B-spline solution.
18.3 B-Spline with Free Parameter
In the present section, the method based on B-spline with a free parameter to solve
the problem considered above is proposed. Biλ (t) is a spline consisting of a free
parameter λ. The definition of its basic function is given by [12]
⎧
⎪
⎪ −4λ(λ − 1)(t − ti )3 , t ∈ ti , ti+1 ,
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
4 3 2
(4 − λ)h + 12h t − ti+1 + 6h (2 + λ) t − ti+1
2
⎪
⎪ t ∈ ti+1 , ti+2 ,
⎪
⎪ −12h −
3
− −
4
,
1 ⎨
t ti+1 3λ t ti+1
Biλ (t) = (16 + 2λ)h 4 − 12h 2 (2 + λ) t − ti+2
2 (18.19)
24h 4 ⎪
⎪
⎪ 3 t ∈ ti+2 , ti+3 ,
⎪
⎪ +12h(1 + λ) t − ti+2 − 3λ t − ti+2 ,
⎪
⎪ 3
⎪
⎪ − h + ti+3 − t h(λ − 4) + 3λ t − ti+3 , t ∈ ti+3 , ti+4 ,
⎪
⎩
0, elsewhere.
When λ = 0, Biλ (t) degenerates into ordinary cubic B-spline basis. B-spline with
free parameter function, S(t) is
N +1

S(t) = ci Biλ (t), t ∈ [t0 , t N ]. (18.20)
i=−1
Using the definition of basis given above and evaluating (18.20) at t j , we obtain
the following
λ
S t j = ci−1 Bi−1 t j + ci Biλ t j + ci+1 Bi+1
λ
tj ,

4−λ 8+λ 4−λ
= ci−1 + ci + ci+1 . (18.21)
24 12 24
In a similar way, derivatives of order up to two of S(xi ) can be derived into an

expression containing ci−1 , ci , ci+1 only,

λ
λ
tj ,

1 1
= ci−1 − + ci (0) + ci+1 (18.22)
2h 2h

λ
λ
tj ,

2+λ 2+λ 2+λ
= ci−1 + ci − + ci+1 . (18.23)
2h 2 2h 2 2h 2
Using Eqs. (18.21)–(18.23), Eq. (18.1) becomes


2+λ 2+λ 2+λ
ci−1 + ci − + ci+1
2h 2 2h 2 2h 2

1 1
+ p t j ci−1 + ci (0) + ci+1 (18.24)
2h 2h

4−λ 8+λ 4−λ
+q t j ci−1 + ci + ci+1 = r tj ,
24 12 24
and boundary conditions are

n+1 n+1

A ci Biλ (δ) +B ci Biλ (δ) = D, (18.25)
i=−1 i=−1

4−λ 8+λ 4−λ
c N −1 + cN + c N +1 = β. (18.26)
24 12 24
Now, elimination of c−1 from the initial equation of (18.24) and (18.25), we get

2+λ B 8+λ
c0 A − + (Bq(t 0 ) − Ap(t 0 ))
2h 2 h 24h

2+λ 4−λ
+c1 B + (Bq(t 0 ) − Ap(t 0 )) (18.27)
2h 3 24h

2+λ 1 4−λ
=D B − p(t 0 ) + q(t 0 )
2h 3 2h 24
Now eliminating c N +1 from first equation of (18.24) and (18.26), we have

2+λ 8+λ 4−λ
cN − p(t N ) − c N −1 p(t N ) = β (18.28)
2h 2 24h 24h
Now (18.24) results in the linear system of (N + 1) equations F X N = d N in

the N + 1 unknown X N = (c0 , c1 , ..., c N ) with right side
T
2+λ 1 4−λ
dN = B− p(t0 ) + q(t0 ) D, 0, 0, 0, ..., β .
2h 3 2h 24
and the matrix F is given by

⎡ ⎤
f 1,1 f 1,2 0 0 ··· 0
⎢ ··· ⎥
⎢ f 2,1 f 2,2 f 2,3 0 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ 0 f 3,2 f 3,3 f 3,4 0 ··· ⎥
⎢ ⎥
F =⎢
⎢
0 0 f 4,3 f 4,4 f 4,5 ··· ⎥,
⎥ (18.29)
⎢ .. .. .. .. .. .. ⎥
⎢ . . . . . . ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣ 0 ··· 0 f N ,N −1 f N ,N f N ,N +1 ⎦
0 ··· 0 0 f N +1,N f N +!,N +1

where f 1,1 = 2+λ
2h 2
A− B
h
+ 8+λ
24h (q(t0 )B − p(t0 )A) ,

2+λ B 8+λ
f 1,1 = A − + (q(t 0 )B − p(t 0 )A) ,
2h 2 h 24h

2+λ 4−λ
f 1,2 = B+ (q(t0 )B − p(t0 )A) ,
2h 3 24h
2+λ 1 4−λ
f i,i−1 = 2
− p(ti ) + q(ti ) ,
2h 2h 24
2+λ 8+λ
f i,i = − 2
+ q(ti ) ,
h 12
2+λ 1 4−λ
f i,i+1 = 2
+ p(ti ) + q(ti ) ,
2h 2h 24

4−λ
f N +1,N = − p(t N ),
24h

2+λ 8+λ
f N ,N +1 = − p(t N .
)
2h 2 24h
The matrix F is a tridiagonal matrix. The solution of system Ft N = d N together

with Eqs. (18.27) and (18.28) give values of ci , s. Then the required B-spline solution
is obtained.
18.4 Numerical Examples
In this section, two numerical examples are given to show the applicability and
efficiency of the proposed method.
Example 1 Consider the boundary value problem

Fig. 18.1 Comparison of 1.3

B-spline and B-spline with exact solution
1.28
free parameter with the exact b spline solution
solution b spline with free parameter
1.26
1.24
1.22
1.2
1.18
1.16
1.14
1.12
1.1
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

2t(1 + t) u (t) + (1 + 5t)u (t) + u(t) = 0, s.t. u(0) = 1.0, u(1) = 1.112372.
The results, for Example 1 for h = 0.1 are shown in Fig. 18.1. The results exhibit
that the above B-spline solution gives a good approximation to the exact solution.
B-spline with free parameter further improves the results for a suitable choice of
parameter.
Example 2 Consider the BVP

4t(1 + t) u (t) + (3 + 11 t) u (t) + u(t) = 0, with u(0) = 1, u(1) = 1.177701.
Numerical results for Example 2 for h = 0.1 are shown in Fig. 18.2. The results
show that the above B-spline solution gives a good approximation to the exact
solution. B-spline with free parameter further improves the numerical results.
18.5 Conclusion
An effective computational technique based on B-spline to get a solution of singular

boundary value problems is proposed. The numerical results attained by cubic B-
spline approximate exact solutions very well. The algorithm based on B-spline with
free parameter is also formulated. Results show that B-spline with free parameter
gives improved for suitable choices of free parameter.
1.65
exact solution
1.6
b spline solution
b spline with free parameter
1.55
1.5
1.45
1.4
1.35
1.3
1.25
1.2
1.15
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Fig. 18.2 Comparison of B-spline and B-spline with free parameter with the exact solution
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12. Xu, G., Wang, G.: Extended cubic uniform B-spline and [alpha]-B-spline. Acta Autom. Sin.
34, 980–984 (2008)
13. Prenter, P.M.: Splines and Variational Methods. Wiley (1989)
Chapter 19
Emotional Intelligence: Assessing Its
Impact on Financial Productivity
in an Organization
Shivi Mittal, Prabhat Srivastava, and Deepa Gupta
Abstract In any organization the ultimate result for growing its wealth depends
upon how wealthy the organization’s environment is. Though the main objective of
any organization is profit maximization but in further stages of stability and growth,
wealth becomes the ultimate objective. No doubt, if interpersonal relations between
employer and employee are good, the financial productivity would be maximum.
This concept will be better explained with the help emotional intelligence in context
with financial outcome. The main objective of this paper is to study the factors of
emotional intelligence which are responsible for affecting financial productivity of
an organization from the previous studies. The Library research approach is being
used to carry this study. It has been observed from the literature review that not
only technical skills are important to grow for an organization but the emotional
ability of people to connect with their peer group is more crucial. The purpose of the
study is to bring previous research on Emotional Intelligence from the past with the
current models and explanations in this context. Through this study, we are trying
to look for the prospects and trials with which the financial effectiveness through
emotional intelligence has been increased through various factors. These factors will
be discussed further in detail in order to provide the viewpoint and expected outcome.
As the study is conceptual and is being carried out from the previous studies, its
critical and crucial aspects would also be examined.
S. Mittal (B)
Department of Management Studies, G.L. Bajaj Institute of Technology & Management, A.P.J.
Abdul Kalam Technical University, Greater Noida, India
P. Srivastava
Shri Venkateshwara University, Gajraula, Uttar Pradesh, India
D. Gupta
Department of Management Studies, G.L. Bajaj Institute of Management & Research, A.P.J.
Abdul Kalam Technical University, Gautam Buddha Nagar 201306, India
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2857-3_20
208 S. Mittal et al.
19.1 Introduction
The thought got a further lift with the release of a book by Daniel Goleman,
Emotional Intelligence: Why it can Matter More than IQ (1995) [1]. In another book,
Working with Emotional Intelligence, Goleman [2] concentrated on the requirement
for passionate knowledge grinding away, a region regularly thought to be more head
than heart. The topic “Emotional Intelligence” has a delicate issue in management
and psychology disciplines which is still mushrooming and captures the interest of
professionals, academia and researchers [3].
The thought isn’t constrained to the administrators and pioneers of the associ-
ation. Any activity that requires managing individuals requires the contribution of
enthusiastic knowledge so as to build more proficiency grinding away at work and at
home as well. Whereas intelligent quotient (IQ) is relatively fixed, scholars suggest
that emotional intelligent quotient (EIQ) needs to be given more attention.
19.2 Objectives
• To comprehend the effect of emotional intelligence on the work performance of

an employee.
• To understand the employer–employee relationship.
• To understand the direct relationship and effects between emotional intelligence
quotients and financial productivity of the organization.
• To examine the non-intrinsic factors by correlating them with the intrinsic factors.
19.3 Research Methodology
Based on the foregoing discussion, this paper is aimed at exploring the linkage
between emotional intelligence and increasing working efficiency of employees in
an organization. Using a library research approach, the papers review both empir-
ical and conceptual papers on emotional intelligence, emotional quotient, financial
productivity and working efficiency. Secondary data has been used to observe and
correlate the views. It examines these two concepts as emotional intelligence of
the people really affects the working efficiency and the overall development of any
organization as well.
19.4 Emotional Intelligence
Capability in EI is turning into an essential is drawn out in extreme zones of

‘emotional work’ such as nursing, social work, the service industry and management
19 Emotional Intelligence: Assessing Its Impact on Financial Productivity … 209
roles. High EI improves the physical and mental strength of people and supports
academic and business execution [4]. Emotional intelligence or emotional quotient
is one of the key elements of behavioral finance. The concept was first introduced in
the scientific paper of psychology. Emotional intelligence was quickly introduced to
the needs of commercial working life. Entrepreneur.com (May 8, 2015) reported that
workers with high emotional intelligence are better at working in teams, adjusting
to change and being flexible. It is very much important at the workplace to under-
stand the emotions of others and show your emotions to others as well. No doubt,
by using this trait one should be more emotionally empowered than others. He has
an articulate personality and the ability to understand what others think. When both
sender and the receiver think in the same way, of course their aim would be common.
Emotional intelligence or emotional literacy is a set of the capability and compet-
itiveness which is being required to understand the intrinsic nature of the person,
usually called the soft skills or interpersonal skills that is a counterpart of technical
skills, knowledge, work ethics, artificial and general intelligence and professional
skills. Goleman (1995) perceived five different classifications of abilities that form
the key attributes of EI and recommended that, unlike one’s intelligence quotient
(IQ), these classified abilities can be learned where absent and improved upon where
present [5]. So, after understanding the concept we need to focus upon how EI is
related to the financial progress or the working efficiency of any organization. Does
it really help? Does it matter when it comes to the overall organizational success?
19.5 Financial Productivity and Work Efficiency
The vast majority of the analysts propose that individuals having high emotional
intelligence show signs of better interpersonal relation, work more efficiently and
adequately and spend sound time and healthy life than those people having low
emotional intelligence.
Emotional intelligence largely shapes the behavior of the leader and determines
his or her leadership effectiveness Goleman [6].
Emotional Intelligence gives the definition by which the EI is: “involves a combi-
nation of competences which allows a person to be aware of, to understand and to be
in control of their own emotions, to recognize and understand the emotion of others,
and to use this knowledge to foster their success and the success of others”.
The employees are called as the lifeblood of any organization. If the organization
better understands the feelings of its employees, the efficiency of the job is being
increased and in turn, increases its overall efficiency. Kambiz and Mazid [7] found in
their Iranian study that there is a positive correlation between emotional intelligence,
job satisfaction and organizational citizenship behavior.
Jung and Hoon [8] in their study prove that counterproductive work behavior
(CWB), emotional labor, emotional exhaustion, affectivity are directly related with
emotional intelligence (EI). They work on the five factors model and able to find
the connectivity between the efficiency of the employees and the productivity of an
organization.
Keshav and Mahajan in their paper “Relationship between Emotional Intelligence
and Organizational Citizenship Behavior among bank employees” (2017) found
that emotional intelligence was positively associated with organizational citizenship
behavior [9].
19.6 How Emotional Intelligence and Working Efficiency

of an Organization Are Correlated with Each Other
In this fast going world, the benefit of using emotional intelligence along with intel-
ligence quotient is being clearly seen at workplaces. There people find it more useful
in order to reduce their stress. They are able to maintain a balance in their family lives
a well as at workplace. Psychologically they feel more fit and healthy. As observed
from the studied literature, stress is one of the most critical factors in affecting the
work efficiency of people. Individual’s work efficiency will have direct impact on the
financial productivity of any organization. Emotional intelligence became a popular
notion after the article by Peter Salovey and John D. Mayer was published. Daniel
Goleman educated a broader audience through his book “Emotional Intelligence”,
where he broke down the concept for everyone to understand. Since then, people
have tried inculcating these habits in their daily lives. They then realized its benefits
help both at the workplace and at home. It helps them make better decisions and live
psychologically healthier lives.
As digital transformation has made work so easier for people, with which they can
now concentrate more on their career growth and overall growth of an organization.
Emotional intelligence is a vital tool to identify the true leaders as they can now
more focus on the decision making roles than paperwork. They are required to be
good with number of people. Here, they will have a say in how the company should
function. Here emotional intelligence plays a crucial role in understanding the nature,
the behavior and their conversation they have. Most importantly, if the leader must
have qualitative skill, i.e., emotional intelligence, he will be able to manage and
getting things done on time. Additionally, it will also help them turn any situation
into a positive solution [10].
In any organization, there is a connect from one department to the other which
hugely requires a good working team and it is only possible when that connect is a
good one. As a result, it becomes all the more important for the organization to up
their game and become emotionally aware.
19.7 Intrinsic Factors Affecting Financial Productivity

on Using Emotional Intelligence
It is the need of the hour that every leader must understand that time has changed.
Qualitative skills are more important than Quantitative skills. It means emotional
intelligence is of much importance along with one’s knowledge. Let’s discuss the
factors which show the relationship between the organizational productive behavior
and its soundness depends upon the emotional behavior of its employees. This can
be explained through the following model (Fig. 19.1).
• Self-awareness and regulation: it means that the person before understanding the
other person should know about himself/herself. If he is short-tempered, he will
only see the negative side of the people but on the other hand if he is patient, he
will also be patient in listening to others in better way. Basically, a person should
know about his strengths and weaknesses first in order to know other’s behavior.
• Awareness about others: after knowing about oneself, a person will now be able
to understand others behavior in a better way. It is very important to note here that
one’s mental health is sound only when he is maintaining the balance between
his family and work life. Nothing is more important than a family for a human
being. So the employer needs to talk to his employee in every aspect of life.
To understand their psychological standpoint is essential to create a better work
environment and this is the key for motivation in the employees to work for the
organizations and hence increase overall productivity.
Self awareness
Self Regulation
Courteous Behavior
EMOTIONAL
INTELLIGENCE
Organizational Support Stimuli
Listening skills
Fig. 19.1 Intrinsic factors and emotional intelligence

• Listening skills: listening to what others say is an important task in any organi-
zation though difficult. But to understand their viewpoint will definitely improve
the efficiency. Their suggestions and recommendations should be welcome.
• Courteous behavior: giving the tone of respect is taking the same tone. It means
the behavior of the person is so humble that there is no question of saying NO
to the seniors. This is one thing that prevails harmonious relationship between
employer and employee and in turn increases productivity.
• Stimuli: it means the ability to anticipate reactions and respond effectively. It is
same as one understands his own thoughts, how to implement that; he should also
understand and respond to his employee or subordinates in the same way only.
What else? It helps in increasing the happiness, motivation at work and increases
the overall productivity of an organization [11].
• Organizational support: support from any organization reduces the stress of the
employees. We know that there are various types of stress and causes due to
which stress arises. This stress would be reduced if things will be properly
communicated. And here all the factors jointly work.
19.8 Non-intrinsic Factors and Overall Financial

Productivity: A Correlation
Not only intrinsic factors are important to increase the overall efficiency of an orga-
nization but non-intrinsic factors play a motivational role in job satisfaction of an
employee which enhances overall productivity of an organization. Let us discuss the
non-intrinsic factors that will be crucial to correlate it with intrinsic factors (Fig. 19.2):
• Financial productivity of any organization also depends upon its conducive
working environment.
• Higher the transparency is there in the working of the environment, higher will be
the work satisfaction of an employee and in turn will surely affect the productivity
in a positive manner.
• As far as salary and appraisals are concerned, financial productivity enhances
with motivation and motivation comes from finance. It is directly related with the
quality work produced by employees.
• Working hours and good HR practices on the other hand prove to secure best
place in one’s mind to put his/her best efforts to work.
19.9 Concluding the Viewpoint and Its Crucial Aspects
• Emotional intelligence plays a vital role in strengthening, not only the employees
relationship with the organization but it also helps organization to understand the
employees well and which always leads to better understanding, sound and effec-
tive relationship, motivation, confidence, sincerity, enthusiasm, belongingness
Fig. 19.2 Non-intrinsic

factors and organizational
environment Working
Hours
Transperan Salary and

cy Appraisals
Organisaona
l Environment
HR policies
Job
and
Security
pracces
toward the organization by the employees and which in turn gives more strength
and develop healthy, cordial and productive environment within the organization.
• It is need of time for every organization irrespective of the size and number to
involve people into various activities which not only satisfy their emotional things
but also give stress-free environment for better productivity.
• Both intrinsic and extrinsic factors can lead to job satisfaction; a pleasurable
emotional state which a person can only enjoy at his/her workplace if both these
factors can correlate with each other.
• For instance, if a person gets promoted, he/she will be able to balance both the
personal and professional life because of monetary gain and motivation as well.
• It has also been observed that EI and EIQ both are important to enhance the
financial productivity of the organization. There is a direct relationship of financial
productivity with the productivity of the employee [12].
• If the employee is enjoying the stress-free environment, emotionally stable, satis-
fied workplace and their personal and professional interest both are well taken
care, certainly they will enjoy the workplace and once the employee starts enjoying
the workplace it always leads to increase in wealth of the employees because of
long-stay and wealth of the organization because a happy and satisfied person
gives more productivity then distress and demotivated person [13].
• Employee’s self-satisfaction and high morale always lead to better prospects both
for the employees and organization as a whole.
• Therefore, it is found that emotional intelligence and emotional intelligence
quotients both play a vital and important role in the growth of an individual as
well as organization as a whole because in today’s scenario financial satisfaction
has taken a secondary place as compared to happy, healthy and stress-free envi-
ronment which is only possible when we understand the employee as a mentee
and organization has a whole becomes its mentor.
References
1. Goleman, D.: Emotional intelligence: why it can matter more than IQ. Bantam, New York
(2005)
2. Goleman, D.: What makes a leader? Harv. Bus. Rev. 93–102 (1998b)
3. Goleman, D.: Working with Emotional Intelligence. Bantam Books, New York (2006)
4. Bar-On, R.: Emotional and social intelligence: insights from the emotional quotient inventory.
In: Bar-On, R., Parker, J. (eds.) The Hand book of Emotional Intelligence. Jossey-Bas, San
Francisco (2000)
5. Goleman, D.P.: Emotional intelligence: why it can matter more than IQ for character, health
and lifelong achievement. Bantam Books, New York (1995)
6. Goleman, D.: Leadership: The power of emotional intelligence: selected writings. More Than
Sound LLC, Northampton, MA (2011)
7. Kambiz, H., Majid, M.: A survey on impact of emotional intelligence, organizational citizenship
behaviors and job satisfaction on employees performance in Iranian hotel industry (2013)
8. Jung, H.S., Yoon, H.H.: The effects of emotional intelligence on counterproductive work behav-
iors and organizational citizen behaviors among food and beverage employees in a deluxe hotel.
Int. J. Hosp. Manag. 31(2), 369–378 (2012)
9. Keshav, Mahajan: Relationship between emotional intelligence and organisational citizenship
behaviour among bank employees, Jammu (2017)
10. Brown, F.W., Bryant, S.E., Reilly, M.D.: Does emotional intelligence—as measured by the
EQ-I influence transformational leadership and/or desirable outcomes? Leadersh. Organ. Dev.
J. 27, 330–351 (2005)
11. https://positivepsychology.com
12. Razi, S., Atif, H.: Relationship between emotional intelligence and employee turnover rate
FMCG organization. Pakistan (2013)
13. Sunil, K., Rooprai, K.Y.: Role of emotional intelligence in managing stress and anxiety at
workplace. In: ASBBS Annual Conference, Las Vegas, vol. 16, p. 1 (2009)
Chapter 20
Acquiring FG Homogeneous Composite
Shell Structure Using Finite Element
Analysis
Aman Sharma, Rajat Yadav, and Vikas Kumar Sharma
Abstract Covered composites have different preferences over customary mate-

rials, for example, high explicit solidness and lightweight. The significant disad-
vantage is a shortcoming of boundaries among contiguous films, known as the de-
lamination phenomenon. Because of de-lamination, a disappointment for the struc-
ture of composite can be seen because of the impacts of bury laminar burdens devel-
oped, that is once overlapped composites are exposed to outrageous temperatures. If
the unforeseen difference in material properties of the covered composite structure is
anticipated these issues can be decreased. along with specific bearings in a control-
lable manner, the individual material organization differs consistently practically
reviewed material (FGM) is that sort of material. Consequently, this article presents
the limited component displaying and examination of practically reviewed (FG)
shell structures under various stacking, for example, mechanical and warm. More-
over, the introduction of investigation of free vibration of structure of FG circular
shell. Further, various kinds of shells are considered to contemplate the impacts of
significant boundaries on the reactions of FG shell structures. The reactions were
acquired for standardized shells of unadulterated metal (EN 31 steel) shells and FG
Functionally graded shells which are contrasted. Besides, both modular and static
investigations are done to decide the characteristic frequencies, miss happening,
strain, longitudinal pressure, and circumferential pressure, individually.
A. Sharma · R. Yadav (B) · V. K. Sharma

A. Sharma
e-mail: aman.sharma@gla.ac.in
V. K. Sharma
e-mail: vikash.sharma@gla.ac.in
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2857-3_21
216 A. Sharma et al.
20.1 Introduction
In different fields of designing, for example, common, mechanical, aviation and

atomic building fields the slender walled tube-shaped shells find more extensive
applications as essential auxiliary individuals [1, 2]. The hardened and unsolidified
shells comprised of metallic and overlaid composite materials (huge width to thick-
ness proportion) are broadly utilized in a submerged, surface, air and space vehicles
just as in development of weight vessels, stockpiling vessels, stockpiling canisters
and fluid stockpiling tanks [3, 4]. The mathematical defects because of assembling
measures takes a prevailing function in diminishing the clasping heap of tube-shaped
shells. Clasping is frequently seen as the controlling disappointment method of these
structures because of its moderately little thickness of these basic individuals [5, 6].
Reaction of composite structures exposed to blast has been a field of extreme action
of specialists in ongoing decades. So composite plates and shells structure one of the
essential components of the structures, in this way, considering the shoot reaction
of such structures helps to understand and improve their impact opposition [7, 8]. A
shell structure by prudence of its calculation can convey applied loads fundamentally
by its immediate anxieties lying in their plane with small bowing. The shell activity is
a blend of membrane action due to in-plane direct stresses and bending action due to
flexural stresses, which attribute to high strength of shell structures [9]. A pre-twisted
conical shell is a special case wherein the curvature of mid-surface in one orthogonal
direction is absent and the curvature of the mid-surface in other orthogonal direction
and the curvature due to twist are of non-zero magnitude. Thus, the resulting surface
of such a pre-twisted shell is conical helicoids [3]. The pre-twisted composite shells
are structural elements of immense engineering significance. Due to its high strength
and stiffness, extensive uses of composites can be found in aerospace, mechanical,
marine, civil and other high-performance weight-sensitive applications. Most of the
turbomachinery blade configurations used in practice like blades of a fan, compressor,
gas turbine, steam turbine, water turbine, marine propeller, windmill and helicopter
and flow guide vane are typically very complicated because of their geometry [10].
The disc and its attached blades rotate about an axis perpendicular to the plane of
the disc. The failure of a blade in turbomachines The result of blade vibration prob-
lems also occurs. Knowledge of these frequencies is important. The blades are also
subjected to centrifugal body forces arising out of the rotation. Due to centrifugal
force, the initial stress system affects natural frequencies appreciably [11].
The conduct of composite structures against the touchy marvel has been
researched utilizing a limited component strategy. Some composite shells, for
example, composite plates and sides of the equator with various layer-increasing
have been examined utilizing LS-DYNA programming. The impact stacking is reen-
acted by the blast’s weight versus time bends and is unequivocally characterized in
LS-DYNA programming [12]. The Tsai-Wu disappointment rule is utilized to foresee
the conduct of the composite structure. In this paper, the impact of layer-increasing
on the shoot obstruction of the structure is explored. The outcomes show that side
of the equator composite has better execution against the shoot stacking than plate
20 Acquiring FG Homogeneous Composite Shell Structure … 217
and disappointment happens under a more noteworthy burden [13]. Additionally, it is

demonstrated that edge utilizes composite structures have great obstruction in exami-
nation with cross employs one. Creators examined the impacts of the length, division
edge and diverse limit conditions on the clasping burden and post clasping conduct
of CK20 tube-shaped boards utilizing exploratory and mathematical strategies. The
trial tests have been performed utilizing the INSTRON 8802 servo water-driven
machine and for mathematical investigation. Abaqus limited component bundle has
been utilized [14]. Default panels and films are refused [15]. Shut shells and bended
boards of isotropic, composite coated, piezo-electric, virtually assessed and hyper-
flexible materials and nonlinear vibrations of shells exposed to normal and flat excita-
tions are particularly considered. Hypothetical, mathematical and research research is
tender to handle dynamic problems, including parametric vibrations, power, dynamic
clasping, non-stationary vibrations and disturbing vibrations. Besides, a few unique
parts of nonlinear vibrations of shells and boards [16, 17].
20.1.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Shell Structures
• High-quality regarding its self-weight. (Significant rules to gauge proficiency).

• Aesthetic esteem.
• Lowers the development cost.
• Large space covered.
• Very High Stiffness.
Disadvantages
• Leakage might be seen/prompted because the concrete is the permeable material.
• To include another floor above it, it is unimaginable to expect, because of the
mathematics behind this. Essentially, it is the covering structure for rooftop.
20.1.2 Applications
Shells are fundamental auxiliary components of present-day innovation and regular

day-to-day existence. Instances of shell structures in innovation incorporate vehicle
bodies, water and oil tanks, pipelines, storehouses, wind turbine pinnacles, and
nanotubes. Nature is brimming with living shells, for example, leaves of trees,
sprouting blossoms, shells, cell layers or wings of creepy crawlies. In the human
body supply routes, the eye shell, the stomach, the skin and the pericardium are
generally shells too.
Fig. 20.1 Schematic

representation of FG beam
20.2 Functionally Graded Materials
Functionally Graded Materials (FGMs) are a gathering of inhomogeneous materials

made out of at least two materials designed to have constantly differing material
properties along favored headings. The FG materials are minutely heterogeneous
and are produced using a blend of at least two materials that are fitting to accomplish
the ideal targets. The general material properties of the FGMs are interesting and not
quite the same as the individual material that structures it. Figure 20.1 shows a bar
made of such FG material made out of two materials, artistic and metal. The top and
base surfaces of this FG shaft are viewed as clay and metal-rich, separately, and the
material properties change over its thickness in a smooth and persistent-way. Such a
bar can withstand high-temperature inclination over its thickness while keeping up
the basic quality and crack sturdiness.
The support in composites utilized as auxiliary materials in numerous aviation
and car applications is commonly appropriated consistently. Practically reviewed
materials (FGMs) are being utilized as an interfacial zone to improve the holding
quality of layered composites. They have accordingly pulled in impressive consider-
ation as of late. One of the benefits of FGMs over overlays is that there is no pressure
develops at sharp material limits because of nonstop material property variety to
wipe out potential auxiliary.
20.3 Review of Shell Theories
By and large, shell structures are portrayed as the three-dimensional bodies limited
by two, generally close, bended surfaces. The greater part of the shell speculations
(flimsy and thick, profound and shallow) decrease the three-dimensional flexibility
conditions to the two-dimensional portrayal. This is commonly done by dispensing
with the arrange ordinary to the shell surface in the advancement of the shell condi-
tions. The precision of flimsy and thick shell speculations can be built up if these
hypotheses are contrasted with the three-dimensional hypothesis of flexibility. In this
part, the progressive course of shell research is introduced. For clear appreciation of
the orderly and sequential improvement of the various parts of shell research, this
segment is additionally separated into particular parts referenced beneath.
20.4 Objective
The pressure dissemination of FGM-made round and hollow shell for given burden
conditions must be investigated. Henceforth in this work, demonstrating and basic
investigation have been done on a reviewed barrel-shaped shell with shifting essential
synthesis from internal surface to the external surface. Dispersion of volume part of
the components is determined utilizing power law for barrel-shaped shell displaying.
Static auxiliary investigation of tube-shaped shell which is presented to inner weight
performed and results are confirmed with explanatory arrangements (Fig. 20.2).
20.4.1 Modeling and Analysis
CATIA is a computer-aided 3D interactive application abbreviation. It is one of the

major 3D programming used in various airline, car and buyer businesses by associ-
ations. CATIA is a multi-stage 3D programming suite created by Dassault Systems,
incorporating CAD, CAM just as CAE. Dassault is a French building monster
dynamic in the field of flying, 3D plan, 3D computerized models and item life-
cycle the executives (PLM) programming. CATIA is a strong displaying device that
joins the 3D parametric highlights with 2D instruments and furthermore addresses
each plan to-assembling measure. Dassault Systems normally offers new updates,
deliveries and bug fixes for every variant. The CATIA programming is written in
C++ . It runs on both UNIX and Windows. CATIA provides several workbenches
which can be called modules roughly (Figs. 20.3 and 20.4).
• Part Design: For strong displaying, the most basic workbench is needed. From
drawing in a group environment to iterative nitty–gritty planning, this CATIA
Fig. 20.2 Proposed

methodology
Fig. 20.3 a Schematic diagram of cylindrical shell, b 2D model of cylindrical shell, c Model of
cylindrical shell
Fig. 20.4 a 2D model of

cone shell, b Model of cone
shell
module makes it possible to plan exact 3D mechanical parts with an instinctive

and adaptable UI.
• Generative Shape Design: Allows both simple and complex shapes with wire-
frames and highlights on the surface to appear quickly. It provides a huge range
of equipment for the production and modification of shapes.
• Assembly: Structure, needs, moving congregations and components of nuts and
bolts can quickly be adapted. This workshop allows all the components in the
form of a computer or section to be linked.
• Kinematic Simulation: Kinematics includes a gathering of parts that are associ-
ated together by a progression of joints, alluded to as an instrument. These joints
characterize how a get-together can perform movement. It tends to the plan survey
condition of computerized models.
The shell calculation being tended to by most analysts is the shut barrel-shaped
shell wherein the hub of transformation is corresponding to the middle line. The
broad use and simplicity of assembling of round and hollow shell are without a
doubt the explanation behind such consideration.
Conical shell
In a weight-sensitive application such as aircraft engine turbomachinery that demands
extremely high fuel their light-weight, high stiffness and strength make composite
materials advantageous. Thus, composite blades can be designed to have a prede-
termined static and dynamic behavior. The composite blades of pre-twisted shallow
conical shells can be manufactured in a mold. Therefore, it is possible to produce
complex geometries that result inefficient aircraft turbo propellers. Hence, as a pre
cursor to the application of composites in the critical parts of aero-engines or turbo
machineries (Table 20.1).
CASE: 1 Cylindrical shell
Material: EN 31
See Figs. 20.5, 20.6 and 20.7.
CASE: 2 Coneshell
Material: EN 31 steel Directional deformation

See Figs. 20.8, 20.9 and Table 20.2.
Structural Functionally Graded Material Ceramic and Metal Aluminum Shell
Structures
CASE: 1 Cylindrical Shell Layers

See Figs. 20.10 and 20.11.
Table 20.1 Functionally

Layer number Young’s Density ρ Poisson ratio υ
graded material properties
(z) modulus E (Kg/m3 )
(aluminum alloy and ceramic)
(MPa)
for k = 2
5 220,880 5536 0.31
4 320,720 4830 0.309
3 445,520 4164 0.308
2 595,280 3702 0.307
1 770,000 3307 0.306
−1 96,080 2812 0.304
−2 71,120 2711 0.303
−3 71,120 2711 0.302
−4 96,080 2812 0.301
−5 146,000 2383 0.3
Fig. 20.5 Steel directional deformation
Fig. 20.6 a Circumferential stress, b Longitudinal stress
Fig. 20.7 Strain
20.6 Conclusion
For FGM-made structure and single material structure, static auxiliary examination
for a barrel-shaped and cone shell was completed. By utilizing power law, volume
Fig. 20.8 a Circumferential stress b Longitudinal stress
Fig. 20.9 Strain
Table 20.2 Deformation, stress and strain

Shell structures Directional Circumferential Longitudinal stress Strain
deformation (mm) stress (N/mm2 ) (N/mm2 )
Cylindrical 0.45778 63.023 108 0.00356
Cone 0.43798 59.312 67.539 0.000408
Fig. 20.10 Frequency values of cylindrical and cone shell structures

Fig. 20.11 a Circumferential stress values of cylindrical and cone shell structures with EN 31 and
FGM materials, b Longitudinal stress values of cylindrical and cone shell structures with EN 31
and FGM materials
portions and the evaluated structure material properties are determined. To reproduc-
tion model, volume division material properties are given for each layer. For the eval-
uated material structure and single material, static basic examination was performed
of cone shell, hollow and round with interior weight load. Rate mistake is found less
when with the diagnostic arrangement, reproduction consequences of single mate-
rial are checked. Henceforth a similar cycle embraced for FGM-made barrel-shaped
and cone shell. In FGM-made shell, recreations performed to assess longitudinal
and circumferential pressure conveyances. It was seen that over the single material
structure at cone shell structure, the reviewed structure shows preferred execution.
References
1. Haghi, R., Behjat, B., Yazdani, M.: Numerical investigation of composite structures under blast
loading. J. Mater. Environ. Sci. 8(6), 2231–2237 (2017)
2. Shariati, M., Sedighi, M., Saemi, J., Allahbakhsh, H.R.: A numerical and experimental study
on buckling of cylindrical panels subjected to compressive axial load. J. Mech. Eng. 56(10),
609–618 (2010)
3. Singh, P.K., Sharma, K.: Molecular dynamics simulation of glass transition behaviour of
polymer based nanocomposites. J. Sci. Ind. Res. 77(10), 592–595 (2018)
4. Kumar, A., Sharma, K., Dixit, A.R.: Carbon nanotube-and graphene-reinforced multiphase
polymeric composites: review on their properties and applications. J. Mater. Sci. 1–43
5. Shariati, M., Sedighi, M., Eipakchi, H.: Experimental and numerical studies on buckling and
post-buckling behavior of cylindrical panels subjected to compressive axial load. Strength
Mater. 43(2), 190–200 (2011)
6. Narayana, Y.V., Reddy, P.R., Markandeya, R.: Buckling analysis of laminated composite cylin-
drical shells subjected to axial compressive loads using finite element method. Int. J. Eng. Res.
Technol. 2(1) (2013)
7. Singh, P.K., Sharma, K., Kumar, A., Shukla, M.: Effects of functionalization on the mechanical
properties of multiwalled carbon nanotubes: a molecular dynamics approach. J. Compos. Mater.
51(5), 671–680
9. FarbodAlijani, M.A.: Non-linear vibrations of shells—a literature review from 2003–2013. Int.
J. Non-Linear Mech. 58, 233–257 (2014)
10. Shukla, M.K., Sharma, K.: Effect of functionalized graphene/CNT ratio on the synergetic
enhancement of mechanical and thermal properties of epoxy hybrid composite. Mater. Res.
Express 6(8), 085318 (2019)
11. Yadav, R., Chaturvedi, R., Sharma, V.K.: Enhancing and exhausting conventional power module
development using magnetic levitation. Eur. J. Mol. Clin. Med. 7(4), 691–699 (2020)
12. Farhatnia, F., Sharifi, G.A., Rasouli, S. Numerical and analytical approach of thermo-
mechanical stresses in FGM beams. In: Proceedings of the World Congress on Engineering,
p. 2 (2009)
13. Yadav, A., et al.: Investigating the effects of amine functionalized graphene on the mechanical
properties of epoxy nanocomposites. Mater. Today Proc. 11, 837–842 (2019)
14. Kargarnovin, M.H., Faghidian S.A., Arghavani, J.: Limit analysis of FGM circular plates
subjected to arbitrary rotational symmetric loads. In: World Academy of Science, Engineering
and Technology, vol. 36, pp. 133–138 (2007)
15. Bambole, A.N., Desai, Y.M.: Hybrid-interface finite element for laminated composite and
sandwich beams. Finite Elements Anal. Des. 43, 1023–1036 (2007)
16. Ray, M.C., Sachade, H.M.: Exact solutions for the functionally graded plates integrated with
a layer of piezoelectric fiberreinforced composite. ASME J. Appl. Mech. 73, 622–631 (2006)
17. Gunes, R., Aydin, M.: Elastic response of functionally graded circular plates under a drop-
weight. Compos. Struct. 92, 2445–2456 (2010)
Chapter 21
An Optimal Control Scheme
for Thermal-Hydro System
with Distributive Energy Sources
Nagendra Kumar, Brijesh Prasad, Kailash Sharma, Rajat Mehrotra,

and Vinamra Kumar Govil
Abstract Wind, solar, fuel cell, small hydro, etc., are emerging technologies for
renewable energy and can be built in the future as feasible electricity generation
options. This paper introduces the load frequency control (LFC) in the presence of
renewable energy resources. The study considers Wind turbine generator (WTG),
Solar thermal power system (STPS), Photovoltaic (PV), Diesel source (DEPS), Fuel
cell (FC), Battery storage system (BESS), Flywheel (FWES), Ultra capacitor (UC)
and Aqua electrolyzer (AE), for sudden load/generation shifts, or both, the power
system frequency deviates. The addition of a renewable system also results in a
difficult task for an efficient controller design to be realized. With random load
variance, the complexity to design an efficient and optimal control scheme is further
enhanced. In this study, as an LFC control scheme, a PID controller is used. Two
evolutionary approaches named as Big Bang Big Crunch (BBBC) and Harmony
Search (HS) have been used to obtain optimal parameters. The performance of the
control scheme has been checked two area and three area thermal-hydro system in the
presence of other generation and energy storage sources. A comparative assessment
of various quantities has been carried out on the basis of different time-domain
parameters.
N. Kumar (B) · B. Prasad · K. Sharma · R. Mehrotra

G. L. Bajaj Institute of Technology & Management, Greater Noida, UP, India
e-mail: nagendra.kumar@glbitm.ac.in
B. Prasad
e-mail: brijesh.prasad@glbitm.ac.in
K. Sharma
e-mail: kailash.sharma@glbitm.ac.in
R. Mehrotra
e-mail: rajat.mehrotra@glbitm.ac.in
V. K. Govil
EE Department, I.E.T Lucknow, Lucknow, India
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2857-3_22
228 N. Kumar et al.
21.1 Introduction
Currently, a rising trend is the incorporation of distributed generation (DG) into

existing power systems to meet increasing power needs [1]. The resulting hybrid
power system aims to provide its customers with efficient and high-quality service.
In addition, the load demand is highly volatile and it is therefore difficult to preserve
the equilibrium of generation and load. If there is some mismatch between generation
and load and if it persists for a long time, the device frequency can be affected by this.
A control mechanism known as automatic generation control (AGC) can achieve
this equilibrium [2]. Therefore, the key contribution of AGC is to sustain system
frequency and power within limits by tie-line in the event of any system disruption
[3, 4]. In AGC, to maintain equilibrium, the controller plays an important role. Many
methods have been used in literature, such as classical, stable, adaptive, optimal,
nonlinear, modern [5]. A conventional system comprising thermal/hydro or mixture
of both has been studied in the past. The PI controller is used in hybrid system
studies to control the output powers of the distributed generation system to achieve
power balance conditions due to sudden generation/load variations. The frequency
is adversely affected in a hybrid system by load deviations and wind power shifts,
so the power balance needs to be maintained. In the literature, small-signal study
of a hybrid renewable system with energy storage such as battery, pump storage, to
provide rapid response and less oscillation was discussed [6]. The power markets
need to be restructured and the power supply policies need to be reformed in the
new deregulation climate in the electricity market [7, 8]. In response to the de-
regulation and re-structuring of the power industry, new business opportunities have
led many private sectors, from an economic point of view, to participate in small-
scale power generation [7]. The PV integration hybrid power system with FC provides
promising advantages over independent service [9]. In hybrid energy systems, the
conservation of energy plays an essential role in storing and releasing energy at the
right time. In addition to the energy storage device combinations such as FWES-
BESS and FWES-UC, the hybrid mixtures of all generation sources such as WTG,
PV, FC and DEPS provide effective energy management to meet the power balance
requirements [6, 9, 10]. Due to low computing costs and high convergence speed
over PSO and differential evolution (DE) optimization methods, PID parameters
are obtained using BBBC in this paper [7, 8]. This paper also discusses the use of
controller architecture based on HS optimization to achieve minimum deviation in
frequency. The performance of both the designed control approaches has been tested
on two and three-area power systems with the inclusion of various DG sources. The
research examines different profiles of parameters induced by a sudden shift in the
demand for generation and load. All potential disruptions, including the erratic nature
of wind speed and other uncertainties, have been checked under the proposed control
scheme.
21 An Optimal Control Scheme for Thermal-Hydro System … 229
21.2 Modelling of the Test System
A basic block diagram of the system comprising various sources like WTG, PV,
STPS, etc. is shown in Fig. 21.1. It is seen that these all sources are working in
area-1 of the considered test system. The other area does not have any DG source to
compensate load deviation. It is also evident that the total power supplied in area-1 is
the sum of powers of different DG sources and the conventional thermal generators’
power to satisfy the load demand. Figure 21.2 shows the first-order transfer function
model of different sources used in DG system. Three WTGs have been used. The
output of WTGs and STPS works as an input to AE, which absorbs the fluctuations
of wind and generate hydrogen, which further works as an input for FC. The output
Fig. 21.1 Hybrid system Load
Reheat Thermal
power system
Wind turbine power

system (WTGS ) Hydro power
system
Solar thermal power
system (STPS )
Area-1 Load Area-2
Diesel engine power
system (DEPS)
Aqua electrolyzer
(AQ)
Battery energy storage Area-1 Tie-
system (BESS) line
Fuel cell (FC)

Fly Wheel Energy
Storage (FECC)
Ultra Capacitor (UC)
sources
Fig. 21.2 Transfer function

model of DG system
230 N. Kumar et al.
Fig. 21.3 Transfer function model of complete test system
power of FC is combined with the output powers of DEPS, BESS, UC and FWES to
produce the net power of DG system. Deviation in Area control Error (AC E) or in
frequency f has been considered as an input to DEPS, BESS, FWES and UC. The
complete hybrid (DG + conventional thermal-hydro) system is shown in Fig. 21.3.
Brief description of different sources used in this study has been given in this
section.
Wind Turbine Generation System (WTG):
WTG’s generated power is based on the speed of the wind. A simple transfer function
of the WTG is given in [1], where, PW T Gk is the power output and PW is the
input power to the WTG system. Three WTGs systems have been considered in the
study.
KW T G PW T Gk
G W T G S (s) = = , k = 1, 2, 3 . . .
1 + sTW T G PW
Solar Thermal Power Systems (STPS):

Recently, STPS are being explored. In this study PST P S output power of STPS and
PW T Gk , i.e., output power of WTGs has been added to produce input to the AE
system.
KS KT PST P S
G ST P S (s) = =
1 + sTs 1 + sTT
Fuel-Cell Power Generation (FC):

Fuel cells convert hydrogen directly into electrical energy and considered an impor-
tant resource due to high efficiency, low pollution, etc., the output power of AE
(PAE ) is used as an input to FC in the given study, which in turn produced the
PFCk .
K FC PFCk
G FC (s) = = k = 1, 2, ....
1 + sTFC PAE
Diesel Engine Power Source (DEPS):

DEPS can be used to supply deficit power to the system to meet load/generation
balance.
K DE PS PD E P S
G D E P S (s) = =
1 + sTD E P S AC E
Flywheel Energy Storage System (FWES)/Battery Energy Storage System

(BESS):
FWES is a kinetic energy storage device that behaves just like batteries. Another
storage device like BESS is also being used to control both active/reactive power
output.
K FW ES PF W E S
G F W E S (s) = =
1 + sTF W E S AC E
K B E SS PB E SS
G B E SS (s) = =
1 + sTB E SS AC E
Ultracapacitors (UC):
UCs are used to store energy during excess generation and produce during peak
demand with a capacity of 100 times larger than normal capacitors.
KU C PU C
G U C (s) = =
1 + sTU C AC E
Power Deviation and Frequency Deviation:

The balance of the power frequency is preserved by careful regulation of various
resources for power generation, as shown in Figs. 21.2 and 21.3. The balance of
power is achieved as given in (24.1),
PTotal = PConventional + PDG

Perr or = PConventional + PDG − PLoad (21.1)
232 N. Kumar et al.
Table 21.1 Selected parameters of hybrid system

Gains Time constant (s)
KWTG = KT = KS = 1. KAE = 1/500, KDEG = TWTG = 1.5, TT = 0.3, TS = 1.5
1/300, KFC = 1/100, KBESS = -1/300, TAE = 0.5, TFC = 4, TDEG = 2
KFWES = −1/100, KUC = −7/10 TBESS = 0.1, TFWES = 0.1, TUC = 0.9
Kp = 120, Kr = 5, Kg = 1, Kt = 1 Tp = 20, Tr = 10, Tg = 0.08, Tt = 0.3,
R = 0.416, B = 0.425 T3 = 48.7, T2 = 5, T1 = 0.513, Tw = 1, T0 =
0.545
The net power of different sources utilized in DG system can be written as given
in (24.2),
PDG = PW T G + PST P S + PFC − PAE ± PF W SS ± PB E SS ± PU C

(21.2)
The transfer function of the complete system in respect to frequency deviation

can be represented as (24.3),
f Kp
G P S (s) = = (21.3)
Perr or 1 + sT p
The given equations may be extended, modified as the number of areas or the
sources increase. Further to model several sources and conventional system, param-
eters, i.e., gains and time constants have been chosen from [1] and are given in Table
21.1.
21.3 Controller Design Using Evolutionary Techniques
Since an optimal control scheme is necessary to keep generation and load at balance.
Therefore, a PID control scheme using BBBC and HS algorithms has been used in
this study. The step-by-step design is given as following.
Due to quick and easy implementation, PID controllers are by far the most
common industrial controllers. In this study, A PID control scheme given in (4)
has been used as a supplementary controller
K I nt
G P I D (s) = K Pr op + + K Dev s (21.4)
s
To design this control scheme, the mean square of area control error given in (5)
has been taken as the optimization problem.
The objective of the control scheme is to eliminate this mean square of error and
to bring back the frequency and the tie-line area interchange at the schedule values
with less overshoot/undershoot, i.e., oscillations in minimum possible settling time.
1
k
Jopt_ f un = (AC E i )2
k i=1
1
k
Jopt_ f un = (Bi f i + Ptiei_err or )2 (21.5)
k i=1
The constraints have been considered in search of the optimal parameters and are
given in [2, 3]. After designing the optimization problem, the optimal parameters
have been obtained using two search algorithms namely as BBBC and HS. The brief
of both the algorithms is given in as the following:
21.3.1 PID Controller Using BBBC
Step 1: One PID controller is considered for each area. Population for each parameter
(KProp , KInt , KDev ) of the considered PID controllers is generated in this step. This is
called Big Bang.
Step 2: It involves in determination of fitness function.
Step 3: Center of mass is evaluated in this step using step 2.
Step 4: New parameters have been generated.
Step 5: Fitness function of newly generated parameters has been determining in
this step.
Step 6: This step gives optimum parameters of the controllers.
The complete algorithm with step-by-step modelling can be referred from [3].
A 30-population, 3-variables and 10-parameter limiting size have been used as
BBBC parameters to obtain optimal PID control scheme.
21.3.2 PID Controller Using Harmony Search (HS)
PID control scheme coefficients were also obtained using HS algorithm given by
Geem et al. [12]. HS is based on the performance process of natural music that
occurs when a musician looks for a better state of harmony. HS comprises harmony
memory, pitch change and randomization to produce an optimal solution.
In this study, 30-HS memory, 0.9-HS rate, 0.5-pitch rate, (0.0001–1)-BW and 3-
variables have been selected to generated optimal parameters of PID control scheme.
234 N. Kumar et al.
The simulation analysis is discussed in this section with the controller mentioned
above in the hybrid power system. The area frequency, as well as the tie-line power
flow between the control areas, should be regulated by the AGC scheme in an
integrated hybrid power system. Therefore, it becomes necessary to investigate the
response variation, when existing thermal with different sources (area-1) are inter-
connected with hydro system (area-2). The PID control scheme is used to eliminate
the deviations in frequency and to keep the quantities like frequency, tie-line power,
ACE, generation powers at their scheduled value after being affected by a sudden
load disturbance. Optimal parameters using both algorithms have been given in Table
21.2.
21.4.1 Case 1: A Sudden Change in Input Power of WTGs

and STPS Along with a Sudden Change of Load
in the Thermal-Hydro Systems
This case deals with the sudden/step variation in wind input, i.e., PW T G = 0.6−0.4
pu, STPS input, i.e., = 0.38–0.20 pu, load in thermal area, i.e., PL1 = 1.0−1.2
pu and load in hydro area, i.e., PL2 = 1.0 − 1.1 pu. These various responses like
input powers, frequency deviations, tie-line power and area control error, various
generation changes of different generating systems are given in Fig. 21.4. At time t
= 30 s, it is seen that once the load is deviating the frequency gets disturbed. It is also
seen that the deviation in frequency is settling down at the desired value in steady
state. The dip in frequency is more in hydro area than thermal area since it is being
fed by DG which is helping to keep balance in generation/load. It is also seen that
generation change in thermal areas and others areas are settling to the desired values
at steady state. It is also evident that that tie-line power and ACE settle down to the
specified values in steady state after being disturbed. It is seen that most of the load
demand is taking up by DG sources in thermal system, and by using BESS FWES
and UC, the magnitude of oscillations of deviation in frequency and ACE, etc., can
be reduced up to a greater amount.
Table 21.2 Optimum values for PID controller

BBBC HS
K Prop K Int K Dev K Prop K Int K Dev
−1.327 −0.481 −0.627 −1.1 −0.2 −0.4
Fig. 21.4 Various responses [pu] of case 1

236 N. Kumar et al.
21.4.2 Case 2: A Continuous (Variable) Change in Input

Powers of WTGs and STPS Along with a Staircase
Change of Load in the Thermal System
This case deals with the continuous variation in wind input, STPS input, staircase
load in thermal area and step load in hydro area, i.e., PL2 = 1.0 − 1.1 pu. These
changes in input of wind, solar-thermal and load in area-1 are given in Fig. 21.5a. It is
seen that once the load is deviating the frequency gets disturbed as seen in Fig. 21.5b.
It is also seen that the deviation in frequency is settling down at the desired value in
steady state. The dip in frequency is more in hydro area than thermal area since it is
being fed by DG which is helping to keep balance in generation/load. Figure 21.5c
Fig 5(a). Various inputs.
Fig 5(b). Frequency deviations in thermal and hydro areas.
Fig 5 (c). Output of thermal and hydro plants.
Fig. 21.5 Various responses [pu] for case 2

Fig 5 (d). Tie-line power and ACE.
Fig 5 (e). Output of various sources.
Fig. 21.5 (continued)
shows the generation change in thermal-hydro areas using only conventional energy
sources. It is evident that the generators in hydro area are settling to the 1.2 pu, as
required in steady state. Figure 21.5d shows that tie-line power and ACE settle down
to the specified values in steady state after being disturbed. It is seen that most of the
load demand is taking up by DG sources in thermal system given in Fig. 21.5e. By
using BESS FWES and UC, the magnitude of oscillations of deviation in frequency
and ACE, etc., can be reduced up to a greater amount. It is seen that the application
of staircase load and continuous input powers of wind and STPS, different quantities
having more magnitude in oscillations and are settling at larger settling time, however
it is also seen that this condition is also well taken up by both control approaches.
However, it is also noted that the consistency of the BBBC-PID controller is almost
same and the responses are marked by low overshoot/undershoot, fewer oscillations
and faster response. The findings indicate improved output that accommodates the
power instability of the WTG and STPS.
238 N. Kumar et al.
Table 21.3 Comparative performance analysis of both control schemes

Controller Settling time (s)/undershoot/overshoot
Frequency deviation Frequency Change in Change in
(area-1) deviation generation generation
(area-2) (area-1) (area-2)
Case1 BBBC–PID 65/−4.65/1.05 80/−5.5/1.215 75/−1.032/1.65 75/−0.29/1.3
HS–PID 70/−4.45/1.27 90/−5.65/1.225 85/−0.92/1.58 90/−0.23/1.4
Case2 BBBC–PID 380/−3.95/2.7 380/−4.55/3 380/−2.07/1.55 380/−0.2/1.38
HS–PID 405/−4.15/3.3 405/−4.3/2.9 400/−2.09/1.46 405/−1.7/1.48
Case3 BBBC–PID >400/−2/4.5 >400/−3.8/4.3 >400/−4.2/0.0 >400/−1.8/1.3
HS–PID >400/−3/5.5 >400/−3.5/4.9 > 400/−4.6/0.0 >400/−0.35/1.25
21.5 Conclusion
The study of frequency deviation in hybrid systems with different combinations of

elements for energy storage is carried out in this paper. The test system is considered to
be a two-area thermal-hydro. The DG sources (models of a hybrid generation/energy
storage system) have been considered in area-1 of the test system. Wind turbine, diesel
set, aqua electrolyzer, solar thermal systems, battery energy storage, flywheels, ultra-
capacitor and fuel cell are part of the hybrid system tested. As fuel for the fuel cell, the
produced hydrogen from the aqua electrolyzer is used. The wind power, solar thermal
and load models are also properly chosen to approximate the substantial performance
of the hybrid system being studied. A variety of load change has been considered. The
PID controller is constructed to reduce mean square of area control error. BBBC and
HS methods have been used to obtain optimum controller parameters. In time-domain
simulations, the output of each controller is analysed from the dynamic behaviour
of frequency, generation, tie-line power ACE, Output of DG sources. Comparison
between the results obtained using both approaches is shown in Table 21.3. It is
evident from the comparison that apart from few instances of increased magnitude
in oscillations, BBBC-based control.
References
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algorithm in restructured power system. Appl. Soft Comput.-Elsevier 48, 160–168 (2016)
3. Kumar, N., Tyagi, B., Kumar, V.: Optimization of PID parameters using BBBC for multi-area
AGC scheme in deregulated power system. Turk. J. Electr. Eng. Comput. Sci. 24, 4105–4116
(2015)
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of power system using imperialist competitive algorithm based robust controller. IETE J. Res.-
Taylor & Francis 64, 528–537 (2017)
5. Pandey, S.K., Mohanty, S.R., Kishor, N.: A literature survey on load frequency control for
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algorithms and linear matrix inequalities. IEEE Trans. Power Syst. 18(2), 855–861 (2003)
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Chapter 22
Effect of Material Hardness
and Operating Conditions on Wear Rate
of Sliding Tribopair
Mohammad Hanief
Abstract Wear of a material is one of the most undesirable processes experienced

in practical applications. It results in energy loss, material degradation and life-
shortening of machine components. This study aims to investigate the behavior of
wear rate as a function of different operating parameters. The experiments were
conducted on reciprocating tribometer, with three different tribopairs, of ball-on-
disc configuration. The 52,100 chromium steel ball was allowed to slide with gun
metal, mild-steel and EN-31 steel discs under different conditions. The wear rate
for the specimens for each test was calculated by weight loss method. The effect of
time, sliding distance and material hardness on the wear rate was examined there
off. The Power Law and ANN models were developed for the estimation of wear
rate. The model outputs were compared with the observed experimental results. The
accuracy of the models was assessed using statistical parameters viz, coefficient of
determination (R2 ), mean absolute percentage error (MAPE) and mean square error
(MSE). It was observed that ANN model was more accurate compared to power law.
Further, ANOVA analysis, with 5% p-value, was performed to enunciate the dominant
factor affecting the wear rate. It was concluded that the load was the dominant factor
influencing the wear rate and was succeeded by the velocity and hardness.
22.1 Introduction
Wear is an undesirable deterioration of a surface of a component by the material

removal from surfaces in contact. It is due to the displacement or detachment of
material particles from the surfaces. It leads to the sharp reduction in the mechanical
properties of the material. The wear of material is a result of the rubbing of surfaces
against each other or erosive effect of gaseous or liquid media or scratching of solid
surface or any other surface phenomenon.
The wear rate is influenced by a numerous factors as pointed out below:-
M. Hanief (B)
Mechanical Engineering Department, National Institute of Technology, Srinagar, India
e-mail: hanief@nitsri.net
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2857-3_23
242 M. Hanief
1. The physical and chemical property of the material

2. Operating condition
3. Characteristics of abrasive media
There is no universal wear mechanism and there exists no simple correlation
between the wear rate or surface degradation and values of friction coefficient. This
often requires material properties or ‘constants’ which are obtained by the wear test
only. Enormous studies have been performed to investigate both wear during running-
in and steady state. Numerous operating parameters have been used for running-in
wear characterization. This includes stable surface roughness, coefficient of friction
and wear during steady state [1]. Argatov et al. [2] developed an asymptotic wear
model with fixed zone of contact and constant acting load for running-in process.
Wenlong et al. [3] employed least square support vector machine (LS-SVM) for
predicting running-in wear model. Areal surface evaluation parameters were adopted
for surface roughness modeling during running-in. Hanief et al. [4] developed a
mathematical model for running-in process, assuming the surface roughness as a
function of running-in time, explicitly with other process variables (load, velocity,
hardness, etc.) constant. Gauss–Newton procedure was employed to find the optimal
values of model parameters. A mathematical model was developed by Hanief et al. [5]
to determine the relation between wear rate with surface roughness during running-in
wear. The correlation of the surface roughness and wear rate was studied by Masouros
et al. [6] during the initial bearing operation. The issues in honed surfaces and their
effects on performance of ring pack friction were investigated by Mezghani et al. [7].
Al-Samarai et al. [8] investigated the influence of speed and load on performance of
alloy of aluminum–silicon on PoD configuration with different loading conditions
and three speeds and 70% relative humidity. Uchenna et al. [9] examined the effect of
operating parameters on wear characteristics of alloys of AlSi under dry conditions.
Haque et al. [10] inquired the influence of load, temperature (pouring) and speed
of stirring on microstructure and wear of SiC MMC reinforced with Al6061-Cu. In
this study, the dependent variable was wear rate while the independent parameters
stirring speed and pouring temperature. In literature, most of the wear models and
wear equations were analyzed as to origin, applicability, and content. It is pertinent to
mention that not a single model equation or set of equations was noticed for practical
and general use. The reason for this is the subjective and erroneous expressions for the
wear mechanisms [11]. Singh et al. [12] presented optimum surface roughness model
for 316L steel using CNC Lathe pipe with ANN Optimization-ANNO technique.
The method was based on ANN and multiple regression analysis (MRA). The main
objective was to estimate the most dominant variables and optimal parameters from
the set of cutting speed, axial depth, feed rate, and radial depth. Ameen et al. [13]
conducted a study on the wear rate for various metals, such as Al, Steel, and Brass
under the influence of sliding speed, time and load. The pin-on-disc apparatus was
employed to investigate the behavior of the adhesion wear. Singla et al. [14] studied
the influence of speed and load on wear characteristics of flu ash-Al 7075 composite.
They experimentally investigated the influence of load and sliding speed on the COF
and wear characteristics of sliding pin on composite of Al 7075-Fly Ash. Choudhury
22 Effect of Material Hardness and Operating Conditions on Wear Rate … 243
[15] worked on design of experiments (DOE) and the ANN for tool wear prediction.
The inputs considered were feed, cutting speed and depth of cut while surface finish,
flank wear and cutting zone temperature zone were chosen as outputs.
Review of the literature shows that a large amount of research work has been
performed by the previous investigators for wear modeling in sliding operations by
varying parameters like load, speed, surface coatings, temperatures, compositions,
etc. Also, the literature survey shows that the models used for predicting wear in
various operation were only regression models. So, in the present study aims to
model wear rate in sliding wear operation, by varying parameters like time, sliding
distance and hardness while keeping other parameters load, speed, temperatures, etc.,
constant. Also, the present study uses both power-law and ANN (Artificial neural
networks) for the prediction of wear rate.
22.2 Materials and Experiments
Three different materials were used for investigation (i) bronze, which is an alloy of
copper, tin, zinc and lead of 85, 5, 5, 5% each, respectively. Bronze was mainly used
for making guns, eventually it was overtaken by steel. Gunmetal, machines and casts
well. It is corrosion resistant hence used for making hydraulic and steam equipment,
valves, gears, castings, statues and numerous objects. It possesses tensile strength of
221–310 MPa, a specific gravity of 8.7, density of 8,719 kg/m3 and Brinell hardness
of 65 to 74. EN8, a medium carbon steel is supplied untreated, usually. EN8 possesses
excellent tensile strength. It is generally used in the manufacturing of shafts, stressed
pins, gears, studs, keys, bolts, etc., EN8 steel is a very a prominent grade and is
easily machinable under different conditions. It may be surface-hardened further to
manufacture components with enhanced wear resistance, in the range 50–55 HRC,
typically, by induction processes. Mild Steel, also known as plain carbon steel and
is now the most common form of steel because it provides material properties that
are acceptable for many applications. Mild Steel contains 0.05–0.25% carbon, 0.2%
Copper, 98% Iron, 1.03% Manganese, 0.040% Phosphorous, etc. Mild Steel (MS)
is malleable and also ductile. Mild Steel having low tensile strength relatively, is
cheap and quite easy to form. It is generally used in manufacturing of cams, gears,
jigs, automotive and agricultural equipment, frames and machinery parts. The steel
possesses density of approximately 7.85 g/cm3 , Young’s Modulus of 210 GPa and a
Brinell hardness of 120 BHN. In the present experimental study, time, sliding distance
and hardness of material were considered as process variables. The Ball material
considered for this experiment was AISI 52,100 alloy steel with 60–67 HRC (700–
900 HV, 300–320 BHN). The hardness of the materials used are presented in Table
22.1. The test was conducted on Reciprocating Tribometer (Fig. 22.1). The sample
was mounted perpendicularly on a stationary holder such that it’s one of the faces
is forced to press against the ball that is reciprocating on it, then the test parameters
both constant and variable are fed in the system. In the present experimental work
parameters such as speed, load, temperature, stroke, and frequency were kept constant
244 M. Hanief
Table 22.1 Materials used

Specimen Material Hardness (BHN)
and their hardness
Disc 1 Gunmetal 65
Disc 2 Mild steel 120
Disc 3 EN8 steel 200
Ball AISI52100 310
Fig. 22.1 Experimental

setup of reciprocating
tribometer
while the sliding distance, time and hardness were varied. The wear track so formed
on the disc is a straight scar. After each test, the weight loss of the specimen was
considered as the wear. The wear rate for each test was estimated from the weight-loss
procedure for particular interval of time.
Eight number of sliding wear tests (ball on disc), using different process param-
eters, were carried on disc samples of same material and each test was repeated at
least thrice to have better and accurate results. In total 24 tests were carried out with
different process parameters.
22.3 Power Law and ANN Models
In order to predict the wear rate in wear process, the power law equation can be
expressed as Eq. 22.1
W. = K .H a .D b .T c (22.1)
whereas W is estimated wear rate. K, a, b and c are constants to be estimated and

H, D, T are hardness, sliding distance and time, respectively.
ANN is an advanced computational technique and differs from other computation
in vogue. ANN is an information processing structure which is parallel distributed
and consisting of interconnected processing elements in unidirectional signal chan-
nels known as weights. Although ANN models have been inspired after biological
neurons, they are much simplified. Some of the characteristic attributes of ANNs
are:
(a) It learns from the data of examples and there after generalizes it on unseen
data.
(b) They possess capability to handle the situation where erroneous input exists,
incomplete, or are fuzzy.
ANN has attracted the attention of investigators and researchers as it has a capacity
to solve problems of non-linear nature. Thus, it has been used for wear rate prediction
in the present study. Based on the nature of the problem and its complexity, ANN
model can have multiple layers. Generally, it consists of input, hidden and output
layers. The input layer receives the input data and are fed to the hidden layers.
Thereafter, the next hidden layer evaluates the output. Finally the result is generated
in the last layer. The hidden and output layers use transfer functions to compute the
final results. In this study, tansig and purelin were was used as transfer functions in
hidden and output layer, respectively, as are given in Eqs. 22.2 and 22.3. The typical
ANN structure of the model is presented in Figs. 22.2 and 22.3.
en − e−n
F= (22.2)
en − e−n
Fig. 22.2 ANN structure and functions used for modelling
Input layer Hidden layer Output layer
Hardness
Sliding distance
Wear rate
time
Fig. 22.3 ANN structure used for modelling

246 M. Hanief
Table 22.2 ANN training

No. of neurons Input-1, hidden-2 and output-1
parameters
Initial biases/weight Between −1 and 1 (randomly)
Activation function (AF) Tansig
Learning rate (LR) 0.05
Input matrix “X” H: hardness T: time D: sliding
distance
Epochs 1000
f =n (22.3)
Training constitutes the initial step in an ANN model, where input data is fed to
the network along with the desired output data (target). The weights are set initially
randomly. The back propagation algorithm (BPA) is used for attaining satisfactory
degree of performance by reducing the global error by altering the weights. It is a
learning technique in which weights are adjusted by propagating weight changes in
backward direction from the output layer to input neurons [9]. The training of the
network terminates when the desired level of performance is attained. The decision is
taken by the network based on the weights at this stage. In this work ANN-MATLAB
toolbox was employed for training of network. The network parameters values used
for ANN are presented in Table 22.2.
The experimental data was used for testing of the network with the data not
presented during the training of network. After successful training of the network
the coefficients, constants and predicted values were estimated using MATLAB.
After calculating the values of the constants a, b, c and coefficient K, the power law
model (Eq. 22.1) for wear rate can be written as
W = 4.4763H −0.4242 . D 1.3328 T −1.8947 (22.4)
From Eq. (22.4) it is clear that the wear rate decreases with hardness and time
while as increases with sliding distance (Table 22.3). Also from the Anova analysis,
Table 22.3 Statistical

R2 MAPE MSE
parameters of the models
Power law 0.9922 0.0016 0.0018
ANN 0.9860 1.0688 × 10–4 1.2083 × 10–4
Table 22.4 ANOVA

df SS MS
Regression 3 0.50417 0.168057
Residual 21 1.66 × 10−6 7.92 × 10−8
Total 24 0.504172
Fig. 22.4 a Measured and predicted data of wear rate for power law model and b Measured and
predicted data of wear rate for ANN model
presented in Table 22.4, it was concluded that wear rate strongly depends on the
sliding distance.
The network was trained for 6 input values of three variables, i.e., time, sliding
distance and hardness. Out of 24 experimental values, the network was validated for 7
values, while actual wear rate acted as target. The trained networks were finally used
for wear rate prediction. Statistical parameters R2 , MSE, and MAPE were determined
to find the competence of the models and are presented in Table 22.3. The plot of
predictive wear rate and actual wear rate as per the power law and ANN models is
shown in Fig. 22.4a, b. It can be seen from Fig. 22.4a, b that the estimated values
of wear rate are close to the experimental values for both models. However, ANN
model is more accurate. The outputs of the ANN are presented in Fig. 22.5. It can be
seen from the Fig. 22.5 that the R2 is greater the 99% for both training and validation.
And for test R2 is greater than 98%. It can be concluded from Fig. 22.5 that the ANN
is competent enough to predict the wear rate with the desired accuracy.
22.5 Conclusions
In this study, Power law and ANN models were used to predict the wear rate. The wear
rate with parameters time, sliding distance and hardness was measured by means of
248 M. Hanief
Fig. 22.5 Correlation of parameters for predicting wear rate (training, testing and validation) in
ANN model
sliding wear tests conducted on reciprocating tribometer. The data obtained were
used to develop the wear rate models. The following conclusions can be drawn from
the present study.
The ANN model gives accurate results than Power law model. The developed
models were assessed for their prediction capability with known values. Based on
the statistical parameters the predicted values were found to be close to measured
values.
The proposed models can be used confidently and effectively to predict the wear
rate in sliding wear process with high accuracy. The average percentage error in
Power law model is 16.8 and 15.6% in wear rate, respectively, while as the average
percentage error in ANN model is 4.1 and 4.5% in wear rate, respectively.
References
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running-in and steady-state wear processes. Wear 252, 20445–20453 (2002)
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42, 311–317 (2011)
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topography at the end of sliding running-in wear based on areal surface parameters. Tribol.
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4. Hanief, M., Wani, M.F.: Modeling and prediction of surface roughness for running-in wear
using Gauss-Newton algorithm and ANN. Appl. Surf. Sci. 357, 1573–1577 (2015)
5. Hanief, M., Wani, M.F. Effect of surface roughness on wear rate during running-in of En31-
steel: modeling and experimental validation. Mater. Lett. (2016)
6. Masouros, G., Dimarogonas, A., Lefas, K.: A model for wear and surfaceroughness transients
during the running-in of bearings. Wear 45, 375–382 (1997)
7. Mezghani, S., Demirci, I., Yousfi, M.: Running-in wear modeling of honed surface for
combustion engine cylinder liners. Wear 302, 1360–1369 (2013)
8. Al-Samarai, R.A., Haftirman, A.K., Al-Douri, Y.: Effect of process parameters on wear rate of
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Wear 181, 443–457 (1995)
11. Singh, R., Gupta, R., Tripathi, J.: Surface roughness analysis and compare prediction and
experimental value for cylindrical stainless steel pipe ss 316l in CNC lathe turning process
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times on the wear rate for different materials. Am. J. Sci. Ind. 299, 106 (2011)
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composite material. Int. J. Innov. Res. Sci. Eng. Technol. 2, 5 (2013)
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in finish turning. Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 20, 348–356 (2002)
15. Choudhury, S.K. Bartarya, G.: Role of temperature and surface finish in predicting tool wear
using neural network and design of experiments. Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf. 43, 747–753 (2003)
Chapter 23
Fluorescence Characteristics
of Coumarin Derivatives with Divalent
Metal Ions
Pooja Rani
Abstract The absorption and fluorescence spectra of 3-methyl 7-hydroxyl

Coumarin (C4) dye in presence of divalent metal ions (Ni+2 , Co+2 and Sn+2 ) were
investigated. The fluorescence quenching of dye C4 molecule is found to be of
second-order and second-order fluorescence quenching rate constant varies in order
of Ni+2 > Co+2 > Sn+2 in methanol. The Stern Volmer Plots show that the quenching
efficiency increases in Ni+2 < Co+2 < Sn+2 . These results are explained based on the
paramagnetic and diamagnetic behavior of the said ions.
23.1 Introduction
The main element in the organism is Nickel. It helps lower the blood sugar level,
increase the renewal of the red corpuscles and find the anemia. This is a major
achievement in the medical field to diagnose the functioning of heart, lungs and
asthmatic attack [1]. It is a very advantageous element for individuals. This element
also helps to regulate digestion in the human body.
In our neighboring, the amount of Nickel is tremendous and deficient nickel is very
rare. In contrast, due to the rich nickel environment, excess nickel creates nose and
lung cancer and leukemia [2, 3]. Also, the diseases like nervous breakdown, chronic
hepatitis and gall stone can produce by it. Therefore, people need to be more cautious
and should take extra care. They are very attentive to health by changing the lifestyle,
and the problem of nickel pollution may be paying more devotion. Therefore, the
significance of the conclusion of nickel in ecological samples may be overstressed
since they have a severe probable risk to the peoples. The chief sources of nickel
in marine are after the termination of rocks and stones, natural phases, atmospheric
processes, industrial and water disposal [4].
Cobalt has advantages and disadvantages for peoples. For the treatment of anemia,
It is used due to it contains vitamin B-12. Due to cobalt exposure, it may cause lung
infections that include respiratory problems and asthma. The international cancer
P. Rani (B)
G L Bajaj Institute of Technology and Management, Greater Noida, UP, India
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2857-3_24
252 P. Rani
research categorizes cobalt as ‘human carcinogen’. The kidneys, skin problems and
lung damage due to cobalt salt exposure.. Without a chest x-ray, these problems
cannot observe. This can be mortal [5].
For food preservation, it is recycled for cane coating and tin-plated steel vessels.
Tin alloys are utilized in different methods: like the soldering of electric circuits
and bell metal. For making superconducting magnets use niobium-tin alloy. Tin
oxide is recycled for sensors. The electrical conductivity varies may be observed.
Tinfoil is commonly used for packaging foods and drugs. Now, it can be changed
by aluminum foil because organic tin is more harmful to people. Regardless of the
dangers, they are useful in more industries like paint manufacturing. The more use
of tin is still demanding; regard the significances of tin poisoning are known. The
effects of organic tin substances may be changes. It depends on the type of substance.
Triethylin is a very hazardous organic tin substance for peoples. It has comparable
least hydrogen bonds. When hydrogen bonds nurture longer a tin substance will
be less harmful to people’s health. Peoples can captivate tin bonds by food. The
consumption of tin bonds may cause effects like eye and skin problems, headaches,
stomachaches, breathlessness, as well as long time effects of depression and brain
effects [6].
The development of good, inexpensive, logical methods for the finding of Ni,
Co, and Sn in low absorption stages seem. At present, the finding of metal ions is
accepted by X-ray fluorescence in electroplating solution carried to find metal [6],
flame atomic absorption spectrometry (FAAS) in water solution [7] and gasoline [8],
graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry (GFAAS) in fingernails and forearm
skin [9], gasoline [10] and residual fuel oil [11], electrothermal atomic absorption
spectrometry (ETAAS) in aluminum-base alloys [12], marine sediments [13], induc-
tively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry (ICP-AES) in plant samples
[14], square-wave adsorptive stripping voltammetry (SWASV) in duralumin, iron ore
and a river water [15] and flow-injection solid-phase spectrophotometry (FI_SPS) in
copper-based alloys [16]. The suggested approaches provide advantages and limita-
tions. However, some limitations like time-consuming mechanisms, advanced instru-
ments, low sensitivity, fast and tactful methods for the find of nickel. The chemi-
luminescence (CL) investigation is agreeable because fewer finding parameters and
extensive linear response ranges may be realized for sure kinds by using modest
equipment. Last decades, the techniques for the finding of recommendation metal
ions were done by CL Analysis [16].
Coumarins have been widely used as structural units in fluorescence probes which
are based on intra-molecular quenching, and as correspondents of radical reac-
tions within the solutions and thin polymeric films. The degree of intra-molecular
quenching depends on the structure of coumarin. The fluorescence spectrum of
coumarins is majorly used in the area of polymer science [17, 18]. Also they are
utilized as photo-initiators [19], for the incorporation into polymer chains by the
process of co-polymerization [20], in the assesment of polymer–solvent effects
[21], for various structural characterization methods [22]. The Coumarin Period
of laser dyes have a solid electron giving substituent (Either hydroxyl,-OH, or an
amino, NR2) in the 7-position. Coumarin-1 (7-diethylamino-4-methyl coumarin)
23 Fluorescence Characteristics of Coumarin Derivatives … 253
Fig. 23.1 Molecular

structure of coumarine-4
was the first coumarin detected laser action [23]. About 100 coumarin laser dyes are
known [24]. The 7-hydroxy coumarins and 7-aminocoumarins with several electron
removing substituents in 3rd, 4th and 6th positions give more laser dyes of excellent
in the green–blue area [25–27]. In the present study 3-methyl 7- hydroxyl coumarin
(C4) dye is used because of certain advantages reported earlier [28]. The molecular
structure of C4 is in Fig. 23.1.
23.2 Experimental
The Coumarin dye was obtained from Sigma Chemicals (USA). Without refinement,
metal ions can be used. By liquefying the proper quantity of nickel sulfate in water,
Nickel (II) ion standard solution (10.0 g/l) can be ready. The required solution ready
by dilution of the stock solution in water. 0.1771 g Luminol dissolving with. 0.1
mo1/1 sodium hydroxide and diluting with 0.1 mo1/1 sodium hydroxide to 1.0 ×
10−2 mol/l prepared Luminol stocking solution (1.0 × 10−2 mol/l). The luminol
required solution can be ready in a proper concentration of sodium hydroxide. By
using the same method other metal ions are used. For quenching one used a solution
of comparatively less viscosity to allow fast diffusion of quencher. The quenching
method can be beneficial for biological macromolecules. Due to it allow the relax-
ation rate can be finding lacking temperature confirmation. Methanol can also be
used due to similar purpose. Methanol used was of AR grade and find was opaque
and non-fluorescent in the kind of excitation and fluorescence emission detected
by their absorption spectra. Absorption spectra noted by Shimadzu (260) UV–VIS
Spectrophotometer. Aminco-Bowman Spectro- Photofluorometer, connected with
Photo-Multiplier tube RJ-758 and 150 W Xenon lamp, was find fluorescence spectra
of the dyes beneath observation. For the photo-multiplier tube, the No Correction
parameter is required because of the fine response over this range. Excitation curves
were the same as the absorption curves of the dyes. So, the excitation curves are
selected as the absorption curves to choose the peak wavelength. Dye concentration
was low as 2 × 10–5 M/l to ignore self-quenching. Observed fluorescent emission
wavelengths assessed to ±2 nm and absorption wavelength ±1 nm. Metal ions are
mixed in micro-liters as a quencher.
254 P. Rani
Typical absorption and fluorescence spectra shown in Figs. 23.2 and 23.3 Stern
Volmer Equations are used to explain the quenching phenomenon. The absorption
spectrum and fluorescence spectra of coumarin-4 exhibits bands in the wavelength
range at approximately 200–450 nm. The absorption maxima of the band is found
to shift to longer wavelengths.
Fig. 23.2 Typical absorption

spectra of coumarin-4
Fig. 23.3 Typical

fluorescence spectra of
coumarin-4
Fluorescence quenching of the methanol solution of C4 dye in presence of NI++,

Co++ and Sn++ metal ions are observed. The second-order quenching rate constant
Kq is designed using the Stern Volker relation [28]. It is found that the fluorescence
spectral formation does not vary, show the absence of an emitting excited state
complex according to experimental conditions. The excited-state lifetime of the C4
in the absence or presence of the Ni++ , Co++ and Sn++ is the same as 3.5 ns
calculated theoretically using the method described elsewhere [29].
As shown in Figs. 23.4 and 23.5, the Stern Volmer graph shows that the quantum
efficiency increases Ni+2 > Co+2 > Sn+2 . The Stern Volmer plot (Fig. 23.4) is linear
with a Regression Coefficient of 0.98 and the Stern Volmer constant comes to be
68.5 mo1−1 . In the case of Sn+2 s-order quenching rate constant Kq is 19.57 × 1011
dm3 mol−1 s−1 .
This is two orders of magnitude more than limiting diffusion rate constants Kdiff
in methanol at room temperature of 6.2 × 109 dm3 mol−1 s−1 [29]. This study shows
that diffusion is not complicated in the quenching mechanism. The stern Volmer
graph in Ni++ and Co++ are exponential (Regression Coefficient 0.95 and 0.93,
respectively) as depicted in Fig. 23.5. The Stern Volmer Constant is found to be
98.3 mol−1 and 106.3 mo1−1 .
Further, the quenching rate constants rate calculated are 28.09 dm3 mol−1 s−1
and 30.38 dm3 mol−1 s−1 , respectively. In methanol solution, Co++ ions exist in
form of the tetrahedral {CoCI4 }−2 complex [30] which is characteristically deep in
the deep and blue and causes efficient fluorescence quenching. Co++ and Ni++ are
paramagnetic with electronic structures Ar3 d7 and Ar3 d8 , respectively. On the other
hand, Sn++ is diamagnetic with electronic structure Kr 4 d10 5s2 . Both Co++ and
Ni++ are also specified by lesser ionic radii 0.74 and 0.72 Å, respectively. These are
Fig. 23.4 Stern volmer plot

of C4 dye in methanol in
presence of Sn+2 metal ions
256 P. Rani
Fig. 23.5 Stern volmer plot

of C4 dye in methanol in
presence of Co +2 (upper
graph) and No +2 (lower
graph) metal ions
lesser than the radii of Sn++ (1.40 Å). Complexation of C4 with Sn+2 is faster and
should be specified by smaller activation energy compared with Ni+2 and Co+2 .
23.4 Conclusion
From above we concluded that the quenching observed is of dynamic nature. The
second-order fluorescence quenching rate constant increases in the order of Ni+2 >
Co+2 > Sn+2 in methanol. The Stern Volmer graphs show that quenching efficiencies
increases in the order of Ni+2 < Co+2 < Sn+2 . Further, the above results also indicate
that the complexation of C4 with Sn+2 will be fast as compared to Co++ and Ni++.
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Chapter 24
A Novel Method for Performance
Enhancement of PV Module Using
Graphene
Pragati Tripathi, M. A. Ansari, and Rajat Mehrotra
Abstract This paper aims to improve the output voltage of solar panels by using
graphene. The objective of this work is to analyze the absorption coefficient for
improvisation in the efficiency of graphene. Various parameters viz. current density,
absorption coefficient, wavelength of sun spectrum, Fermi and Dirac point level, and
carrier generation rate have been computed and analyzed. The chosen parameters and
their characteristics can demonstrate the necessity of solar energy by using graphene.
GaAs is used as substrate and graphene layers are used to make junction and gate
contact. The obtained graphs indicate that the power conversion efficiency of the
solar panel is increased from 10.69 to 11.5%.
24.1 Introduction
These days, Graphene is becoming more popular for solar energy applications as it
can also withstand harsh weather conditions. The requirement of an efficient solar
cell is becoming important as they are the economical and cleanest form of the
power source. The output acquired by solar cells is not considered acceptable if
we see both its input and output on the same platform which is obvious from the
available statistics in literature. It is observed that solar cell efficiency is merely
reported as 10% without employing graphene [1]. Graphene has given tremendous
results in terms of efficiency and it is discovered that efficiency is increased to 20%
by utilizing graphene [2]. The main difference in their construction is that in place
of silicon a layer of graphene can be utilized. The number of layers of graphene
P. Tripathi (B) · M. A. Ansari

Department of Electrical Engineering, Gautam Buddha University, Greater Noida, India
M. A. Ansari
e-mail: ma.ansari@ieee.org
R. Mehrotra
Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering, GL Bajaj Institute of Technology &
Management, Greater Noida, India
e-mail: rajat.mehrotra@glbitm.ac.in
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2857-3_25
260 P. Tripathi et al.
is inversely proportional to sheet resistance and optical transparency [3]. Talking

numerically optical transparency decreases in the following manner according to the
increase in the number of the graphene layer. One sheet of graphene gives a visual
photograph of 97.7% [4]. Three-layer graphene provides an optical transparency of
90.8% [5]. With the increase of layers of graphene, a decrease of 2.3% is visible in
optical transparency [6]. In addition to confining 90% optical transparency to this,
a graphene layered sheet can stimulate a sheet with resistance up to 2.1 k ´ sq−1
[7]. Most of the time monolayer graphene has 11% less than multilayer graphene
layer in terms of damping effect, this happens only because of the presence of a
large number of holes, i.e., positive charge carriers are in a high accepting state [8].
The complete property of the graphene sheet can be changed by slightly doping of
heteroatoms, wheatear it is photonic or electronic characteristics of the graphene
sheet. The first one is p-type and the second most popular doping is n-type doping.
When a trivalent atom of metals like aluminum, boron, etc., which has a property
to extract electrons and generate a hole in place of it which is a positive charge
carrier, this phenomena can be termed as hole doping or in simple language this is
known as p-type doping [9]. In the same way, if pentavalent atoms like phosphorus
(P), arsenic (As), antimony (Sb) which has the property to donate electron which
helps in generating free electrons from pentavalent atoms, this kind of doping is
known as electron doping of in simple language it is termed as n-type doping [10]. A
variety of carbon compounds (carbon allotropes) transpired to be used in solar cell
manufacturing for bringing the basic properties in the domain of cost and efficiency in
a pervasive manner [11]. For this, the electron mobility is brought to the conductance
band. Many carbon allotropes are meaningless for this context as they are deprived
of less no. of free electrons and more in thickness which could be unsuitable for
the electronic properties of a solar cell [12]. Graphene which is a co-product of
carbon allotrope, graphite tends to withstand all the basic properties for the solar cell
preordained thickness and remarkable electron mobility which are considered here
[13]. As it is used now a day’s for Schottky junction for better outcomes of solar panels
efficiency. The upcoming generations looking toward renewable energy sources as
the working substitute for cheap and environment-friendly energy sources [4]. This
is obvious that the cost and depletion in the availability of non-renewable energy
resources are also becoming the crux for people losing their interest in them. That’s
why more and more research is been carried out on renewable energy resources
and embraced everywhere. This paper is covering research on the application of
graphene in the solar cell. As we all know that the traditional method of solar energy
extraction is not so efficient and still has many aspects that need to be improved
especially in the tenet methodology. One small step carried out in many places to
enhance the efficiency of the solar cell is to use the graphene layer in it. Graphene
is a carbon compound structured honeycomb in a two-dimension lattice [5]. It is a
brilliant conductivity, thermally as well as electromechanically [4] Electromobility
of graphene at room temperature is 100,000 cm2 /Vs [14]. At room temperature, it is
highly flexible and has high mechanical strength [3]. If the temperature is slightly high
it affects its current density but still has a current density on an average of nearly
108–109 cm2 /Vs [15]. Graphene can also be used as transparent electrodes as its
24 A Novel Method for Performance Enhancement of PV Module … 261
Fig. 24.1 Microscope images of graphene nanoribbons formed by a bottom-up process [2]
transmittance rate is 97–98% [16]. There are many more applications of graphene in
different fields like carbon nanotubes (CNTs), such as transistors [17] interconnects
[18] thermal bumps [16], and gas sensors which are studied in cited papers Most of
the times the graphene nanoribbons are used in some cases for efficient outcomes.
These are mostly in nanometers. A scanning microscope image of GNRs we formed
by the bottom-up approach is shown in Fig. 24.1 [14].
The elementary methodology of the silicon-based solar cell is not very different
from graphene-based PV cells. Mostly nowadays all materials are graphene oriented.
As by use of graphene operational efficiency could be increased tremendously. The
paper here is studying the power absorbed by the solar module concerning the time
the Simulink model calibrated by its mathematical model to get the graph reading
for our study.
24.2 Material and Methods
This paper is showing MATLAB and Simulink techniques to have a comparison

between certain parameters of GaAs Schottky junction field-effect solar cell which is
composed of Graphene. This analyzed a graph between carriers generation rate versus
time which is compared with previous results analyzed in Reference paper which is a
main study in the Simulink and calculated power density, Carrier generation rate and
wavelength of sun spectrum by constructing Simulink model by using FDM method
(finite difference method) rather than solving drift Diffusion equation by a different
method which is a little bit complicated for which some equations are solved using
coding and algorithm to remove distortions. The study is made so simple to check
and calculate the parameters. It also shows mathematical modeling of graphene with
the help of certain equations by constructing models and acquiring graphs between
certain parameters which shows the efficacy of the PV module. The paper is so long
as nearly methodological opinions for the enterprise and optimization of the graphene
PV module with an improved presentation.
24.2.1 Statistical Methods
The crux of the paper is regarding graphene module modelling and simulation so that
the operating mechanism also includes the properties of fixing absorption, transporter
flexibility, gate oxide thickness, and several junction graphene layers. In Sect. 24.1,
a brief Introduction of the properties of graphene is given. In Sect. 24.2 the material
used in the whole process and the technique which is applied is given. The geometry of
the graphene PV module is also given (Fig. 24.1). In Sect. 24.3, it’s the main modeling
and simulation approaches are outlined. In Sect. 24.4, results are discussed with their
graphs and models are to be taken. In this Section, the MATLAB algorithm result
is being compared by the Simulink result. To conclude, the efficiency that has been
formed is discussed in Sect. 24.5. Here the complicated Maxwell equations are solved
by the GUI technique in MATLAB which gives the optimization of the parameters
and gives a brief idea about the design and analysis of the material. Basically, the
models are constructed by taking the parameters of the different components as
the affinity level of GaAs is set as 4.07 eV, the bandgap of GaAs is 1.42 eV, For
obtaining the first graph the values taken are in the Eq. (24.1) the wavelength of the
sun spectrum (λm ) here taken as 0.873 μm, power reflectance of GaAs is defined
by the formula: r = Re αL , where α = 1018 to 1020 cm−3 , x is the gate and junction
graphene and stated as x = 0 nm, x = 70 nm this is the limited value in which upper
and lower limit is defined, L = 500 nm in which recombination rate is obtained by
the formula: R = BNp, where B = 7.2 × 10−16 m3 /s, n = 2.24 × 1011 , P = 1.85 × 101
and for obtaining the carrier generation rate at wavelength (λm ) in the second graph
the energy of photon at wavelength (λm ) is given as 9 × 1017 and for third graph
the fit parameter (a,b) is taken as 1 × 10(−5) the absolute temperature (T) here varies
from (20–100) K. For obtaining the fourth graph the Dirac point (ED ) of graphene is
4.8 eV Fermi Point (EF ) is 0.5 eV, electrical charge of electron (q) is 1.6 × 10(−19)
eV, mobility of holes (μh ) varies from −5 to 2, critical (Tc ) as 300 K and threshold
voltage (Vth ) is taken as −101.3 mV for achieving the mobility of electrons.
24.3 Modelling and Simulation Results
The control density per unit length captivated by GaAs at a sure wavelength.
λm is determined by—[3]
d P(λm , x)
Pabs (λm ) = = (1 − r )α Po (λm )e−αx (24.1)
dx
where α is the optical absorption coefficient as shown in the Fig. 24.2. It strongly
depends on the wavelength and it can be obtained from this. The parameter r is the
power reflectance of GaAs.
Fig. 24.2 Simulink model of power density absorbed by GaAs
Here in Fig. 24.3, the graph is categorized from the Eq. (24.1) it has been acquired
that the power absorbed by graphene solar cell is much higher than the power
absorbed by the silicon solar cell because the emissivity and collectively of the
graphene is much higher than the silicon which can be seen by the graph in Fig. 24.3.
The graph is obtained by constructing the Simulink model of the acquired equation
and checked the parameters to acquire the absorption power of the graphene solar cell
which is better than the silicon solar cell. Even it has been found that the graphene
solar cell can absorb power or conduct electricity in harsh weather conditions in rain
or at night due to enhanced collective and high transmittance property.
The carrier generation at wavelength λm can be obtained by—[3]
Fig. 24.3 Graph between Power absorption and time

Fig. 24.4 Simulink model of carrier generation
Pabs (λm ) (1 − r )α Po (λm )e−αx

G λm (x) = = (24.2)
E λm Eλm
where (E λm ) is the energy of photon at wavelength λm ,

Gλm (x) is the carrier generation rate,
Pabs (λm ) is the power absorbed,
α is the optical absorption coefficient, parameter r is the power reflectance of
GaAs.
The model of the equation (24.1) is presented in Fig. 24.4 to determine the carrier
generation rate of GaAs.
The graph shown in Fig. 24.5 shows that power absorption is randomly varying
concerning time. Carrier generation rate is proportional to the power absorption of the
material. Therefore, the graphs obtained are approximately similar both showing the
different parameters of the material. The equation which revealed the fit parameter
is as follows [15]:
μ = a ∗ e(T /b) (24.3)
where a = fit parameter of the material GaAs

b = fit parameter of the hole mobility
T = absolute temperature
μ = hole mobility.
Figure 24.6 shows the Simulink model of the equation (24.3) which revealed the
fit parameter of the material GaAs with a layer of graphene in it and which gives the
graph between the temperature and hole mobility which shows the parameter of the
material.
Fig. 24.5 Graph between carrier generation and time
Fig. 24.6 Simulink model of the hole mobility and the temperature
Figure 24.7 shows the hole mobility of PTB7:PC71 BM as a function of tempera-

ture. The hole mobility (μ) depends almost exponentially on the temperature (T ) as
shown by the red fitting line. The hole mobility gives the relation between the critical
temperature and electronic mobility [16]:
q ∗ Tc
μh = (24.4)
μn
Fig. 24.7 Graph between temperature and hole mobility
1∗ ∗ 2
EF − ED = μ V (24.5)
2 h th
Substituting the value of Eq. (24.4) in Eq. (24.5), we get
1∗ ∗ ∗
EF − ED = q Tc /μn Vth2 (24.6)
2
where, E F = Fermi energy of the material

E D = Dirac energy level of the material
q = electrical charge on an electron
μh = hole mobility of the electron
μn = electronic mobility of the electron
T c = critical temperature at which the mobility is stable
V th = threshold voltage.
Figure 24.8 is describing the VOC as the reliability of hole mobility and also the
effect in the transfer of charges. Under flat band condition, the difference between
Fig. 24.8 Simulink model of the Fermi level and Dirac point level
Fig. 24.9 Graph between the Fermi level and Dirac point level versus hole mobility
Dirac point and Fermi level is the value represented by EF − ED . This value is positive
then the graphene will be rich in electrons, or if not, it will be rich in holes. Mainly
when the hole mobility is decrementing, this value increases which is because of
charge transfer (Fig. 24.9).
24.4 Discussion of Current Density and Power for Different

Materials
Here in Fig. 24.10 depicts the graphical representation of current density and voltage.
In another graphical representation of power versus voltage, representation has been
shown for Silicon material. The comparative analysis has been shown among four
materials which are amalgamated with graphene to form an efficient solar module.
By the representation, it has been shown that CdTe with graphene is proved to be
efficient among all.
Figures 24.10, 24.11, 24.12 and 24.13 are showing the graphs to show the charac-
teristics of Si, CIGS, graphene/CdTe, graphene/a-Si out of which CDTE is showing
the best result.
Fig. 24.10 Graph between

current density versus
voltage and power versus
voltage for Si

current density versus
voltage and power versus
voltage for CIGS

load current density versus
load voltage and power
versus voltage for
graphene/CdTe

load current density versus
load voltage and power
versus voltage for
graphene/a-Si
24.5 Conclusion
The simulation result shows its properties and different parameters with their perfor-
mance. It can be concluded that an easy technique has been introduced to solve the
Maxwell equation by using MATLAB. The graphs obtained by the created Simulink
models give the relationship between the selected parameters. The reported tech-
nique is simple, accurate, and less time-consuming. In future work, the proposed
model can be demonstrated by making a hardware model. More parameters can also
be taken into consideration for enhancing the efficiency of the solar cells. Other effi-
cient materials can also be sandwiched along with graphene for further improvisation
inefficiency.
References
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graphene-semiconductor interfaces: Zero gap semiconductor-based diodes. Phys. Rev. X,
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graphene/p-type silicon Schottky junctions. Appl. Phys. Lett. 102(1), 013110 (2013)
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Schottky-barrier graphene nanoribbon FETs for low-power design. IEEE Trans. Electron
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Chapter 25
Load Frequency Control
in Deregulated-Hybrid Power System
Integrated with Energy
Generation/Storage System
Nagendra Kumar, Mohit Bansal, Shivendra Kaura, and Priyanka Datta
Abstract Wind, solar, fuel cell, small hydro, etc., are emerging technologies for
renewable energy and can be built in the future as feasible electricity generation
options. This paper introduces the load frequency control (LFC) model in the pres-
ence of renewable energy resources for a hybrid system. The study considers hybrid
generation system comprising Wind turbine generator (WTG), Solar thermal power
system (STPS), Photovoltaic (PV), Diesel source (DEPS), Fuel cell (FC), Battery
storage system (BESS), Flywheel (FWES), Ultra-capacitor (UC) and Aqua elec-
trolyzer (AE). For sudden load/generation shifts, or both, the power system frequency
deviates. The addition of a renewable system also results in a difficult task for an
efficient controller design to be realized. In this study, as an LFC control scheme, a
PID controller is used. Two evolutionary approaches named as Big bang big crunch
(BBBC) and Harmony Search (HS) have been used to obtain optimal parameters.
The performance of the control scheme has been checked in two area and three area
thermal-hydro system in the presence of other generation and energy storage sources.
A comparative assessment of various quantities like frequency deviation, generation
change, etc., has been carried out on the basis of different time-domain parameters.
N. Kumar · M. Bansal (B) · S. Kaura · P. Datta

G. L. Bajaj Institute of Technology & Management, Greater Noida, U.P., India
e-mail: hod.eee@glbitm.ac.in
N. Kumar
e-mail: nagendra.kumar@glbitm.ac.in
S. Kaura
e-mail: shivendra.kaura@glbitm.ac.in
P. Datta
e-mail: priyanka.datta@glbitm.ac.in
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2857-3_26
276 N. Kumar et al.
25.1 Introduction
Currently, a rising trend is the incorporation of distributed generation (DG) into

existing power systems to meet increasing power needs [1]. The resulting hybrid
power system aims to provide its customers with efficient and high-quality service.
In addition, the load demand is highly volatile and it is therefore difficult to preserve
the equilibrium of generation and load. If there is some mismatch between generation
and load and if it persists for a long time, the device frequency can be affected by this.
A control mechanism known as automatic generation control (AGC) can achieve
this equilibrium [2]. Therefore, the key contribution of AGC is to sustain system
frequency and power within limits by tie-line in the event of any system disruption
[3, 4]. In AGC, to maintain equilibrium, the controller plays an important role. Many
methods have been used in literature, such as classical, stable, adaptive, optimal,
nonlinear, modern [5]. A conventional system comprising thermal/hydro or mixture
of both has been studied in the past. The PI controller is used in hybrid system
studies to control the output powers of the distributed generation system to achieve
power balance conditions due to sudden generation/load variations. The frequency
is adversely affected in a hybrid system by load deviations and wind power shifts,
so the power balance needs to be maintained. In the literature, small-signal study
of a hybrid renewable system with energy storage such as battery, pump storage, to
provide rapid response and less oscillation was discussed [6]. The power markets
need to be restructured and the power supply policies need to be reformed in the
new deregulation climate in the electricity market [7, 8]. In response to the de-
regulation and re-structuring of the power industry, new business opportunities have
led many private sectors, from an economic point of view, to participate in small-
scale power generation [7]. The PV integration hybrid power system with FC provides
promising advantages over independent service [9]. In hybrid energy systems, the
conservation of energy plays an essential role in storing and releasing energy at the
right time. In addition to the energy storage device combinations such as FWES-
BESS and FWES-UC, the hybrid mixtures of all generation sources such as WTG,
PV, FC and DEPS provide effective energy management to meet the power balance
requirements [6, 9, 10]. Due to low computing costs and high convergence speed
over PSO and differential evolution (DE) optimization methods, PID parameters
are obtained using BBBC in this paper [7, 8]. This paper also discusses the use of
controller architecture based on HS optimization to achieve minimum deviation in
frequency. The performance of both the designed control approaches has been tested
on two and three area power systems with the inclusion of various DG sources. The
research examines different profiles of parameters induced by a sudden shift in the
demand for generation and load. All potential disruptions, including the erratic nature
of wind speed and other uncertainties, have been checked under the proposed control
scheme.
25 Load Frequency Control in Deregulated-Hybrid … 277
25.2 Hybrid Deregulated Power System
A basic block diagram of the system comprising various sources like WTG, PV,
STPS, etc., is shown in Fig. 25.1. It is seen that these all sources are working in
area-1 of the considered test system. The other area does not have any DG source to
compensate load deviation. It is also evident that the total power supplied in area-1 is
the sum of powers of different DG sources and the conventional thermal generators
power to satisfy the load demand. Figure 25.2 shows the first-order transfer function
Fig. 25.1 Hybrid system

Area 1
Bilateral Transactions
Load
Thermal Power System
Other Control Areas

FWES UC
FC
Energy
Tie-line
DEPS Storage/
BESS
Generation
System
AE
WTG STPS
Load
Deregulated hybrid power system
Fig. 25.2 Transfer function model of energy generation system

278 N. Kumar et al.
Fig. 25.3 Transfer function model of deregulated-hybrid system
model of different sources used in DG system. Three WTGs have been used. The
output of WTGs and STPS works as an input to AE, which absorbs the fluctuations
of wind and generate hydrogen, which further works as an input for FC. The output
power of FC is combined with the output powers of DEPS, BESS, UC and FWES to
produce the net power of DG system. Deviation in Area control Error (AC E) or in
frequency f has been considered as an input to DEPS, BESS, FWES and UC. The
complete hybrid (DG + conventional thermal-hydro) system is shown in Fig. 25.3.
Brief description of different distributive sources and their values used in this study
has been given in [6].
The balance of the power frequency is preserved by careful regulation of various
resources for power generation, as shown in Figs. 25.2, 25.3. The balance of power
is achieved as given in (25.1),
PTotal = PConventional + PDG

Perror = PConventional + PDG − PLoad (25.1)
The net power of different sources utilized in DG system can be written as (2),
PDG = PW T G + PST P S + PFC − PAE ± PF W SS ± PB E SS ± PU C

(25.2)
The transfer function of the complete system in respect to frequency deviation

can be represented as given in (3),
f Kp
G P S (s) = = (25.3)
Perror 1 + sT p
In a deregulated system, Gencos sells power via poolco or mixed style transac-
tions to various Discos based on economic criteria. In order to achieve the desired
generation per DPM, the distribution of ACE among Gencos is proportional to their
participation in the AGC. DPM and pu components of Disco load forms demand,
i.e., Disco-Genco contract. If Pij is the tie-line power flow from area-i to area-j and
k is the total number of areas, the net tie-line power flow from area-i (Ptiei ) in a
conventional power system can be written as (25.4)”

k
Ptiei = Pi j (25.4)
j =1
j = i
In a deregulated situation, because of different transactions, tie-line control shifts.

It is possible to describe the net scheduled tie-line power flow from area-i as
represented in (25.5)

k
k
Ptiei _schd = Ptiei + Di j − D ji (25.5)
j =1 j =1
j = i j = i
where Dji is the Disco demand in area-i from the Genco in area-j, and Dij is the
Disco demand in area-j from the Genco in area-i. It is possible to evaluate the tie-line
power error as given in (25.6),
Ptiei _error = Ptiei _actual − Ptiei _schd (25.6)
This error in tie-line is used to generate ACE given in (25.7).
ACEi = Bi Fi + Ptiei _error (25.7)
where Bi is frequency bias factor and f i is frequency deviation in area–i. The given
equations may be extended, modified as the number of areas or the sources increase.
25.3 Controller Design Using Evolutionary Techniques
Since an optimal control scheme is necessary to keep generation and load at balance.
Therefore, a PID control scheme using BBBC and HS algorithms has been used
in this study. The step-by-step design is given as follows: Due to quick and easy
implementation, PID controllers are by far the most common industrial controllers.
280 N. Kumar et al.
In this study, A PID control scheme given in (8) has been used as a supplementary
controller
K Int
G PID (s) = K Prop + + K Dev s (25.8)
s
To design this control scheme, mean square of area control error is taken as the
optimization problem. The objective of the control scheme is to eliminate this mean
square of error given in (25.9) and to bring back the frequency and the tie-line area
interchange at the schedule values with less overshoot/undershoot, i.e., oscillations
in minimum possible settling time.
1
k
Jopt_fun = [(ACEi )2 ] (25.9)
k i=1
The constraints have been considered in search of the optimal parameters and are
given in [2, 3]. After designing the optimization problem, the optimal parameters
have been obtained using two search algorithms namely as BBBC and HS. The brief
of both the algorithms is given in as the following.
25.3.1 PID Controller Using BBBC
Step1: One PID controller is considered for each area. Population for each parameter
(K Prop , K Int , K Dev ) of the considered PID controllers is generated in this step. This is
called Big Bang. Step2: It involves in the determination of fitness function. Step3:
Center of mass is evaluated in this step using step 2. Step4: New parameters have been
generated. Step5: It produces fitness function of newly generated parameters. Step6:
This step gives optimum parameters of the controllers. The complete algorithm with
step-by-step modelling can be referred from [2–4, 7, 8]. A 30-population, 3-variables
and 10-parameter limiting size have been used as BBBC parameters to obtain optimal
PID control scheme.
25.3.2 PID Controller Using Harmony Search (HS)
PID control scheme coefficients were also obtained using HS algorithm given by
Geem et al. [11]. HS is based on the performance process of natural music that occurs
when a musician looks for a better state of harmony [3]. HS comprises harmony
memory/pitch change/randomization to produce optimal solution. The complete
step-by-step implementation of HS is given in [2]. In this study, 30-HS memory,
0.9-HS rate, 0.5-pitch rate, (0.0001–1)-BW and 3-variables have been selected to
generated optimal parameters of PID control scheme.
The simulation analysis is discussed in this section with the controller mentioned
above for the deregulated-hybrid power system. The frequency/tie-line power/change
in generation, etc., should be managed by the AGC scheme in a deregulated hybrid
power system. Therefore, when existing thermal resources with DG resources are
linked to other systems, the response variation needs to be examined. Two cases have
been considered for two test systems, i.e., two area and three area power system.
25.4.1 Case1: Two Area Power System
On a two area power system, the performance of the PID controller was checked.
Considered parameters for two area AGC system have been taken from [2–4, 7, 8].
Table 25.1 shows the optimum values of the PID controller parameters computed
using BBBC and HS. Both Discos have power contracts with Gencos in compliance
with the following DPM.
⎡ ⎤
0.5 0.5 0 0
⎢ 0.5 0.5 0 0⎥
DPM = ⎢
⎣ 0
⎥
0.0 0 0⎦
0 0 0 0
25.4.1.1 A Sudden Change in Input Power of WTGs and STPS Along

with a Sudden Change of Load in the Area1
This case deals in the sudden/step variation in wind input, i.e., PL1 = 0.2 − 0.4 pu,
PWTG = 0.1 − 0.12 pu and PSTPS = 0.2 − 0.1 pu. Area-2 has a load disturbance
of PL2 = 0 pu. These changes in input of wind, solar-thermal and load in area-1 are
given in Fig. 25.4a. At time t = 30 s, it is seen that once the load deviates the frequency
gets disturbed as seen in Fig. 25.4b. It is also seen that the deviation in frequency is
settling down at the desired value in steady state. The dip in frequency is more in
hydro area than thermal area since it is being fed by DG which is helping to keep
Table 25.1 Optimum Values for PID controllers

BBBC HS
−0.999 −0.999 −1 −3.206 −2.411 −1.054
282 N. Kumar et al.
Fig 4 (a). Various Inputs.
Fig 4 (b). Frequency Deviations.
Fig. 25.4 a Various inputs. b Frequency deviations. c Generation change. d Tie-line power and
ACE. e Generation change of different sources. Responses of various quantities for two area system
balance in generation/load. Figure 25.4c shows the generation change in thermal-

hydro areas using only conventional energy sources. It is evident that the generators
in hydro area are settling to the 1.2 pu, as required in steady state. Figure 25.4d shows
that tie-line power and ACE settle down to the specified values in steady state after
being disturbed. It is seen that most of the load demand is taking up by DG sources
in thermal system given in Fig. 25.4e.
25.4.2 Case2: Three Area Power System
For this case, a three area AGC scheme is considered to check the performance of
the designed control scheme. Two Discos and two Gencos are in area1 in the three
area scheme. One Disco and one Genco are considered in area2 and area3. A GRC
of 3 percent/minute (region 2–3) is considered to check the output of the controller.
The parameters and their values of three area system have been taken from [2]. PID
parameters are given in Table 25.2.
⎛ ⎞
0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1
⎜ 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3⎟
⎜ ⎟
DPM = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 0.1 0.3 0.4 0.2⎠
0.3 0.2 0.2 0.3
Fig 4 (c). Generation change.
Fig 4 (d). Tie-line power and ACE.
Fig 4(e). Generation change of different sources.

284 N. Kumar et al.
Table 25.2 Optimum Values for PID controllers

BBBC HS
0.1 0.2 0.2 1.4788 0.3270 0.1797
25.4.2.1 A Sudden Change in Input Power of WTGs and STPS Along

with a Sudden Change of Load in the Area1
In this case, load disturbance PL1 = 0.01 − 0.06 pu, wind power variation
PW T G = 0.01 − 0.02 p and solar input PST P S = 0.02 − 0.01 pu has been consid-
ered in area-1. Area-2 and area-3 has a load disturbance of PL2 = PL3 = 0.01
pu. For this case different responses have been shown in Fig. 25.5.
Fig. 25.5 Responses of various quantities for three area system

25.5 Conclusion
The study of frequency deviation in hybrid systems with different combinations of

elements for energy storage is carried out in this paper. The test system is considered to
be a two area thermal-hydro. The DG sources (models of a hybrid generation/energy
storage system) have been considered in area-1 of the test system. Wind turbine,
diesel set, aqua electrolyzer, solar thermal systems, battery storage, flywheels, ultra-
capacitor and fuel cell are parts of the hybrid system tested. Hydrogen from the aqua
electrolyzer is used as an input to fuel cell. The load model/wind power/solar model
is also properly chosen to check the performance of the hybrid system being studied.
A variety of load change has been considered. The PID controller is constructed to
reduce mean square of area control error. BBBC and HS methods have been used
to obtain optimum controller parameters. In time-domain simulations, the output
of each controller is analyzed from the dynamic behavior of frequency, genera-
tion, tie-line power ACE, Output of DG sources. Comparison between the results
obtained using both approaches is shown in Table 25.3. It is evident from the
comparison that apart from few instances of increased magnitude in oscillations,
286 N. Kumar et al.
Table 25.3 Comparative performance analysis of both control schemes

Controller Settling time (s)/undershoot/overshoot (two area system)
Frequency Frequency Change in generation Change in
deviation (area-1) deviation (area-2) (area-1) (G1–G2) generation
(area-2) (G3–G4)
BBBC–PID 45/−0.06/0.07 45/−0.06/0.07 45/0.104/0.083 43/−0.026/0.026
HS–PID 55/−0.85/0.12 53/−0.85/0.128 55/−0.121/0.086 50/−0.031/0.023
Settling time (s)/undershoot/overshoot (three area system)
(area-1) (area 2–3) (area-1) (G1–G2) (area 2–3)
BBBC–PID 70/−0.076/0.003 75/−0.057/0.003 100/0.0075/0.0124 100/0/0.0128
HS–PID 90/−0.069/0.0253 95/−0.046/0.008 105/−0.00748/0.021 105/0/0.0109
BBBC based control scheme provides better time-domain characteristics in terms of

(overshoot/undershoot/settling time) and can be an effective choice as an AGC/LFC
control scheme in hybrid system too.
References
1. Ray, P., Mohanty, S., Kishor, N.: Proportional integral controller based small signal analysis
of hybrid distributed generation system. Energy Convers. Manag. 52, 1943–1954 (2011)
2. Kumar, N., Tyagi, B., Kumar, V.: Multi Area AGC scheme using imperialist competition
algorithm in restructured power system. Appl. Soft Comput. Elsevier 48, 160–168 (2016)
3. Kumar, N., Tyagi, B., Kumar, V.: Optimization of PID parameters using BBBC for multi-area
AGC scheme in deregulated power system. Turk. J. Electr. Eng. Comput. Sci. 24, 4105–4116
(2015)
4. Kumar, N., Tyagi, B., Kumar, V.: Multi-area deregulated automatic generation control scheme
of power system using imperialist competitive algorithm based robust controller. IETE J. Res.-
Taylor & Francis 64, 528–537 (2017)
5. Pandey, S.K., Mohanty, S.R., Kishor, N.: A literature survey on load frequency control for
conventional and distribution generation power systems. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 25,
318–334 (2013)
6. Lee, D.J., Wang, L.: Small-signal stability analysis of an autonomous hybrid renewable energy
power generation/energy storage system part I: time-domain simulations. IEEE Trans. Energy
Conver. 23(1), 311–320 (2008)
7. Kumar, N., Tyagi, B., Kumar, V.: Deregulated multiarea AGC scheme using BBBC-FOPID
controller. Arab. J. Sci. Eng. Springer 42, 2641–2649 (2016)
8. Kumar, N., Tyagi, B., Kumar, V.: Application of fractional order PID controller for AGC under
deregulated environment. Int. J. Autom. Comput. Springer 15, 84–93 (2017)
9. Gao, W.: Performance comparison of a fuel cell-battery hybrid power train and a fuel cell-ultra
capacitor hybrid power train. IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol. 54(3), 846–855 (2005)
10. Weissbach, R.S., Karady, G.G., Farmer, R.G.: Dynamic voltage compensation on distribution
feeders using fly-wheel energy storage. IEEE Trans. Power Del. 14(2), 465–471 (1999)
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search. Simulation 76, 60–68 (2001)
Chapter 26
Transfer Learning-Based Brain Tumor
Detection Using MR Images
Priyanka Datta and Rajesh Rohilla
Abstract One of the most deadly diseases in humans is brain tumor. For clinicians,
MRI scan plays a key role in diagnosing and treating tumor. For brain tumor diag-
nosis, surgical approaches are usually suggested. But the radiologist’s analysis of the
medical image is time-consuming and also accuracy totally relies upon their skill.
Now, Deep learning-based models have gained considerable interest in the diag-
nosis and treatment of diseases in medical field. As the medical images are limited,
so it is a daunting task to train CNN from start and to implement deep learning.
In this paper, we develop an automatic brain tumor detection method based on the
pre-trained convolutional neural network architectures such as VGG-16, VGG-19,
InceptionV3, ResNet50, ResNet101 and EfficientNetB1. The test accuracy achieved
with VGG16 and ResNet101 gives highest performance accuracy among all other
pretrained network.
26.1 Introduction
Brain tumor is a mass (i.e. benign or malignant) which is produced by tissue besieging
the brain or skull within the brain which impacts person’s life explicitly. These
tumors cultivate irregularly in the brain and put pressure around them [1]. Due to
this pressure, different brain disorders are induced in human body. Side effects in
patients due to these disorders are dizziness, headache, fainting attacks, paralysis,
etc. As stated by WHO, tumor in brain accounts for less than 2% of human cancers
in the cancer report; however, extreme bleakness and problems are registered [2].
The Cancer Research Corporation of UK estimated that almost 5200 causalities are
recorded per year in UK due to brain disorders and skull tumors [3].
P. Datta (B)
GL Bajaj Institute of Technology and Management, Greater Noida, U.P., India
P. Datta · R. Rohilla
Delhi Technological University, Delhi, India
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2857-3_27
288 P. Datta and R. Rohilla
Deep learning (DL) has recently been used mainly in medical imaging. Conven-
tional machine learning involves a great deal of domain expertise, human interaction
to retrieve the hand-engineered features, i.e. used by classifiers for classification
and detection of image patterns. Specialist manual annotation takes a lot of time.
DL algorithms, however, maps unprocessed data, i.e. pixel for images directly into
outputs, i.e. image classes. With the introduction of AlexNet [4] in 2012, the popu-
larity of DL improved with ImageNet competition, which includes over 1 million
images with 1000 different object categories. AlexNet has shown better results in this
challenge, as in comparison to other state-of-the-art results obtained from the group
of computer vision. DL has advanced fast, thus further significant work has regu-
larly appeared in the area of medical imaging. Different researchers have researched
DL in medical imaging [5–9], although some have surveyed individual imaging,
i.e. magnetic resonance (MR) imaging, i.e. MRI [10–12], ultrasound (US) [13] and
electroencephalogram (EEG) [14]. Convolutional neural networks (CNNs) are the
most useful between many DL techniques that were used to actually solve problems
in different applications, including detection, segmentation and classification, etc.
MRI is a type of medical image modality that is measured by its non-invasiveness as
a safe technique and has a reasonable soft-tissue contrast. As attempted by ionizing
radiation-based methods, this does not alter the construction, properties and char-
acteristics of particles. The MRI setting does however, offer potential hazards due
to 3 magnetic fields that are robust static magnetic fields, gradient-based magnetic
fields and pulsed radiofrequency fields that are used to generate 3D images [14].
Eventually, MRI can provide useful information on tissue structures, i.e. shape, size
and location. MRI is being categorized as structural and functional imaging. Exam-
ples of structural imaging are T1-W MRI, T2-W MRI, Diffusion Tensor Imaging
(DTI) and functional imaging is resting-state functional MRI (rs-fMRI) [10]. Nazir
et al. [15] categorized brain MRI images into two classes, i.e. benign and malig-
nant. They utilized filter methodology to remove the noise in the MR images as
a pre-processing stage for the dataset. Using the normal color moment of every
image, they then extracted features. They labeled extracted features by the artifi-
cial neural network (ANN). The prediction accuracy obtained was 91.8% in their
method. Shree et al. [16] categorized brain MRI images into two classes, i.e. benign
and malignant. They extracted features using discrete wavelet transform (DWT) and
gray-level co-occurrence matrix (GLCM) preceded by morphological process. The
probabilistic neural network was used as a classifier to detect location of tumor in
brain MR images. Kanmani et al. [17] categorized brain MR images into two classes,
i.e. normal and abnormal. To improve the efficacy of classification accuracy, they
utilized the threshold-based region optimization technique along with segmentation.
Ahmed et al. [18] also categorized brain MRI images into two classes, i.e. normal
and abnormal. For this, they introduced a combination of Artificial neural network
technique and a gray wolf optimization technique. Five distinct CNN models have
been used by Abiwinanda et al. [19] and their one of the model attained the maximum
accuracy. El-Dahshan et al. [20] also categorized brain MR images into two classes,
i.e. normal and abnormal using the Discrete Wavelet Transform (DWT) technique
for the extraction of features and the Principal component analysis method to reduce
26 Transfer Learning-Based Brain Tumor Detection Using MR Images 289
the features. Then, they used two classifiers (i.e. feedorward ANN and the k-Nearest
neighbor for the identification of images.
In this paper, we diagnose the brain tumor in MR images by extracting features
using DL based transfer learning technique. For this, we use six pre-trained models,
i.e. VGG16, VGG19, InceptionV3, ResNet50, ResNet101, EfficientNetB1. This
framework makes it a lot easier for radiologists to intervene, helps them solve the
problem of classification of brain tumors, i.e. whether the tumor is present or not,
and helps to develop an appropriate treatment.
Further, we organized the paper into different sections as follows: Sect. 26.2
depicts the information about material and different models used. Section 26.3 illus-
trates the experimental results and discussion. Finally, in Sect. 26.4, conclusion and
future scope are specified, respectively.
26.2 Material and Models
26.2.1 Dataset
The data set used in this paper consists of freely accessible 646 T1 weighted MRI
images of brain labeled as non-tumored and tumored attained from The Cancer
Imaging Archive (TCIA) Publicly Accessible repository [21]. The images were
obtained from 20 patients who identified with glioblastoma. The dataset has 548
samples of tumored images and 98 samples of non-tumored images. The images
are in JPG/JPEG format. Figure 26.1. displays few images of Non-Tumored and
Tumored classes used in the dataset.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 26.1 a Non-tumored images, b Tumored images

Crop the Image Data

Split Data
image Resizing Augmentation
Fig. 26.2 Steps involved in data pre-processing
Fig. 26.3 Cropped image after finding extreme points in contour
26.2.2 Data Pre-processing and Augmentation
Data pre-processing can be referred as the transformation of raw data into a form
that is more easy to interpret and renders the images more appropriate for any further
processing. Figure 26.2 specifies the various steps involved in Data Pre-processing.
The MRI data set contains 253 images, which are divided into 193 training images,
50 validation images and 10 test images. After data splitting the images are cropped
to obtain only the portion of brain by using the technique given in Ref. [22]. This
method is used for assessing the extreme points within contour lines. Figure 26.3.
shows the cropped image after finding extreme points in contour.
However, acquisition processes of MR image are normally costly and complex,
the size of MR image dataset is limited in several applications. If a large dataset is
present, DL will perform much better. As the dataset used in this work is small, we
use data augmentation for artificially increasing the size of training data. For this,
the images from original dataset are artificially varied to generate modified images
so that the size of training data increase. Due to this, the learning capability of model
increase and it became more generalized for unseen data. Then on the other hand, it
becomes less susceptible to overfitting. Figure 26.4. shows some samples of images
after data augmentation.
26.2.3 Pre-trained CNNs Architectures
DL became prominent with the increasing availability of various datasets and fast
gaming graphical processing units (GPUs) nearly a decade ago. DL technique
includes numerous layers which learn enormous features from input image and these
Fig. 26.4 Images samples after augmentation
are used for analyses of various images by providing huge dataset of unlabeled or
labeled images [23].
Convolutional neural network (CNN) is frequently utilized DL system architec-
ture in analysis of medical imaging [24]. CNN architectures were built for learning
the spatial hierarchies of different features through multiple blocks which includes
convolution layers, non-linear layer, pooling layers and fully connected layers. Fully
connected layers choose the most effective features and move them to the classifica-
tion layer. Different pretrained CNN architectures are used in our study. Table 26.1
provides different parameter values used in the different CNN architecture.
In reality, it is unlikely that a person can train a full CNN model from scratch as
datasets with adequate sample data are usually not feasible. Persistently, pre-training
a CNN on large datasets, e.g. ImageNet seems to have become a common practice.
Transfer learning (TL) [25, 26] can be seen as better learning in a novel problem by
extracting features obtained from a comparable problem that exists. TL is a method
in which features obtained from one data set can be used for other datasets.
VGG16 and VGG19 models [27]—The impact of CNN depth on its performance
in computer vision was analysed by Simonyan K. and Zisserman A. Using very small
convolution filters, they drive the depth from 11 to 19 weight layers of established
VGGNet network. The variations that has 16 and 19 weight layers, referred as VGG16
and VGG19 and they do well. With the increase in depth, the classification error
reduces and saturates when the depth exceeds 19 layers. In visual representations,
authors affirm the value of depth.
InceptionV3 model [28]—It is a Google Brain Team 48-layer CNN that is trained
on the ImageNet database and categorizes objects into 1,000 classes. In comparison
to the other inception models and process, it trained much quicker.
ResNet model [29]—Microsoft developed deep residual learning platform, i.e.
ResNet, which uses residual learning for simplification of deeper network training
and decrease errors through increase in depth. This architecture suggested several
292
Table 26.1 Parameters of CNN architectures used

Simulation Framework Mini batch Data augmentations CNN architecture Input size Optimization Learning rate Loss type
environment Parameters technique
Vertical Flip = True VGG16 240 × 240 Ftrl 0.001 Binary cross
entropy
Horizontal Flip = VGG19 240 × 240 Ftrl 0.001 Binary cross
True entropy
Python Keras 16 Random Brightness InceptionV3 240 × 240 Ftrl 0.01 Binary cross
Range = [0.3 1] entropy
Shear Range = 0.1° ResNet50 240 × 240 Ftrl 0.001 Binary cross
entropy
Rotate Limit = 10° ResNet101 240 × 240 Ftrl 0.001 Binary cross
entropy
EfficientNetB1 240 × 240 Ftrl 0.001 Binary cross
entropy
P. Datta and R. Rohilla
structures such as 18-layers, 34-layers, 50-layers and 101-layers framework. This

structure is less complexity and more deep in comparison to VGG network.
EfficientNetB1 model [30]—Google Brain Team developed a CNN model named
as EfficientNet. These researchers studied the model scaling and identified that care-
fully balancing the depth, width and resolution of the network can lead to better
performance. In order to develop a new model, they scaled neural network to generate
more deep learning models, that achieve significantly improved efficacy and accuracy
in comparison to prior used CNN.
26.2.4 Proposed Methodology
This proposed diagnosis method aims to improve the accuracy of the detection of
brain MRI images by using DL models and TL method. The flow diagram of the
suggested work performed is shown in Fig. 26.5.
TL is the process of learning new models generated by new data using the features
provided by a pre-trained framework. In order to learn low level features which are
utilized to encode medical images, TL is used in which Deep Learning model is
pre-trained on a huge data set of images from various medical image modalities
Data Split dataset into training,

Pre-processing validation and test data
Validation and Test Data

Training Data
(323 Images) (193Validation Images
and 130 Test Images)
Deep Network
Decision
Performance
Evaluation
Fig. 26.5 Flow chart of proposed methodology

or different domains. The use of pre-trained DL models allows to learn new tasks
quickly. In this work, we first pre-process the MRI data to run the built model and
test it. Then, we trained six different pretrained CNN models, i.e. VGG16, VGG19,
InceptionV3, ResNet50, ResNet101 and EfficientNetB1 with brain MR Images and
then, utilized them to classify tumored and non-tumored images using TL technique.
26.3 Experimental Results and Discussion
Each model has been trained for 50 epochs. Figures 26.6 and 26.7 were attained by
training the models using brain MR image dataset for 50 epochs and represents the
accuracy and loss curve for training and validation set for VGG16 and ResNet101
models. Table 26.2 displays performance of different model used in our study.
Performance for the different technique was evaluated in terms of different
measures such Accuracy, Precision, Recall, F1 score, Kappa and AUC. VGG16
and ResNet101 has highest test accuracy. Training accuracy of ResNet101 is 93%.
But, F1 score of VGG16 is more as the precision and recall are more in this case.
Fig. 26.6 Accuracy and loss curve for training and validation set for VGG16 model
Fig. 26.7 Accuracy and loss curve for training and validation set for ResNet101 model
Table 26.2 Performance of different. Pretrained models

CNN architecture Accuracy Precision Recall F1 score Kappa AUC Confusion matrix
VGG16 0.92 0.97 0.94 0.95 0.73 0.89 [17 3]
[7 103]
VGG19 0.87 0.93 0.91 0.92 0.53 0.78 [13 7]
[10 100]
InceptionV3 0.85 0.85 1.0 0.92 0.00 0.50 [0 20]
[0 110]
ResNet50 0.91 0.94 0.95 0.95 0.63 0.80 [13 7]
[5 105]
ResNet101 0.92 0.96 0.94 0.94 0.69 0.87 [16 4]
[7 103]
EfficientNetB1 0.89 0.94 0.94 0.94 0.59 0.79 [13 7]
[7 103]
By analyzing the performance measures, we found that both ResNet101 and VGG16
has better performance as compared to other pretrained networks.
26.4 Conclusion
In this paper, a completely automatic system is used for diagnosing tumor in brain
MRI images. For this, numerous DL-based pretrained CNN architectures are used.
The suggested solution applied the theory of DL employing four pre-trained networks
that use the TL approach to enhance diagnosis of brain tumor. The dataset used
contains images of 2 classes, i.e. abnormal data which have tumor and normal data
which don’t have tumor. Although the dataset is not huge, the image data augmenta-
tion was relatively good enough to produce excellent performance. As exhibited in
Table, it is noticeable that TL through VGG16 and ResNet101 gives highest perfor-
mance accuracy among all other pretrained network used in this paper. In future
work, we will use our model for different medical imaging modalities from different
fields and for larger dataset to improve the robustness. Substantial hyperparameter
tuning as well as a better pre-processing approach can be conceived that can further
improve efficiency of the model. In future work, we are also planning to further
classify different types of tumors using larger dataset.
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Chapter 27
Recyclability of Tractor’s Engine
Component: A Case Analysis of Failure
Bhupendra Prakash Sharma, Rahul Sindhwani, Priyank Srivastava,

Pranav Malhotra, Harkirat Singh, Shorya Gupta, and Priyanka Singh
Abstract Structuring items for recyclability is driven by ecological and monetary

objectives. A few Design for Assembly (DFA) rules and boundaries can be used
to check the recyclability plans. These lists can be utilized for near examination of
the recyclability of various items. This helps the designers in settling on structure
decisions identified with the item’s finish of life. In the present research work, the
boundaries will be explored from the existing DFA time gauge tables. The aftereffects
of the examination showed the recyclability of the item, as characterized by set up
recyclability metrics. A contextual analysis is performed to decide whether DFA
boundaries could be used to decide product/part recyclability. A TODIM approach
is applied to evaluate the recyclability of a tractor’s engine component based on
the data obtained from “X” company. Furthermore, TODIM results were examined
using MATLAB software. This exploration investigates how designers can utilize the
(DFA) boundaries to foresee the recyclability list of an item. The recyclability list will
be created utilizing the standards of plan for dismantling and material recyclability.
The examination prompted the advancement of a method that an expert could use to
decide item recyclability during the reasonable plan period of the fabrication process.
27.1 Introduction
Solid waste is anything that is used and discarded in the form of garbage [1, 2]. This
may include anything, from paper, plastic bottles, furniture, food scraps, electronics
wastes, etc. Rapid industrialization and urbanization, open markets, increasing popu-
lation have led to the increase in the generation of solid waste [3, 4]. This situation is
most prevalent in developing countries. Though there are many government guide-
lines and regulation for it, but these are generally ignored while implementation of
MSW management [5]. The MSW management is one of the major concerns for
governments across the world. The reason being that it is an integrated activity; from
B. P. Sharma (B) · R. Sindhwani · P. Srivastava · P. Malhotra · H. Singh · S. Gupta · P. Singh

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Amity University, Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
e-mail: bpsharma@amity.edu
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2857-3_28
300 B. P. Sharma et al.
the collection of waste and dumping on defined location for further processing. At
the dumping location, the MSW can be disposed-off by using different methods,
e.g. landfills, open burning, composting, segregation, fermentation and biological
digestion, etc. [6]. These methods are also used in combination, where segregated
waste is recycled [7], and then residual waste management is done by landfills or
incineration for energy recovery [8]. There is always a concern about landfill method,
as the traces of heavy metals [9] or medical waste [10] can lead to groundwater and
soil pollution and even raise the health risks for MSW workers or people.
Although there is no textbook definition of recyclability but to frame the process,
it can be explained as the ability of a product to be treated using various processes
so that it can be reused for the same or different purposes. Along with the same line
alteration/modification of a product so that it can be used to perform the same tasks
and can be defined as reusability. Usually, various terms such as sustainable devel-
opment or sustainable manufacturing are associated with recyclability to solidify
its vague definition [11–13]. Sustainable manufacturing is defined as meeting the
need of the future without sabotaging the requirements of future generations. Need
designing products in such a way that their production requires a minimum number of
non-renewable sources and at the same time their output/productivity is not hindered.
India alone suffers 5 lakh automobile accidents annually, which means around 5 lakh
engines must be reused or recycled per annum and the composition of the engine
materials should be such that they are easily disintegrated and recycled [14–16]. In
this paper, we holistically cover the recyclability of engines of agricultural automo-
biles focusing mainly on tractors. Engine is one such component, which can always be
recycled and if not completely mechanically damaged, can be reused. In the modern
world the 3 R’s (Repair, Reuse and Recycle) of recyclability plays an important role
in the life of any product [17, 18] (Fig. 27.1).
The world is one that has limited resources and serious environmental impacts. It
is becoming increasingly evident that a friendly approach needs to be taken toward
the environment and a severe lifestyle change is vital. Material products, like staplers,
mobile phones or automobiles, are some of the products, which can be made up of
one single or up to thousands of different materials [19]. Studies show that industry
must process probably over 1000 commercial materials on the market keeping in
mind the great number of variations that come with them. Extraction, refinement,
transports, product use cycles, recycling or deposition are some of the complex
departments that can have various impacts on the environment. During 1900s, these
environmental problems were considered local or restricted to a single area due to
the impact of a certain commodity. However, today, it is looking increasingly clear
that the problems are more complex and related to all the parts in a product’s life
cycle from extraction of material to deposition of the used product [20]. Therefore, it
is essential to investigate the matter for optimizing the MSW by recycling products
or components as maximum as possible. In this direction, this research presents a
possibility through a case analysis of engine components using TODIM approach
and further validated with MATLAB.
27 Recyclability of Tractor’s Engine Component … 301
Fig. 27.1 Life of products [17, 18]
27.1.1 TODIM
TODIM is a sub-criterion of multi-criteria decision-making technique (MCDM),

which has gained a lot of momentum in today’s scientific world. TODIM (TOmada
de Decisao Interativa Multicriterio) abbreviates the Portuguese term for interactive
multi-criteria decision-making technique [21]. TODIM has taken over the scientific
and the analytical world by surprise as it performs a lot of functions and solves a wide
array of problems with ease. This method was initially introduced by Gomes and Lima
[22, 23]. TODIM method has very well impressed the scientific and data analytics
community, which can be clearly seen by the perfect solutions, it has provided to
various real-life problems such as solving the problem of finding gas plant over
a newfound reserve in Brazil [24] and ranking projects with economic and social
consequences in Rio de Janeiro state, Brazil [25].
27.1.2 Steps of TODIM
A = {A1,…, An} is taken as a predefined set of criteria as inputs and C = {C1,…, Cm}
as predefined set of sub-criteria as inputs in an MCDM problem. These predefined
sets of indices are denoted by N and M, respectively. Various assumptions are taken
as Ai as criteria and sub-criteria as Ck . The next very crucial step in this process
is the normalization of various values. This is done as values of various criteria
and sub-criteria are denoted using various units, and it is necessary to bring them
to a comparable value for pairwise comparisons. In the normalization process, it
Table 27.1 Attributes and criteria matrix [21]

C1 C2 C3 Cm
A1 Z11 Z12 Z13 Z1m
A2 Z21 Z22 Z23 Z2m
A3 Z31 Z32 Z33 Z3m
An Zn1 Zn2 Zn3 Znm
gets important to distinguish between beneficial and non-beneficial criteria wherein

beneficial criteria are the ones whose values must be maximum, and non-beneficial
criteria are the ones whose values should be minimum. For the normalization process,
it is to select the minimum value in the criteria chosen as non-beneficial and then
divide it by the various criteria and sub-criteria, i.e. Ai and Ck. Also, for beneficial
criteria, it would be done exactly opposite and divide the values with the minimum
value in the row. After this process, the decision matrix can be structured as shown
in Table 27.1.
After the formation of decision matrix (DM) of size L = (Lik )nxm, a weightage
will be assigned to each criterion as Wk > 0 in such a way so that sum of all weightage
must be equal to 1 i.e. 100%. TODIM method relies on allotting dominance degree to
various criteria and then rating them according to their importance in the final matrix
formation. The paper focuses on calculating the data provided by a company “X”
on the various failures of engine components using TODIM method. In algorithmic
form, the implementation of the TODIM method entails the following main steps,
Gomes [26], Fan [23].
STEP 1: The first step is to create the decision matrix by deciding the beneficial
and non-beneficial criteria (Table 27.2).
Z MIN( Z i j )
For beneficial: L i j = MAX i jZ ; for non-beneficial: L i j =
( ij) Zi j
STEP 2: The weightage thus calculated is now multiplied by the criteria and
sub-criteria (Table 27.3).
Fij = W × Lij and a new table will be formed.
STEP 3: The data from the table are now added and final values are obtained. The
output with the highest value will be the most significant output.

An = On.
Table 27.2 Decision matrix table [21]

C1 C2 C3 Cm
A1 L11 L12 L13 L1m
A2 L21 L22 L23 L2m
A3 L31 L32 L33 L3m
An Ln1 Ln2 Ln3 Lnm
Table 27.3 Weightage multiplication [21]

C1 C2 C3 Cm
A1 F11 F12 F13 F1m
A2 F21 F22 F23 F2m
A3 F31 F32 F33 F3m
An Fn1 Fn2 Fn3 Fnm
27.1.3 A Case Application of TODIM on Engine Component

from Company ‘X’
Finding the solution to problems containing various options with very closely related
attributes is something that confuses a lot of analysts and mathematicians in today’s
world. Even a simple task of choosing a banana in a supermarket or choosing a phone
can be confusing if the relevant attributes are very similar to each other. To solve
such problems, the formulation of concepts like TODIM was done, which helps in
the comparison and calculation of such assumption/problems. A common problem
of environmental pollution and the problems faced by the recycling industry struck
one’s mind and how companies can easily know about the parts and their recyclability.
To work on this problem, data were obtained from a tractor production company “X”
related to engine disassembly and chosen each of the disassembled components as
an assumption and various factors as criteria. Furthermore, a TODIM approach is
applied to evaluate the least recyclable and the most recyclable component of the
disassembled engine. The same technique can be used for various components of
the tractor and further for various models of tractors. Obtaining these data can help
R&D department of the company to develop and improve the recyclability of the
various components.
27.1.4 Selected Attributes for TODIM Application
Criteria for choosing the attributes.
27.1.5 Part Cost
It is the cost of the Original Equipment Manufacturer (OEM) part that needs to be
replaced, refurbished or recycled, by the disassembler/manufacturer.
27.1.6 Oil Cost
• The cost of the oil needs to be changed while changing the part or while taking
that certain part out of the assembly for replacement, refurbishment or to be
remanufactured.
• Oil is a perishable item that needs to be overhauled from time to time, either way
it must be changed.
• Engine oil is the main part of lubrication for the engines, especially in diesel
engine where there is a need for a continuous supply of lubricant, else it can lead
to an engine seize. Cost analysis of the whole engine assembly is also important
as it is not repairable after the engine seizure.
27.1.7 Labor Cost
• This is the cost for the person who is disassembling the part from the whole
machine, for that person it is a very complex task as the fasteners may be at
non-assessable locations or may corrode with time or damage.
• Another alternative is mechanical robots, which can be programmed as per the
application of disassembly. They are fast as compared with the biological coun-
terpart, but they may not be able to access complex locations of fasteners and will
be very expensive in operating as well as buying.
27.1.8 Working Hours
Working hours can be described as the total number of times taken by workers to
disassemble a certain part/product [26, 27]. Let us take piston rings disassembly, it
takes one single worker to disassembly it completely from an unmounted engine.
Therefore, it takes 1 work hour to complete this job. If they consider disassembly of
a whole engine block, which consists of various components such as pistons, piston
rings, cylinder heads, connecting rods, liquid sealant and many more parts, takes
four people working successively for 1 h each, therefore it takes four workers for
1 h, contributing to 4 work hours.
27.1.9 Material Group Index (MGI)
It is a type of attribute based on the type of material used to manufacture that certain
part or type of different materials used to assemble a component [28]. It can be
classified into two categories:
• Contaminated: The parts/components that have faced corrosion due to a contam-

inated working environment or may have been dislodged from the original shape
or size, will come under the contaminated category. For example, an Engine Front
Oil Seal, it is a rubber part that is used as a seal between the inside and outside of
the engine front, over a time it may get wear or may lose its mechanical properties
due to high working temperature, therefore it cannot be used again. Similarly,
camshaft, it is a component consisting of camshaft, thrust flange, spacer and
liquid sealant, which are made up of cast iron, cast iron, steel and silicon adhe-
sive, respectively. Out of which liquid sealant is the only contaminated part as it
is made up of silicon adhesive, which must be applied new every time.
• Non-contaminated: The parts/components that do not come under the influence
of the working environment or get degraded over time are categorized under
non-contaminated material/parts. For example, oil pump, crankshaft, bearing,
connecting rods are categorized under non-contaminated.
27.1.10 Types of Failures in Engines
• Broken or burst cases: This type of failure is caused when an engine is running
way above its recommended power limit. This overloading causes the moving
mechanical parts in the system to malfunction, which often results in minor cracks
to develop in the main cylinder block or even detonating in some cases.
• Lack of lubrication/oil pump failure: This is one of the most common types of
failure in an engine. This can happen in any engine that is not being maintained
properly. When there is a shortage of lubricants such as engine oil in a system,
the friction that is generated between the moving parts becomes so high, that over
shorter periods, it results in wearing of pistons and block and if this is prolonged,
then the entire system fails resulting in a lot of damage.
• Cylinder head gasket failure: This is a case where the gaskets are present between
the cylinder head and the block to avoid wear out. These gaskets act as sealants for
the system, which helps them make airtight. Failure of these components results in
the leakage of coolant and engine oil. Due to this, the streak of lubricants may be
visible on the engine. This can also result in loss of power in the engine. Changing
these gaskets is a part of the preventive maintenance of an engine.
• Overheat cases: There can be various factors that lead to overheating of the
system. There may be a leak in the cooling system, which causes it to malfunction
and not cool the engine as desired. A low amount of engine oil may also lead to
heating. This is a very serious issue and needs to be rectified as soon as possible
because it may lead to permanent damage to the engine.
• Camshaft breakage failure: Sometimes, the camshaft is one of the most impor-
tant pieces of engine that may break. This can be caused by several reasons such
as lack of lubricant, incorrect break-in of the system or due to some play in piston
rods. Camshaft breakage brings the entire system to a stop.
• Rocket cover gasket failure: Rocket cover may also be referred as valve cover.
The gaskets on these tend to wear out over time, and it causes leaks in the system.
Engine oil spills result in the engine running low on lubricants. When these gaskets
fail, they need to investigate, or they can significantly damage the system.
• Engine front seal leakage failure: These seals are also known as crankshaft
seals. The seals may dry out over time, which causes them to not function as
desired. This results in leakage of oil from the engine. This causes problems such
as misfires and oil spills.
• Engine rear seal leakage failure: This seal is present at the back of the engine
assembly between transmission and engine. This seal leaks sometimes and an
indicator for this is engine oil leaking from the front of the transmission. This is
something that can easily be rectified simply by the replacement of seal.
• Intake manifold cracking: This is the part that directs the right amount of air–
fuel mixture into the engine. Cracking in this causes engine misfires and leakage
of coolant. This sometimes even causes damage to the pistons. It is imperative to
rectify this failure.
• Engine oil through from exhaust manifold: In some cases, there may be some
engine oil present in the exhaust manifold. This is due to exhaust valve seals
wearing out. These seals are made of rubber and may dry out with time. This is
a failure that may lead to damaging the exhaust manifold. The seals need to be
replaced.
• Engine cylinder block and cylinder head casting failure: This is another issue
that is associated with overheating of engines. It causes the engine head to crack
in some cases. There may be defects in some castings, which may cause this to
happen. It can cause damage to the engine block due to foreign particles entering
the system. Entire head assembly needs to replace to rectify this [29].
27.1.11 Investigation of Data Obtained by Company X
The data obtained by the company indicating various types of failures of an engine
coming to the recycle station underwent and were kept under the assumptions, i.e.
An . Various criteria that are involved in the recycling process such as the cost part,
working hours, oil cost or MGI were selected and kept under Cm . As the MGI
is a descriptive attribute, convert it into numerical values assigning numbers 2 to
non-contaminated and 1 to contaminated and adding them up as Table 27.4.
Values are taken according to the beneficial or non-beneficial components with
MGI as the only beneficial component and calculations are done as shown in Table
27.5. Also, weightage (Wa ) is assigned to each criterion. In the present case, the
maximum weightage of 30% is given to the part price as it is of the utmost importance
to any corporation. The lowest value was given to oil cost and labor hours of 10%.
The equal weightage of 25% was given to MGI and working hours keeping in mind
the environmental concerns and labor laws. These weights were assigned based on
Table 27.4 Attributes and criteria matrix of engine data

Types of failures Part cost (Rs.) Oil cost (Rs.) Labor cost (Rs.) Working hours MGI
Broken or burst 18,591 415.09 308 4 12
cases
Lack of 11,150 415.09 231 3 10
lubrication/oil
pump failure
Engine refurbished 20,323 510.88 308 4 13
Cylinder head 205 415.09 77 1 1
gasket failure
Overheat cases 4043 415.09 231 3 9
Cam shaft 1273 415.09 154 2 7
breakage failure
Rocker cover 40 415.09 77 1 1
gasket failure
Engine front oil 104 415.09 77 1 1
seal leakage failure
Engine rear oil seal 730 415.09 77 1 4
leakage failure
Intake manifold 3611 415.09 77 1 6
crack cases
Engine oil through 429 415.09 154 2 4
from exhaust
manifold
Engine cylinder 15,459 415.09 231 3 7
block and cylinder
head casting failure
brainstorming sessions conducted with five experts from the industry and five from
academia.
After weightage multiplication in the corresponding column, summation of values
of each component is done and final values are sorted from highest to lowest giving
the most and the least recyclability as rocker cover gasket failure and the least being
the engine refurbishment. In order to conduct the analysis, the ideology adopted
was widely used mathematical software MATLAB developed by Mathworks. It is
a programming language that is used to do complex computation, visualization and
programming. While using the software to get an algorithm based on the factors
carefully selected, and the result was verified with the use of conventional methods
using the formulas of MCDM approach. In MATLAB, there are various operators or
pre-set keywords to obtain desired results and programmed as under:
1. Xval=length(X(:,1));
2. for i= :Xval
3. for j=1:length(W)
4. if Wcriteria(1,j)= = 0
Table 27.5 Decision matrix calculation

Sl. No Types of failures Part cost Oil cost Labor cost Working MGI
(Rs.) (Rs.) (Rs.) hours
1 Broken or burst 0.002152 0.999783 0.25 0.25 0.923076
cases
2 Lack of 0.003587 0.999783 0.333333 0.333333 0.76923
lubrication/oil
pump failure
related
3 Engine 0.001968 0.812324 0.25 0.25 1
refurbished
4 Cylinder head 0.195122 0.999783 1 1 0.076923
gasket failure
5 Overheat cases 0.009894 0.999783 0.333333 0.333333 0.692308
6 Camshaft 0.031422 0.999783 0.5 0.5 0.538462
breakage failure
7 Rocker cover 1 0.999783 1 1 0.076923
gasket failure
8 Engine front oil 0.384615 0.999783 1 1 0.076923
seal leakage
failure
9 Engine rear oil 0.054795 0.999783 1 1 0.307692
seal leakage
failure
10 Intake manifold 0.011077 0.999783 1 1 0.461538
crack cases
11 Engine oil 0.09324 0.999783 0.5 0.5 0.307692
through from
exhaust
manifold
12 Engine cylinder 0.002587 0.999783 0.333333 0.333333 0.538462
block and
cylinder head
casting failure
Weightage (Wa) 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.25 0.25
5. Y(i,j) = min(X(:,j))/X(i,j);
6. else
7. Y(i,j)=X(i,j)/max(X(:,j));
8. end
9. end
10. end
11. for i =1:Xval
12. PWSM(i,1)=sum(Y(i,:).*W);
13. PWPM(i,1)=prod(Y(i,:).ˆW);
Fig. 27.2 Decision chart of

MATLAB
14. end
15. Preference_Score_of_Weighted_Sum_Model = num2str([PWSM])
16. figure
17. bar(PWSM)
The operators applied on the given variables considered were namely X, W, W
criteria summarized (Fig. 27.2) and hence formed the normalized decision matrix
(Table 27.6).
27.2 Conclusion
In the present research work, a detailed study and investigation are conducted for a
case of recyclable components of a tractor engine. From the above bar graph shown
in Fig. 27.2 and the decision matrix presented in Table 27.6, it can be inferred that the
different types of failures that occur in an engine can be represented rank-wise based
on their recyclability using a MATLAB-based TODIM approach. Decision-makers
will get benefited to adopt this approach to evaluate the recyclability of product, parts
or components. This research will propose a guideline for the tractor manufacturers
to work on the investigated components. They can work out more with respect to
the design for manufacturing and assembly in the rocker cover gasket maximum
and in the engine cylinder block and cylinder head casting minimum followed by
others. Although, few components are ranked with nearby values such as engine
refurbished, camshaft breakage, broken or burst cases and lack of lubrication/oil
pump failure-related issues can be taken together into account. This study will help
the manufacturers and designers to plan the products in such a way so that they can
aim to reduce the costs and energy required. It will give an algorithm to assist in
giving quick responses regarding which processes and materials they can use so that
Table 27.6 Normalized rank decision matrix calculation using MATLAB

Sl. Types of Part cost Oil cost Labor cost Working MGI
No failures (Rs.) (Rs.) (Rs.) hours
7 Rocker cover 0.3 0.099978 0.1 0.25 0.019231 0.769209
gasket failure
8 Engine front 0.115385 0.099978 0.1 0.25 0.019231 0.584594
oil seal
leakage failure
10 Intake 0.003323 0.099978 0.1 0.25 0.115385 0.568686
manifold crack
cases failure
9 Engine rear oil 0.016438 0.099978 0.1 0.25 0.076923 0.54334
seal leakage
failure
4 Cylinder head 0.058537 0.099978 0.1 0.25 0.019231 0.527746
gasket failure
3 Engine 0.00059 0.081232 0.025 0.0625 0.25 0.419323
refurbished
6 Camshaft 0.009427 0.099978 0.05 0.125 0.134615 0.41902
breakage
failure
1 Broken or 0.000645 0.099978 0.025 0.0625 0.230769 0.418893
burst cases
2 Lack of 0.001076 0.099978 0.033333 0.083333 0.192308 0.410029
lubrication/oil
pump failure
related
5 Overheat cases 0.002968 0.099978 0.033333 0.083333 0.173077 0.39269
11 Engine oil 0.027972 0.099978 0.05 0.125 0.076923 0.379873
through from
exhaust
manifold
12 Engine 0.000776 0.099978 0.033333 0.083333 0.134615 0.352037
cylinder block
and cylinder
head casting
failure
the companies can aim to reduce wastage in the long run. This work addresses to a
circular economy of any country directly.
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Chapter 28
Feature Extraction of Face Recognition
Techniques Utilizing Neural System
as a Classifier
Amrita Rai , C. Shylaja , and Puneet Kumar Mishra
Abstract Face recognition has a large extent of applications from individual recog-
nizable proof and reconnaissance to electronics showcasing and publicizing for
chosen clients. There are various advances in facial recognition, for example, pre-
processing, feature extraction, and grouping, where feature extraction and grouping
are utilized to acquire the greatest precision. In this paper, diverse feature extraction
methods, for example, A.A.M, A.S.M, template-based, Gabor-features, and a few
are basically surveyed. Aside from these, the various kinds of neural classification
systems, for example, backpropagation, convolutional, radial-basis-function, and so
on in the space of face recognition, are investigated. The method and calculations
created in the present writing are examined, and it is uncovered that every system
is one of a kind and has ideal execution. This assessment further makes a relative
examination of these frameworks reliant on their focal points and imperatives.
28.1 Introduction
A pattern recognition framework is utilized for distinguishing proof and verifica-

tion of clients, in light of their special physical properties. Perceiving people on
their facial descriptions is a significant marvel, and the assignment of perceiving
peers on their appearances easily acts in our day-by-day life. The essential features
are spoken to utilize a suitable feature portrayal plot and gain proficiency with the
discriminating highlights on which matching algorithms act. Various periods of face
recognition frameworks are included. A lot of face recognition methods are structured
that perform admirably in controlled situations. It incorporates a portion of predom-
inant techniques, i.e., principal component analysis (PCA), independent component
analysis, linear discriminant analysis (LDA), and Fisher face. An assortment of face
representation techniques was proposed as of late, and they are arranged into two
kinds, such as holistic feature representation and local feature representation. As a
typical pattern recognition issue, there are two primary methodologies in a common
A. Rai (B) · C. Shylaja · P. K. Mishra

ECE Department, G.L. Bajaj Institute of Technology and Management, Greater Noida, UP, India
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2857-3_29
314 A. Rai et al.
face recognition framework, i.e., face representation and face matching. Most avail-
able local feature descriptors are hand-made, which for the most part, require solid
earlier information and are heuristics [1–5].
Among the most common referred techniques for face recognition based on feature
extraction are Eigenfaces dependent on PCA, Fisher faces dependent on LDA, and
strategies dependent on independent component analysis. A present invariant face
recognition framework relies upon a deformable, generic 3D face model that is a mix
of an edge model, a shading region model, and a wireframe model for portraying
the shape and significant highlights of the face. The initial two models are utilized
for image analysis and the third for the most part for face amalgamation. For coor-
dinating the model to face images in a discretionary manner, the 3D model can be
anticipated onto different 2D view planes dependent on rotation, interpretation, and
scale parameters along these lines producing numerous face picture formats [6–8].
Machine recognition of human face from still pictures and videos has become a
functioning examination region in the way of image processing, pattern recognition,
neural networks, and computer vision. This has large applications extending from
static coordination of controlled organization photos, for example, travel papers,
Master cards, driving permits, and the continuous coordinating of surveillance video
images introducing various limitations as far as preparing prerequisites. A general
and productive plan approach utilizing a “Radial Basis Function (RBF) neural clas-
sifier” to adapt to few training sets having high dimensions, which is an issue
frequently experienced in face recognition, is introduced in the research directed and
hybrid learning algorithm is executed for the study. The PCA is some well-known
multivariate statistical procedures that have been generally utilized in the fields of
pattern recognition and signal processing. There are various PCA-based techniques
utilized for face recognition from one-dimensional PCA to two-directional PCA.
The research technique elevates the precision contrasted with 1D PCA, 2D PCA,
and two-directional 2D PCA [9, 11].
The significant difficulties are constructing a precise face recognition framework
that does not require a large computational expense, and the current researches were
led on a real-time face recognition framework by utilizing block processing of local
binary patterns of face images caught by N.A.O humanoid. Likewise, a strategy that
has included N.A.O humanoid and tried under true conditions was exhibited.
28.2 Review of the Existing Methods
There are a few methods proposed by creators in regards to different feature extrac-
tion techniques and a neural system for face recognition. These procedures are
investigated and talked about in the below sections.
28 Feature Extraction of Face Recognition Techniques … 315
28.2.1 Geometric-Based Feature Extraction
In the geometric-based method, the local features, i.e., local statistics and locations
involving the mouth, eyes, eyebrows, and nose, are at first draw out from the face
images. The most significant geometric-based techniques are Active appearance chart
models.
Active shape model (ASM): A face recognition model dependent on local coor-
dinating Gabor comprising of three primary modules, one of which is an active state
model where image arrangement is performed and utilized for aligning the face. In
addition, to choose the shape to draw out features from looking at guides comparative
with the stored picture and the module for the spatial situation of the Gabor jet, ASM
is used to modify the face present as shown in Fig. 28.1 [1–3]. It is a linear statistical
model that uses a linear change in vector space and uses a point apportionment model
where a vector portrays the state of the object. A beneficial and sensible calculation
for facial landmarks used on most mobile phones is theorized. In this assessment, the
first ASM is adjusted to improve its exhibition with three changes, i.e., improving the
modified model using the focal point of the eyes by using highlight, which is utilized
in the vast majority of the cell phones has been hypothesized. In this examination, the
original ASM is altered to improve its exhibition with three changes, i.e., improving
the initialization model utilizing focus of the eyes by utilizing feature map of color
information, developing a modified model definition and fitting a bigger number of
landmarks than the traditional ASM, and last change is developing 2D profile model
for identifying faces in the input image, and the technique is assessed on dataset
containing more than 1000 face images.
Active appearance model (AAM): A novel technique for deciphering images using
this model was shown. The model consists of a factual shape model and the grey-level
Fig. 28.1 Facial highlights land-marking plan utilized in the exemplary ASM usage
316 A. Rai et al.
appearance of the image of interest. These models are created by consolidating the
shape varieties with a model of appearance variety in a standardized shape structure.
In this way, it is inferred that the AAM algorithm will be a significant technique
for identifying deformable objects in a huge number of applications. A strategy for
arranging facial expression dependent on the extracted features of facial segments
was presented. The facial area is distinguished, and afterward, it is prepared to utilize
the active appearance model to draw out the important features of the facial parts
[1, 10, 11].
Scale-invariant feature transform (SIFT): A model for fuzzy match file for scale-
invariant feature transform highlights, which include all of the SIFT vital points in
the decision-making process. The SIFT is principally intended for object recognition
applications, i.e., face recognition, iris recognition, fingerprint ID, etc. SIFT features
are useful for describing the outdoor surroundings. In this, the new fuzzy SIFT
classifier is adjusted effectively for robust face recognition from complex-oriented
backgrounds with no face editing tool and utilizing a single layout and also the
advancement of an exceptionally proficient fuzzy descriptor matching tool. Subse-
quently, this examination takes into consideration the weak supervision of the face
recognition experiment. The SIFT functions admirably just for pose variation and
neglects to deliver acceptable outcomes under changing illumination. Furthermore,
a hybrid SIFT with a weighing factor in feature matching is suggested, which utilizes
a fixed facial landmark localization procedure [2, 4, 5].
28.2.2 Appearance-Based Feature Extraction
This technique is normally used for frontal face detection utilizing color image-
based feature extraction and appearance-based organization. Face identification with
a certain level of precision and robustness utilizes low-level image features, for
example, color and shape.
Local binary pattern (LBP): This technique for face recognition in an uncontrolled
condition that works with the LBP of facial images is introduced. The basic technique
for separating the LBP surface texture is created, and this technique is examined on
various databases that have uncontrolled facial images. The acquired outcomes are
demonstrated, i.e., strategy functions admirably in these uncontrolled situations are
shown in Figs. 28.2 and 28.3. The real-time face recognition framework, where
block processing of LBP examples of the face images taken by NAO, is exhibited.
These NAO humanoids are utilized in robot–human collaboration applications. This
strategy has been embraced by the NAO humanoid tested under real conditions and
defeats the ordinary strategies [6, 7].
Gabor features: Gabor features in face recognition are introduced to increase
accuracy. The Gabor-based technique is utilized, which changes the grid, from which
the Gabor features are drawn out using mesh, to model face deformation formed by
differing pose and statistical-model of the scores, are registered by utilizing Gabor
features to increase accuracy.
Fig. 28.2 Training templates from the face database with subject IDs
Fig. 28.3 Histogram plot of

equal error rate (ERR)
showing pitfalls of the local
binary pattern (LBP) and
augmented local binary
pattern (ALBP)
A cloud-based observing framework using face recognition is proposed. This

research diminishes Gabor-filter complications by keeping up local features. This
research determines techniques for the center symmetric LBP example feature extrac-
tion algorithm. To define the presence of detection algorithm author in [9–11] tested,
many figures for creating single face dataset and multi-face dataset are shown in
Fig. 28.4a, b.
Principal component analysis (PCA): A patch-based PCA technique to manage
face recognition is exhibited. The use of relationships between pixels; columns; rows
take place; however, the local spatial data are not utilized in this method, and it is seen
that patches are more significant fundamental units than pixels for face recognition.
This strategy has the most noteworthy precision when contrasted with 1D PCA, 2D
PCA, and the two-directional 2D PCA.
For perceiving a human face depending on the features in the image, is shown.
The distinguished face in the picture is perceived, utilizing a combination of PCA
and FFNS. This technique utilizes the Bio-ID face database as the standard image
database as appeared in Fig. 28.5.
318 A. Rai et al.
Fig. 28.4 a Multi-face dataset, b Single-face dataset
Fig. 28.5 Bio-ID face detection
28.2.3 Template-Based Feature Extraction
The different approaches executed for deciding the “features of faces in recognition”
are depicted in the beneath sections.
Deformable templates: A technique for identifying and depicting face features
utilizing deformable templates is depicted. This clarifies features-of-interest, for
instance, taking eye as an example, and a parameterized template portrays it, and
this template connects with the image by changing its parameters. The last parame-
ters can be utilized as descriptors for the feature. In this manner, deformable templates
are utilized to highlight original images.
Gravity center template: A gravity center template for the face area by drawing out
edges around the body organ of the original picture is prepared, and also, these are
checked to distinguish the organs that have been offered. This procedure is snappy,
and the condition of the face highlights is depicted. A model to discover and follow
the driver’s mouth development using a CCD camera for checking and perceiving
a driver’s yawn was presented. From the start distinguishing driver’s appearances
using gravity center template and recognizing driver’s left and right mouth corners
by dim projection and drawing out surface highlights of driver’s face corners using
Gabor wavelets.
28.2.4 Artificial Neural Networks for Face Recognition
There are a few neural systems proposed by various authors with respect to different
feature extraction methods for face recognition.
Backpropagation neural network: This algorithm is the standard and proficient
approach to manage machine learning when the data join the complex tangible info.
The halfway subsidiary of the cost work concerning any weight or bias is an enuncia-
tion for backpropagation. This framework demonstrates how viably the cost changes
with change in loads and bias as shown in Fig. 28.6.
Additionally, occlusion identification, where occlusion is a condition where one
object is overshadowed by another object, is presented. The research comprises four
phases where a backpropagation neural network is utilized to discover the age of
the human in the third stage. It demonstrates great execution when contrasted with
different artificial neural systems.
Fig. 28.6 Back propagation neural network

320 A. Rai et al.
Convolutional neural network (CNN): This strategy is utilized to perceive faces

from different points and can manage impediments somewhat. It also demon-
strates that the proposed procedure execution can be additionally improved by using
better examples, methodologies, and growth strategies. The strategy for dynamic
face acknowledgment that acts dependably using human practices in ordinary face
acknowledgment situations is outlined.
Probabilistic neural network (PNN): It assists in facial recognition. This system
consolidates three stages, i.e., the wavelet parcel deterioration of face picture, plan-
ning PNN classifiers with wavelet sub-pictures with low recurrence parts, and finally
the blends of the readied PNN classifiers by fluffy basic. Differentiated and four grid
subspace calculations, the proposed methodology can get serious precision. It is like
manner improves the exactness of the face recognition with less CPU time-span.
28.3 Conclusions
In this paper, different techniques for feature extraction and neural networks, which
incorporate dynamic shape, radial basis function, convolutional, gravity center
template, were presented. The eight various kinds of feature recognition strategies
among which template-based method and active shape-model look progressively
productive contrasted with the other methods where these techniques likewise have
their constraints. Furthermore, three neural courses of action strategies are discussed,
and it is seen that backpropagation neural network and CNN are viewed as more exact
in comparison to others. Moreover, they have minor limitations, primarily scaling of
the image. The future scope of the work is an improvisation by completing a novel
strategy by incorporating the imperatives realized by the two procedures in feature
recognition and besides in neural grouping and get more exactness.
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Chapter 29
Investigating Strategies and Parameters
to Predict Maintenance of an Elevator
System
Jasmine Awatramani, Gaayan Verma, Nitasha Hasteer,

and Rahul Sindhwani
Abstract In this era of automation, our lives are surrounded by machines, be it

a mobile phone or an elevator. We humans become careless when it comes to the
maintenance of the machine. From the customer’s perspective, until an elevator is not
working, nobody tends to care. This carelessness, in the long run, can result in loss of
human life as well as financial losses. Elevators require maintenance and safety. To
overcome both, the machine requires timely maintenance, and it can be executed with
the precise product vision with the help of predictive maintenance. It not only predicts
future failure but also pinpoints the issues in complex machinery and gives better
results in terms of preventive maintenance. The conventional predictive maintenance
machine learning techniques are established on feature engineering. It is the manual
formation of precise features using domain proficiency and similar methodologies.
Due to this, models are hard to reuse because feature engineering is specific to
the problem structure and the data available, which can vary from one place to the
other. Deep learning methodologies provide better results due to the extraction of
new deep features from the dataset compared with the existing features. This work
reviews the extant literature as well as showcases the implementation of random
forest classifiers on the open-sourced dataset. In our model, an average accuracy of
91.50% was obtained. The dataset consisted of sensor data, which were recorded on
the basis of maintenance actions being taken.
29.1 Introduction
In recent years, elevators have become a part of commercial as well as residential

complexes. In addition to that, it has emerged as an essential tool in day-to-day life
with the growth of the economy and urbanization holding up to 54% of the world’s
population [1, 2]. Elevator systems tend to lay ease in the lives of people [3, 4].
Recently, the pandemic has impacted maintenance even more severely. It has put
a halt to the installations of new equipment as well as has increased pressure to
J. Awatramani (B) · G. Verma · N. Hasteer · R. Sindhwani

Amity University, Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2857-3_30
324 J. Awatramani et al.
decrease the number of yearly visits. The safety issues of elevators have transformed
into a global elevator issue. Therefore, elevator systems require proper maintenance
to ensure safety and reliability. Although, there are various obstacles faced during
the actual maintenance of elevator systems such as inappropriate maintenance tech-
niques, inappropriate upgrading of elevator instruments, high maintenance costs, and
much more. Developing preventive and predictive maintenance arrangements will
be the next phase for revamping the security of elevators, which will further escalate
the life of elevator systems and decrease the cost of service. Preventive mainte-
nance performs systematic inspections of assets and executes routine maintenance
to prevent unexpected equipment downtime or failure. Preventive maintenance can
decrease the frequency of equipment failure. Though this maintenance procedure
needs a definite cost, there is a possibility that the cost of the whole elevator system
might increase if over-maintenance of equipment is being done. If preventive main-
tenance activities are not useful enough, the rate of equipment failure will be a high
rise, and post-maintenance costs of the whole system might also increase.
Predictive maintenance lets you estimate the time-to-failure of a machine. So we
can start preventive maintenance and save time and assets from any big issue. Predic-
tive maintenance strategies are nowadays being implemented by elevator production
service companies. This implementation comes into use by evaluating the remaining
life of the elements that are accountable for faults and remotely tracking faults in
elevator systems. Fault detection and diagnosis are needed by elevators to perform a
healthy operation.
The traditional predictive maintenance machine learning models are based on
feature engineering, which is the manual construction of the right features using
domain expertise and similar methods. This usually makes these models hard to
reuse since feature engineering is specific to the problem scenario and the available
data, which vary from one place to the other.
The most attractive part of applying deep learning in the predictive maintenance
domain is the fact that these networks can automatically extract the right features
from the data, eliminating the need for manual feature engineering. Deep learning
approach provides better results due to the new deep features extracted from the
dataset compared with the existing features.
This paper explores the elevator system’s optimal maintenance policy to reduce
the average maintenance cost. The rest of the work has been structured as follows:
Sect. 29.2 provides the in-depth literature review, Sect. 29.3 showcases gap analysis,
Sect. 29.4 represents the parameter analysis, Sect. 29.5 represents the implementation
of random forest classifier in our model, Sect. 29.6 represents the experimental results
on the same and Sect. 29.7 showcases the conclusion along with the future scope.
29 Investigating Strategies and Parameters to Predict … 325
Several search engines were used for online library search: IEEE Xplore Digital
Library, Springer Link Online Library, Elsevier ScienceDirect and Google Scholar.
Most of the authors have implemented deep learning strategies in their models in
order to obtain results [1, 2, 5–7]. An effective fault diagnosis and fault prognosis
has been observed. Along with which, implementation of decision trees and random
forest algorithm has also been observed in order to compare the results. The use of
deep learning has helped the authors to extract new deep features from the dataset as
well. These new deep features showcased better accuracy in terms of fault diagnosis.
Mishra et al. [1, 2] designed a generic deep encoder model to automatically calcu-
late highly explanatory deep features from the elevator data. Random forest algorithm
was applied to determine faults based on statistical attributes to compare results.
Strategy with new extracted deep attributes provided great accuracy in determining
the faults. In this paper [5], the authors have proposed a conventional framework
of intelligent predictive maintenance systems for elevator service consisting of fault
prognosis, fault diagnosis, feature extraction, pre-processing signal, IoT and Internet
of Service. Gilabert et al. [6] studied predictive maintenance as a result of uncrit-
ical machinery. Continuous monitoring along with diagnosis has been done using
neural networks, whereas, machine instruments were being observed using vibration
systems and applied using Bayesian networks. It also showed the work carried out
under the MINICON project that tends to develop cost-effective integrated SPUs.
In this paper [7], a consolidated neural-network based on decision support structure
for predictive maintenance of rotating equipment. It comprises a vibration-based
deterioration database by observing rolling element bearings, developing an ANN
model to estimate the life percentile, along with the failure times of roller bearings
and cost matrix designing, and probabilistic substitution model that tends to enhance
the expected cost per time.
Few papers have showcased the implementation of machine learning algorithms
including SVM, genetic algorithms [3, 8, 9]. They focused mainly on reducing the
mean cost of the maintenance of an elevator and finding out the most optimal strategy
to estimate the time of maintenance. These papers consisted of static datasets only
and detection of faults at an early stage.
In this paper [3], the model is combined with a numerical example that is solved
by a genetic algorithm with the goal of reducing the mean cost of maintenance. The
best equipment maintenance plan of action is found by verifying the practicality and
validity of the model. In Langone et al. [8], LS-SVM at an early stage of fault detection
was used. Initially, on sensor data coming from the VFFS machine, an unsupervised
approach, KSC came into play. After that, the NAR model was illustrated, i.e., a
supervised learning methodology, LS-SVM framework. It showed that LS-SVM
can successfully assess, predict mechanical conditions based upon sensor data and
attain higher performance than basic methods. In this paper [9], a discussion on
Multivariate Relevance Vector Machines that examines direct and indirect procedures
for forecasting everyday evapotranspiration was being done. The developed models
are based on static datasets.
Few miscellaneous studies were mainly based on the research on the mechanical
strategies, which included examination of hydraulic oil, MCSA and algorithms and
penalty functions to make a degradation and maintenance model [10–13]. These
papers were research-based and showcased the impact of predictive maintenance on
elevator systems.
Xu et al. [10] drew an outline about the role of predictive maintenance in the
epoch of big data and techniques of data-directed fault diagnostics and fault prog-
nostics along with its future extent. In this paper [11], a dynamic predictive mainte-
nance policy for a multi-component approach. It also provides an outline of literature
on predictive and condition-based/vanilla maintenance strategies. Flores et al. [12]
designed Motor Current Signature Analysis (MCSA) is an identification method-
ology in which the mechanical structure acts as a transducer, determining short
torque variations produced within the mechanical structure. MCSA has been used
for determining the condition of various mechanical components such as bearings,
motor fan, rotor unbalance and gearboxes, providing information in regards with fault
centralization. In this paper [13], various methods have been performed to inspect
the percentage of metals and corrosion; sulfur levels in the hydraulic fluid depict the
maintenance intervals of an elevator system. The study of zinc, phosphorus, chlorine
and calcium verifies that the oil that was used in one elevator is different from the oil
used in the other two. Additionally, it releases significant wear to all the elevators as
a result of the working environment conditions. This study of the hydraulic fluid can
be included in the testing process, which inspects the safety of elevators (Fig. 29.1).
Fig. 29.1 Timeline evolution of techniques to predict the health of elevator systems
29.3 Gap Analysis
In [3], the mathematical explanation was presented, which reduced the mean main-
tenance cost, but the discussion about the relationship between the two equipment
was not discussed. Although the analytical model used in [5] was pretty advanced,
still, there is a need for an efficient data-mining approach and analysis model. In this
study, the main focus of this work was on diagnostics and prognostics techniques,
managing the tasks that are scheduled and with the restricted data, predicting the
machine RUL. But, challenges faced by the authors are to improve the efficacy of
the model [10]. In [11], to improve the efficacy of maintenance. The work focused
more on the component dependencies rather than system dependencies. To look for
various techniques in order to model stochastic dependence. The work in [7] show-
cased the optimization of maintenance of task scheduling. Challenges were faced
while recording the readings of bearing when replaced in group. Cost matrix, along
with margin life distribution, should also be expanded.
29.4 Parameter Analysis
Elevators work on the principle of the see-saw. The central module of an elevator
is the elevator car, in which the commuter or load is carried. The elevator car has a
supporting assembly attached to it, that assembly is attached to a traction rope. The
vertical motion of the elevator is guided by a pair of rails. The elevator is raised and
lowered with the help of traction steel rope and counterweight.
The rope is looped around a pulley, which is known as a driving pulley [14]. The
driving pulley is attached to an electric machine. They together form a system known
as a traction system. Traction system runs by the elevator’s control system present
in the elevator, which allows its motion.
There are many mechanical components present in an elevator system, these
components are in direct relation with the performance and fidelity of the elevator.
The traction system is the driving force of an elevator. The pulley present in the
traction system consists of ball bearing and this wears off due to fretting friction
caused between the pulley and the steel ropes [15]. Counter-weight balances the
elevator car, which puts constant stress on the traction cable, the stress increases
at the time of vertical movement of the elevator system. The motor present in the
traction system produces short torque vibration, which helps determine the longevity
of the elevator system. Distance traveled by the elevator is in direct relation with the
elevator as the travels more distance the components wear off. Other components
such as motor fans, gearboxes, humidity also affect the health of the elevator systems
[12].
Some parameters have more impact on the health of the elevator than others.
Ball-bearing present in the driving pulley is responsible for friction-free movement
of the elevator system. This component of the traction system wears off as there is
constant stress present from the traction steel ropes. Fitting friction among the ropes
causes curtailment of the cross-sectional area of the metal, which naturally leads to
resistance on the pulley. As a result, the bearing wears off. Distance traveled by an
elevator is a clear indicator as to how much an elevator is used. As a consequence, it
helps determine the health, wear and condition of the elevator across a timeline [16].
Torque vibration refers to the vibration produced by the mechanical motor present
in the traction system, this attribute determines the health of the motor.
29.5 Methodology Used
29.5.1 Dataset and Attributes
The dataset used [4] has been recorded from a variety of IoT sensors used in the
elevator industry. It contains the evening usage of an elevator between 16:30 and
23:30. The dataset consists of mainly three attributes: ‘Ball-Bearing’, ‘Vibration’
and ‘Humidity’. Dataset provides operational data in the form of time series. It
showcases the functional life of an elevator system, which is observed to be roughly
27 years. On analysis, it has been observed in Fig. 29.2 that there is a constant
decline in revolutions (rpm). A perfectly functional ball bearing has 93 rpm, and it
deteriorates as low as 13 rpm in a span of 27 years. The average life of an elevator is
20–25 years. Hence, by observing the graph, it is determined that at a value between
35 and 45 rpm, the elevator is most likely to cause a failure.
In Fig. 29.3, it is observed from the available statistics that in the initial 5–6 years
of the elevator system, minor changes occur. The elevator system starts experiencing
fluctuation in vibration after 7–10 years of use through the occurrence is less. The
major increase in the occurrence of vibration is observed after 15–20 years of use.
As traction motors are the source of short torque vibration, the health of the motor
can be determined by the intensity of the vibrations.
Fig. 29.2 Analysis of revolutions of ball-bearing parameter of an elevator system

Fig. 29.3 Analysis of vibration parameter of an elevator system
29.5.2 Random Forest
Classification is one of the biggest parts of machine learning and random forest
classifier holds the top of the classifier hierarchy [1, 2]. It is basically a bagging
technique in which there is a collection of a large number of decision trees. Decision
trees have two important properties of low bias and high variance. Random forest
classifier creates an array of decision trees that are created from randomly generated
subsets of training data. Then, votes from the different decision trees are combined
to determine the final category of the test object. Random forests can also apply the
weight concept, which takes into account the magnitude of influence of decision tree
outcome. Trees with low error values have high weight values and vice versa. This
increases the impact of trees that have low error rates. The following parameters have
been used in the study:
• Gini Impurity: calculates the purity of the split and it is better than entropy, as it
is computationally efficient. The range of gini impurity lies between 0 and 1.
• N_estimators: 20 (total number of trees)
• max_depth: 3 (depth of an individual tree in forest)
• min_samples_split: 2 (minimum samples required to split branch of the tree)
• min_sampels_leaf: 1 (minimum samples required to be at leaf node)
Random forest classifier assigns a random value to the root node sample and
classification condition which in our case is “samples = 44408” and “ball-bearing <=
40.045”. According to the classification condition, the range of samples is classified
into three distinct states: Good (0), Fair (1) and Poor (2). This process continues until
all the samples are classified successfully.
In Fig. 29.4, a random forest classifier selects a randomly selected condition value,
which is close to the midpoint which in our observation is “ball-bearing <= 40.045”.
So, all the sample points with ball bearing less or equal to 40.045 are categorized as
class 2. In the second level of the tree, the leaf node signifies the number of samples
that are categorized as class 2. The non-leaf node on the second level of the tree
represents the remaining samples, which are further divided into two subtrees based
Fig. 29.4 Random forest tree visualization
on the randomly selected condition value selected by the random forest classifier
“ball-bearing <= 60.661”. This process is repeated until all the samples are classified.
29.6 Experimental Results
An average accuracy of about 91.50% (ranging 91% ± 2%) was achieved using a
random forest classifier (Fig. 29.5).
Fig. 29.5 Feature

preference score
After the implementation of the random forest classifier, it was observed that the
ball-bearing feature came out to be of more significance than the vibration feature.
This was due to the frequent fluctuations seen in the readings of vibration in our
dataset.
29.7 Conclusion
In this study, we investigated strategies and parameters to predict the maintenance

of an elevator system and showcased the importance of predictive maintenance, and
how it can contribute to better preventive maintenance strategies. With the help of
predictive maintenance, it can prevent future accidents, save lives and can be cost-
effective. Data analysis being the most crucial part of predictive maintenance is
complex too. But, the implementation of deep learning algorithms has contributed
in the extraction of new deep features. Thus, this has resulted in better efficacy and
analysis of the model used.
In the future, the usage of a predictive maintenance strategy on an elevator
system will surely result in optimized maintenance for all elevator components, thus
prolonging elevator’s overall lifetime. Future issues will be predicted even before
the actual customer sees it. The implementation of improvised models along with
deep learning in this process will contribute to the generation of new and useful deep
features, which will result in more precise results, as well as, proper management of
schedules.
References
1. Mishra, K., Huhtala, K.: Condition Monitoring of Elevator Systems Using Deep Neural
Network, pp. 381–387 (2020). https://doi.org/10.5220/0009348803810387
2. Mishra, K.M., Huhtala, K.J.: Fault detection of elevator systems using multilayer perceptron
neural network. In: 2019 24th IEEE International Conference on Emerging Technologies and
Factory Automation (ETFA), Zaragoza, Spain, 2019, pp. 904–909. https://doi.org/10.1109/
etfa.2019.8869230
3. Liu, H.J., Wu, J.X.: Research on preventive maintenance strategy of elevator equipment. Open
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4. Axenie, C., Bortoli, S.: Predictive maintenance dataset (2020). https://zenodo.org/record/365
3909#.X2cDzz_itPY
5. Kesheng, W., Guohong, D., Lanzhong, G.: Intelligent predictive maintenance (IPdM) for
elevator service—through CPS. IOTaS Data Min. (2016). https://doi.org/10.2991/iwama-16.
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6. Gilabert, E., Arnaiz, A.: Intelligent automation systems for predictive maintenance: a case
study. Robot. Comput.-Integr. Manuf. 22(5–6), 543–549 (2006). ISSN 0736-5845. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.rcim.2005.12.010
7. Wu, S., Gebraeel, N., Lawley, M.A., Yih, Y.: A neural network integrated decision support
system for condition-based optimal predictive maintenance policy. IEEE Trans. Syst. Man
Cybern. Part A: Syst. Hum. 37(2), 226–236 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1109/TSMCA.2006.

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based spectral clustering and regression for predicting maintenance of industrial machines.
Eng. Appl. Artif. Intell. 37, 268–278 (2015). ISSN 0952-1976. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eng
appai.2014.09.008
9. Leevy, J.L., et al.: Investigating the relationship between time and predictive model mainte-
nance. J. Big Data 7(1), 1–19 (2020). Received 12 February 2020. Accepted 25 May 2020.
Published 05 June 2020. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40537-020-00312-x
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brief overview. In: 2019 IEEE 15th International Conference on Automation Science and
Engineering (CASE), Vancouver, BC, Canada, pp. 103–108 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1109/
coase.2019.8843068
11. Van Horenbeek, A., Pintelon, L.: A dynamic predictive maintenance policy for complex multi-
component systems. Reliab. Eng. Syst. Safety 120, 39–50 (2013). ISSN 0951-8320. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.ress.2013.02.029
12. Flores, A., Carvalho, J., Cardoso, A.J.M.: Mechanical fault detection in an elevator by remote
monitoring. (2008). https://doi.org/10.1109/ICELMACH.2008.4800064
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of Technology Master of Science Thesis (2018)
Chapter 30
Groundwater Recharge Using Artificial
Filter Mechanism
Deepti Dohare
Abstract Groundwater is one of the most significant assets for giving water for
all purposes but due to new trends of living, it is seriously misused for mechan-
ical and homegrown use. In India, groundwater is a basic asset of water, which
represents practically 85% of drinking water supplies [1]. The quality and amount
of groundwater are being debased at a high rate predominantly because of incre-
ment in populace, urbanization, unnecessary abuse and lacking contamination control
measures. Groundwater recharge is a hydrologic cycle where water descends from
surface toward ground and after getting filtered through various soil media, meets
the groundwater. This cycle typically happens in the vadose zone underneath plant
roots and is frequently communicated as a motion of the water table surface. Ener-
gization happens both normally (through the water cycle) and through anthropogenic
cycles (i.e., ‘counterfeit groundwater revive’), where water and additionally recycled
water are directed to the sub-processes. These exercises can bring about loss of dirt,
decreased water penetration, improved surface overflow and decrease in energiza-
tion. The utilization of groundwater, particularly for water system, may likewise
bring down the water table [2]. This study is to provide an efficient arrangement for
rejuvenating the waste and polluted water to be used to improve the groundwater
table. The study provides an efficient way to effectively remove unwanted particles
present in the surface water, which can be further used for various other activities.
The experimental study used here is to provide a practical and natural state of water
pollution and the efficiency level of the artificial filter.
D. Dohare (B)
GL Bajaj Institute of Technology and Management, Greater Noida, India
e-mail: deepti.dohare@glbitm.ac.in
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2857-3_31
334 D. Dohare
30.1 Introduction
Groundwater levels in different segments of India are declining as the nation could
not provide enough regenerating springs in shortage-prone territories where it has
been utilized for water system, enterprises and drinking water needs of the developing
populace throughout the long term. As per the Central Ground Water Board (CGWB)
[3], which is an administration organization, around 56% of the wells, which are
examined to keep a tab on groundwater level, indicated a decrease in its level in 2013
when collated with the normal conditions of the last 10 years (2003–12) period. It was
found that 5,699 wells have indicated a decrease during that period. It additionally
inferred that farming part is the greatest client of water followed by homegrown plants
and modern area needs. Exhausting groundwater level might be a genuine concern
in the event that one glances at the future interest of water in India. It is assessed
that the nation would require 1,180 billion cubic meters (BCM) of water every year
by 2050. India has, at present, yearly capability of 1,123 BCM of ‘utilizable’ water
with 690 BCM originating from surface water assets and staying 433 BCM from
groundwater assets. South has a startling 30% of its groundwater table lower than
60 m beneath the ground (Fig. 30.1).
There has been a 6 rate point plunge in a portion of groundwater wells inside 10
m beneath the ground. This profundity is the edge past in which ranchers need to
begin utilizing profound water apparatus, which adds to their difficulty (Fig. 30.2).
The artificial recharge to groundwater focuses on the growth of groundwater reser-
voir by changing the characteristic development of surface water using reasonable
common development procedures [4]. Counterfeit revive methods typically address
the following issues
• To improve the economical yield in territories where over-advancement has
drained the spring.
• Conservation and capacity of overabundance surface water for future necessities,
since these prerequisites regularly change inside a season or a period.
• To improve the nature of the existing groundwater.
• To eliminate bacteriological and different pollutions from squander water so that
water is made appropriate for reuse.
30 Percentage (%)
South
20
West & Central
10 North
0 East
South West & North East
Central
Fig. 30.1 Data show the percentage share of groundwater wells lower than 60 m below the ground
30 Groundwater Recharge Using Artificial Filter Mechanism 335
70
60
50
40 1993-94
30
20 2000-01
10
0
Below 10 10-20 m 20-40 m 40-60 m 60 m &
m above
Fig. 30.2 Data show the percentage share of groundwater wells according to depth below the
surface
• The essential motivation behind artificial energization of groundwater is to

reestablish supplies from springs drained because of exorbitant groundwater
improvement.
30.1.1 Sources of Water for Recharge
Before grabbing a revive plot, it is imperative to initially survey the accessibility of

satisfactory water for energization. Following are the primary sources, which should
be recognized and surveyed for sufficiency:
• Precipitation over the outlined zone
• Large rooftop zones from where water can be gathered and occupied for
rejuvenation
• Canals from huge supplies from which water can be made accessible for
rejuvenation
• Natural streams from which surplus water can be redirected for revival, without
abusing the privileges of different clients.
30.1.2 Artificial Recharge Techniques and Designs
A wide range of methods are known to revive groundwater repository. Like the
varieties in hydrogeographical system, the counterfeit revival strategies also change
generally. The artificial revival methods can be extensively communicated as
follows:-
a. Direct surface strategies
i. Flooding
ii. Basins or permeation tanks
iii. Stream expansion
336 D. Dohare
iv. Ditch and wrinkle framework

v. Over water system
b. Direct sub-surface strategies
i. Injection wells or energizes wells
ii. Recharge pits and shafts
iii. Dug well energize
iv. Bore gap flooding
v. Natural openings, pit fillings
c. Combination surface—sub-surface strategies
i. Basin or permeation tanks with pit shaft or wells
d. Indirect techniques
i. Induced revive from surface water source.
ii. Aquifer adjustment
Other than the above mentioned, the groundwater protection structures like
groundwater dams, sub-surface dykes, or particularly named as Bandharas, are very
pervasive to capture sub-surface streams. Thus, in hard rock regions, rock breaking
strategies including sectional impacting of boreholes with appropriate procedures
have been applied to associate the cracks and incremented energization. Concrete
fixing of fissures through extraordinarily built, bore well has been used in Maharashtra
to preserve sub-surface stream and enlarge bore well yield.
30.1.3 Identification of Area for Recharge
The virtual energy of groundwater is typically taken in the following territories:

• Areas where groundwater levels are declining on standard premise.
• Areas where considerable measure of spring has just been deimmersed.
• Areas where accessibility of groundwater is deficient in lean months.
• Areas where saltiness entrance is occurring.
30.1.4 Advantages of Artificial Groundwater Recharge
Following are the fundamental focal points of misleadingly reviving the groundwater
springs [5, 6]:
• No enormous capacity structures are expected to store water. Structures required
are compact and practical.
• Enhance the trustworthy yield of wells and siphons.
• Negligible mishaps when contrasted with mishaps in surface stockpiles.
• Improved water quality because of weakening of destructive synthetic

compounds/salts.
• No unfavorable impacts like the immersion of huge surface region and loss of
harvests. No relocation of nearby populace.
• Reduction in cost of energy for lifting water particularly where upsurge in
groundwater level is generous.
• Utilizes the overflow surface spillover which in any case depletes off.
30.2 Methodology
Slow sand filters are the highly efficient filters to improve water quality and remove
impurities [7]. Slow sand channels are utilized in water filtration for getting raw water
to produce a consumable item. To fulfill the objective of the study, an artificial SSF has
been designed so as to replicate higher water purification efficiency in water recharge
process. The length and expansiveness of the tanks are controlled by the stream rate
wanted by the channels, which regularly have a stacking pace of profound, which
can be rectangular or round and hollow in cross-area. These are utilized essentially
to 0.1–0.2 m every hour (or cubic meters per square meter every hour). Slow sand
channels contrast from all different channels used to treat savoring water as they work
by utilizing a complex organic film that develops normally on the outside of the sand.
The sand itself does not play out any filtration work yet essentially goes about as a
substrate, in contrast to its partners for UV and pressurized medicines. In spite of the
fact that they are frequently the favored innovation in many creating nations in view
of their low energy necessities and hearty execution, they are additionally used to
treat water in probably the most evolved nations, for example, the UK, where they
are utilized to treat water [8].
Slow sand channels have the mechanism of having a coagulated layer, which is
also called as biofilm or Schmutzdecke in barely millimeters depth above the fine
sand layer. The Schmutzdecke is shaped in the initial 10–20 days of activity and
comprises of microorganisms, parasites, protozoa, rotifera and a scope of amphibian
bug hatchlings. The surface biofilm is the layer that gives the compelling sanitization
in consumable water treatment, the fundamental sand is offered as the help vehicle
for this natural treatment layer. As water goes through the hypogeal layer, particles of
unfamiliar issues are caught in the adhesive network and solvent natural material is
also adsorbed. The foreign substances are used by the microorganisms and protozoa
for growth. The water delivered from a moderate sand channel is of fantastic quality
with 90–99% decreased bacterial cell check [9].
A proper sand channel contains natural movement and is in this way frequently
alluded to as a bio-sand channel. As micro-creatures, for example, microbes and
parasites, travel through the sand, they slam into it and get adsorbed onto sand
particles. The creatures and particles gather in the best thickness in the top layers
of the sand, continuously shaping a natural zone. The natural zone is not generally
a strong layer, but instead a thick populace that steadily creates inside the top layer
338 D. Dohare
Table 30.1 SSD affectivity

Highly effective for Somewhat effective Not effective for
for
Bacteria Odor, taste Salts
Protozoa Iron, manganese Fluoride
Viruses Organic matter Trihalomethane
Turbidity Arsenic (THM) precursors
Heavy metals (Zn, Majority of
Cu, Cd, Pb) chemicals
of the sand. The number of inhabitants is essential for a functioning natural pecking
order that devours microbes (infection causing life forms) as they are caught in and
on the sand surface. 1–3 cm of this organic zone is some of the time alluded to as
‘schmutzdecke’ or ‘channel cake’. This layer is characterized as a layer of particles
stored on head of the channel bed or natural development on head of the channel
bed. Slow sand channels are generally cleaned by scratching off the biofilm as well
as the top sand layer.
30.2.1 Health Aspects
Slow sand filtration is an incredibly proficient technique for eliminating microbial

pollution and will generally have no indicator of microorganisms present at the outlet.
Slow sand filters (SSFs) are additionally successful in eliminating protozoa and
infections. In the event where the turbidity is under 1.0 nephelometric turbidity unit
(NTU), a 90–99% decrease in microscopic organisms and infections is accomplished.
However, slow sand filtration is commonly not successful for most synthetics. In any
such case, it very well may be contended that principle substances for drinking water
are of further worry in water gracefully subject to extreme bacterial tainting [10]. For
this study, the water sample collected will be made free from the following mentioned
health hazards in Table 30.1.
30.2.2 Design of Artificial Slow Sand Filter (SSF)
Filter
It is developed in the utilized electrifies iron oil drum of limit 50 lt. The distance
across the cross-segment of the drum is 55 cm and the stature is 90 cm. At the lower
part of the drum a tap of size ½ is plumbed to empty out the separated water. At the
stature of 7.5 cm, an iron sheet is set that is punctured to permit water to permeate
through it. It is upheld by the assistance of 4 cubical squares of size 7.5 cm. The
space accessible between the sheet and the lower part of the drum is utilized to gather
the separated water. A layer of appropriately washed rock of sizes 10, 20 and 40 mm
Inlet
Pipe used to introduce backwater

for cleaning filter
Sand
Outlet
Gravel
Under Drain
Fig. 30.3 Slow sand filter
up to the stature of 21 cm are set over the sheet, and afterward, the sand layer of
18 cm thickness is set over the rock [11]. The sand utilized in the channel is of Sharda
River, which streams close by Pantnagar. The sand layer and rock layer are isolated
by a wire work, with the goal that sand layer can be effectively taken out for utilizing
sand layer of various thicknesses (Fig. 30.3).
30.2.3 Components of Slow Sand Filter
Gravels
In slow sand filter, we utilized rock of size 10, 20 and 40 mm. The rock is put above
iron sheet, which is put at a stature of 7.5 cm from lower part of tank. The thickness
of rock layer is kept 21 cm. The layer is isolated into three sections where the base
part comprises of rocks of size 40 mm, the center bit comprises of 20 mm rocks and
the highest bit of layer comprises of 10 mm rocks. The rock layer holds the sand
channel from uprooting during filtration. Before setting in the channel setup, rocks
were washed completely with clean water to guarantee that all the foreign materials
were liberated to avoid any unfamiliar issue (Figs. 30.4 and 30.5).
Fig. 30.4 Gravel of 40 mm

340 D. Dohare
Fig. 30.5 Gravel of 10 mm

size
Fine Sand
The channel utilized in this investigation was fine sand with negligible dirt, topsoil
and natural substance from Sharda River that streams close by Pantnagar. The sand
was screened utilizing fish net to eliminate some greater sizes and washed with water
before evaluating to eliminate mud and earth content. The sand was sun-dried and
reviewed for the necessary details. Sand particles passing strainer of size 0.3 mm
were utilized.
The organic action is upgraded with expanding channel drop (Sand drop).
Microorganisms and other suspended particles need to travel more through the sand.
In this way, higher expulsion productivity is normal at higher sand depth. The channel
drop was changed at 0.18, 0.24 and 0.30 m for coarse rock, fine rock and sand indi-
vidually. Adequate time was considered for the water particles to go through the bed
before the filtrate was gathered at a point for bacteriological examination.
30.2.4 Analysis
The water gathered was preexamined for the underlying properties to get the
contaminations level. Additionally, similar water was taken subsequently with
different measures for similar boundaries to get the level of filtration by the channel
arranged for the examination. Different properties like total solids, suspended solids,
settleable solids, pH, total hardness, calcium hardness, magnesium hardness, MPN
and turbidity were broken down for the water pollution level [12].
pH
pH of the water was discovered by utilizing the pH meter, which is preadjusted by
standard arrangements of pH esteems and can be utilized to straightforwardly peruse
pH estimation of the given water sample.
Hardness
Different kinds of hardness of the water were discovered utilizing the reagents like
EDTA as titrant, alkali base as support arrangement and EBT as marker. A total of
10 ml test sample was taken to which 1 ml of ammonia buffer and 0.2 g of EBT was
added, which will give wine red tone. At this stage, the solution will be titrated against
EDTA until blue tone shows up toward the endpoint. When the shading changes to
blue, data are noted. Now, utilizing the data, absolute or total hardness is determined
Fig. 30.6 Calcium hardness

test and total hardness test
as:
Total hardness (as CaCO3 ) mg/l = C × 1000/D (30.1)
where C = volume of EDTA required by test

D = volume of test taken for titration.
For calcium hardness, again 10 ml sample is taken and 2 ml of NaOH solution
and 0.2 g of murexide indicator are added to the arrangement and titrated with EDTA
till the shading changes from pink to purple.
From the watched perusing, calcium hardness is determined as:
Calcium hardness = E × 400.8 × 2.497/F (30.2)
where E = volume of EDTA utilized

F = volume of test taken for titration.
From the above two figurings, magnesium hardness is determined as (Fig. 30.6):
Magnesium hardness = total hardness − calcium hardness (30.3)
Turbidity
Turbidity is caused in characteristic waters by long-last separated suspended parti-
cles of mud, sediment, sand or by some natural material, and by tiny life forms. It is
normally communicated in mg/l (or ppm) and might be controlled by optical percep-
tions, as the obstruction to the section of light through the given water. The standard
unit of turbidity is that turbidity that is delivered by blending 1 mg of SiO2 (called
Fullers earth) in 1 L of refined water. Hardness of more than 5 units is observable
in the normal water leads to an unacceptable condition for water. Turbidimeter is
commonly used to gauge the turbidity of the given water sample.
It is estimated by calibrating the turbidity estimating instrument by utilizing
refined water and afterward taking 100 ml of sample and plunging the instrument in
the sample to be tested lastly, noticing the readings as shown by the instrument.
342 D. Dohare
Suspended, Dissolved and Total Solids

In this test, the water is tested by gauging the given porcelain dish and recording the
mass as M1 gm. At that point, the dish is loaded up with 50 ml of water sample and
kept on stream shower so the sample gets dissipated and subsequent to cooling it,
it is gauged and taken as M2. Another 50 ml sample and filter paper is taken and
weighed as M3. The sample is then permitted to go through the channel paper and
oven-dried so that the weight can be taken as M4. From every one of these readings,
suspended solids in 50 ml of test can be determined as:
Suspended solids in 50 ml test = (M4 − M3) g (30.4)
Concentration of suspended solids = (M4 − M3) ∗ 1000/50 mg/l = x mg/l

(30.5)
Total solids in 50 mg/l test = (M2 − M1) g (30.6)
Concentration of total solids = (M2 − M1) 1000/50 mg/l = y mg/l (30.7)
Concentration of settleable solids = (y − x) mg/l. (30.8)
MPN Test
The total coliform bacteria are generally utilized as the indicator of decision for
the quality of drinking water. It is a considerably more explicit indicator of fecal
tainting. Escherchia Coli (E-Coli) is the overwhelming individual from the fecal
coliform group. Identification of E-Coli in drinking water, accordingly, is taken as
proof of late contamination with human or any other creature excrement. The strategy
for straightforwardly checking the coliforms is known as the film channel method or
layer channel test (Fig. 30.7).
Coliform microorganisms attain age with the development of gas inside a
maximum of 48 h at 35 °C. In this test, stock containing lactose and different
substances (medium) that hinder non-coliform living beings, is put in a progres-
sion of test tubes, three such test tubes are then incubated with 10 ml of water sample
Fig. 30.7 MPN Test setup

in each cylinder. Another three test tubes are blended in with 1 ml of water test in
each cylinder and another three cylinders are blended in with are immunized with
0.1 ml of water sample in each cylinder and these cylinders are at last incubated at
35 °C for 24 h, and development of gas is noted. The presence of gas will give a
hypothetical trial of the essence of coliform living beings in given cylinder. In the
event that gas is not discovered we may permit further brooding for an additional
24 h, and, may end the test at end of 48 h, which is maximum time for the arrival of
gas by coliform microorganisms. In the event that no such gas is developed, it will
show a negative test, in which nonappearance of coliform microorganisms is noted.
The test tube indicating positive test results abstract to corroborative test tube,
which will wipe out specific microbes of non-clean significance. This is hatched for
48 h, and if gas is framed, it will be a positive corroborative test and if no gas is shaped,
it will be a negative test. Presently in the wake of deciding number of positive test
tubes, factual techniques are utilized to decide the microscopic organisms thickness
that has greatest likelihood with given arrangement of constants, which speak to
only the most possible number of the coliform called MPN. The table shows the
estimations of MPN per 100 ml of given water sample, when testing is done on nine
test tubes (three cylinders each containing 10, 1 and 0.1 ml).
From Table 30.2, it very well may be gathered that the water sample collected for the
testing had barely any boundaries like total hardness, calcium hardness, magnesium
hardness and pH esteems in charge and underneath as far as possible and as a result
of which they are not a matter of concern. Yet, still the channel has indicated decent
expulsion productivity for such boundaries. Different properties like total solids,
suspended solids, broken up solids, MPN and turbidity demonstrated exceptionally
high initial quantities when contrasted with as far as possible. Yet, from the outcomes
got in the wake of separating measure, it has been seen that there is a high efficiency
appeared from the moderate sand channel. It very well may be seen from the outcomes
that above 90% filtration productivity has been accomplished by the channel for
suspended solids, MPN and turbidity boundaries. The outcomes for boundaries like
total solids, MPN and turbidity have been appeared in Figs. 30.8, 30.9 and 30.10
individually.
From the plots above, it can likewise be seen that for sand depth of 30 cm, the
filtration effectiveness is the most extreme for all the boundaries.
344
Table 30.2 Combined test results

S. Parameters Permissible standard limits Water source Filtered water Removal efficiency (%)
No. d = 18 cm d = 24 cm d = 30 cm d = 18 cm d = 24 cm d = 30 cm
1 Total solids (mg/l) 1000 1200 504 468 456 58 61 62
2 Suspended solids (mg/l) 0 500 27 18 14 94.6 96.4 97.2
3 Dissolved solids (mg/l) 500 700 477 450 442 31.87 35.71 36.86
4 Total hardness (mg/l) 300 70 63 60 58.36 10 14.28 16.63
5 Calcium hardness (mg/l) 75 68.05 58.76 58.76 57.18 10 13.66 15.98
6 Magnesium hardness (mg/l) 30 1.946 1.751 1.24 1.18 10 36.28 39.36
7 MPN per 100 ml 10 1100 49 17 8 95.54 98.45 99.27
8 Turbidity (NTU) 5 117.9 6 5.25 4.95 94.9 95.54 95.8
9 pH 6.5–8.5 7.4 7.1 6.9 6.9 – – –
D. Dohare
1200
1000
Total
solids 800 Source water
(mg/l) 600 Permissible Limit
400 Filtered Water
200
0
18 cm 24 cm 30 cm
Depth of sand
Fig. 30.8 Variation of total solids w.r.t. different depths
1200
1000
MPN
per 800 Source water
100 Permissible Limit
600
ml
water 400 Filtered Water
200
0
18 cm 24 cm 30 cm
Depth of sand
Fig. 30.9 Variation of MPN w.r.t. different depths
30.4 Conclusions
From the above study, it tends to be presumed that purging of well water utilizing
sand as a medium in moderate sand channel is doable. The productivity of the channel
to eliminate E. coli and lessen turbidity fluctuated was commonly high at various
channel depths. This can likewise be credited to the formation of schmutzdecke layer
on the sand surface and adsorption properties. Productivity variation of sand channel
to eliminate E. coli at 0.18, 0.24 and 0.30 m channel depth is critical. It connotes that
moderate sand channel is competent in eliminating E. coli at these depths. Biological
action and protozoa group on the top layer of the schmutzdecke alongside adsorption
346 D. Dohare
120
100
80 Source Water
Turbidity
(NTU) 60 Permissible Limit
40 Filtered Water
20
0
18 cm 24 cm 30 cm
Depth of sand
Fig. 30.10 Variation of turbidity w.r.t. different depths
and mechanical catching of microorganisms could likely be the systems of E. coli

expulsion in water at various depths.
The variety in productivity of sand channel to decrease turbidity at 0.18, 0.24 and
0.30 m channel profundities is exceptionally critical. This implies the proficiency
to decrease turbidity increments with expanding channel depths. The recharge of
groundwater from overflow water and stormwater could be planned by providing a
similar arrangement of the rocks and sand of varying sizes as per the arrangement
done in the study to improve the groundwater level in the areas where it is decreasing
at a fast rate. The above study infers that the moderate sand channel is profoundly
viable in eliminating the different pollutions from the water and improving the nature
of water for various every day purposes. The water collected from the moderate sand
channel can be even utilized for water system purposes with no damage to the yields.
The experimental study done in the research shows the real phenomenon taking
place in the water and the actual conditions in ground, which are to be analyzed and
to be focused upon.
References
1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groundwater_recharge
2. Mukharjee, D.: A review on artificial ground water recharge in India. SRG Int. J. Civ. Eng.
(SSRG–IJCE) 3(1) (2016)
3. CGWB, Central Ground Water Board, Ministry of Water Resources, Govt. of India
4. National Drinking Water Mission and Department of Rural Development: Rain Water
Harvesting. Government of India, New Delhi (1989)
5. Bhattacharya, A.K.: Artificial ground water recharge with a special reference to India. Artif.
Gr. Water Recharge (2010). dlc.dlib.indiana.edu
6. Fadaei, A.: Comparison of the efficiency of physical and biological treatment of slow sand
filter in Kahkash (Samaan) treatment plant. Resour. Environ. 5(4):107–109 (2015). https://doi.
org/10.5923/j.re.20150504.01c
7. Gottinger, A.M.: The effectiveness of slow sand filters to treat Canadian rural prairie water.
Can. J. Civ. Eng. 38(4), 455–463. https://doi.org/10.1139/l11-018
8. Eusuff, M.M., Lansey, K.E.: Optimal operation of artificial groundwater recharge systems
considering water quality transformations. Water Resour. Manag. (Springer) (2004)
9. Ni’matuzahroh: Behavior of schmutzdecke with varied filtration rates of slow sand filter to
remove total coliforms. 6(4):e03736 (2020)
10. Logsdon, G.S., et al.: Slow sand filtration for small water systems. 1(5), 339–348 (2002). ISSN
1496-2551 | E-ISSN 1496-256X
11. Pramod, B.N., et al.: Reduction of contamination from water using slow sand filter. Int. Res.
J. Eng. Technol. (IRJET) 5(5) (2018). e-ISSN: 2395-0056
12. Muhammad, N., et al.: Optimization of slow sand filtration. In: 22nd WEDC Conference, New
Delhi, India (1996)
Chapter 31
A Computational Technique to Generate
Coupler Curve Equation of 6-bar
Mechanism
Khalid Nafees, Mohd. Qamar Tanveer, Ajay Mahendru, and Anil P. Singh
Abstract In this paper, a computational technique to generate the equation of

coupler point for a prescribed 6-bar, 1-DOF Watt-I mechanism has been described.
All the dimensional parameters of the prescribed mechanism, including link length
along with orientation, are known. The modeling of the mechanism find out the
successive crank rotational positions and, therefore, helps determine the interme-
diate coordinates of the coupler curve. By applying the mathematical concept of
Lagrange’s polynomial, the required equation of the coupler curve is generated. The
results obtained are supported by graphical plotting, verifying and demonstrating
the computational technique for the prescribed 6-bar mechanism. This concept of
generating a coupler curve equation is helpful in the analysis of any prescribed mech-
anism. Moreover, it helps to establish a relationship between prescribed dimensional
parameters and desired performance of the mechanism.
31.1 Introduction
Synthesis and analysis are the two major aspects of Kinematics of mechanisms.
Synthesis involves developing a mechanism to fulfill required performance, whereas
analysis ensures that the prescribed mechanism exhibit properties and motion char-
acteristics to fulfill the requirements. Generally, the output of the analysis of the
mechanism is a calculation of forces, accelerations, velocities and displacements of
different links of any prescribed mechanism. The analyses of mechanisms have been
carried out by researchers with the help of various techniques.
In 1962, Gurney and Tobias [1] carried out a comparative study between variations
in chip thickness with the rate of diffusion on stability. The author (s) investigated it
for machine tool structure based on the curve of harmonic response. Uicker et al. [2]
highlighted displacement analysis for closed kinematic mechanisms using the alge-
braic method based on matrix equations. Dobrjanskyj and Freudenstein [3] developed
K. Nafees (B) · Mohd. Q. Tanveer · A. Mahendru · A. P. Singh

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Inderprastha Engineering College, Ghaziabad 201010,
India
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2857-3_32
350 K. Nafees et al.
a computerized method to sketch an automatic graph of a mechanism that is useful in

the primary stages of design. The author (s) applied the graph theory concept to deter-
mine the structural characteristics of the mechanism. Erdman et al. [4] investigated
vigorous error developed due to various strain elements. The author (s) performed
synthesis as well as structural analysis for mechanisms that deflect due to external
loads. Sheth and Uicker [5] proposed an investigational software technique to mech-
anize the static and dynamic analyses of arbitrary mechanisms based on network
theory and matrix methods. Dubowsky and Gardner [6] worked on planar mecha-
nisms equipped with elastic links having clearances on various connections positions.
The author (s) predicted the dynamic behavior of such mechanisms on system elas-
ticity in terms of large impact loads caused due to clearances. Hill and Midha [7]
applied the Newton–Raphson technique to analyze and design compliant mecha-
nisms that are subjected to large nonlinear deformations for a prescribed value of the
load. Erkaya et al. [8] compared the kinematic and dynamic analyses results of the
modified slider-crank mechanism with the usual slider-crank mechanism. The mech-
anism considered had an additional eccentric link between connecting rod and crank
pin. Based on analysis carried out, the author (s) concluded that the output torque
of the modified slider-crank mechanism is greater than the conventional slider-crank
mechanism. Lv et al. [9] carried out kinematic and dynamic characteristics analysis
of the 6-bar mechanism with the help of MATAB software. The author (s) expressed
the model of 6-bar mechanism in terms of vector loop equations. Murthy et al. [10]
carried out the analysis of spatial 4-link RSCR mechanism to estimate inertia forces in
various links of mechanism. The author (s) determines the acceleration and velocities
of mechanism links.
So far, analyses have been carried out on different mechanisms in conjunction
with various techniques, but still, there exists a research gap to define the char-
acteristics of coupler motion based on dimensional parameters of any prescribed
mechanism. For this purpose, in the present research work, a 6-bar mechanism has
been considered to generate the equation of coupler tracing point using a computa-
tional technique of Lagrange’s polynomial. The methodology of the present research
work is demonstrated by solving a numerical problem.
31.2 Arrangement of Prescribed 6-bar Mechanism
The prescribed mechanism is a 6-bar Watt-I planar kinematic mechanism. It is a

combination of binary links as well as ternary links having revolute pair at each
connection. The prescribed mechanism has one binary offset link, two ternary links
and three binary links.
The arrangement of connection of various links of the prescribed 6-bar mechanism
is shown in Fig. 31.1. Link 1 (binary) is fixed between pivots O1 and O2 . Link 2 (crank)
rotates about pivot point O1 . The input motion is imparted to the mechanism through
link 2. Link 3 (ternary link) is connected with link 2, link 4, and link 6 at points
A, B, and F, respectively. There is a link 4, which has coupler tracing point C at an
31 A Computational Technique to Generate Coupler … 351
Fig. 31.1 Arrangement of

prescribed 6-bar mechanism
offset location. Another link 6 (ternary link) is connected with fixed link 1, link 3,
and link 5 at points O2 , F, and E, respectively. Link 4 and link 6 are connected by link
5 at points D and E, respectively. On rotation of link 2, the links of the prescribed
mechanism reach at different positions. Link 6 oscillates about point O2 , the tracing
point C generates a coupler curve C0 C1 C2 C3 C4 (refer Fig. 31.3).
Link 1 is the binary fixed link O1 O2 ; link 2 is binary rotating crank link O1 A; link
3 is ternary link ABF, link 4 is coupler link BDC with offset tracing point that forms
the coupler curve through point C; link 6 is ternary link O2 EF; and link 5 is binary
link DE.
31.3 Lagrange’s Polynomial Interpolation [11, 12]
For a given set of distinct coordinates obtained through AutoCAD modeling of the
prescribed mechanism, it is required to form an equation called the coupler curve
equation. This process is referred curve fitting. For this purpose of interpolation, a
computational technique called Lagrange’s polynomial is employed.
To determine the equation of polynomial, the Lagrange’s polynomial interpolation
computational technique is applied for (n + 1) number of intermediate data points.
Suppose the coordinates of intermediate points of the coupler are defined by (a0 , b0 ),
(a1 , b1 )… (an , bn ).
The curve fitting is obtained for basic polynomials based on the constraint
condition:

1 when j = k
L n,k a j = (31.1)
1 when j = k
The Lagrange interpolating polynomial for nth degree is given by


n
L(a) = bk L n,k (x) (31.2)
k =0
For a set of three coordinates {a0 , a1 , a2 }, basis polynomials are given by
(a − a1 )(a − a2 )
L 2,0 (a) = (31.3a)
(a0 − a1 )(a0 − a2 )
(a − a0 )(a − a2 )
L 2,1 (a) = (31.3b)
(a1 − a0 )(a1 − a2 )
(a − a0 )(a − a1 )
L 2,2 (a) = (31.3c)
(a2 − a1 )(a2 − a1 )
As per the concept of Lagrange interpolating polynomial, the final 2nd degree
polynomial is given by
L(x) = b0 L 2,0 (a) + b1 L 2,1 (a) + b2 L 2,2 (a) (31.4)
31.4 Numerical Problem to Generate Coupler Curve

Equation for Prescribed 6-bar Mechanism
31.4.1 Problem Statement
To generate an equation of coupler curve for a prescribed 6-bar mechanism with

following dimensional parameters as shown in Fig. 31.2.
O1 O2 = 0.686; O1 A = 0.197; AB = 0.772; AF = 0.741; BF = 0.290;
O2 E = 0.370; O2 F = 0.313; EF = 0.313; BC = 0.289; CD = 0.250;
Fig. 31.2 Dimensional

parameters of prescribed
6-bar mechanism
Fig. 31.3 Five crank

rotational positions for a
coupler of prescribed 6-bar
mechanism
Table 31.1 Coordinates of coupler offset tracing point C of the prescribed 6-bar mechanism
Coordinates C0 C1 C2 C3 C4
X 0.950 0.801 1.027 1.423 1.283
f (X) 0.941 0.906 0.851 0.621 0.836
BD = 0.388; DE = 0.252.
31.4.2 Observations
On each successive rotation of link O1 A by the angle of 2π/5, the coordinates of

coupler offset tracing point C are recoded as given in Table 31.1 (Fig. 31.3).
31.5 Methodology for Generation of Coupler Curve

Equation
When the crank link of the prescribed 6-bar mechanism rotates, the various joint
positions acquire new positions. These positions for coupler point are referred as
intermediate points. To generate the equation of coupler curve for a prescribed 6-bar
mechanism, the mathematical concept of Lagrange’s interpolation polynomial need
the coordinates of these intermediate points for the coupler. For this purpose, a model
of the prescribed 6-bar mechanism is developed in AutoCAD. By successive rotating
the crank link of the model, the coordinates of intermediate points are determined. On
substituting these coordinates into Lagrange’s interpolation polynomial, the required
coupler curve equation is generated.
To produce required coupler curve equations, the step by step procedure is

described as follows:
Step1. Switch on the graphical grid behind the model of the prescribed 6-bar
mechanism.
Step2. Find the coordinate of home position of coupler tracing point C of the
prescribed 6-bar mechanism.
Step3. Mark this position of coupler tracing point as C0 and record these
coordinates in Table 31.1.
Step4. Rotate crank link (O1 A) by 2π/5, mark new position of the coupler as C1
and record these coordinates in Table 31.1.
Step5. Again rotate the crank link (O1 A) by 2π/5, mark the new position of the
coupler as C2 and record these coordinates in Table 31.1.
Step6. Repeat step4 for two times, thereby marking new coupler positions as C3
and C4 and record these coordinates in Table 31.1.
Step7. Substitute all the recorded coordinates value into the equation of Lagrange’s
polynomial (Eq. 31.4).
Step8. Generate the final equation of the coupler curve for the prescribed mech-
anism by solving the preliminary equation obtained in step7 for i = 0, 1,
2…4.
The generated equation of coupler curve for prescribed 6-bar mechanism determined
using computational technique Lagrange’s polynomial is found to be as:
f (X) = 667.64 X 4 – 2923.63 X 3 + 3993.21 X 2 – 1357.03 X + 883.16
Fig. 31.4 Locus of coupler

curve for which equation is
being generated for
prescribed 6-bar mechanism
The above equation of the coupler curve is graphically shown in Fig. 31.4. This
equation for the prescribed 6-bar mechanism helps in comparing the desired perfor-
mance of the coupler tracing point with actual performance. This analysis is useful
to fulfill the accuracy requirements for industrial automation.
31.7 Conclusions
A computational technique to form the coupler curve equation for a prescribed 6-

bar, 1-DOF Watt-I mechanism has been discussed in the present research work. The
mechanism with prescribed dimensions, including link length with orientations, has
been modeled in application software for the purpose of determining successive crank
rotational positions. The determination of these positions is helpful in finding out the
intermediate coordinates of coupler tracing point, which are subsequently substituted
in Lagrange’s polynomial. The mathematical concept of Lagrange’s polynomial is
helpful in the generation of the required coupler curve. This methodology is demon-
strated and verified on a numerical problem for the prescribed 6-bar mechanism. The
results of the problem are graphically plotted in AutoCAD software. The present
work is helpful in the analysis of the prescribed mechanism to generate the equation
of the coupler curve for an offset point. Moreover, it helps to establish a relation
between the known dimensions and desired performance of a mechanism of this
kind which is further useful to enhance its accuracy. The present computational tech-
nique of the mechanism analysis is useful in comparing the motion characteristics of
various industrial automation processes such as welding robot arms. The generated
coupler curve equation is helpful in determining point coordinates for robotic arm
motion with continuous motion. This work is further extendable to establish a gener-
alized coupler equation that defines the inter-relationship between coupler curve and
dimensions of kinematic link.
References
1. Gurney, J.P., Tobias, S.A.: A graphical analysis of regenerative machine tool instability. J. Eng.
Ind. 84(1), 103–111 (1962)
2. Uicker, J.J., Denavit, J., Hartenberg, R.S.: An iterative method for the displacement analysis
of spatial mechanisms. J. Appl. Mech. 31(2), 309–314 (1964)
3. Dobrjanskyj, L., Freudenstein, F.: Some applications of graph theory to the structural analysis
of mechanisms. J. Eng. Ind. 89(1), 153–158 (1967)
4. Erdman, A.G., Sandor, G.N., Oakberg, R.G.: A general method for kineto-elastodynamic
analysis and synthesis of mechanisms. J. Eng. Ind. 94(4), 1193–1205 (1972)
5. Sheth, P.N., Uicker, J.J.: IMP (integrated mechanisms program), a computer-aided design
analysis system for mechanisms and linkage. J. Eng. Ind. 94(2), 454–464 (1972)
6. Dubowsky, S., Gardner, T.N.: Design and analysis of multilink flexible mechanisms with
multiple clearance connections. J. Eng. Ind. 99(1), 88–96 (1977)
7. Hill, T.C., Midha, A.: A graphical, user-driven newton-raphson technique for use in the analysis
and design of compliant mechanisms. J. Mech. Des. 112(1), 123–130 (1990)
8. Erkaya, S., Su, S., Uzmay, I.: Dynamic analysis of a slider-crank mechanism with eccentric
connector and planetary gears. Mech. Mach. Theory 42(4), 393–408 (2007)
9. Lv, K., Yuan, Y., Zhang, M.J.: Dynamic simulation and velocity adjustment of mechanism
based on MATLAB. J. Theor. Appl. Inform. Technol. 51(1), 85–90 (2013)
10. Murthy, P.S.S., Satyadevi, A., Krishna, A.G., Eswaraiah, K.: Kinematic analysis of a spatial
mechanism for estimating shaking effects. J. Phys. Conf. Ser. 662, 1–6 (2015)
11. Lagrange Interpolation. http://www.math.usm.edu/lambers/mat772/fall10/lecture5.pdf. Last
accessed 31 Jan 2021
12. Polynomial Interp. http://www2.lawrence.edu/fast/GREGGJ/Math420/Section_3_1.pdf. Last
accessed 31 Jan 2021
Chapter 32
Analysis on Manufacturing Automated
Guided Vehicle for MSME Projects
and Its Fabrication
Rishabh Chaturvedi, Anas Islam, and Aman Sharma
Abstract Automated Guided Vehicle (AGV) is the material handling equipment that
is utilized broadly in a maximum manufacturing company nowadays as it gives more
flexibility to the system. The fundamental perception of AGV includes driverless and
battery-powered vehicles with programming abilities for path selection and locating.
They are equipped to navigate a flexible guide-path network, which might be simply
changed and extended. This project may be concentrating on model, unloading and
loading mechanism for AGV have been required to define specific criteria, which is
automatic operated, lightweight and capable of transporting acrylic. This unloading
and loading system worked utilizing ball screw as a development system and suction
cup with a vacuum pump as adhering instrument. The outline and fundamental
material to manufacture this AGV model would utilize aluminum to decrease the
AGV weight. The AGV application in a real-world application is supported human
and decreasing price in repetitive movement transportation actions. This manuscript
suggests a survey on the control and design of AGV frameworks. We locate many
key-related problems incorporating guide-path design, vehicle scheduling, assessing
the number of vehicles, battery management, conflict determination, idle-vehicle
positioning, and vehicle routing. Furthermore, we suggest a decision system for the
design and execution of AGV frameworks, and propose few fruitful study direc-
tions. It will be designed for an importantly less price and exorbitant efficiency. The
expenditure of the overall build is Rs. 90,000/- which is cost worthy.
R. Chaturvedi · A. Islam (B) · A. Sharma

e-mail: anas.islam@gla.ac.in
R. Chaturvedi
e-mail: risabh.chaturvedi@gla.ac.in
A. Sharma
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2857-3_33
358 R. Chaturvedi et al.
32.1 Introduction
In general, all the products are produced for specific applications that have to be
useful. All the products are created by the fundamental material. That material is
known as “Raw material.” Without raw materials, there are no products. These
raw materials maybe different kinds based on applications. These raw materials
are converted into useful products by the industries [1–3]. There are lots of labors
or workers for machining these raw materials. Also, there are many workers used
for transporting these materials. There are many rooms such as storehouses or ware-
houses, different workshops, and some inventories for holding or carrying the finished
or partly finished goods. A lot of workers cause the high labor cost for the owner
of the industry [4–6]. Some workers have to work there to machining these raw
materials that are inevitable. But many workers used for transport should be avoided
because it reduces the labor cost [7].
The proposed project may be useful for transporting materials from one place to
another place without human intervention. The proposed project is made simple and
efficient by introducing automation there. The traditional process of transporting
the raw materials as well as finished products involves at least 2 or 3 workers in
that field [8–11]. Because one person should take the materials from the storehouse
and then another person should load this material to the vehicle which carries that
materials and another person should drive the vehicle to the appropriate places such
as Lathe section, cutting section, drilling section, Milling section, Painting section,
Assembly section, Cleaning section, etc. [12–14]. So, the manual method of having
many processes involving human and takes a large time and also sometimes, an acci-
dent occurs due to carelessness and distractions in the human mind. This is not a
cup of cake for everyone. Hence new entrepreneurs will not take up this business.
Henceforth, the primary intention of this research work is to automate the material
handling process using low-cost automation techniques [15–17]. To design and fabri-
cate a low-cost AGV for handling material handling in industries for handling both
finished goods and raw materials with the help of Robotic Arm with Gripper at its ends
using Arduino UNO R3 controller. The AGV have been regularly utilized in facilities,
such as distribution centers, warehouses, manufacturing plants, and transshipment
terminals. AGV might be referred as mobile robots owing to their reprogram capa-
bility [18–20]. The AGV reason will be to support decrease prices of manufacturing
and expand effectiveness in the manufacturing framework. It also included raw mate-
rial, tools development, and work in procedure among stations. These developments
should be accurately, securely, effectively and without any harm to materials. The
project team is isolated into three diverse specs: unloading and loading mechanism,
AGV control framework, and AGV mechanical part [21–23].
The vital ability of this AGV is to exchange loads to locality through way under
machine control by programming. The AGV will be a material controlling framework
utilized for the horizontal movement of materials. The AGVs are suggested in 1955,
the utilization of AGVs is enhanced tremendously since their presentation. Many
application regions and a variety of kinds have expanded essentially. AGVs might be
32 Analysis on Manufacturing Automated Guided Vehicle … 359
utilized indoors and outdoors, contributing to tasks, such as distribution, production,

and transshipment. The AGVs have been utilized to transport materials of whole kinds
related to manufacturing methodology. The cross docks and deposits, engineering
centers have been instances of distribution regions. The AGVs have been utilized in
these regions for internal transport, for instance, pallets among diverse departments,
such as the storage, dispatch, reception, and sorting regions [24–28].
In transshipment schemes, such as AGVs, shipping containers deal with products
transport among diverse modes of transport. The very significant variances among
traditional and novel application regions have been many AGVs utilized; degree
of AGV occupancy, many transport applications, the distances traveled and many
pick-ups and delivery points while transport applications become accessible. The
panic grades have been utilized to carry fewer requests over short distances among
selections, delivery points. Different reinforcement methods, many AGVs are utilized
to execute a large number of repetitions, transport tasks to container terminals and
exteriors [29]. It was concluded that few methods and novel methods have already
proved successful.
32.1.1 AGV (Automatic Guided Vehicles)
AGV vehicles have been utilized in warehouses to transport products. The AGVs
appearance was similar to little cars, which might transfer managed in the warehouse.
The managed travel will be ensured by special software. There have been numerous
kinds of automatic vehicles generated by many industries. Each of these might be
utilized for moving pallets [30]. Few of these automatic vehicles might move shelves
with goods to be organized. The AGV’s central processing framework problems the
steering control along with movement speed (Figs. 32.1, 32.2, 32.3 and 32.4).
A common AGV framework comprises basically peripherals vehicle on-site
modules, stationary control method. The important modules of the AGV frame-
work have been the oriental way scheme, vehicle, traffic control, and management
framework. The AGV will guarantee a secure presentation, load, and surroundings.
Fig. 32.1 Pallet truck AGV

Fig. 32.2 Unit load AGV
Fig. 32.3 Towing AGV
Fig. 32.4 Forklift AGV
32.1.2 Vehicle
The vehicle will be the main component of AGV due to it satisfies the real transport
task. The vehicle is distinct reliant on design, determination, and activity environ-
ment. They have been utilized in numerous states such as AGV intended to enhance
the health care method, AGV established as hotel service robot. Amazon has executed
the KWIA robot for automatic storage and products retrieval in the system. The
main usual utilizes of these automatic vehicles have been in the production region
while providing workstations with raw materials. Similarly, they have utilized while
selecting up semi-finished or finished goods and bringing them to the storage region.
The automatic forklifts might be deliberated AGVs; nevertheless, the normal concept
will be AGVs are the type of cars, which come under the pallet and pick it up. As
noted, at that moment, they have been utilized in production environments because
of the high prices of buying the systems.
32.1.3 Oriental Way System
The vehicle guidance framework will be a technique by AGVs has been distinct vehi-
cles are managed subsequent predefined ways. The AGV framework utilizes a guide
path, and it selects a path based on a programmed path. It utilizes the information
given by sensors and will be compared with the value provided by the programmer.
While AGV methods a decision point, it only has to choose whether to follow the
path. The maximum utilized navigation methods in AGV are:
a. Behavior-based,
b. Landmark-based, and
c. Vision-based navigation.
32.1.4 Traffic Control and Management System
To work effectively and expand AGV output, the vehicle must be well controlled
and diminish waiting time at the loading/unloading station. The traffic control
might be handled by AGV utilizing onboard vehicle identification and zone control.
Numerous destinations are modifying AGV in the adaptable manufacturing environ-
ment, utilizing optimization methods, a method for handling traffic in the workspace.
The GA will be a method built on the search for natural determination procedure.
The ACO method will be utilized to discover the group near-optimal program, which
fulfills both loads balancing among AGV, rely on time minimization and travel
time. For productive control, two sorts of control framework are utilized inside the
workplace:
1. Stationary control framework, and
2. Peripheral control framework.
The AGV efficiency might be calculated by the effective actuation time of AGV
from the loading to the unloading cycle. For this, we might assume that AGV transfers
at a constant speed through the environment and disregards the deceleration effect of
acceleration and other speed modifications. The time for a distinctive delivery cycle
will be defined as AGV framework :
1. Upload to pick up station,

2. Travel time to reaching station,
3. Unloading at the output station, and
4. Empty the travel time.
32.2 Proposed Method
32.2.1 Manual Handling Technique
In manual handling technique, all the materials are carried and transported solemnly
by the workers and not using any vehicle for carrying those materials. This method
is the very ancient method for material handling in the world. This method prevails
still in small industries such as fireworks, match boxes industries, and this method
costs high because lots of humans are required to handle those materials are heavy
and a lot, if any.
32.2.2 Manual Cart (Transporter) Technique
The manual cart technique possesses an approach in which materials are taken out
from the storehouse with the help of humans, and then they place these materials in
the vehicle, which carries and transports them to the destination such as workshops
etc. One transporter who drives the vehicle which carries the materials that have to
be machined. If he loses control, it leads to an accident.
32.2.3 Conveyor Technique
These techniques involve some lift or crane type mechanism for lifting the bigger
sizes and does not carry the human. This method is mostly used in Automotive and
automobile industries such as Audi, Ferrari, Lamborghini industries, particularly in
lifting engine components such as engine head, whole crankcase, flywheel, and hood
of the vehicle and more are lifted by implementing this way of the procedure. And
also, this technique not only lifts the materials but also transports them to its next
section. But this forklift method used in the only vast area in industries and also it is
an expensive one. By analyzing the existing methods instigated in material handling,
the following drawbacks have been identified as follows:
• The existing system takes more time to lift the materials that have to be machined.
• It involves many human labors, which in turn results in high labor cost.
The proposed system entirely focused on, to reduce the humans for materials
handling. The primary motto is to automate the entire material handling process.
The process is automated by using sensors and an actuator connected to the Arduino
UNO R3 controller. This proposed work is not only picking or lifts the raw materials
from the storehouse but also transports to the other sections and drops there and also
again picks the finished or semi-finished good from the workshop to other painting
section or any. This research mainly concentrates on the requirement of small and
medium scale enterprises to offer them high reliability, high efficiency, and the most
important efficiency and less time consumption.
Advantage of the proposed system:
The advantages of the UGV for material handling in industries project are
• Low price of manufacturing and simple to maintain.
• It is well-suited for picking the materials and dropping them easily with the help
of Arm with the Gripper mechanism.
• The machine consumes less power.
• It not only picks up the raw materials and also carries them on the vehicle and
transports it to its destination easily by the Line follower concept.
• It is compact and occupies less floorspace.
• It is easily programmable and controllable by using the servomechanism.
32.3 Design and Analysis
Wall Shear Stress for pore size of 0.8 mm Diameter:

As the design is developed in CREO software, it took utmost capability to create
this AGV base model. These two diagrammatic representations are clear, which
indicates the designation of the model, so with these representations, we can clearly
view the AGV structure.
Figure 32.5 represents the maximum WSS in all methods that happened at
higher velocity (i.e., 1 mm/s) and WSS is linearly lessening while velocity reduces.
Undoubtedly, the shear stress distribution is distinctive and relies on scaffold
structure.
And, these AGV model is specialized in ball screw movement. It works on the
coding structure and defines how if any object comes across the way in which mate-
rial handling is done, it stops automatically in which it is programmed, such as
sensors. Any environment and inexpensive between autonomous robots might be
implemented. There is a main change among the work cycle’s practical and theoret-
ical time value being optimized by implementing a diverse technology. Moreover,
Fig. 32.5 Maximum WSS

in all methods happened at
higher velocity
one might think of a symbol relaxation holding necessities in traffic control frame-
work; thus, many vehicles might leave diverse crossing areas concurrently; thus,
the AGV system presentation might be enhanced. Many researchers neglect AGV
battery management issues. In the instance of long travel distances, battery charging
becomes a problem and requires being deliberated swell.
32.5 Conclusion
A new system for material handling is designed and established. The whole automa-
tion of the framework is attained to be price effective as well. Furthermore, the
objective of this system is to pick, to carry and to transport the materials with the
help of AGV without any human intervention and reducing processing time is taken
by a human is successfully accomplished. The present AGV carries the load with
a capacity of up to 3.5 kgs since the capacity of the gripper lifts up to 200 g per
lift. Depends on the requirement, the capacity of the gripper and DC motor can be
changed. Thus, the model can be used for handling heavyweight materials also. We
have deliberated numerous main problems in the AGV method plan and execution.
These problems incorporate guide-path design, assessing the essential number of
vehicles, battery management, vehicle scheduling (dispatching), idle-vehicle posi-
tioning, conflict resolution, and vehicle routing. The main significant problem while
designing AGV methods is guide-path design. In normal, we might separate guide-

path frameworks into three classes: single-loop, conventional and tandem methods.
Everyone has their individual benefits and drawbacks and will be appropriate for
particular applications. Attaining the best evaluation of vehicle empty travel under
few better dispatching guidelines is a key issue here. A further problem will be how to
handle the AGV method effectively. This problem incorporates many subproblems:
idle-vehicle positioning, vehicle scheduling, conflict resolution, battery charging,
and vehicle routing. The scheduling method also decides the route a vehicle must
take to reach its target without collisions.
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(1984)
3. Bengu, G.: An assignment algorithm for dynamic picking systems. Inst. Ind. Eng. (1995)
4. Govindaraju, K., Boopathi, S., Parvez Ahmed, F., Thulasi Ram, S., Jagadeeshraja, M.:
Embedded based vehicle speed control system using wireless technology. Int. J. Innov. Res.
Electr. Electron. Instrum. Control Eng. 2(8) (2014)
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6. Miller, J.K.: Computer assisted circulation control at health sciences library a description of
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8. Krishna, R., Ramkumar, R., Lenin, V.R.: Design of three fingered robot gripper mechanism.
Int. J. Mech. Eng. Robot. 3, 18–24 (2015)
9. Singh, P.K., Sharma, K.: Molecular dynamics simulation of glass transition behaviour of
polymer based nanocomposites. J. Sci. Ind. Res. 77(10), 592–595 (2018)
10. Clothier, K.E.: A geometric approach for robotic arm kinematics with hardware design,
electrical design, and implementation. J. Robot. (2010)
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12. Kumar, K., et al.: Experimental investigation of graphene-paraffin wax nanocomposites for
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structure of aluminium through milling. IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng. 998, (2020)
14. Gohil, M.V., Patel, J.: Design of lead screw mechanism for vertical door wrapping machine.
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Chapter 33
Design and Fabrication of Self-balanced
Electric Two-Wheeler
Karanjot Singh, Jaydeep Singh, Amardeep, Shailesh Kumar Singh,
and Harshit Kumar
Abstract The current study deals with the self-balancing two-wheeler; those vehi-
cles cannot be staying in adjusting condition with no outer support. This assertion
is relevant in each condition when it is very still or gradually moving. It includes
an arrangement dependent upon gyroscopic component to settle 2-wheeled vehicles
(such as bicycles, bike, mopeds and so forth) in each condition (it is possible that they
are very still or moving). This idea likewise can be visualizing fabricating 2-wheeler
based vehicles. Adjustment of a two vehicle assumes a huge part inside the muddled
transportation. Whenever twist is applied to relate degree hub conventional to the
turn hub, causing the gyro to strategy, a moment is made a couple of third pivot,
symmetrical to each the twist and turn tomahawks. Since the vehicle slants from
vertical, a precession affectation twist is applied to the gyro get together and subse-
quently the contradicting pivoting component response second can will in general
gets back the vehicle in its position. The key arrangement is that movement of the
gyro comparative with the body is effectively controlled to concoct dependability in
vehicle.
33.1 Introduction
There has been a load of attempts to make a precisely settled vehicle to battle with
security and gridlock issues. In 1905, engineers build up a gyroscopic railroad that
used a CMG (Control Moment Gyroscope) framework constrained by inactive exer-
tion of numerous instruments and mechanical sensors intended to control the lopsided
directions of the railroad. Here, we have made a two-wheeler which might be adjusted
by pivoting component. We have also attempted to get a handle on fundamental mate-
rial science and numerical display. Regardless of which gyro is utilized for 2-wheeler.
K. Singh · J. Singh · S. K. Singh (B) · H. Kumar

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Dronacharya Group of Institutions, Greater Noida, India
Amardeep
Department of Mechanical Engineering, GL Bajaj Institute of Technology & Management,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2857-3_34
368 K. Singh et al.
They are typically utilized for movement or for satisfaction. The first methods of
transport in quite a while are two-wheelers. Today most street mishaps are of the
two-wheelers. To stay away from such deplorable circumstances, a mechanical gyro
will be put inside the vehicles. The two-wheel vehicle might be degreed normally
an unsteady framework. Putting such an adjusting framework might be a relentless
undertaking. This composition presents a vehicle during which all integrant (mechan-
ical, electrical) is planned from frightfully beginning, develop, incorporate along and
tried [1–3]. This vehicle will be seen as natural, battery worked and truly easy to be
utilized as a framework. A gyro might be a turning machine or plate during which
the pivot of revolution is freed to expect any direction without anyone else. Though
turning, the direction of this hub is agitated by shifting or pivot of the mounting,
per the oversight of energy. On account of this, gyrators unit accommodating for
measure or looking after direction. Spinners likewise are upheld elective operational
standards, similar to the electronic, CPU bundled MEMS gyrators found in gadgets,
strong state ring lasers, fiber optic whirligigs, and consequently the delicate quantum
gyro. Uses of spinners grasp directing frameworks any place attractive compasses
would not function (as inside the Hubble telescope) or would not be sufficiently
exact (as in overall flight rockets), or for the adjustment of flying vehicles, such
as guided helicopters or automated flying vehicles, and sporting boats and busi-
ness ships. On account of their exactitude, gyrators additionally are used to deal
with bearing in passage mining. Spinners additionally utilized in the development
of gyrocompasses, which contradiction or supplant attractive compasses (in boats,
art and orbiter, vehicles as a rule), to help in dependability or can be utilized as a
component of a bearing framework [4–6].
33.1.1 Gyroscopic Impact
The turning system sway is wide used in stream and ships; any place outer turmoil
couple is working on the vehicle. In this way, for the dauntlessness of such vehicles,
it is fundamental to kill the effect of the outer hefty couple, which might be finished
by applying equivalent and inverse couple. Thus, to concoct equivalent and inverse
receptive couple, it is fundamental to differ the size and course of the speed of preces-
sion. The coordinated turning component couple represents the pace of alteration of
energy, and this couple ought to be suing to plate across the pivot of turn to supply it
to priority inside the flat plane. When the pivot of turn locomote itself or requirements
to locomote the shaft, the circle is mounted sue responsive turning instrument couple
[7]. This responsive turning component couple hence made by the gyro is up to the
outside interruption anyway it is in alternate manner. Consequently, this couple kills
the consequence of disturbance and equilibrium the thing (Fig. 33.1).
33 Design and Fabrication of Self-balanced Electric Two-Wheeler 369
Fig. 33.1 3-D model of

self-balancing mechanism on
2-wheeler
33.2 Construction
The gyro circle that we have used in this component is a gentle steel flywheel. The
wooden casing utilized is locked on the most reduced wood base. Plastic wheels
with elastic hold square measure fitted to the wood base at the least, the roundabout
openings inside the design square measure prepared to suit the gimbal of the gyro
get together, and the DC engine upheld on a U-section is put on the gimbal. The sole
pre-imperative for this arrangement to figure is that the mass dissemination, the mass
should be predominant on the top side (arrangement should be prime substantial) of
the gimbal. The focal point of gravity is so just higher than the gimbal pivot, low-
carbon steel plate utilized as gyro square measure fitted to the shaft of the engine. The
DC engine is hooked to the U-section, and furthermore, the shaft of the DC engine is
going through an opening blessing in the focal point of U-section. The texture used in
making the gyro circle, center, and U-section is low-carbon steel. While assortment
the entire model, various sizes of deranged and jolts were utilized. One imperative
style consideration that we have made during this model is that the gyro plate should
be uninhibitedly swinging inside the U-section associated with the construction. We
have utilized metal rollers and studs to shape the precise developments and changes
free and quick. The circlips square measure set on the inward finishes of the studs
to maintain a strategic distance from the studs to move out of the metal rollers, so
evading breakdown of model all through the running condition. The model is made
in such some manner that the front wheel will move to require turns in order to shift
the bearing of movement.
The model is controlled by an impact give unit of 12 V yield. When the engine turns
over pivoting, the gentle steel plate fitted on the engine shaft begins to turn and, bit
by bit, acquires speed. This revolution of the plate winds up in the get together of the
pivoting component result; thus when the wheels lose their equilibrium because of
the dynamic turning instrument couple, a checking receptive turning system couple is
370 K. Singh et al.
made inside the alternate path on account of pivoting system result, so balancing out
the model. This turning component result occurs on each left still as paw perspective.
Along these lines, because of the turn of the gyro, a neutralizing responsive pivoting
instrument couple winds up in the adjustment of the model. The engine and gimbal
shaft gathering are implied so that it is prime huge. This recommends that the focal
point of gravity lies higher than the gimbal shaft. That the engine and gyro get
together attempt to understand the position such the focal point of gravity of the
center can move to descend. Be that as it may, at consistent time the engine and
gimbal get together are coordinated among the edge having a bearing response at
closes. Thus, the sole expected technique for the engine to understand the unfaltering
quality is to one or the other lean forward or in reverse. Thus, when the engine is
turned over, the body is close to falling on one or the other viewpoint, and moreover,
the engine get together is inclining this causes the precession of turn pivot. Because
of this precession, in sync with the paw rule, the receptive pivoting instrument couple
follows up on the casing that invalidates the aftereffect of the distressful couple, thus
settles the vehicle. When not many turns and motions of the engine, the engine and
edge accomplish the fixed position and the gyro is exposed to unadulterated moving
movement (Fig. 33.2, Table 33.1).
Figure 33.3a depicts the reasonable idea that after we attempt and increment the
sweep of the gyro circle, the moment of Inertia (MI) made by the gyro will increment.
In this way, we will say that with a variable sweep of the gyro plate, the moment of
Inertia (MI) changes thusly. Figure 33.3b shows the connection between the range of
the gyro circle and furthermore the energy made by the gyro. Here, we will see that
after we attempt and increment the range of the gyro plate, the energy furthermore
will increment because of the variable span and the reverse way around, which
recommends that sweep might be a variable issue to get variable force esteems for
the spinner. From above Fig. 33.5, we tend to record the readings by keeping range
Fig. 33.2 Diagram representing the parameters when the vehicle is cornering
Table 33.1 Change of

Serial No. Radius Moment of inertia Angular momentum
moment of inertia and angular
momentum w.r.t radius 1 0.01 0.0001 0.197
2 0.02 0.0003 0.559
3 0.03 0.0024 1.297
4 0.04 0.023 2.121
5 0.05 0.031 3.346
6 0.06 0.043 5.979
7 0.07 0.057 7.759
8 0.08 0.075 9.983
Fig. 33.3 a Radius versus (a)

moment of inertia,
mass-1.2 kg. b Radius versus
momentum, mass-1.2 kg
(b)
on the grounds that the boundary between acknowledging totally various readings of
Moment of Inertia and force made by the turning component severally (Table 33.2).
Figure 33.4a shows the connection between the precession point and the Tilt
distance of the pivoting component. Here, in the event that we will, in general, fluc-
tuate the point of precession hub, the space of the precession pivots from the conven-
tional shifts subsequently. In this way, we will see that with increment in precession
point, the lean distance conjointly will increment, therefore. Figure 33.4b is that
the delineation of the outcomes by changed the precession point to get comparing
estimations of power to the alteration inside the estimations of the precession point.
372 K. Singh et al.
Table 33.2 Changes of tilt

Serial No. Precession angle θ Tilt distance Torque
distance and torque w.r.t
precession angle 1 5 0.0953 1.4578
2 10 0.221 2.247
3 20 0.357 4.512
4 30 0.510 5.752
5 40 0.702 7.482
6 45 0.726 8.659
7 48 0.779 9.219
Fig. 33.4 a (Precession (a)

Angle vs. Tilt Distance).
b (Precession Angle vs.
Torque)
(b)
When the precession point builds, we will, in general, see a change inside the value
of power created by the turning instrument. From the higher than diagram, we will
see that expanding estimations of the precession point winds up in increment inside
Table 33.3 Mass versus

Serial No. Mass in kg Speed of disk in RPM
speed table
1 1.25 18000
2 1.50 17700
3 2.00 16950
4 2.50 16300
5 3.00 15900
Fig. 33.5 Mass versus speed
the power produced by the turning instrument. We keep an eye on solid the preces-
sion point on the grounds that the boundary that came about inside the change of
Tilt distance of the precession pivot and power produced by the turning component
severally (Table 33.3).
Figure 33.5 shows the effect of mass on the speed of the turn of the Gyro plate. We
tend to should catch from the higher than graphical delineation that once the mass
of the Gyro plate is amplified, the speed of the Gyro circle diminishes subsequently.
The street on the chart portrays the focuses in connection of each speed of circle and
mass once the vehicle is adjusted.
At first, a test was led to see whether the design is regularly adjusted all alone or not.
The investigation found that the design is regularly balanced with a high fire up center
point engine. At that point, the need was to move it physically once possessions the
design lean. With the help of the center engine, we will, in general, may adjust the
body. Because of the mounting of the servo engine and its linkage over the body,
the undercarriage got huge on one aspect. To get up to speed with the overweight
on one feature, the contrary aspect was stacked with the help of batteries. The plate
utilized as a turning system was adjusted and focused appropriately to thwart any
vibrations and insecure of the circle. The undertaking is up to now has figured out
how to discover the standard of self-adjusting. It is figured out how to style AN
equation to remain the edge straight unsurpassed. Nonetheless, the edge is not exactly
ready to adjust absolutely all alone. It makes a power during a definite bearing of
374 K. Singh et al.
Fig. 33.6 Final working prototype
the direction of center engines. Nonetheless, the center point engines are a modest
quantity overweighed once adding some further weight. This enormous weight (along
with along faceting combination with close to along the edge of together with) the
power due to direction of the pivoting plate makes such energy to ask the edge to
the contrary side as opposed to keeping it straight. Move speedy does not encourage,
on the grounds that the underlying effect power is sufficient to make the enormous
energy that pushes the edge on the far side our normal cutoff. The circle is slanted to
the other way to make up for lost time with this occasion. Nonetheless, till the full
casing is inclined toward the purpose of our limit point, it produces bigger energy to
reduce the power given by the turning circle and fell on the contrary aspect. The full
framework worked totally.
Nonetheless, the electric engine draws in bountiful flow in view of its high power
and in this manner the amount of burden it is to deal with. That the engine driver
circuit consumes straightforwardly once giving not many yields. The framework is
expected to settle the auto through stopping. The elements are, on the whole, totally
unique once the wheels of the vehicle are rolling. The higher the speed of the vehicle,
the lesser the edge point would be (Fig. 33.6).
33.5 Applications
The on top of pivoting instrument adjustment, thought is used in engine bicycles

for cutting edge soundness and wellbeing and conjointly in bikes and option such
vehicles for more secure transportation. The pivoting component gathering is set
at explicit areas inside the vehicle to encourage the settling sway. Furthermore, to
getting utilized in compasses, airplanes, PC educate gadgets, rockets and so on, spin-
ners are brought into customer material science. Since the pivoting system allows the
count of direction and turn, architects have fused them into in vogue innovation. The
blending of the turning system has taken into consideration extra right acknowledg-
ment of development among a 3D zone than the past solitary estimating instrument
among the assortment of cell phones. Spinners in the customer, physical science
territory unit, joined with accelerometers (increasing speed sensors) for the extra
solid course and movement detecting. Tests of such applications grasp cell phones,
game support peripherals, and PC game sets. Voyage ships use whirligigs to level
movement touchy gadgets such as self-leveling pool tables. Electrical jumped up
controller pivoting system embedded in a very wheel is being sold as an instructing
wheel different.
33.6 Conclusion
The last model of oneself adjusting vehicle style has appeared previously. This style
has been tried at entirely unexpected RPMs of the circle and conjointly with various
loads to watch that the vehicle is adjusting. This paper presents the style and creation
of the bike self-adjusting vehicle that is equipped for adjusting itself after the use of
outer powers and effects. The vehicle adjusts itself underneath different conditions,
such as the constrained slant of the vehicle. Accordingly, the projected framework is
a great deal helpful for two-wheel vehicles diminishing mishaps or undesirable falls
and expanding wellbeing to the rider. This method diminishes crafted by people addi-
tionally as gives eco-accommodating environmental factors. From the undertaking,
some definite perceptions are given:
• The higher the fire up, the bigger the counterforce. This means the counterforce
is far bigger once the fire up of the center engine is bigger.
• The heading of the turning wheel slant decides the power course of once turning
is during an unequivocal bearing.
• The center point engine can be driven even by associating only one battery anyway
the fire up of the engine diminished during this case. To remain adjusted the fire
up to the evaluated fire up of the engine, it is to be driven by associating two
batteries (12 V each) in equal. The edge point up to that the vehicle on shifting,
gets steady is 15° from vertical.
376 K. Singh et al.
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Chapter 34
Use of Response Surface Methodology
for Optimization of Received Signal
Strength for GSM Signals in Challenging
Atmospheric Conditions
Shilpa Choudhary, Abhishek Sharma, Mudita Vats, and Vidit Shukla
Abstract In today’s era, mobile communication is the fastest-growing application

in the field of wireless communication. In mobile communication received signal
strength of radio waves at the receiver end plays an important role in network plan-
ning. When the radio waves travel from the transmitter to receivers end through the
wireless channel, it has to face many challenges due to varying environment condi-
tions or due to the presence of some obstacles, such as high-rise buildings, some
vegetation, water body, etc. All these factors may affect the received signal strength
of these radio waves. So for proper mobile network planning, it is required to have
complete knowledge of how these parameters effects the received signal strength. So
keeping this aspect in mind, this research work was focused on studying the variation
in received signal strength for GSM signal with respect to four input parameters, that
is, varying atmospheric temperature, Relative Humidity, Air quality index (particu-
late matter 2.5) and the distance from the base station and optimization of received
signal strength was carried out by using response surface methodology.
Nomenclature
Temp Temperature
RH Relative Humidity
AQ Index Air Quality Index
DBS Distance from Base Station
RSS Received Signal Strength
RSL Received Signal Level
MSE Mean squared error
S. Choudhary (B) · M. Vats · V. Shukla

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, GL Bajaj Institute of Technology
and Management, Greater Noida, UP, India
A. Sharma
Department of Mechanical Engineering, GL Bajaj Institute of Technology and Management,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2857-3_35
378 S. Choudhary et al.
MLP Multilayer Perceptron

RSM Response Surface Methodology
CCRD Central composite rotating design
GSM Global System for Mobile Communications
ANN Artificial Neural Network
VHF Very-high Frequency
UHF Ultra-high Frequency
MCL Monte Carlo Localization
34.1 Introduction
In today’s era mobile plays an important role in every once life. The basic mode of
communication for mobile devices is through radio waves. To complete the commu-
nication through these mobile devices or between the transmitter and the receiver,
the wireless channel plays an important role because it may affect the transmis-
sion characteristics of these information-carrying radio waves. These radio waves
have to cross the tropospheric layer of the atmosphere while traveling through the
wireless channel from the transmitter to the receiver. The refractivity index of air in
the tropospheric layer may change due to varying atmospheric conditions, such as
temperature, relative humidity, etc., resulting in signal loss or reduced signal strength
at the receiving end. As the radio waves are the type of electromagnetic waves, it
has similar characteristics as that of a light wave. As the light intensity gets reduced
when it passes through the water molecule in a similar way, radio waves get scat-
tered, diffracted and reflected if passes through a highly humid channel and results in
reduced received signal strength. Distance between the transmitter and the receiver
also affects the received signal strength as the intensity of the radio waves follows
the inverse square relation with the distance between the transmitter and receiver.
This means the radio wave intensity reduces four times if the distance between the
transmitter and receiver get doubled. There are many other factors that may affect
radio waves’ received signal strength, such as the presence of high-rise buildings,
water bodies, vegetation, etc. So for proper mobile network planning, knowledge of
behavioral pattern of received signal strength with respect to all these challenging
environment conditions is required. Many path loss models have been proposed for
the estimation of received signal strength for varying characteristics of the commu-
nication channel. Currently, the research work is going on by using the ray tracing
method to design the propagation model, and in future, it may become a milestone
technology for mobile network planning [1].
Keeping all these issues in mind, this study was carried out for the optimization
of received signal strength of GSM signal with four major input parameters, that
is, varying atmospheric temperature (Temp), Relative Humidity (RH), user Distance
form Base Station (DBS), and Air Quantity Index (AQ Index) for Particulate Matter
2.5 (PM2.5).
34 Use of Response Surface Methodology for Optimization … 379
34.2 Related Work
Segun I. Popoola et al., in their data article, introduced the path loss data and related
information that were required for modeling radio wave propagation in the smart
campus environment. They used three different directions to collect the required data
set within the same campus to track the record of path loss data. Also focused on
some parameters, such as longitude, latitude, elevation, altitude, clutter height and
the distance information. This article helped in the prediction of signal coverage,
optimize limited network resources, and perform interference feasibility studies [2].
Sreevardhan Cheerla et al. experimentally showed the development essentiality of
the path loss prediction model for predicting path loss data to measure the received
signal strength. An artificial neural network-based path loss model was used for
mobile communication network at 800 and 1800 MHz in South India and found that
ANN-based path loss model given more accurate path loss values compared to the
other existing path loss models [3]. Eichie Julia Ofure et al. developed ANN-based
received signal level determination parametric model with three inputs: atmospheric
temperature, relative humidity, and dew point for the calculation of received GSM
signal level. In their research work, the MLP network used for the expansion of the
model equation, and the Levenberg Marquard algorithm used for the best result in
both the hidden layer and output layer with the least MSE value of 0.056 [4]. Segun I.
Popoola et al., in their proposed work, measured the received signal strength of trans-
mitted signal at different points in space for radio network planning. They studied
three different routes of Lagos-Badagry Highway Nigeria, 900 and 1800 MHz, the
operating frequency of the commercial base station. This article helped in the predic-
tion of signal path loss, avoid interference and many other factors [5]. Shih-Hau Fang
et al. studied the effect of atmospheric conditions over the GSM network. The whole
study was carried out in the central weather bureau in Taiwan, and they studied the
effect of distance and wind speed on the received signal strength and according to
their findings, it was concluded that with the increase in wind/breeze speed, GSM
signal strength decreases [6]. Renato Miyagusuku et al. Suggested a new modeling
approach and used the MCL algorithm for creating specific and exact wireless signal
strength mappings. Gaussian and path loss models were used to determine the likeli-
hood of locations conditioned to sensor data [7]. Babatunde Adeyemi et al. did their
study in Nigeria and monitor the tropospheric radio refractivity by using CM-SAF
data [8]. Shilpa Choudhary et al. [9, 10] suggested that with the help of response
surface methodology, optimization of output response can be carried out. The main
advantage of this methodology is that the optimization through this technique requires
a minimum number of the experimental run. Danial Abdorahimi et al. worked over
2.4 GHz to examine the correlation between atmospheric particulate and EM-wave
attenuation of the radio signal. In their study, they observed different parameters
such as temperature, humidity, and variation of Received Signal level (RSL) with
operating condition of low, medium, and high at PM10. They analyzed that Received
Signal level has no notable contrast, but polynomial dependency exist in RSL local
variance [11]. H. Purohit et al. in their study discussed the Data Interleaving Tech-
nique. Their study was more focused on the bandwidth optimization and usage of
voice channels in GSM networks. Channel utilization up to 54.22% and bandwidth
optimization can be done. All the experiments were performed in Kampala, Uganda
[12].
From the related work it is clear that the received signal strength of radio signal
get affected with various atmospheric parameters. Much work has already been
conducted to monitor the variation in received signal strength for different mobile
communication technologies and have many path loss models have already been
proposed, but the optimization of received signal strength has still not explored
much. So this researched work was carried out to observe the variation in received
signal strength with respect to four input parameters, that is, varying air quality
index (particulate matter 2.5), Relative Humidity, temperature and the distance from
the base station, and the optimization of received signal strength for GSM signals
was carried out by using response surface methodology. It is a multi-objective opti-
mization technique and can give the optimized results with the minimum number of
experiment runs.
This research work was mainly carried out to observe the variation in received signal
strength for GSM signals with varying atmospheric conditions, such as temperature
(20–40 °C), relative humidity (25–75%), air quality index (50–500) and distance
from base station (0.1–0.3 km). In this experiment Hygro-Thermometer was used
to measure the variation in temperature and relative humidity, Variation in received
signal strength was observed with spectrum analyzer, Variation in air quality index
and distance from base station were measured with AQI meter and GPS installed in
smart phone respectively.
In this study, mathematical modeling was done with the help of response surface
methodology (RSM). The main advantage of RSM technique is that it requires a
minimum number of experiment runs to optimize the response. Various coding level
used for input parameters has been shown in Table 34.1. Using these parameters,
the experimental design developed through the statistical tool MINITAB 17. After
Table 34.1 RSM range for input parameters

Factors or input parameters Coded levels
−2 −1 0 1 2
Temperature (°C) 20 25 30 35 40
Relative humidity (%) 25 37 50 63 75
Distance from base station (km) 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
Air quality index 50 150 250 370 500
the experiments as per the designed matrix, ANOVA was applied, and good R2
correlation relation found between input and output responses.
34.3.1 RSM Methodology
With the help of response surface methodology, an optimum solution can be obtained.
With RSM, optimization of input variables can be done to find the best value of output
response and that to with the minimum number of experiment runs. It can be used in
any type of application, and it is not application bound.
In this work, RSM architecture can suitable the CCRD matrix, which has five
stages with respect to the individual factors. The most fruitful and best among archi-
tecture available is the middle composite rotating architecture which is adept by
adding two lab experiment level along each coordinate axis at the opposite direction
of the origin and at a distance same to the semi-diagonal of the hypercube of the
factorial architecture and new extreme values (low and high) for each factor added
in this architecture. The same statement has been reported in the previous study.
Under this study, variations in receives signal strength (RSS) for GSM signal
was observed for four input variables, that is, Distance from Base Station—DBS,
Air Quality index (A.Q Index) for PM 2.5 particle, Relative Humidity (RH) and
Temperature (Temp). Variation range of these input parameters has been shown in
Table 34.1. Experimental results were obtained after the implementation as per
CCRD.
Analysis of Variance was applied and given by Table 34.2, which offers quantitative
results about the research model. The maximum level of p-Value is taken 0.05, values
Table 34.2 Analysis of variance

Source DF Adj SS Adj MS F-Value P-Value
Regression 4 1170.21 292.551 70.31 0.000
Temp. (C) 1 956.31 956.314 229.83 0.000
RH (%) 1 66.88 66.881 16.07 0.000
DBS (km) 1 28.42 28.419 6.83 0.015
AQ index 1 203.67 203.674 48.95 0.000
Error 26 108.19 4.161
Lack-of-fit 20 108.19 5.409
Pure error 6 0.00 0.000
above 0.05 are referred as an irrelevant. Distance from base station having p-value
maximum 0.015 only. ANOVA found satisfactory for this research model.
Model R2 and R2 (adj) values are 96.16% and 95.88%, respectively, for RSS
(GSM) response. In this work, p-value for mixtures of 0.669 and p-value for clustering
of 0.331, both are more than 0.05. Hence, it can be concluded that the experimental
data does not have any clusters and mixtures to affect the research results.
MINITAB 17 generated empirical correlations between RSS (GSM) and all input
parameters are given by Eq. 34.1.

RSS (dBm) = −13 + 2.5 ∗ T emp ◦ C + 0.106 ∗ R.H (%) − 83

∗ D B S (km) − 0.024 ∗ A.Q I ndex + 0.0151 ∗ T emp2 ◦ C − 0.00061
∗ R.H 2 + 14 ∗ D B S 2 (km) − 0.000063 ∗ A.Q I ndex 2 − 0.00312

∗ T emp ◦ C ∗ R H + 1.64 ∗ T emp ◦ C ∗ D B S (km) + 0.00079
◦
∗ T emp C ∗ A.Q I ndex − 0.254 ∗ R.H (%) ∗ D B S (km) − 0.000118
∗ R.H (%) ∗ A.Q I ndex + 0.064 ∗ D B S (km) ∗ A.Q I ndex (34.1)
In this research work, MINITAB 17 software was used to draw contour and surface
plots. All the surface and contour plots were drawn only with two input variables.
The rest were kept at some hold value, which is the center value of the input variable,
as shown in Table 34.1.
34.4.1 Impact of Input Parameter on Signal Strength

for GSM Technology
Figure 34.1a and b shows the surface and contour plots, respectively. These plots
show the variations in received signal strength (RSS) of GSM signal with respect to
two input variables which are Distance from the base station—DBS (0.10–0.30 km)
and Air quality index—AQ Index (50–500) and rest two parameters, that is, temper-
ature (Temp) and Relative Humidity (RH) were kept constant at 30 °C and 50%,
respectively. From the surface plot, we can observe that RSS keeps on reducing with
increasing DBS. It mainly occurs because radio wave intensity is inversely propor-
tional to the square of distance between transmitter and receiver, which means with
an increase in distance between transmitter and receiver, the received signal strength
of radio waves reduces. From the same plot, it can also be observed that RSS reduces
with increasing AQ Index, but its effect is almost negligible. From the contour plot
shown in Fig. 34.1b, the maximum value obtained by RSS is −80 dBm approximately
when the DBS and AQ Index are at 0.10 km and 50 respectively.
Variation in RSS with respect to temperature (20–40 °C) and Air quality index—
AQ Index (50–500) are shown in Fig. 34.1c and d through surface and contour plots,
respectively. At the same time other two input parameters, that is, Relative Humidity
(RH) and Distance from the base station (DBS) were kept at a constant value of
50% and 0.2 km, respectively. From the surface plot, it can be observed that RSS
(a) (b) (c)
(d) (e) (f)
Fig. 34.1 Effect of environment parameters received signal strength for GSM signal
decreases with an increase in temperature, which occurs because the resistivity of

medium increases the increase in atmospheric temperature. This results in reduced
power and current for the device for a specific voltage. So with increased temperature
signal to noise ratio decrease and results in reduces received signal strength. From
the same graph, it can be observed that RSS follows the same trend with respect
to AQ index as the Temp does, but the effect is almost negligible. Its contour plot
shows that the RSS can attain the maximum value of −69.5 dBm approximately and
can go as low as −105 dBm approximately. Figure 34.1e shows the Variation RSS
with respect to Temp (20–40 °C) and Relative Humidity—RH (25–75%) and at the
same time other two input parameters, that is, Distance from the base station—DBS
and Air quality index (AQ Index) were kept at a constant value of 0.2 km and 250,
respectively. From this figure, it can be observed that RSS keeps on decreasing with
an increase in RH, and it occurs because radio waves get scattered, diffracted and
reflected in the presence of water molecule, which results in reduced received signal
strength. From the same figure, it can be RSS reduces with an increase in temperature
Fig. 34.1f shows the contour plot for the same combination of input parameters, and
it shows that RSS can attain its maximum value of −71 dBm approximately and can
go up to the minimum value of −101.5 dBm approximately.
34.5 RSM Optimization Response and Validation
RSM optimizer is shown in Fig. 34.2. With the help of the RSM optimizer, the best
value of response can be found in the optimum values of input variables. The main
aim of this study was to maximize the received signal strength for GSM technology.
Fig. 34.2 Optimization plot
Table 34.3 Validation RSM

RSS (GSM) response at 22.2 °C, 0.1 km. DBS, 25% RH, with
result
55 AQI
Unit RSM predicted Experimental % Error
dBm −66.14 −69.42 4.95
With the help of the RSM optimizer, optimum values received for the input
parameters were 22.2 °C, 25%, 0.10 km and 54.2 for ambient temperature, Rela-
tive Humidity, Distance from the base station and Air Quality Index, respectively.
For these optimum values of input parameters, the optimum value received for the
response, that is, received signal strength for GSM signal, was −66.1402 dBm.
Unity desirability was obtained for the output, which is favorable for the optimization
process. For the validation of results obtained by RSM, the experiment was conducted
at 22.2 °C Temperature, 25% Relative Humidity, 0.1 km from Base Station at 55 air
quality index. Experimental details are as shown in Table 34.3, and it gives the infor-
mation about the output, that is, received signal strength for GSM signals. Later the
comparison was carried out between experiment results and results obtained from the
RSM optimizer. Error obtained after comparison was 4.95% which was well within
the tolerable limit.
34.6 Conclusions
In this study, the variation in received signal strength for GSM signals was monitored
with respect to challenging atmospheric conditions. The main aim was to overcome
the effect of these challenging conditions. Later the optimization of response was
carried out by using response surface methodology. The main advantage of RSM
optimization is that it needs a minimum number of experiment runs to optimize
the response. Complete detail of input and output parameters during optimization
process is as mentioned below.
• Variation in received signal strength for GSM signal was monitored with respect
to four input parameters, that is, Relative Humidity, Air Quality Index for PM 2.5
particle, Distance from Base Station and Temperature.
• The optimum values obtained for input parameters were 22.2 °C, 25%, 54.2, and
0.10 km for Temperature, Relative Humidity, Air Quality Index for PM 2.5, and
Distance from Base Station, respectively.
• Received Signal Strength for GSM signal was found to be −66.14 dBm.
• Validation of RSM results was carried out with a confirmation trial, and the error
found to be within the range of 5%.
After this study, it is clear that with all these optimized values of input parameters,
the best possible value of Received Signal Strength for GSM signals can be obtained
even in the presence of unfavorable environmental conditions.
References
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mobile networks at 800 and 1800 MHz bands. AEU-Int. J. Electron. Commun. 94, 179–186
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Chapter 35
Structural Analysis and Completion
of Fatigue Axial-Flow Compressor Using
Finite Element ANSYS Technology
Rishabh Chaturvedi, Vikas Kumar Sharma, and Manoj Kumar
Abstract An axial-flow compressor (AFC) will be the flow that enters the
compressor in the axial direction and exits from the axial direction and in the gas
turbine. The AFC compresses its attempting liquid by initial accelerating the liquid
and then dispersing it to acquire a pressure expansion. Presently examination and
developmental deliberations in the region of AFC for gas turbine application have
been intended to enhancing its operating range without sacrificing effectiveness. An
increment in aspect ratio is noticed to have an adverse impact on the execution of
single-stage flow compressors. In this manuscript, AFC is planned and simulated in
3D designing software Pro/E. The current patterns get changed on varying aspect
ratios. The current work utilized chromium steel, which could be substituted by nickel
and titanium alloy. Full compressor methods with steel, nickel and titanium alloy are
used for structural testing to validate compressor strength using finite element anal-
ysis using software Ansys. CFD examination is also being complete to define fluid
performance in ANSYS Fluent.
35.1 Introduction
An axial compressor will be the compressor, which might constantly pressurize

gasses. It may be a rotating, airfoil-built compressor in gas or working liquid that
primarily flows parallel to the rotation axis or axially. This contrasts from diverse
rotating compressors, such as ax centrifugal, mixed-flow, and centrifugal compres-
sors, whereas liquid flow will incorporate a spiral part through the compressor [1–4].
R. Chaturvedi (B) · V. K. Sharma

V. K. Sharma
e-mail: vikasH.sharma@gla.ac.in
M. Kumar
Greater Noida Institute of Technology, Greater Noida, India
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2857-3_36
Fig. 35.1 Axial-flow compressor
The energy level of liquid enhances as it streams over the compressor because of
rotor blades activity that exerts a torque on liquid [5, 6].
The circumferential part of stream under pressure and moderating the fluid is done
by static blades. The electric engine or gas turbine determines the compressors [7–9].
The AFC generate a constant stream of compacted gas and profits of advantages of
large mass flow rate, high efficiency, specifically in connection to their cross-section
and size [10, 11]. They do but need numerous rows of airfoils to attain an expansive
pressure rise, making them unpredictable and unreasonable relative to other plans
[12, 13].
The axial compressors have been essential to the plan of large gas turbines, such
as high-speed ship engines, plane engines, and little scale power stations. They have
also been utilized in mechanical applications, such as blast furnace air, propane dehy-
drogenation, large volume air separation plants, and fluid catalytic cracking air [14–
16]. Because of high reliability, presentation, and adaptable operation throughout the
flight envelope, they have also been utilized in aerospace engines [17, 18] (Fig. 35.1).
The AFC compresses its working stream by initial accelerating liquid and then
dispersing it to attain pressure enhances. The pressure increase is insignificant in
AFC when air passes from one phase to further, every phase. It will raise the energy
level of gas or air streaming by operating the rotor blades that exert torque on the
liquid supplied by a gas turbine or electric motor. In this paper, AFC will be planned
and simulated in 3D designing software Pro/E. The new plan consists of 30 blades,
replaced with 12 blades and 20 blades in this paper. The materials currently used
may be chromium steel; nickel and titanium alloy can be substituted with it. The
structural investigation may be done on compressor methods to check compressor
strength. The CFD investigation is finished to find the air flow.
35 Structural Analysis and Completion of Fatigue Axial-Flow Compressor … 389
The AFC is a very significant segment of a gas turbine. In the plan of AFC, the
work introduced contains fundamental stream factors and dimensions; this creates
the additional design procedure quite easy, and the outcomes are supportive of taking
additional variations or development at the time of comprehensive design. The work
objective suggested will be to plan AFC by utilizing the mean line technique for
provided mass flow rate and essential pressure ratio. The factors described also
incorporate thermodynamic assets of stage efficiency, working fluid, stator blades,
number of rotor and tip and hub diameters, blade dimensions of both stator and rotor,
Mach number, flow and blade angles. Similar factors have also been described for
five phases. In any critical number of segments allocated by designers to achieve a
smooth twisting profile, the twist of blades can be measured along the length of the
blade. Profiles from NACA 65,410 are used to create blade coordinates. Additional,
in procedure, the initial phase of the AFC blade is established utilizing Solid works
modeling. Similarly, CFD simulation is carried out with the use of Ansys CFX to
authenticate the outcomes. Correspondingly Static structural examination is executed
to find if the rotor is safe at provided speed.
The structural plan of IND100 AC needs a multistage interrelationship among
mechanical design, structural integrity, thermodynamic, and aerodynamic study of
factor. These design requirements often oppose, so the equilibrium in engineering is
used within the design presentation limits. The text means the conceptual and struc-
tural plan of the 16-phase high-pressure shaft IND100 compressor with a full weight
flow rate of 310 kg/s/pressure of 12 in ISOSLS situations. Moreover, to estimate
the conceptual design examination, fundamental factors such as disk stress study,
compressor sizing, rotor dynamics, load and blade mass, conceptual disk design,
bearings and material selections have been deliberated utilizing present devices and
analytical method. These methods employed the elementary aero dynamic and ther-
modynamic theory of AFCs to estimate the pressure and temperature for whole
phases, velocity triangle, geometrical factors, and stress and weight calculations of
compressor disk utilizing Sagerser Empirical Weight Assessment.
This manuscript defines the approaches utilized for computer program generation
for examining the off-design presentation of ACs. The determination of survey was
to envisage such AC features as efficiency and pressure rise as a rotor speed and mass
flow junction, whereas only mechanical geometry of blades and annulus has been
provided. The aerodynamic examination is separated into two main parts. The initial
part of the examination includes the numerical answer of motion in the compressor
to discover temperature, flow field, and pressure rise, and compressor efficiency. The
second part concerns the examination of blade fundamentals, in specific their presen-
tation at numerous angles of attack. The numerous effects have been incorporated
that have a bearing on this presentation. The axial-velocity ratio and relative Mach
number across blade component, together with blade shape and its configuration in
the compressor, affect the flow discharging from the blade.
The aspect ratio of the blade is a significant factor and has a strong effect on the
presentation of AFC. The presentation of AFCs will be recognized to be influenced
by the selection of aspect ratio. A survey is conducted to demonstrate the aspect ratio
effect on the presentation by stream analysis of the 1.2 pressure ratio single-stage
subsonic compressor using AFC design. The test is performed for a constant diameter
of the paddle with an aspect ratio of 1, 2 and 3 and a flow factor and compressor
pressure loss. This manuscript presents the finest operating situations happen for
aspect ratio among 2 and 3.
35.3 Methodology
The AFC will be the flow that enters the compressor in the axial direction and exits
from the axial direction and in the gas turbine. The AFC compresses its attempting
liquid by initial accelerating the liquid and then dispersing it to acquire a pressure
expansion (Table 35.1).
35.3.1 FEM
The FEM will be the main examination method for determining and replacing diffi-
cult issues with simpler ones, attaining estimated answers. FEM being a flexible
device, will be utilized in numerous companies to resolve numerous practical engi-
neering difficulties. In finite element technique, it will be possible to produce relative
outcomes (Fig 35.2).
35.3.2 Static Analysis Steel Compressor
The maximum deformation of steel having stator angle 24.9°, rotor angle 12.1° is
0.02397 mm (Fig. 35.3).
In the current day, finite element technique will e very broadly and effective
utilized devices. By doing a very computational examination, the estimated solution
might be enhanced in FEM. In FEM, matrices play a main part in controlling a
massive number of formulas. The FEM process will be a disparity method, whereas
this perception has contributed considerably in formulating the technique.
Table 35.1 Selection of models, analysis and materials of axial-flow compressor

Models Analysis Materials
Case 1: Rotor angle, 12.1°; Stator angle, 24.9°
Case 2: Rotor angle. 26.4°; Stator angle. 29.0° Fatigue analysis Steel
Titanium alloy
Case 3: Rotor angle, 39.8°; Stator angle, 33.1° Static analysis Nickel alloy
Case 4: Rotor angle, 45.9°; Stator angle, 35.2°
Fig. 35.2 Parametric CAD method
Fig. 35.3 Deformation of steel compressor (stator angle 24.9°, rotor angle 12.1°)
FEM supports in assessing difficult structures in a framework through the planning

phase. The design and strength of the method might be enhanced with the support
of FEA and computers that justifies the analysis price. FEA has obviously improved
the structure’s design, which was built many years ago (Figs. 35.4 and 35.5).
The maximum stress of steel having stator angle 24.9°, rotor angle 12.1° is 7.3094
Maps.
The maximum strain of steel compressor having stator angle 24.9°, rotor angle
12.1° is 3.667e–5.
35.3.3 Fatigue Examination of AFC
Case: stator angle 24.9°, rotor angle 12.1°, MATERIAL—TITANIUM ALLOY

DAMAGE (Fig. 35.6).
Fig. 35.4 Stress in steel compressor (stator angle 24.9°, rotor angle 12.1°)
Fig. 35.5 Strain in steel compressor (stator angle 24.9°, rotor angle 12.1°)
Fig. 35.6 Safety factor

35.4 Results
(See Fig. 35.7).
35.4.1 Static Analysis
(See Tables 35.2, 35.3, 35.4 and 35.5).
Fig. 35.7 Life
Table 35.2 Static analysis

Material Stress (MPa) Deformation Strain
results for stator angle 24.9°,
(mm)
rotor angle 12.1°
Titanium alloy 4.4743 0.02654 4.0818e–5
Steel 7.3094 0.02397 3.667e–5
Nickel alloy 12.557 0.035879 5.3577e–5

(mm)
rotor angle 26.4°
Titanium alloy 5.6591 0.045884 5.1544e–5
Steel 9.2789 0.041448 4.6479e–5
Nickel alloy 16.23 0.062088 6.9165e–5

(mm)
rotor angle 39.8°
Titanium alloy 7.326 0.06273 6.6677e–5
Steel 11.996 0.056658 6.0042e–5
Nickel alloy 20.864 0.084821 8.8846e–5

(mm)
rotor angle 45.9°
Titanium alloy 7.8331 0.06975 7.1341e–5
Steel 12.837 0.062991 6.4299e–5
Nickel alloy 22.417 0.094202 9.5533e–5
35.4.2 Fatigue Analysis
(See Tables 35.6, 35.7, 35.8 and 35.9).
Table 35.6 Fatigue analysis results for stator angle 24.9°, rotor angle 12.1°
Max Min (mm) Max Min
Steel 1× e6 3574.4 2.7976e5 15 0.23586
Titanium alloy 1 × e6 17,179 58,212 15 0.38531
Nickel alloy 1× e6 798.15 1.25529e6 15 0.1373
Steel 1× e6 289.01 3.4601e6 15 0.092899
Titanium alloy 1 × e6 1045.6 9.5638e5 15 0.15232
Nickel alloy 1 × e6 72.131 1.3864e7 15 0.05311
Steel 1 × e6 150.2 6.6578e6 15 0.071858
Nickel alloy 1× e6 40.145 2.491e7 15 0.041315
Steel 1× e6 126.92 7.87e6 15 0.067148
Nickel alloy 1 × e6 34.049 2.9369e7 15 0.038452
35.5 Conclusion
The AFC will be the flow that enters the compressor in the axial direction, and exits
from the axial direction and in the gas turbine. The AFC compresses its attempting
liquid by initial accelerating the liquid and then dispersing it to acquire a pressure
expansion. In this manuscript, an AFC is designed and simulated in 3D designing
software Pro/E. The existing plans are modified by varying relative proportions.
Nickel and titanium alloy swapped chromium steel that is the contemporary utilized
material. By detecting static examination, stress, and deformation for nickel alloy and
titanium alloy, and incrementing the AFC angles blade and low-stress value of stator
angle 24.90, rotor angle 12.10. The examination of the security feature for fatigue
detection of titanium alloy is lower than nickel and steel alloy, which is around 24.90
for stator angle and 12.10 for rotor angle. By detecting CFD survey, velocity, a flow
rate of mass and pressure drop enhances blade angles of AFC. So, for axial-flow
compressor, the titanium alloy is a better option as it ameliorates the performance.
References
1. Srinivas, K., Deepthi, K., Malleswara Rao, K.N.D.: Design and Optimization of Axial Flow
Compressor
2. Jaiswal, U.A., Joshi, S.J.: Design and Analysis of Stator, Rotor and Blades of the Axial flow
Compressor
3. Aziaka, D.S., Osigwe1, E.O., Lebele-Alawa, B.T.: Structural and Conceptual Design Analysis
of an Axial Compressor for a 100 MW Industrial Gas Turbine (IND100)
4. Jansen, W., Moffatt, W.C.: The Off-Design Analysis of Axial-Flow Compressors, Author and
Article Information
5. Singh, P,K., Sharma, K.: Mechanical and viscoelastic, properties of in-situ amine functionalized
6. Kumbhar Anil, H., Agarwal, A.: CFD simulation of single-stage axial flow compressor for
varying blade aspect ratio
7 Gaddam Srikanth, A., Srinivas Prasad, S., Mahesh Kumar, A., Mounika, B.: Reddy Design
Methodology of a Two Stage Axial Compressor
8. Singh, R.P., Sharma, K., Mausam, K.: Dispersion and stability of metal oxide nanoparticles in
aqueous suspension: a review. Mater. Today: Proc. 26, 2021–2025 (2020)
9. Suthakar, T.: Numerical Investigation of Flow In An Axial Flow Compressor Cascade, Akash,
National Institute of Technology, Tiruchirappalli
10. Kumbhar Anil, H., Agarwal, A.: Effect of Variations in Aspect Ratio on Single Stage Axial
Flow Compressor Using Numerical Analysis. Associate professor, Technocrats Institute of
Technology, Bhopal, M.P, India
11. Gourdain, N., Montagnac, M., Boussuge, J.F.: Numerical Simulation of an Axial Compressor
with Non Axisymmetric Casing Treatment CERFACS, Computational Fluid Dynamics Team
31057 Toulouse, France
12. Bharadwaj, G., Sharma, K., Tiwari, A.K.: Performance analysis of hybrid PCM by doping
Graphene. Mater. Today: Proc. 26, 850–853 (2020)
13. Day, J. Stall Inception in Axial Flow Compressors
14. Du, H., Yu, X., Liu, B.: Modeling of the double leakage and leakage spillage flows in axial
flow compressors
15. Sieverding, F., Ribi, B., Casey, M., Meyer, M.: Design of Industrial Axial Compressor Blade
Sections for Optimal Range and Performance (2004)
16. Chaturvedi, R.: Molding sand nano fluidization role in ceramic substitute. J. Green Eng. 10(11),
11540–11545 (2020)
17. Yahya, S.M.: Fundamentals of Compressible flow, 81-224-1468-0. Tata Mc-Graw Hill (2003)
18. Hill, P.G., Peterson, C.R.: Mechanics and Thermodynamics of Propulsion, 0201146592,
Addison-Wesle (2010)
Chapter 36
Deep Neural Network for Facial Emotion
Recognition System
Vimal Singh, Sonal Gandhi, Rajiv Kumar, Ramashankar Yadav,

and Shivani Joshi
Abstract Facial emotion recognition is a challenging task to capture and analyze.

This paper presents an intelligent approach to detect different facial expressions
of a person. In this context, a noval deep learning vgg 19 convolutional neural
network architecture is used. Seven different emotions (anger, disgust, fear, happi-
ness, sadness, surprise, and neutral) are considered to recognize emotions. The FER
2013 dataset contains 35,887 different images with these emotions. Results were
obtained by using various activation functions. A comparative study of various
activation functions has been done.
36.1 Introduction
Intelligent Facial Expression Recognition is a vast and important research topic.

Finding emotion from images is difficult and sensitive. The face is the index of
our mind. Such a system can understand the situation better to take more fruitful
results. The system will also be helpful in human-computer interaction. Since human-
computer interaction, interacts with human in uncontrolled environment where the
scene lighting, camera view, image resolution, background, user’s head pose, gender,
and ethnicity can vary significantly.
CNN (Convolutional Neural Network) is a type of neural network which makes
an assumption that the input is an image. It contains series of hidden layers that
transform the input to output wherein each hidden layer is made up of neurons, and
each neuron is connected to all the neurons in previous layers. CNN mainly comprises
three types of layers: convolution layer, pooling layer, fully connected layer.
1. Convolution layer
2. Pooling layer
3. Fully connected layer.
The various emotions used in this paper are shown in Fig. 36.1.
V. Singh (B) · S. Gandhi · R. Kumar · R. Yadav · S. Joshi

G L Bajaj Institute of Technology and Management, Greater Noida, India
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2857-3_37
398 V. Singh et al.
Anger Happy Sad Surprise Neutral Fear Disgust
Fig. 36.1 Facial emotion used
36.2 Related Work
Gupta et al. [1] have proposed identification of facial expression using CNN, ResNet,
and attention block that gives visual perceptibility. The authors have proposed to
use a deep self-attention network for facial emotion recognition. They found that
the proposed model outperformed the current CNN-based networks by achieving
a higher precision of 85.76. Mellouka and Handouzia [2] performed a survey over
multiple research publications that employed deep learning techniques. Authors iden-
tified that today researchers are restricted by just knowing the six-basic plus neutral
emotion rather than creating a larger database in the future. Mehendale [3] proposed
a hybrid of CNN and supervised learning for the detection of facial expression. It
has been observed that this model gives better results when it operates for different
orientations. The correctness was achieved due to the removal in the background.
Zhang et al. [4] performed the facial emotion recognition based on an image of facial
expression. Authors use biorthogonal wavelet and fuzzy multiclass support vector
machine. This work provides an overall accuracy of 96.7%. Jabid et al. [5] presented
an approach for facial emotion by using the local directional pattern(LDP) that takes
into consideration the facial geometry. The model also identifies the effectiveness
of different reduction techniques such as PCA and AdaBoost in terms of cost and
accuracy, which shows the superiority of the LDP descriptor to other features of
the descriptors. Mollahosseini et al. [6] proposed a deep neural network architecture
for the detection of facial expression which consists of two convolution layers and
followed by pooling and then four layers of Inception. It also provides a comparison
to several state-of-the-art methods in which engineered features and classifier param-
eters are usually tuned on a very few databases. The proposed method outperformed
over conventional CNN methods in terms of accuracy on both subject independent
and cross-database evaluation scenarios. Operto et al. [7] performed a survey to
determine ER abilities in children and adults with learning difficulties with different
learning disorders incorporated in the study without cognitive disabilities and relates
to intelligence. The authors concluded that facial emotional recognition outlays are
potentially related to difficulties in cognitive control. Shan et al. [8] presented an
approach for facial emotion representation based on the conditions of Local Binary
Patterns.
36 Deep Neural Network for Facial Emotion Recognition System 399
36.3 Methodology
The proposed methodology is implemented as follows:

1. Dataset: The dataset deployed for implementation was the FER2013 dataset
from the Kaggle challenge on FER. The dataset contains 35,887 grayscale
images out of which 32298 are for training purposes, 3589 for testing. Images in
the FER2013 dataset comes under one of the seven categories, namely: neutral,
happy, fear, surprise, disgust, angry, and sad.
Emotion labels in the dataset: 0: −4593 images—angry, 1: −547 images—
disgust, 2: −5121 images—fear, 3: −8989 images—happy, 4: −6077 images—
sad, 5: −4002 images—surprise, 6: −6198 images—neutral. FER 2013 dataset
samples are shown in Fig. 36.2.
2. Preprocessing: Resizing of the image into 48 * 48 grayscale images.
3. Grayscaling: Grayscaling is the process of transforming an RGV image input
into a grayscale image whose pixel value from 0 to 255 upon the intensity of
light on the image. As the pattern of an image does not depend on color and also
the processing of color images requires more processing time and resources.
Due to this reason grayscale images are used for processing.
4. Normalization: As neural networks are very sensitive to normalized data,
normalization of an image is done to remove illumination variations and obtain
an improved face image.
5. VGG19 Architecture:
Fig. 36.2 FER 2013 dataset samples

400 V. Singh et al.
Fig. 36.3 Block diagram of the proposed method
We have conducted extensive experiments to demonstrate the proposed

method’s effectiveness compared to the most famous classification models,
including VGG19 architecture. VGG19 architecture was developed by
Simonyan and Zisserman of the University of Oxford with 19 layers, 16 conv,
and 3 fully connected. 138 million parameters are eligible for VGG19. VGG19
can train on more than a million images and can classify into 1000 object
categories. The detailed methodology is shown in Fig. 36.3.
Block Diagram for Proposed Model:

The VGG19 network consists of sixteen two-dimensional convolutional layers,
five max-pooling layers, and three fully connected layers. Max pooling uses the
maximum value from each of a cluster of neurons at the prior layer by using a 5 ×
5 max-pooling filter. This reduces the dimensionality of the output array. The input
to the network is a preprocessed face of 48 × 48 pixels.
36.4 Experimental Results and Discussion
After performing the experiment with the proposed methodology, results are
discussed in this section. The experiments are performed on Intel core i5 8400 CPU
@ 2.80 GHZ, and python 3. Keeping kernel size 5 * 5 results obtained are shown
in Tables 36.1, 36.2 and 36.3. Based on these tables, it is clear that sample size is a
very important factor in deep learning. Since the samples of disgust and surprise is
low therefore accuracy is poor in these samples. Emotion with happiness performs
better compared to others. All others have results that vary in between. Tables 36.1,
36.2, 36.3 and 36.4 show various confusion matrix and results.
Table 36.1 Confusion matrix with Elu activation function

0 1 2 3 4 5 6
0 333 3 24 13 49 14 59
1 20 20 7 1 3 1 3
2 88 1 207 15 96 48 57
3 15 1 14 785 12 18 54
4 67 0 55 15 300 6 165
5 17 0 35 20 3 317 8
6 28 1 16 35 45 10 485
36 Deep Neural Network for Facial Emotion Recognition System 401
Table 36.2 Confusion matrix with ReLu activation function

0 1 2 3 4 5 6
0 332 3 18 14 53 14 61
1 19 21 6 3 2 2 2
2 81 0 187 12 110 52 70
3 8 0 11 791 10 20 59
4 47 0 36 18 342 8 157
5 16 0 34 27 1 315 7
6 16 1 13 26 51 10 503
Table 36.3 Results of Elu

Sl. No. Kernel size (5 * 5) Activation function Accuracy
and ReLu activation function
1 5*5 Elu 0.682
3 5*5 ReLu 0.691
Table 36.4 Comparison with

References Methodology Accuracy(%age)
others
Mollahosseini et al. CNN 66.4
[9]
Ergen et al. [10] CNN (ReLu) 57.1
Proposed model VGG-19 (ReLu, Elu) 69.1
The comparative results on FER 2013 dataset are shown in Table 36.4. Molla-
hosseini et al. [9] has used a convolution neural network with two convolution layer
followed by max pooling and four inception layer and achieved 66.4% accuracy.
Tümen et al. [10] achieved 57.1% accuracy, whereas VGG-19 architecture 69.1%
accuracy is achieved in the proposed methodology. The proposed architecture is also
used in face recognition and pattern recognition [11, 12] applications.
36.5 Conclusions
This paper presents recent development in the facial emotion recognition domain. The
paper described VGG 19 architecture with different non-linear activation functions
Elu and ReLu. Based on the experimental study, it has been observed that the size of
the dataset plays an important role in facial expression recognition. Facial emotions
have more samples such as happy, neutral, and angry performed better accuracy than
other emotions. Further research based on multimodal deep learning architecture
can improve more accuracy in this domain. One challenging issue is recognizing
emotions from low-resolution images. It is also observed that the facial expressions
are more suitable with the dynamic images in place of static images.
402 V. Singh et al.
References
1. Guptaa, A., Arunachalama, S., Balakrishnana, R.: Deep self- attention network for facial
emotion recognition. Procedia Comput. Sci. Elsevier B.V. 171, 1527–1534 (2020). https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.procs.2020.04.163
2. Mellouka, W., Handouzia, W.: Facial emotion recognition using deep learning: review and
insights
3. Mehendale, N.: Facial emotion recognition using convolutional neural networks (FERC). SN
Appl. Sci. 2(3), 1–8 (2020)
4. Zhang, Y.-D., Yang, Z.-J., Lu, H.-M., Zhou, X.-X., Phillips, P., Liu, Q.-M., Wang, S.-H.: Facial
emotion recognition based on biorthogonal wavelet entropy, fuzzy support vector machine, and
stratified cross validation. IEEE Access 4, 8375–8385 (2016)
5. Jabid, T., Hasanul Kabir, Md., Chae, O.: Robust facial expression recognition based on local
directional pattern. ETRI J. 32(5), 784–794 (2010)
6. Mollahosseini, A., Chan, D., Mahoor, M.H.: Going deeper in facial expression recognition
using deep neural networks. In: 2016 IEEE Winter Conference on Applications of Computer
Vision (WACV), pp. 1–10. IEEE (2016)
7. Operto, F.F., Pastorino, G.M.G., Stellato, M., Morcaldi, L., Vetri, L., Carotenuto, M., Viggiano,
A., Coppola, G.: Facial emotion recognition in children and adolescents with specific learning
disorder. Brain Sci. 10(8), 473 (2020)
8. Shan, C., Gong, S., McOwan, P.W.: Facial expression recognition based on local binary patterns:
a comprehensive study. Image Vis. Comput. 27(6), 803–816 (2009)
9. Mollahosseini, A., Chan, D., Mahoor, M.H.: Going deeper in facial expression recognition
using deep neural networks. In: 2016 IEEE Winter Conference on Applications of Computer
Vision (WACV), pp. 1–10 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1109/wacv.2016.7477450
10. Tümen, V., Söylemez, Ö.F., Ergen, B.: Facial emotion recognition on a dataset using convo-
lutional neural network. In: 2017 International Artificial Intelligence and Data Processing
Symposium (IDAP), pp. 1–5. IEEE (2017)
11. Kumar, R., Sagar, L.K., Awasthi, S.: Human activity recognition from video clip. Intelligent
Computing in Engineering, pp. 269–274. Springer, Singapore (2020)
12. Kumar, R., Joshi, S., Dwivedi, A.: CNN-SSPSO: a hybrid and optimized CNN approach for
peripheral blood cell image recognition and classification. Int. J. Pattern Recogn. Artif. Intell.
2157004 (2020)
Chapter 37
An Analytical Study of Partial
Replacement of Cement and Quartz
Sand by Feldspar
Rajat Yadav, Ravindra Pratap Singh, and Kuwar Mausam
Abstract There are a lot of carbon emissions from cement which demands the
usage of other alternatives as its replacement. Research is undoubtedly conveying
crazy on the usage from claiming waste items to cement. Likewise, a reinstatement
of characteristic sand. Because of that unreasonable utilization for waterway sand
Likewise fine aggravator, the availability of the fine aggregate has become scanty.
So, it demands the search for other alternative replacements for fine aggregates and
cement additives that enhance the properties of fresh and hardened concrete like
durability, strength, etc. In our study, we are going to experiment on the effects on
mechanical assets of material by moderate replacement of cement by feldspar. Since
Quartz is one of the greatest plentiful materials available on earth’s crust and being
highly siliceous, these materials are being employed as additives for cement and
fine aggregate. This study mainly concentrates on the assets of toughened concrete
properties, which is the compressive strength of concrete. Here, cement is partially
replaced using feldspar up to 25% at regular intervals of 5%. In addition to that,
the river sand is completely replaced with quartz sand as fine aggregate. The above
materials are being tested for M40 grade of concrete.
R. Yadav (B) · R. P. Singh · K. Mausam

R. P. Singh
e-mail: pratap.ravindra@gla.ac.in
K. Mausam
e-mail: kuwar.mausam@gla.ac.in
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2857-3_38
404 R. Yadav et al.
37.1 Introduction
Concrete is a significant versatile and durable creation material that has been in use
for centuries now in one form or the other. It is one of the widely accepted due to
various properties such as fire resistance, plasticity, chemical resistance, etc. [1, 2].
Cement is the chief compound in the concrete, which is used as a binder. Albeit
cement may be one of the most viable and versatile binders that is available and being
used, it has many harmful environmental impacts when concrete is directly being
exposed and has sabotaging effects on the environment [3, 4]. It produces a lot of
pollution, releasing carbon dioxide and greenhouse gases in bulk amounts, harming
the environment [5].
The cement industry harvests over 10% of worldwide manmade carbon dioxide
emissions, for which 60% may be starting with those substance process. An Chatham
house ponders starting with 2018 estimates that the 4 billion tons about bond which
may be transformed yearly accounts for 8% of overall carbon dioxide emanations
[6, 7]. Due to the excessive use of river sand as fine aggregate, the availability of the
fine aggregate has become scanty. Hence other materials can be used instead of river
sand for construction purposes [8–10]. So, it demands the search of other alternatives
for replacements of fine aggregates and cement additives, enhancing the mechanical
assets of concrete such as durability, workability, asset, etc. [11, 12].
Researches proved that mineral powders such as feldspar powder, glass powder,
rice husk, etc., have proved that powders, after moderately swapped by cement,
increase the compressive asset and reduce carbon emissions [13, 14]. One such
material is quartz sand which is used as an Elective for customary waterway sand [15,
16]. These sands need aid utilized within the diversion, looking into golf courses,
volleyball courts, baseball fields, children’s sandboxes, and beaches. Quartz sand
might make discovered Previously, Florida Also indifferent mainland edges [17].
The research demonstrated that use from claiming quartz sand like substitution cost
to sand will be a prudent result of settling on the cement safe to weathering.
37.2 Experimental Methodology
37.2.1 Materials
53-grade Regular Portland cement of mark is utilized in research. The assets of

cement were tabularized below (Table 37.1).
37 An Analytical Study of Partial Replacement of Cement … 405
Table 37.1 Properties of

Properties Magnitude
cement
Specific gravity 2.3
Standard consistency 35%
Preliminary situation time 30 min
Closing situation time 600 min
Table 37.2 Properties of fine

Properties Magnitude
aggregate
Bulk density/m3 1830
Porosity% 29.67
Grading zone Zone II
Fineness modulus 3.13
Water absorption 1.02%
37.2.2 Fine Aggregate
Quartz sand is used as fine aggregate in this study. Quartz sand is the most abundant
silica mineral. The research proved that using quartz sand as a replacement for sand
is an economical solution for making the concrete resistant to weathering.
The test procedure is taken from code IS 2720: 1980 part 3 (Table 37.2).
37.2.3 Coarse Aggregate
The well-graded round-shaped crushed aggregates of size 20 mm as per IS 2386:

1963-part-3 is used as coarse aggregate (Table 37.3).
Table 37.3 Properties of

Properties Coarse aggregate
coarse aggregate
Particle shape Round
Particle size 20 mm
Bulk density 1340 kg/m3
Fineness modulus 3.01%
406 R. Yadav et al.
37.2.4 Feldspar
Feldspar is the most important single group of rock-forming silicate minerals. It is

one of the second most abundant minerals available on the earth and makes up about
41% of the earth’s crust. In this present study, feldspar is partially replaced with
cement up to 25% at regular intervals of 5% (Fig. 37.1 and Tables 37.4 and 37.5).
Fig. 37.1 Feldspar Powder
Table 37.4 Chemical

Oxide Chemical composition (%)
composition of quartz sand
Magnesium oxide 0.006
Ferrous oxide 0.215
Calcium oxide 0.010
Aluminum hydroxide 0.769
Silicon dioxide 99.02
Titanium oxide 0.078
Water 0.020
Table 37.5 Chemical

Oxide Chemical composition (%)
composition of feldspar
Silicon dioxide 64.57
Aluminum hydroxide 18.28
Sodium oxide 0.09
Potassium oxide 16.01
Calcium oxide –
Barium oxide 0.04
37.3.1 Compressive Test
The compressive test was performed when cement was partially replaced with
feldspar with different percentages (5, 10, 15, 20, 25%), respectively, for M40 grade
of concrete at different ages such as 7, 28, and 60 days, respectively.
It was observed that the compressive strength of concrete decreased with the
increase in the percentage of feldspar (Fig. 37.2).
The mean compressive strength of concrete at 28 days is maximum when cement
is partially replaced with 5% feldspar. It has then decreased steadily.
The mean compressive strength of feldspar at 60 days is maximum when cement
is partially replaced with 5% feldspar. It has then decreased steadily (Figs. 37.3 and
37.4).
Fig. 37.2 Strength of concrete partially replaced with feldspar at 28 days

408 R. Yadav et al.
Fig. 37.3 Strength of

concrete at 7 days
Fig. 37.4 Strength of

concrete partially replaced
with feldspar after 60 days
The experimental results showed that the mean compressive strength of concrete
decreased with the increase in the percentage of feldspar after 7 days, and the
maximum strength was achieved at 5%.
Mix design leads to the development of a concrete specification. A mix of M40
grade concrete was used and designed as per relevant Indian Standard specifications
in the present investigations (Table 37.6).
Table 37.6 Mix design for

Cement (kg) Fine aggregate Coarse aggregate w/c ratio
M40 concrete
(kg) (kg)
534.21 508.88 949.67 0.38
References
1. Effect of Quartz Powder.: quartz sand and water curing regimes on mechanical properties of
uhpc using response surface methodology—Mohammad Ali Mosaberpanah, OzgirEren
2. Effect of Feldspar.: mica and clay minerals on compressive strength of mortar Atiya Tugrul,
SelahattinHasdemir, MuratYilmaz
3. Effect of Mineral powders derived from industrial wastes on selected mechanical properties of
concrete—Anna Galinska, Slawomir, CzarBecki
4. Effect of Mineral admixtures and quartz sand on workability of compressive strength of self
compacting concrete—Gayatri Komati, Ravi Kumar Garee , Sri Vinay ChowdaryDasari
5. Divya, E., Shantini, R., ArulKumaran, S.: Study on Behaviour of concrete partially replacing
quartz sand as fine aggregate
6. Kumar, A., Sharma, K., Dixit, A.R.: A review of the mechanical and thermal properties of
graphene and its hybrid polymer nanocomposites for structural applications. J. Mater. Sci.
54(8), 5992–6026
106–114
51(5), 671–680
multiple layer Grpahene/epoxy nanocomposites. Curr. Nanosci. 14(3), 252–262
10. Cementitious composition containing feldspar and pozzalanic particulate material and method
of making said composition—AllenPratt
11. Effects of quartz powder on micro structure and key properties of cement paste—Run Sheng
Lin, Xiao-Yong Wang , Gui- YuShang
12. Bharadwaj, G., Sharma, K., Tiwari, A.K.: Performance analysis of hybrid PCM by doping
Graphene. Mater. Today: Proc. 26, 850–853 (2020)
13. Singh, R.P., Sharma, K., Mausam, K.: Dispersion and stability of metal oxide nanoparticles in
aqueous suspension: a review. Mater. Today: Proc. 26, 2021–2025 (2020)
14. Broekmans, M.A.T.M.: Failure of greenstone, jasper and CataClasite aggregate in bituminous
concrete due to studded tyres: similarities and differences
15. Yang, Q., Zhang, S., Huang, S., Yeb, H.: Effect of ground quartz sand on properties of
high- strength concrete in the steam-autoclaved curingExperimental Investigation On Mechan-
ical Properties Of Concrete Containing Quartz Powder And Silica Fume With Steel Fibre -
P.Jayanthi, M.Bharath,K.Kanchana
16. Jayanthi, P., Bharath, M., Kanchana, K.: Experimental investigation on mechanical properties
of concrete containing quartz powder and silica fume with steel fibre
17. Chaturvedi, R.: Molding sand nano fluidization role in ceramic substitute. J. Green Eng. 10(11),
11540–11545 (2020)
Chapter 38
A Review of Pick and Place Operation
Using Computer Vision and ROS
Aditya Mathur, Chetan Bansal, Sandeep Chauhan ,

and Omprakash Yadav
Abstract The requirements for more efficient and easily modifiable techniques have
provoked the fast advancement in the domain of robotics. The improvement of canny
robots prompts the capacity of them to turn into an administrator profoundly profi-
cient and ready to adjust to a wide scope of issues. In any case, notwithstanding
the few automated arrangements accessible, most of the current modern robots do
not utilize the Robotic Operative System (ROS) and have restrictions as far as self-
sufficiently right mistakes during their assignments. Controlling a robotic arm for
applications such as object segmentation with the utilization of vision sensors would
require vigorous picture processing and calculation to perceive and distinguish the
object when using an image processing heavy approach, while a more traditional
approach relies on sensors and partial automation in most cases. This paper is coordi-
nated toward compiling the important computer vision techniques for pick and place
operation along with the underlying factors that make them better than traditional
techniques.
38.1 Introduction
Modern robots, because of their extraordinary speed, accuracy, and cost-effectiveness

in redundant errands, presently will, in general, be utilized rather than manual work
in computerized creation lines. These amazing machines are not autonomous, as
they require manual fundamental operation calibration, for example, adjustment and
direction arranging to accomplish characterized assignments [1]. The utmost impor-
tance was given in the development of the robots for the future to make the robot
fully independent [2].
The issue of trajectory planning is a major one in advanced mechanics and
characterizes a fleeting movement law with a given mathematical way, so certain
prerequisites are set for the direction purposes [1].
A. Mathur · C. Bansal · S. Chauhan (B) · O. Yadav

Department of Mechanical Engineering, G L Bajaj Institute of Technology and Management,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2857-3_39
412 A. Mathur et al.
38.2 Robotic Arm and Their Applications
The mechanical manipulators have pulled in generous interest from various indus-
tries. They present key qualities for smoothing out not just daily tasks but even niche
applications such as sanitization and disinfection. One of the most important aspects
of a robot is the end-effector and is an important aspect in applications like pick and
place robot [3]. Instances of utilizations for these pick and place robot include trans-
portation of hardware, pick and place of objects to recently characterize focused
on often risky and blocked off undertakings [4]. Industrial robots have been very
significant in enhancing the assembling measures. In essence, pick and place robots
perform the operation of picking up the object and placing it at a specific place,
according to design and requirement parameters [5].
38.2.1 Applications of Robotics Arm
Mechanical robots perform explicit tedious errands such as welding or painting

parts in vehicle manufacturing plants. With the improvement of sensors and gadgets
for human–robot connection, robotic manipulators are progressively utilized in less
controlled climate, such as high-accuracy surgery, putting anything in the same
orientation at specified locations [3, 6].
There are numerous fields where robotics is widely used. Some important ones
are discussed here:
Robotic arms in manufacturing: The robots are used for spot welding assign-
ments in assembling plants; however, as technology developed, the scope of tasks
that robotic arms could perform additionally extended [7]. The advances in tech-
nology include the expanding assortment for end-of-arm tooling that has opened up.
This implies that Robotic arms can play out a wide scope of errands past welding,
relying upon the instruments that are connected to the furthest limit of their arms [8].
Current developments in end-of-arm tools incorporate; 3D Printing apparatus heads
and for sheet metal working [9].
Robotic arms in healthcare: Robots are evolving the healthcare sector tremen-
dously and are easily seen in actions in the neighborhood hospitals. Generally, these
robots look like R2D2 from Star Wars more than they do a humanoid, yet they have
a major impact in the field of medications [7]. Robotic technologies show up in
numerous zones that straightforwardly influence patient care. They can be utilized
to sanitize patient rooms and working suites, diminishing dangers for patients and
clinical staff [10]. They work in labs to take tests and to transport, examine, and store
them.
Robotics in the food processing industry: Robots are helpful for food processing
by numerous manners. A few robots, for instance, were able to make pizzas with no
human mediation [11].
38 A Review of Pick and Place Operation Using Computer … 413
Besides these, some robots were developed that find applications for agricultural
purposes [12].
38.3 Robot Operating System
Robot Operating System (or ROS), a Meta Operating system, is a collection of pack-
ages built on top of an Operating System [13]. It offers many OS functionalities
like low-level device control along with the implementation of common functional-
ities like hardware abstraction, package management, etc. ROS is not an Operating
System in the traditional sense of process management and scheduling; rather, it
provides a structured communications layer above the host operating systems of a
heterogeneous compute cluster. It particularly supports simulators like the gazebo,
Rviz which are very instrumental in making and visualizing robots.
38.4 Pick and Place Operation
Controlling a robotic arm for applications, for example, object arranging with the
utilization of vision sensors, would require a vigorous picture preparing calculation to
perceive and distinguish the objective object [1, 14]. The technique involves image-
processing capabilities and requires coordination toward improving the picture
preparing calculation, which is a pre-imperative for the full activity of a pick and spot
Robotic arm expected for object arranging task [15]. Toward such kind of assignment,
first, the articles are recognized. Furthermore, it is cultivated by including extrac-
tion calculations [16]. Next, the separate picture (boundaries in consistence with the
classifier) is fed to the classifier to perceive, after which the collected information is
used alongside its directions to be prepared for the robotic arm to execute the pick
and place task [17].
For the task of pick and place a single object, the pick and place cycle consists of
the following tasks:
• Identify and understand the objective item on the rack.
• Plan so that we can perform movement toward the object on the rack.
• Efficiently grasp the object without causing any harm to our surrounding
environment.
• Do a clean movement on the desired path to drop-off point.
• Place/Stow the object.
38.5 Pick and Place Operation by Using Computer Vision
Computer vision is a technology in high demand nowadays and brings a revolution

in terms of how many industrial operations are utilizing it. It is very scalable, and
according to our needs, we can use a camera with better sensitivity [18]. It keeps
an eye on the application for distinguishing and examining little parts, directing the
regulators. In the event that we take a gander at the manufacturing industry, vision is
generally significant. It very well may be utilized for various modern applications,
for example, welding, painting, programmed pick and spot objects, military activity,
in space, in submerged activity, in agribusiness activity, and so on [10, 17]. The most
costly and tedious assignment is to put objects in a particular way known as a palletizer
[17]. The fundamental commitment of advanced mechanics is in palletizing.
In a typical vision-based pick and place robot, right off the bat, pictures of objects
are captured using image processing tools [1]. Furthermore, an image processing tool
is used to determine the operated work pieces’ color, size, and shape [18]. Thirdly,
after fundamental bodies are discovered, the coordinates of the centroid have to be
accurately mapped [19]. Finally, all the arranged items dependent on the shape, size,
and color are provided to the manipulator; it is then given the command to fetch
the object [8, 20]. To get the edges of the target object in an image, edge detection
techniques in OpenCV library are used [21]. This is essential and the first step in
finding the object. There are various algorithms for edge detection, and canny is the
most used [8, 21]. It detects the edges by looking at the local maxima of the gradient
of that particular image pixel value and setting up a threshold value [7]. Once our
target image has detected the object, it provides the coordinates, and transform is
applied to it to obtain the real-world coordinates [22]. Then a manipulator can go and
reach out to get the object and stow/place it at the desired location [16]. A typical
computer vision-based technique used in industrial applications is shown through a
block diagram in Fig. 38.1 [23].
Fig. 38.1 Block diagram of a computer vision-based control system

38.5.1 Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) and Their Usage

in Smart Pick and Place
In an ANN-based system, the images are fed to the neural network to be processed;
often convolutional neural networks (CNN) are used for such applications owing to
their superior results in dealing with sequential data in the form of images or even
audio messages [3]. In the case of pick and place operation, a classifier is made and
supervised learning is used to teach the neural network to learn from features and
detect and identify various objects instead of using image processing capabilities
every single iteration [20].
All the techniques involving only the use of a single camera for pick and place
operation require additional components to do successful pick and place operation
since a camera can only operate in 2D (i.e., X, Y) and require either sensor or multiple
cameras to capture the image in its entirety [1, 3]. On the other hand, systems equipped
with 3D (i.e., X, Y, Z) vision can identify objects even if they are randomly posed and
correct the orientation [17]. This is revolutionary in its own way as it reduces the need
for any additional equipment and helps make the overall system simple and compact.
Stereo cameras make use of 3D point cloud for this operation [7]. The system that
works on this concept performs activities; range sensing, image segmentation, object
recognition, and pose estimation [18]. The work for the range sensor is to estimate
the depth of the object.
Classifier for Image segmentation: The use of a classifier, as its name suggests, is
to classify the objects into various “classes.” It is trained with the help of an Artificial
Neural Network (ANN) [24]. The training of a classifier starts with splitting data
between test and training blocks, then we need to give it a certain amount of data to
learn from, and it comes under the umbrella of Supervised learning because of this
reason [7, 14]. After this, we decide the number of layers and the composition of
those [3]. In addition, for a classifier, we need to implement the cost function; after
that, we define the activation function [25]. In training a classifier, implementing
the Feed-Forward Propagation and Cost function is vital, as shown in Eq. 38.1. The
cost function has to be regularized. The learning rate, λ, and the number of layers
are the factors that determine it [3]. In the final steps of training a classifier, the
hyperparameters are tuned according to the application, and it often a task that is
very experimental [12, 19]. The general rule of thumb for more accuracy is more
number of iterations [3] which would lead to a better model and output.
1 (i)
m k
J (θ ) = −yk log h θ x (t) k − 1 − yk(i) log(1 − h θ x (i) )k (38.1)
m i=k k=1
38.5.2 Implementation in ROS
The pick and place activity can be characterized as a fairly simple assignment that
requires a few levels of control. Ordinarily, this approach can be separated into three
levels, with an expanded degree of significance [20].
All applications utilizing pick and place procedures have a general environment
(or world) just as articles and target areas. Truth be told, a critical advance in pick
and place approaches is the distinguishing proof and acknowledgment of that world.
Consequently, level one of this methodology is to distinguish the environment by
making a 3D model of the world [20]. Making such a model and preparing the
acquired 3D model makes it conceivable to recognize all articles in a given scene. In
this methodology, we adopt a world in gazebo simulator where we are performing the
operations. This permits one to totally distinguish all scenes and all items identified
with the scene, saving information identified with every one of them in a simulated
environment.
After constructing the 3D model along with the CAD model of the robot, the
robot should have the option to react depending on the 3D model yields [19]. This is
vital as the robot’s ability to move is innate to the pick and place activities, and often
times the model fails to pick the desired payload if the conversion has not been done
successfully [7]. After the initial processes, the inverse kinematics and the model
data are utilized to drive the development of the joint movements of the pick and
place robot, which constitutes level two of implementation through ROS [19].
As referenced earlier, the entire pick and place robot application is controlled by a
control loop in the majority of techniques, which is level three of ROS implementa-
tion. A control loop does the job by providing feedback through forward and inverse
kinematic requests in ROS nodes, which help prevent and alter the path and correct
the trajectory in pick and place operation [20].
38.6 Future Work
Our efforts are to find the alternative for the traditional bin picking, which is
commonly used by many industries nowadays. We have an object whose shape,
size, volume, position, and orientation are the same or predefined in traditional
bin picking. Depth Camera and computer vision, AI, and ROS can eliminate the
constraints mentioned above in bin picking and even deliver better results.
We hope that our work will encourage others to develop their interest in ROS,
which we found also has significance in introducing modern robotics concepts with
intelligent industrial pick and place robots, leading to the intelligent manufacturing
system. Using ROS gives practical exposure to ideas and broadens the thinking
because it makes all the things possible in the real world to be implemented inside a
simulated environment.
It was also found that Machine Learning could be even more useful with the advent
of Reinforcement Learning in the robotics applications such as pick and place robot.
Very few research works are available in this area and thus have tremendous scope
to explore full autonomy and require no human assistance.
38.7 Conclusions
The traditional pick and place robots do not find applications in the industry these
days, but the underlying concepts are vital in improving current pick and place
operation techniques. Mostly camera is placed on the upper portion for the pick and
place operation, while in some cases, it is mounted near the point of contact. The
Neural Networks usage brings about a fundamentally new approach to the whole
process and will eventually make the process even smoother with more training
data. Depending on the requirement, the techniques can be chosen and be effectively
utilized. For example, a neural network approach might be more experimental in
nature as compared to the approach of using depth cameras. So depth cameras would
be a better choice to work in the industry for quicker and accurate results, while the
neural network approach could be more useful where cost is an issue.
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Chapter 39
Efficient Activated Metal Inert Gas
Welding Procedures by Various Fluxes
for Welding Process
Aman Sharma, Rishabh Chaturvedi, and Pradeep Kumar Singh
Abstract In the past years, so many developments and innovations are made to
increase the performance of the welding machine by reducing the power consump-
tion, cost, labor skills, and many more. In a row, the MIG welding process is one
of the welding processes that increase a material’s welding properties at the same
consumption of power and resources. A-MIG welding is wildly used to optimize
the parameter of MIG welding. A steady flow welding powerfully delivers elec-
trical vitality, directed over the bend through a segment of exceptionally ionized gas
and metal fumes known as plasma. Metal idle gas (MIG) welding is most regularly
used to welder thick segments of tempered steel and non-ferrous metals, such as
aluminum, magnesium, and copper compounds. Three sorts of oxides, Fe2 O3 , SiO2 ,
and MgCO3 , were utilized to research the impact of initiating transition helped gas
metal bend welding (GMAW) on weld dab math, precise twisting, and mechanical
properties. The most noteworthy impact on the inward structure factor was knowl-
edge about an instance of MnO dynamic transition, which diminished the inside
structure factor by 20%. If there should arise an occurrence of the outside structure
factor, the applied SiO2 dynamic transition caused the greatest increment, which is
37%. In the hardness dispersion and the microstructure of the joints, including the
weld metal and the heath-influenced zone, no critical contrasts were experienced
contrasted with the example welded with no transition material.
A. Sharma (B) · R. Chaturvedi · P. K. Singh

R. Chaturvedi
P. K. Singh
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2857-3_40
39.1 Introduction
Metal inactive gas welding is known as gas metal arc welding, which uses an expend-
able conductor to generate arc between workpiece and electrode [1, 2]. The inert gas
argon, in rare cases helium (more expensive) gases, is used to protect the weld
bead from atmosphere contaminates, these gases are also called shielding gas, and
filler materials are normally used [3, 4]. The procedure grants those drivers more
amazing control through those welds over contending procedures, for example,
protected metal circular segment welding. Furthermore, gas metal circular segment
welding, permitting for stronger, higher personal satisfaction welds. MIG welding
is utilized to joint ferrous Furthermore non-ferrous materials, for example, steel,
copper, aluminum, magnesium, nickel, What’s more their alloys [5, 6].
MIG welding procedure has failed to weld a thick section of material in a single
pass, and it has low productivity. To recover the performance of MIG welding, trig-
gered flux is used to increase the depth of penetration in a single pass. Activated flux
is mixed with the acetone and blinder and applied thin past on the workpiece by brush
or spray [7, 8]. A-MIG welding system makes it could reasonably be expected to
heighten the accepted MIG welding hones for joining those more than 10 mm thick
plate by absolute pasquinade with no edge preparation. The mechanical properties
moved forward contrasted with those welds made without any flux material. Over
our examination, we investigated the impacts of eight distinctive animated fluxes and
mixtures on the point of interest throughout GMAW utilizing animated protecting
gas [9, 10]. In the event that of circular segment welding the main impetus of the
struck them streams in the weld pool could have a chance to be originated starting
with four separate phenomena, those buoyancies, that surface tension (which brought
about the with the goal known as Marangoni impact), the high-speed development
of the circular segment plasma, and the Lorentz energy [11, 12] (Fig. 39.1).
Investigation on the consequence of flux coated gas tungsten arc welding on
304L. In this investigation, the researcher used SiO2 flux, and the result shows that
the penetration increased up to 200%, the ferrite number increased up to 14%, and the
Fig. 39.1 Schematic diagram of MIG welding

39 Efficient Activated Metal Inert Gas Welding Procedures … 421
hardness value of the material also increased [13–15]. Study on the consequence of
ternary fluxes on the depth of penetration in A-TIG welding of AISI 409 ferritic stain-
less steel. In this study, the flux increased the depth of penetration up to 100% [16,
17]. Xie et al. [18] have researched on impacts about nano-particles fortifying initi-
ating flux on the microstructures. Also, mechanical properties of TIG-welded AZ31
first mass of the magnesium compound joints. Those specialists utilized blended
TiO2 and nano-SiC particles as actuated flux and demonstrated that microstructure,
microhardness. On combination zone, extreme elasticity might have been improved
[19, 20].
Based on previous research, the present investigation deals with three types of
activated fluxes applied to the workpiece prior to welding. The bead geometry is
then compared after welding with and without using activated fluxes. The effect of
the different fluxes is also studied.
39.2 Experimental Procedure
39.2.1 Base Metal and Its Composition
The material utilized in this learning is austenitic stainless steel 301. The composition
of the base metal is given in Table 39.1. The work pieces were cut in the dimension
of 100 mm × 50 mm × 10 mm plates. Before welding, the work pieces were grinded
with 220 grit emery papers, and it was cleaned with acetone.
Table 39.1 Conformation of

Component Percentage weight (%)
material
C 0.054
Si 0.284
Mn 1.11
P 0.021
S 0.008
Cr 14.25
Mo 0.093
Ni 6.15
Co 0.067
Ti 0.009
V 0.054
Fe Rest
39.2.2 Preparation of Flux
The weld bead geometry of welding should be studied after applying the flux paste
on the surface of work piece. The pasted were made with the mixing of acetone and
a very small amount of sodium silicate as a binder and apply with the help of brush
or spray shown in figure acetone has a tendency to vaporize and leave the flux on
the surface of work piece and sodium silicate has a tendency to sticking and bind the
flux particle together (Fig. 39.2).
39.3 Experimental Procedure
In the first step, the welding parameters are decided on the basis of several trial
experiments and are listed in Table 39.2.
Prior to welding the metal power is mixed with acetone and sodium silicate (as
a binder) to make paint-like solution and applied a very thin layer of approximately
0.2 mm on the workpiece surface with the help of brush or spray. Uniformity in
Fig. 39.2 Flux preparation
Table 39.2 Process

Parameters Value Units
parameter for welding
Welding current 180 A
Total arc voltage evolution 12–18 V
Travel speed 120 mm/min
Arc gap 2.5 mm
Diameter of electrode 2.6 mm
Gas flow rate 14 L/min
Fig. 39.3 Photograph of applied fluxes a MnO2 flux, b TiO2 flux, and c SiO2 flux
Fig. 39.4 Photograph of weld bead on workpiece a without flux b MnO2 flux c TiO2 flux d SiO2
flux
applied flux is most important to get good quality of the weld and more depth of
penetration (Fig. 39.3).
TIG welding is done on the work pieces, which are coated with the fluxes
and without flux. The pattern of the TIG welding on the workpiece shown below
(Fig. 39.4).
39.4 Stereo Zoom Microscope Analysis
The weld bead measurement was done as per UNS SS30100 Standard on stainless
steel specimen on the stereo zoom microscope analyzer available at SLIET Longowal
(Punjab). For stereozoom microscope analysis, the specimens have been prepared
using a standard procedure such as grinding, polishing using successively fine grades
of emery up to 3000 grit size and Al2 O3 power. It helped to remove scratches on
the surface that are to be metallographically analyzed. Before analysis, the etchant
is used to reveal bead geometry. A stereo zoom analyzer is used to measure the bead
geometry like bead width, depth of penetration, and heat-affected zone (HAZ) of the
specimens.
39.5 Results
Stereo zoom analysis of the weld bead with and without flux is represented as follows.
39.5.1 Effect of Weld Bead with and Without Flux of Weld

Bead
In conventional TIG welding, the direction of convection in the weld is toward the
edge from the center of the weld. This convection shows a low depth of penetration
and wide weld width. But in activated TIG welding, the convection is reverse from
edge to center to the weld. The images show the differences between conventional
TIG welding and activated TIG welding (Figs. 39.5, 39.6, 39.7 and 39.8).
The results show that the application of fluxes increases the depth of penetration.
MnO2 activated flux has the lowest penetration among the other fluxes up to 4.21 mm
and SiO2 activated flux has the highest penetration depth up to 5.18 mm.
Fig. 39.5 Stereo zoom

analyzer images for without
flux

analyzer images for MnO2
flux

analyzer images for TiO2
flux
Fig. 39.8
Stereozoomanalyser images
for SiO2 flux
39.5.2 Effect of Aspect Ratio with and Without Fluxes
In conventional welding, the surface tension at the midpoint of the weld is less
than the edge of the weld that shows molten metal takes place from center to edge;
this phenomenon is called the Marangoni effect. Due to the phenomena of surface
tension in conventional TIG, the welding depth of penetration is less than the width
of the weld bead [4]. Therefore the aspect ratio in conventional welding is 0.426.
The application of flux constricts the arc to the center of the weld bead; this leads the
surface tension toward the center of the weld bead, and the penetration is achieved
more than the conventional TIG welding process. It is observed that the use of SiO2
activated flux provides a better aspect ratio as compared to other used flux in study
(Table 39.3 and Fig. 39.9).
39.6 Conclusions
• From the study following conclusion are drawn.

• The use of flux is more beneficial as compared to conventional TIG welding.
Table 39.3 Aspect ratio for

TIG welding Depth of Weld width Aspect ratio
various fluxes
process penetration (mm)
(mm)
Without flux 2.39 5.61 0.426
Using MnO2 4.21 4.57 0.921
flux
Using TiO2 4.53 5.93 0.764
flux
Using SiO2 5.18 5.46 0.949
flux
TIG Welding process Depth of Weld Aspect ratio

penetration(mm) width (mm)
Without flux 2.39 5.61 0.426

Using MnO2 4.21 4.57 0.921
flux
Using TiO2 flux 4.53 5.93 0.764
Using SiO2 flux 5.18 5.46 0.949
Fig. 39.9 Aspect ratio
• It is observed that the aspect ratio with flux is increased 80–122% for different
coated flux.
• The extreme feature ratio experiential is 0.949 for SiO2 flux. So it is extra
advantageous to usage SiO2 flux.
• It is observed that using SiO2 flux results in minimum heat exaggerated zone
(HAZ), results in unaffected strength of weld and base metal.
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Chapter 40
Computational Analysis of Heat Transfer
Characteristics of TiO and CuO2 Mixed
with Water for Heat Exchanger
Applications
Anuj Gupta, Vinod Kumar Yadav, Rishabh Kumar,

and Nirbhay Singh Parmar
Abstract In this paper, computational determination of heat transfer features of

TiO and CuO2 , mixed with aqua, as a base fluid for heat exchanger application, is
conducted using ANSYS® Fluent software. The parameters like Nusselt number, heat
transfer and skin friction coefficients are dealt with in detail. The computed results
were then compared with the results of Al2 O3 /water mixture. The results revealed
that with an increased flow rate, the value of Nusselt number, and consequently
the rate of heat transfer, improves significantly by using TiO and CuO2 particles in
aqua. However, the fluid’s inlet temperature has insignificant effect on the radiator
performance. The TiO concentration in water showed highest rate of heat transfer
compared to Al2 O3 and CuO2 . Furthermore, CuO2 exhibited highest skin friction
coefficient when compared with Al2 O3 and TiO. In addition, Al2 O3 executed least
Nusselt number and skin friction coefficient compared to CuO2. The rate of heat
transfer gets enhanced by about 4–5 times by using TiO and CuO2 in place of Al2 O3
under all operating conditions. On the other hand, the heat transfer characteristics of
TiO and CuO2 do not vary much and are in close match with each other.
A. Gupta
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Vishveshwarya Group of Institutions, Dadri, UP, India
V. K. Yadav (B) · R. Kumar
Department of Mechanical Engineering, G. L. Bajaj Institute of Technology and Management,
N. S. Parmar
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indus Institute of Technology and Management, Kanpur,
UP, India
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2857-3_41
430 A. Gupta et al.
40.1 Introduction
With the decrease in size of engineering equipment, the need for compact heat
exchanger increases. On the other hand, due to the restricted flow area of tubes, the
heat transfer coefficient of liquid needs enhancement. Nanofluids containing metal
as foreign particles exhibit superior performance. Nanofluids containing metals or
oxides of metal particles of the order of less than 100 nm mixed with primary coolant
are finding applications in automotive radiators as a substitute for baseline coolant
[1]. The metal or metal oxides improve the heat transfer performance of the working
fluid and significantly improves the heat transfer rates. The presence of nanoparticles
even in a small extent improves the surface area, and consequently the heat transfer
rates are improved.
Shah and Kiran Kumar [2] experimentally studied the effect of varying the mass
flow rate and air velocity over 15 nm SiO2 nanofluid using water as base fluid. They
reported higher values of effectiveness and heat transfer rates with an increased
concentration of nanoparticles compared to water. They also reported that the effec-
tiveness of the heat exchanger reduces with increasing Reynolds number due to the
presence of efficient spiral heat exchangers. Tijani and Sudirman [3] analyzed the
performance of water and anti-freeze-based nanofluids using ANSYS fluent solver
for the automotive radiator. Water and Ethylene glycols with 50–50% concentration
was prepared as base fluid. They added nanoparticles of Al2 O3 and CuO having
0.05, 0.15 and 0.3% concentrations in the base fluid and evaluated the performance
keeping constant mass flow rate. They observed that CuO exhibited superior heat
transfer characteristics with 0.3% nanoparticle and flow rate of 6 litres per minute
(lpm). Contreras et al. [4] evaluated the thermos-hydraulic characteristics of silver
and graphene nanofluids (0.01%, 0.05% and 0.1%) on automobile radiators through
experimentation in presence of a base fluid containing 50% water and 50% ethylene
glycol. The mass flow rates were varied in the range of 0.08–0.11 kg per second (kg/s).
The inlet temperature of the coolant was varied from 55 to 85 °C and the air velocity
was fixed as 2.1 m/s. They recorded an enhancement of 4.1% heat transfer rate at a
specific pumping power and mass flow rate. They further observed that the rate of
heat transfer gets enhanced by 4.4% by using silver nanofluids. On the other hand, the
grapheme mixture exhibited a drop in thermo-hydraulic performance compared to its
original fluid. Selvam et al. [5] experimentally evaluated the heat capacity, density,
thermal conductivity, pressure drop, viscosity and convection coefficient of automo-
tive radiators running on graphene nanoplatelets (0.1–0.5% volume concentration)
with water-ethylene glycol mixture. The flow rate was varied from 10 g per second to
100 g per second, temperature from 35 to 45 °C and surrounding air velocity was set
at 3 m/s and determined the convection coefficient. They reported that by increasing
the graphene nanoplatelets concentration, the convective heat transfer coefficient
increases significantly. In addition, a rise in the pressure drop of the nanofluids with
increased concentration and mass flow rate of graphene was noticed. They reported
that the heat transfer coefficient improves due to increased thermal conductivity,
reduced boundary layer thickness and particle clustering. Furthermore, they showed
40 Computational Analysis of Heat Transfer Characteristics … 431
that nanofluids having 0.5% (volume) is significant in laminar flow region when
maintained at 45 °C in automobile cooling systems, exhibiting less pressure drop
and enhanced heat transfer coefficient. Sahoo et al. [6] analyzed the louvered fin-
type automotive radiator using water-based CuO, Silver, TiO2 , Cu and Fe2 O3 in
Al2 O3 nanofluids with 50–50 volume fraction. They found that Al2 O3 -silver/water
hybrid nanofluid exhibit superior heat transfer rate, effectiveness, pressure drop and
pumping power compared to base fluid (water) followed by Copper, Copper-oxide,
Fe2 O3 and TiO2 . They also reported that rate of heat flow, coolant flow and pumping
power gets reduced for Al2 O3 -silver/water-hybrid nanofluids for similar radiator size.
On the other hand, the radiator size gets reduced and pumping power increases with
Al2 O3 -silver/water hybrid nanofluid compared to the base fluid (water) for the same
coolant and heat flow rates. Naraki et al. [7], through experimentation, investigated
the coefficient of heat transfer of water/Copper-oxide nanofluids under laminar flow
condition (Reynolds number 100-1000) using car radiator. They observed that the
overall heat transfer coefficient improves significantly using nanofluids compared to
the base fluid. On the other hand, a decrement in overall heat transfer coefficient,
with an increase in inlet temperature of the nanofluids (from 50 to 80 °C), was
observed. Peyghambarzadeh et al. [8] compared the heat transfer behavior of H2 O
and EG, in their pure form, with binary mixtures prepared by them in the laboratory.
In addition, appropriate quantities of Al2 O3 nanoparticle were also seeded to the
base fluid to study the change in car radiator’s heat transfer performance through
experimentation. The mass flow rates of the liquid varied from 2 to 6 lpm and the
inlet temperature of the fluid also varied during experiments. Their results revealed
that nanofluids significantly improve the rates of heat transfer compared to their base
fluids. They reported that the maximum boost in Nusselt number, by about 40%, was
noticed for both nanofluids under best-operating conditions. Furthermore, the rate
of heat transfer of nanofluids is highly dependent upon the particle concentration.
In addition, the flow rates were independent of inlet temperature. Leong et al. [9]
studied the behavior of copper nanofluids, based on ethylene glycol, in automobile
radiators. Their studies inferred that the heat transfer performance improves with the
usage of ethylene glycol nanofluids (using copper) as the base fluid in comparison
with pure ethylene glycol. A reduction in fair frontal area was also evaluated.
The literature review reveals that good number of research data is available to
judge the performance of automotive radiators using nanofluids like SiO2 , Al2 O3 ,
CuO, Ag, TiO2 , Cu, Fe2 O3 and graphene. But the performance analysis using TiO
and CuO2 is seldom reported in literatures. The present work aims to compute the
heat transfer behavior and thermal performance of TiO and CuO2 mixed with aqua
base for industrial and domestic heat exchanger applications.
40.2 Materials and Method
The present work aims to find the most appropriate nanofluid, that may serve as
a better coolant, for radiators compared to pure water. The performance of the
432 A. Gupta et al.
Table 40.1 Calculated

Properties Titanium oxide Copper dioxide
properties of nanofluids
Density (kg/m3 ) 893.205 1523.8
Specific heat (kJ/kgK) 4172.423 2666.75
Conductivity (W/mK) 0.810 1.23
water-based coolant homogeneously mixed with Titanium oxide, Copper dioxide

and Aluminum oxide is investigated numerically.
40.2.1 Thermo-Physical Properties of Fluids Used

in the Present Work
The properties of the materials (nanofluids) used in the present work are calculated
using Eqs. 40.1–40.3. The numerical values of the material properties are presented
in Table 40.1.
Density, ρn f = ϕρ p + (1 − ϕ) · ρb f C pb f (40.1)
ϕρ p C pp + (1 − ϕ) · ρb f C pb f
Specific Heat, C pn f = (40.2)
ρn f

k p + (∅ − 1) · kb f − ϕ · (∅ − 1) · kb f + k p
Conductivity, kn f = kb f (40.3)
k p + (∅ − 1) · kb f + ϕ · kb f − k p
where ρ denotes density, C denoted specific heat, k denotes thermal conductivity and
ϕ for the proportion of nanoparticles in fluid. In subscripts of notations, nf represents
nanofluid, while p is for the nanoparticle and bf is for the base fluid.
40.2.2 Governing Equation and Boundary Conditions
For incompressible fluids, the assumption of steady-state is applied, with assump-

tion of Newtonian flow inside the tubes. The Newtonian behavior of aqua-based
nanofluids for nanoparticle with about 4% concentration was observed. Inlet velocity
and temperature of the tubes are uniform. The condition of thermal equilibrium was
assured between the base particles and nanoparticles. These assumptions were used
for specific heat capacity computation of the working fluid. Particle deposition effect
was neglected due to the fact that the concentration and size of nanoparticles were
small and presumably may be treated as homogeneous fluid. The momentum and
continuity equations are presented using Eqs. 40.4 and 40.5.
∇.V = 0 (40.4)

ρn f · (∇ · V )V = −∇ P + μn f + μt ∇ 2 · V (40.5)
The turbulence viscosity was computed using the standard form of k-ε model
(Eq. 40.6).
k2
μt = Cμ (40.6)
∈
The energy conservation equation is shown in Eq. 40.7.
ρn f + C pn f (V.∇)T = kn f ∇ 2 T (40.7)
The investigation was performed in laminar flow regime with the condition of no-
slip on walls of the tube. Following boundary conditions were subjected to nanofluid:
• Inlet mass flow rate of the fluid: 2, 3, 4, 5 m3 /s.
• Turbulence intensity magnitude: 10%
• Convective heat transfer coefficient: 150 W/m2 K with air at 303 K (Similar to
reference [1]).
• Inlet fluid temperature: 35, 45 and 55 °C.
This paper presents the results of computational investigations obtained for three
different nanofluids (Aluminum, Titanium and Copper-based) at different mass flow
rates and at different temperature conditions. ANSYS Fluent 17.2 Academic Version
[10] has been used for the investigation of the present study.
40.3.1 Validation
Delavari and Hashemabadi [1] experimentally evaluated the effect of convective

heat transfer, in forced condition, in an aqua-based nanofluids and compared the
results with water in an automotive radiator. Nanofluid (0.1–1 volume %), with five
concentrations, was prepared by adding Al2 O3 nanoparticles in water. The prepared
fluid was passed via radiator having 34 vertical tubes of elliptical cross-section. The
air was passed through cross-flow inside the tubes with fixed speed. The flow rate of
the liquid was varied in the range of 2–5 lpm to ensure fully turbulent behavior (9000
< Re < 23000). In addition, the effect of fluid’s entrance temperature on the coefficient
434 A. Gupta et al.
Fig. 40.1 Computational domain and mesh
of heat transfer, through the radiator, was analyzed by varying the temperature from
37 to 49 °C.
To validate the accuracy of the model developed for the present study, the results of
Delavari and Hashemabadi [1] was compared. Figure 40.1 shows the computational
domain developed for the current problem along with its mesh. At the entry-level inlet
and at the exit outlet boundary conditions were prescribed. The following parameters
were chosen for analyzing the current problem:
• Mass flow rate of the fluid: 2, 3, 4, 5 m3 /s
• Convection coefficient: 150 W/m2 K
• Pressure outlet: 0 Pa
• Inlet fluid temperature: 35, 45 and 50 °C.
Figure 40.2 compares the experimental results of Delavari and Hashemabadi [1]
with numerical results of the present work. It can be observed that similar patterns for
the variation in the Nusselt number at various fluid flow rates are encountered. This
also indicates that with increased flow rate, the Nusselt number improves, thereby
increasing the rate of heat transfer.
The surface heat flux, pressure variation along the channel and variation of fluid
temperature along the channel was also studied. Figure 40.3 presents the variation
of surface heat flux with distance at different mass flow rates. It can be seen that
with increased flow rate, the surface heat transfer increases and gets stabilized while
passing through the bundle of tubes.
Figure 40.4 presents the variations in the working fluid’s pressure due to skin
friction. This also infers that with increased forking fluid’s flow rate, pressure loss
along the length of the tube increases as a result of which the maintenance cost of the
tube may increase due to the presence of metal particles in the working fluid chosen
in this study.
Figure 40.5 shows the variation in the working fluid’s temperature while flowing
through the tube. It can be extracted with the trends that with increased flow rate, the
difference in temperature between the inlet and exit decreases. The results support
the physics of fluid flow that may be expected in heat exchangers.
Fig. 40.2 Nusselt number variation with mass flow rate
40.3.2 Heat Flow Analysis
The heat transfer rates from the hot nanofluids through convective heat transfer mode
was investigated. Figure 40.6 represents the temperature contours of the nanofluid
(TiO) with different concentration (by varying the % volume in water). The results
infer that with increased concentration of the nanofluid, the rate of heat transfer
improves significantly. To further validate, the dimensionless Nusselt number may
prove to be a suitable parameter. Figure 40.7 presents the variation of Nusselt number
under different operating conditions with TiO nanofluid. The numerical simulations
were conducted for 1% concentration of the working fluid entering inside the domain
at various temperatures and mass flow rates. It has been observed that by increasing
the working fluid’s temperature, the Nusselt number increases thereby enhancing
the rate of heat transfer. In addition, with increased flow rate, the Nusselt number
improves following a linear trend.
Figure 40.8 presents the variation in the Nusselt number with CuO2 as working
substance. Similar pattern for the temperature change and fluid flow rates were
observed.
436 A. Gupta et al.
Fig. 40.3 Convection coefficient variation with distance
To find the most appropriate nanofluids, to be used as a cooling medium, the radi-
ator of an automobile, the Nusselt numbers obtained with Al2 O3 [1], TiO (present
work) and CuO (present work) has been compared and plotted in Fig. 40.9. The
comparison was made for fluid inlet temperature of 318 K and 1% concentration
of respective nanoparticles. The mass flow rates were set as 2, 3, 4 and 5 m3 /h. It
is observed that TiO exhibits better heat transfer capability compared to CuO2 and
Al2 O3 under all mass flow rate conditions. Furthermore, the heat transfer charac-
teristics of Al2 O3 are inferior to all the fluids studied in this work. The rate of heat
transfer gets enhanced by about 4–5 times by using TiO and CuO2 in place of Al2 O3
under all operating conditions. On the other hand, the heat transfer characteristics
of TiO and CuO2 do not vary much and are in close match with each other. The
preceding section presents the comparison of skin friction coefficient of the studied
fluid for a better understanding of the results obtained so far.
40.3.3 Skin Friction Analysis
Figure 40.10 presents the comparison of the skin friction coefficient over the inner
side of the tube for Al2 O3 (Delavari and Hashemabadi [1]), TiO (present work) and
Fig. 40.4 Pressure loss along tube length
CuO (present work). More will be the magnitude of skin friction, more wear and
tear rate in the interaction of fluid and the tube. It can be inferred that CuO2 has
maximum skin friction as compared to other two fluids while Al2 O3 exhibited the
least value of skin friction coefficient.
40.4 Conclusions
In the present work, computational analysis using ANSYS Fluent [10] was performed
to compute the heat transfer parameters (like skin friction coefficient and Nusselt
number) of some nanofluids that may be appropriate as coolant for automobile
radiators. The following conclusions were drawn:
(i) TiO exhibited highest heat transfer rate compared to Al2 O3 and CuO2.
(ii) CuO2 exhibited highest skin friction coefficient compared to Al2 O3 and TiO.
This in turn increases tube wear due to enhanced interaction between tube and
working fluid.
438 A. Gupta et al.
Fig. 40.5 Fluid temperature variation along the length of the tube
(a) (b)
Fig. 40.6 Temperature contour for TiO a with concentration of 0.1% b with concentration of 0.3%
(iii) Al2 O3 exhibited least skin friction coefficient and Nusselt number compared
to CuO2 and TiO thereby executing least heat transfer coefficient when used
as working fluid in automobile radiators.
From the numerical results of the present work, it can be inferred that water alone
in radiators as coolant may be replaced with nanofluids like TiO, Al2 O3 and CuO2
that are capable of enhancing the heat transfer rates between the tube and the fluid.
Out of these fluids, TiO improves the heat transfer rates to highest extent. These
Fig. 40.7 Nusselt number behavior for TiO at different flow rates and temperatures
nanofluids may be suitable as coolants in automobiles used for industrial and resi-
dential applications. Inclusion of these nanoparticles to very less extent may enhance
the cooling efficiency of the heat exchanging devices used in various applications.
440 A. Gupta et al.
Fig. 40.8 Nusselt number pattern with CuO2 at different flow rates and temperatures
Fig. 40.9 Nusselt number comparison between different fluid at different temperature and mass
flow rate
442 A. Gupta et al.
Fig. 40.10 Skin friction coefficient of nanofluids
References
1. Vahid, D., Hashemabadi, S.H.: CFD simulation of heat transfer enhancement of Al2 O3 /water
and Al2 O3 /ethylene glycol nanofluids in a car radiator. Appl. Thermal Eng. 73(1), 380–390
(2014)
2. Shah, S., Kiran Kumar, K.: Experimental study & heat transfer analysis on copper spiral heat
exchanger using water based SiO2 nanofluid as coolant. World J. Nano Sci. Eng. 8, 57–68
(2018)
3. Tijani, A.S., Sudirman, A.S.B.: Thermos-physical properties and heat transfer characteristics
of water/anti-freezing and Al2O3/CuO based nanofluid as a coolant for car radiator. Int. J. Heat
Mass Transf. 118, 48–57 (2018)
4. Contreras, E.M.C., Oliveira, G.A., Filho, E.P.B.: Experimental analysis of the thermohydraulic
performance of grapheme and silver nanofluids in automotive cooling systems. Int. J. Heat
Mass Transf. 132, 375–387 (2019)
5. Selvam, C., Mohan Lal, D., Harish, S.: Enhanced heat transfer performance of an automobile
radiator with graphene based suspensions. Appl. Thermal Eng. 123, 50–60 (2017)
6. Sahoo, R.R., Ghosh, P., Sarkar, J.: Performance analysis of a louvered fin automotive radiator
using hybrid nanofluid as coolant. Heat Transf. Asian Res. (2016)
7. Naraki, M., Peyghambarzadeh, S.M., Hashemabadi, S.H., Vermahmoudi, Y.: Parametric study
of overall heat transfer coefficient of CuO/water nanofluids in a car radiator. Int. J. Thermal
Sci. 66, 82–90 (2013)
8. Peyghambarzadeh, S.M., Hashemabadi, S.H., Hoseini, S.M., Seifi Jamnani, M.: Experimental
study of heat transfer enhancement using water/ethylene glycol based nanofluids as a new
coolant for car radiators. Int. Commun. Heat Mass Transf. 38, 1283–1290 (2011)
9. Leong, K.Y., Saidur, R., Kazi, S.N., Mamun, A.H.: Performance investigation of an automotive
car radiator operated with nanofluid-based coolants (nanofluid as a coolant in a radiator). Appl.
Thermal Eng. 30, 2685–2692 (2010)
10. ANSYS® Academic Research Mechanical, Release 17.2
Chapter 41
Investigation on Automobile Fire and Its
Root Causes
Shailendra Singh Chauhan, Aditya Kumar Bhati, Mihir Tomar,

Pankaj Kumar Mavi, Siddharth Singh Gurjar, Yash Chauhan,
and S. S. Saxena
Abstract This investigation is based on the practical experience reported in the case
history, research papers and reported cases of automobile burning at the police and
fire stations. Since the fire outbreak in automobiles creates harmful effects to the
automobile owner and as well as to other people, it is necessary to detect the fire in
the automobile and develop some device for the instant control of the fire.
41.1 Introduction
In the last few years, we all know that thousands of people have died and some got
major injuries due to fire accidents in automobiles. According to WHO REPORT
ON “ROAD TRAFFIC INJURIES, 2020” [1] and report issued by the Ministry of
Road and Transportation, Govt. of India [2] stated that approximately 1.35 million
people died in road accident out of which thousands of people became victims of
fire accident.
Generally fire takes place in presence of oxygen, heat and fuel, fire is classified
into three different classes described as Class A, Class B, Class C. Class A fires are
the fires that can be extinguished by water. Class B fires are the fires that are based on
oil and Class C fires are based on electricity. In automobiles, the fire outbreak takes
place due to Class B and Class C fires [3] and as per fire classes, different kinds of
fire extinguishers are invented.
There are various reasons for fire outbreaks in automobiles. Some are due to
collision, spillage of fuel, intentionally caused accidents, adopting silly practices
in vehicle like smoking, mechanical/electrical causes due to modification in vehicle
work by unprofessional technicians which result in short circuit causing heavy avoid-
able loss in terms of life and material [4–9]. Road Transportation Ministry strictly
S. S. Chauhan (B) · A. K. Bhati · M. Tomar · P. K. Mavi · S. S. Gurjar · Y. Chauhan

Department of Mechanical Engineering, G.L. Bajaj Institute of Technology & Management,
S. S. Saxena
Air Commodore VSM, Auto Wings Training and Consultancy Centre, Greater Noida, India
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2857-3_42
446 S. S. Chauhan et al.
instructed that modification without permission is illegal but still, this activity is
continuously going on [10, 11]. These accidents lead to major losses to the reputa-
tion of vehicle manufacturing company and parts suppliers. The customer hesitates
to buy the vehicle of that company whose vehicles are catching fire frequently. Fire
accident also leads to financial loss to insurance companies.
To reduce fire accident casualties, investigation of this paper is proposed which
is beneficial for all citizens, automobile industry, insurance companies as well as the
nation. This system is based on microcontroller and can be as additional equipment
or compulsory essential kit for all vehicles. The system is intended to keep in mind
International Standard and makes it affordable so that every vehicle owner can buy
it. The proposed system is equipped with various sensors like smoke, flame, heat,
temperature and will detect the fire point in the vehicle and give a warning to the
driver to escape from the vehicle as soon as possible and to take precautions.
41.2 General Causes of Fire in Automobiles
The investigation found that Fire in automobiles can take place due to various reasons
some of which are listed as the following: [12] (Fig. 41.1).
41.2.1 Overheating Engine
Various reasons cause overheating of the engine; some of them are lack of coolant,
blasts due to poor timing or leaking exhaust valves, which can cause missing and
HEAT
OXYGEN
FUEL
Fig. 41.1 Fire triangle
41 Investigation on Automobile Fire and Its Root Causes 447
loud explosions that even burst the air filters. An engine that overheats and causes a
car to catch fire is a good example of how one problem can lead to another. A car’s
engine probably won’t overheat enough to simply burst into flames on its ownbut
an engine can overheat, making internal fluids, like coolant and oil, and rise to high
temperatures and begin to spill out of their designated areas of circulation. Followed
by this, they drip, drizzle and spurt throughout the engine bay and onto the exhaust
system, landing on other hot parts, where they can easily ignite and spread.
41.2.2 Battery Failure
These are the most common causes of car fires. Car batteries are more prone including
normal or hybrid battery packs [13–16]. A typical car’s standard battery is capable of
causing trouble. The battery’s charging cycles can cause the hydrogen gas to explode
with the electrical current the battery provides (along with faulty or loose wiring),
which can produce sparks that can quickly ignite a fluid drip or leaked vapors. The
electrical system’s hazards are also present from the engine bonnet to the rear of
the vehicle. Electrical wiring runs throughout the entire car; through channels, into
doors, under the carpet and through powered and heated seats, just to name a few
places where a stray, unnoticed frayed wire could cause the damage.
41.2.3 Leakage in Fuel Line
Leaks in the fuel system are the most common cause of vehicle fires. Number of
complicating factors can cause a fuel leak, but they’re tricky because fuel leaks can
also arise on their own and with very little warning. A fuel system leak is really
dangerous. Petrol at a temperature of just 45 °F (7.2 °C) or above can quickly catch
fire from a simple spark. Petrol that reaches 495 °F (257.2 °C) will ignite by itself.
It’s easy to see how fuel dripping onto hot metal and plastic parts can cause a fast-
spreading fire. The best way to reduce the chances of a fuel system fire is to make
sure the car is properly maintained.
41.2.4 Short Circuit and Wire Damaged by Rats
The damage to the insulation leads to the occurrence of electric failures, which are
accompanied by heating of the wire. If the problem cannot be solved fairly quickly,
a hole is formed at the point of depression, which causes closure. Such cases of
ignition are usually preceded by failures in the vehicle’s electronics. Wires bitten by
rats also lead to short circuit.
41.2.5 Catalytic Convertor
Overheating catalytic converters are a fire risk that’s often overlooked, but think
about it: One of the consistently hottest parts of your car runs the entire length of
the vehicle is the exhaust system [17–19]. They usually overheat because they are
working too hard to burn off more exhaust pollutants than they’re designed to process.
In other words, if the car’s engine isn’t operating efficiently (due to worn spark plugs
or leaking injectors etc.), it doesn’t burn the fuel properly, a lot of extra stuff ends up
in the exhaust system. The converter then has to work extra hard to do its job, which
makes it even hotter than usual. An overworked (or clogged) catalytic converter
can easily go from its normal operating temperature range of about 1,200–1,600 °F
(648.9–871.1 °C) to up over 2,000 °F (1,093.3 °C). This causes long-term damage
not only to the cat but also to the car’s surrounding parts. The car is designed to
withstand the cat’s normal temps, but it can’t consistently cope with temperatures
several hundred degrees higher. If the catalytic converter gets hot enough, it could
ignite the cabin insulation and carpeting right through the heat shields and metal
floor.
41.2.6 Ignition System Fault
The extensive wiring in modern vehicles may be damaged in an accident. A severe

collision can sever cables and cause sparks that can ignite fuel. Faulty wiring in
ignition systems may short and spark fires. Sometimes mechanical work may result
in the ignition of flammable combustibles or an explosion, leading to vehicle fires.
The transmission and clutch can overheat and if you have an automatic car and you’re
holding the brake for too long, it will wear out causing excessive heat.
41.2.7 Smoking (Cigarette)
Smoking is not only harmful to your health but is also one of the reasons for car fire.
Ashes from a lit cigarette could burn the upholstery of your vehicle resulting in a car
fire. The push-type car cigarette lighter also can lead to a short circuit.
41.2.8 Jammed AC Compressor and Choking Radiator
When an air compressor overheats, the problem is typically related to factors

involving irregular suction or discharge pressure [20]. Alternately, the problem could
stem from insufficient ventilation, eroded oil or any given number of issues related
to the wear and tear of machine parts.
Air compressor overheating issues are often the result of excess discharge
pressure, which typically stems from one or more of the following issues:
• Dirty condensing coils
• Ill fitted discharge line
• Blockage of condenser air
• Inconsistent condenser fan
• Undersized condenser
• A failing thermal valve
• Low suction pressure
• Improperly fitted components
• Faulty metering devices
• Loss of refrigerant
• Obstructed strainers
• Pressure drop
• Excess discharge pressure.
41.2.9 Leakage in Fluid Line
The average car or truck has a number of flammable and highly dangerous fluids
under the bonnet like petrol or diesel, engine oil, transmission fluid, power steering
fluid, brake fluid and even engine coolant [21–24]. All of those fluids are circulating
when the car is on, and all of them can catch fire pretty easily if their lines, hoses or
reservoirs take the pressure from a hit. So even though one of the car’s vital liquids is
unlikely to start spewing or dripping out of nowhere generally, something else has to
go wrong since all of these fluids are flammable. Combined with another aggravating
factor, like a car crash or a failed part, the result could be a fire. Though such a blaze
is most likely to start in the engine bay, where all of these dangerous liquids are
concentrated, keep in mind that some of them, like the brake oil or petrol, etc., are
present in the car from one end to the other while the car is moving.
41.2.10 CNG/LPG Fitting by Un-professional Mechanics
A factory-fitted or a standard CNG/LPG kit comes with an automatic cut-off on the

detection of leakage. However, there’s no such feature on the cheaper market units
and hence, they end up being one of the major car fire causes. In many cases, the
leakage of CNG gas is from the damage of pipe connections which is the main cause
of fire in the automobile [25, 26]. Also due to traffic collision, CNG components are
damaged and such types of fires can be initiated. It is a common scenario in the world
that drivers often install aftermarket substandard CNG/LPG kits on their vehicles.
Fitting is mostly done by un-professional mechanics, poor quality cylinders start

rusting and corroded after few years. As such, cylinder can’t bear the pressure and
bursts leading to fire [27, 28].
41.2.11 Collision of Car with Other Solid Rigid Body
Depending on the impact site, a car crash can spark a car fire. Most vehicles’ weak
points are designed to absorb the impact to prevent it spreading to other explosive
parts like battery; and are designed pretty well, so the sheet metal absorbs the force
of a blow and protects internal, dangerous spots like the engine, the battery and even
the petrol tank [29]. Even then a hard hit is likely to cause fluid leaks and spillage, as
well as heat and smoke [30–32]. And, as we know high heat and spilled fluids create
perfect conditions for a fire.
41.2.12 Sensors Not Working Properly
When sensors like coolant, fuel, mass air flow, throttle position sensor, cam shaft
sensor, etc.) are not working properly, they become major cause of vehicle fire. In
2013 due to fault detected in the battery sensors, Honda recalled 1.2 million Accord
midsize cars. The company reported that a 12 V battery sensor was located on the
negative battery terminal and it was not properly sealed from the moisture and can
get electrical short circuit [33]. It was found that the shorted sensor can heat up and
can be the main cause of the fire. Recently, a Chevy volt passenger HEV has reported
a fire incident due to the use of a high voltage lithium-ion battery in the car [34].
There is a possibility of fire initiation if the engine compartment temperature and
moisture increases. Therefore a battery is one of main sources of fire in the car [34].
Sometimes excessive charging of the battery will also lead to the possibility of fire
and must be controlled with the use of a temperature sensor [35, 36]. The role of the
sensors used in the battery and engine compartment is to read data. Over a period of
time the sensor presents the data in different patterns and depends upon the present
condition of the battery and engine compartments. The synthesis of the data must be
based on the time and pattern of the data. The temperature rise in the compartment
may increase, decrease or may be constant for a period of time so a designer needs
to develop an intelligent system which can monitor the change in temperature with
the use of sensor [37–40].
41.2.13 Repair/Installation of Add on Equipment by Local

Mechanics
It is always advised to never tamper with the electronics on your vehicle which could
become a major reason for a short-circuit under the hood. Many incidents have been
reported in recent times where people installed extra LED lights, customized horns,
etc., on their vehicle resulting in a car fire due to short-circuit caused due to lose
connections done to the central electronic system of the car.
41.2.14 Temperature Rise in Cabin Area/Bonnet
In vehicles that are parked, no ventilation and/or air conditioning takes place. If a
vehicle is exposed to direct solar radiation, an immediate temperature rise occurs. The
high cabin air temperature can threaten children and animals that are left unattended
in vehicles [17]. In the USA, lethal heat strokes cause a mean death rate of 37
children per year. In addition, temperature-sensitive goods (e.g. drugs in ambulances
and veterinary vehicles, mobile, batteries, UPS) can be adversely affected by high
temperature.
41.3 Automobile Accident Due to Fire
Losses during highway vehicle fire accident from 2014 to 2016 are presented in
Fig. 41.2, of reported highway vehicle fires and all other fires [41]. The average
number of casualty per 1,000 highway vehicle fires was higher than for casualty for
all other fires. The average number of injuries per 1,000 highway vehicle fires, as
well as the dollar loss per fire, were lower than the same loss measures for all other
fires.
In the majority of highway vehicle fires, 83%, occurred in passenger road vehicles,
66% occurred in standard passenger vehicles, 17% occurred in some other type
of passenger vehicle, and less than 1% occurred in buses are shown in Fig. 41.3.
Only 10% of highway vehicle fires occurred in non-passenger vehicles, 9% occurred
in transport vehicles, 1% occurred in other types of vehicles, such as construction
vehicles, farm tractors and special purpose vehicles. In the remaining 7% of highway
vehicle fires, the type of vehicle was not reported.
In Fig. 41.4 it is easily observed that unintentional actions accounted for 38%
of highway vehicle fires. These fires may be the result of either careless behavior
or accidental actions. Fires caused by intentional actions constituted only 5% of
highway vehicle fires.
Due to the volume of fires, many automobile fires are not investigated. Deter-
mining the cause of vehicle fires is often challenging. As a result, in 23% of highway
12000
10000
8000
6000 Highway
4000 Automobile Fires
2000
0 Other Fire
(Excluding Highway
Fire Accidents)
Fig. 41.2 Loss during highway vehicle fire accident (2014–2016)
70
60
Axis Title
50
40
30
20
10 , 6.85
0
Fig. 41.3 Fire accident in different vehicle class
vehicle fires, no cause was determined after an investigation. These fires are gener-
ally a result of mechanical problems, ranging from a faulty design in the vehicle to
an improperly installed device.
Figure 41.5 displays the vehicle component area-wise fire accidents, most of the
fire originates from the vehicle itself specifically around 61.9% from the engine and
wheel. The second most common place is the cabin where fire comes into action it’s
around 11.9%.
There are various heat sources in the vehicle fire as presented in Fig. 41.6. It
was noticed that 65% of highway vehicles get fire due to high ignition temperature
and powered equipment used in the vehicle. Whereas other materials like smoking,
multiple heat sources and hot objects are fewer regions for the fires.
Figure 41.7 show the fire took place due to the electrical circuits. In most cases,
87% fire originates due to the cable wire causing a great loss. The most second
Undetermined aŌer
invesƟgaƟon
Case under invesƟgaƟon

All Highway Vehicle
Fire(in Percentage)
Failure of Equipment
UnintenƟonal
Exposure to Hazardous Highway Vehicle fires

Element due to cause of igniƟon
IntenƟonal determined(in
percentage)
Climate
0 10 20 30 40
Fig. 41.4 Root causes of fire accident in automobiles
FIRE ORIGION
region
100
Fuel Tank,fuel
Total 80
line
60
40 Exterior,exposed
All other region 20 surface of
0 vehicle
Control region of
Cargo/trunk area
equipment
Engine
Cabin area,wheel
area,transmissi…
Fig. 41.5 Vehicle components area wise fire accidents origin
common part is the failure or exploding battery in the vehicle. The remaining 8%
relates to other causes like the contact of two uncoated wires, etc.
70
60
50
40
Highway Vehicle fires
30
due to cause of
20 igniƟon determined(in
10 percentage)
0
All Highway Vehicle
Fire(in Percentage)
Fig. 41.6 Heat source in vehicle fire (2014–2016)
Number of accident (in percentage)
Cable wire
100
Electrical 80 Contact
fuse box 60
40
20 Number of accident (in
Switch 0 Relay
percentage)
MagneƟc
BaƩery
valve
Start engine
Fig. 41.7 Fire accident reported due to electrical part
Figure 41.8 shows the common surfaces involved at the beginning of vehicle fire.
Mechanical failure or malfunctioning of the vehicle leads to the major factor for
the fire in vehicles, such as the malfunctioning of the exhaust pipe causes around
24% fires (most common) and the other due to the engine (using low-quality fuel,
no proper service) consist of around 16% fires.
SURFACE NAME
25
20
Silencer Brake
15
10
5
Scrubber 0 Engine
Headlight Exhaust pipe
Turbo
Fig. 41.8 Common surfaces involved in beginning of vehicle fire
41.4 Conclusions and Recommendations
There are some beneficial outcomes of this investigation which will definitely be
helpful to the society, insurance company, automobiles industries, etc. This investi-
gation will help the automobiles industries to detect point of the fire so that R&D
Department can analyze additional reasons to overcome instances of fire such as the
use of high-quality material for that part. From the last few years as we all know
that fire accidents are increasing in automobiles. The client tries to claim the insured
value of his vehicle according to terms and conditions of the policy and the insurer
has to pay the money failing which a legal case can be started against the insurance
company. These Fire accidents are causing great loss to the insurance companies
also.
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triebausSicht der Speicherhersteller. Dynetek Europe GmbH Presentation, Ratingen, Germany
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can-catch-fire.html
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41. Highway Vehicle Fires (2014–2016) TFRS 19(2)
Chapter 42
Examination and Analysis of Thermal
Steam Boiler Using Power Plants
Pradeep Kumar Singh, Rishabh Chaturvedi, and Manoj Kumar
Abstract The steam evaporator may shut holder where water or different liquids
are warmed under tension and the steam discharged by the kettle is utilized for
different warming applications. The fundamental contemplations in planning a kettle
for a specific application are structure and warm investigation, structure for creation,
physical measurements and cost. In this postulation, the progression of steam in
the steam kettle (without diverters and with redirectors) is displayed utilizing the
CREO parametric plan programming. The postulation will concentrate on warm
and CFD examination with various info speeds (20, 30, 40 and 50 m/s). In this
theory, CFD investigation decides the warmth move coefficient, the warmth move
rate, the figure stream rate and the weight drop. Warm inspection to choose the
temperature movement, the warmth stream for the two models of steam kettle without
diverters and steam evaporator with redirectors. Discover which model is the best.
3D displaying in the parametric CREO programming and dissects acted in ANSYS.
42.1 Introduction
Boilers are pressure Vessels proposed to warm water alternately make steam, which
might in this route a chance to be used will provide for space warming or water
warming should a structure. Over the benefits of the business building warming
applications, those warming sourball in the evaporator may be a vaporous petrol
copier. It will be moreover possible to use oil burners what’s more electric block
warmers. Steam over warmed water will be favoring ensure applications, including
P. K. Singh · R. Chaturvedi (B)

IET Department of Mechanical Engineering, GLA University, Mathura, Uttar Pradesh, India
P. K. Singh
M. Kumar (B)
Greater Noida Institute of Technology, Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2857-3_43
460 P. K. Singh et al.
maintenance cooling, kitchens, laundries, sterilizers, and steam machines [1]. Boilers
bring different qualities that bring them an ordinary part of structures. They have a
long life, could finish efficiencies of up to 95% or more, provide for an effective techno
babble to warming a structure and because from claiming steam frameworks, require
practically no siphoning vitality. For any case, fuel liabilities can make impressive,
standard backing, what’s more assuming that upkeeps may be postponed, fixing it
can be a chance to be an exorbitant.
Those support systems to the development, movement and more upkeep about
boilers convey the going with assets: Tenets for the advancement about warming
boilers, evaporator code. Furthermore weight vessels, segment IV-2007, Prescribed
models to that attention, and also action of warming boilers, evaporator code, weight
vessel, and segment VII-2007. Boilers are every now and again a standout amongst
those best vitality customers done a structure. For consistently a warmer schema
may be left unattended, pot costs can augment toward around 10% (1). Along these
lines, evaporator movement is of a more help that will be a OK for the start stage
The point when seeking to methodologies to diminish vitality usage and put aside
money [2, 3].
How boilers work:
Gas and oil boilers utilize controlled fuel burning to warm water. The key parts
of the kettle engaged with this procedure are the burner, the ignition chamber, the
warmth exchanger and the controls.
42.2 Types of Boilers
Boilers are grouped into various sorts dependent on working weight and temperature,
kind of fuel, suction strategy, size and limit and whether they consolidate water
fume into the exhaust. Boilers are in some cases additionally portrayed by their key
parts, for example, heat exchanger materials or cylinder structure [4]. These different
capacities are talked about in the accompanying segment on key heater parts.
Two fundamental kinds of boilers incorporate fire-tube and water-tube boilers.
In a fire-tube heater, hot burning gases course through a progression of funnels
encompassed by water, in Water tube evaporator.
42.2.1 Key Segments of Boilers
The key components of a kettle incorporate the burner, the ignition chamber, the
warmth exchanger, the release stack and the controls. Heater fittings, including the
vent gas economizer, are likewise usually utilized as a powerful technique for recu-
perating heat from an evaporator and will be talked about quickly in the best practices
area for proficient activity [5].
42 Examination and Analysis of Thermal Steam Boiler … 461
Petroleum gas containers using one of two sorts of flames, barometrical burners,
moreover named common draft flames and inhibited draft rings known as electric
burners. Since of the most severe government and state air excellence models, low
NOx flames and premix flames are progressively utilized and even required in certain
territories. By guaranteeing a productive blend of air and fuel when it enters the
burner, this sort of burner can guarantee that NOx emanations are diminished.
42.2.2 General Majority of the Data
Boilers would use to produce steam that that point gives high temperature or force.
Water may be changed over with steam in the heater. This steam goes through the
warming mechanical assembly which might make any bit from claiming supplies that
obliges steam to operation. Those cooled steam will be after that condensed under
water returns of the heater should start the cycle once more. Supplies plan. There
would three standard sorts for steam boilers: shoot hose, water pipe, furthermore cast
iron by fire-tube boilers. Ignition vapors make a trip inside the cylinders to warm the
encompassing water.
In water-tube boilers, be that as it may, water streams inside the channels and
warms outside, as appeared previously. Cast iron reservoirs are like water-tube reser-
voirs, yet water is controlled in the cast iron segments instead of the channels. The
accompanying outline demonstrates the segments of a fire-tube evaporator.
• Advantages
Water and fuel, the two main nourishments for this from the heater, are rich and
modest.
Intelligent to deal with huge limits and high weight.
• Disadvantages
May consume throughout stoppage stages.

Water essential be blessed to receive anticipate amassing.
Here is constantly a warmth is fortune.
Finite Element Analysis of Condensation Boiler Used In Power Plants Limited
component investigation of the steam kettle is utilized in 1 M control plants [6]. A
heater or steam generator is a shut compartment that is utilized to produce steam by
applying warm vitality to the water. Throughout the steam age process, the steam
heater is exposed to huge warm and auxiliary burdens. To accomplish the productive
activity of the plant, it is important to structure a structure to help these warm and basic
burdens. The utilization of CAD and CAE software design is the driven plan technique
of these structures before building a model. In this task, an inspection of the limited
components of the steam kettle was performed to approve the undertaking for the
genuine working conditions. The fundamental exercises engaged with the task are the
execution of the 3D displaying of the boilers and the investigation of the completed
components [7, 8]. In this task, the advancement of the structure of the kettle is
likewise performed based on the outcomes acquired from the warm and auxiliary
examination. The CAD NX programming is utilized for 3D planning and displaying.
ANSYS programming is utilized to perform limited component investigation [9].
The steam kettle is a shut holder wherein water or different liquids are warmed
under tension and the steam discharged by the evaporator is utilized for different
warming applications. The fundamental contemplations in structuring a kettle for a
specific application are plan and warm examination, structure for generation, physical
measurements and cost. In this work, a fire-tube evaporator is examined to decide
the static and warm burden. The geometric model of the kettle is made in the CATIA
V5 programming as per the drawing [10]. This model is brought into HYPERMESH
through the IGES position and the FEA model with merged work is created utilizing
shell components. Different burden conditions apply to this FEA model, for example,
plan pressure, warm loads and working conditions. One of the help legs stops every
which way and different stops just in the X, Z and all revolutions bearings. This is
made utilizing HYPERMESH and traded to ANSYS to acquire an answer for getting
deviations, pressures [11, 12].
The thermodynamics of fare cogeneration necessitates that higher HP steam
conditions produce greater power delivered, which has come out on top to arrive at
increasingly elevated weights and temperatures without thinking about the economy.
By and by, as conditions increment, the expense of extra capital exceeds extra
power. HP’s higher conditions likewise drove a subsequent pattern: the reception
of single drum boilers as opposed to proceeding to utilize two drum plans. Despite
the fact that this is the correct methodology in raised conditions, care ought to be
taken when choosing configuration subtleties. A Study Analysis and Performance of
High-Pressure Boilers with its Accessories. An examination and investigation of the
presentation of high-weight boilers with their frill India Power is the fundamental and
basic contribution for advancement. In this cutting-edge situation, vitality assumes a
crucial job, both in modern improvement, which thus prompts flourishing age struc-
tures created in AP to satisfy the emerging need for vitality. Utilizing adornments
in the evaporator. Plant proficiency increments. For instance, frill, for example, the
economizer increments the stock water temperature, while the superheater builds the
temperature of the steam delivered in the evaporator. The air preheater builds the
temperature of the approaching air, which enters the broiler. The primary target of
this undertaking work is to break down the proficiency of the economizer, super-
heater and air preheater by changing the diverse parameters in the evaporator area,
planning and examination of the kettle model for controlling the steam pressure.
To accomplish the vitality proficient activity of the power plant, it is important to
adequately control the steam weight. In this manner, an exertion is made in this record
to controller such a basic parameter, in particular the fume pressure, by building up
a heater unit model that uses a PLC-based PID controller that uses the IMC method
to change the PID parameters. The work exhibited additionally incorporates process
displaying and reproduction was performed with the proper exchange work utilizing
the propelled input control system. Other pragmatic and hypothetical answers were
thought about. Open circle approval was likewise performed to approve the model.
42.3 Problematic Explanation
The details of this undertaking is to variety a 3D model of the steam heater and concen-
trates the CFD and warm conduct of the steam kettle through limited component
investigation, 3D demonstrating programming.
Master Engineer was utilized to plan and examine, programming (ANSYS) was
utilized for CFD and warm investigation.
The strategy surveyed in the undertaking is the accompanying:
Create a 3D model of the steam evaporator bunch utilizing the parametric expert
designer programming.
Convert the surface model into a strong record for and significance the model into
ANSYS for examination.
Perform warm investigation on the steam kettle bunch for warm loads.
Carry out a CFD examination on the current surface steam heater model for speed
section to realize the mass stream rate, the warmth move rate and the weight drop.
42.4 Modeling and Analysis
Models of steam boiler using CREO.

The steam evaporator is demonstrated utilizing the particulars and plan equation
of the information book. The isometric perspective on the steam heater appears in the
accompanying figure. The profile of the body of the external packaging of the steam
heater is attracted a visual artist and afterward turned by a point of 3600 utilizing the
upset choice and the funnels are structured and amassed in the steam kettle utilizing
the expulsion choice (Fig. 42.1).
Steam boiler 3D model.
Steam boiler 2D model.
Fig. 42.1 Steam boiler

surface model
Fig. 42.2 Heater exchanger

coil boiler
42.4.1 CFD Analysis of Heater Exchanger Coil Boiler
Mass flow rate – 0.006, 0.008 & 0.015 kg/s velocity 20, 30, 40 & 50 m/s.
FLUID—steam (Fig. 42.2)
→ Ansys → workbench → select analysis system

→ fluid flow fluent → double click
→ Select geometry → right click → import geometry

→ select browse → open part → ok
→ select mesh on work bench → right click edit

→ select mesh on left side part tree
→ right click → generate mesh → MASS FLOW RATE − 0.02 kg/.
42.4.2 Thermal Analysis of Steam Boiler Heat Exchanger
Exposed workbench 14.5 > choice stable thermal in analysis systems > select
geometry > right click on geometry > import geometry > select IGES file > open.
Materials used aluminum, 6061 aluminum alloy and copper Properties of the
copper material.
Thermal conductivity = 385 w/m - k Specific heat = 0.385 j/g ◦ C

Density = 0.00000776 kg/mm3
Fig. 42.3 Stream boiler
Properties of the aluminum material.
210 w/m - k Specific heat = 0.9000 j/g ◦ C Density = 0.0000026989 kg/mm3
Properties of the 6061-aluminum alloy material Thermal conductivity = 180

w/m-k
Specific heat = 0.896 j/g ◦ C Density = 0.00000270 kg/mm3 .
42.4.3 Introduced Model
See Fig. 42.3.
42.5 Results and Analysis
See Tables 42.1 and 42.2, Fig. 42.4.
Table 42.1 CFD analysis

Mass flow Velocity (m/s) Pressure (Pa) Velocity (m/s) Mass flow rate Heat transfer
rates (kg/s) (kg/s) rate (W)
0.006 20 2.98e+00 2.43e−02 6.65e−06 2.0788574
0.008 30 4.21e+00 3.14e−02 4.69e−06 1.4709473
0.015 40 8.06e+00 5.59e−02 3.08e−06 0.9536132
0.02 50 1.13e+01 7.29e−02 1.70e−05 5.3261719
Table 42.2 Thermal analysis

Material Temperature (°C) Heat
Max Min Flux (w/mm2 )
Aluminum 100 89.189 1.8845
Aluminum alloy 100 90.041 1.9072
60
Copper 100 95.191 2.0515
Fig. 42.4 Graphs pressure

plot
42.6 Conclusion
In this project, the flow of steam in the heater pipes of the steam boiler is demonstrated
by means of PRO-E design software. The proposition is to emphasis on current and
CFD examination by dissimilar flow rates (0.006, 0.008, 0.015 and 0.02 m/s) and
different speeds. When CFD analysis is observed, the weight drop, speed, mass
flow rate and heat transfer rate increase with cumulative inlet flow rates. When
thermal analysis is observed, the heat flux value is higher for copper material than
for aluminum and 6061 aluminum alloy. It is achieved that the copper substantial is
improved for the steam boiler.
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conversion processes. Energy 30(2–4), 111–117 (2005)
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cogeneration system with reheat. Appl. Therm. Eng. 24(13), 1785–1795 (2004)
3. Singh, P.K. et al.: Effect of sonication parameters on mechanical properties of in-situ amine
functionalized multiple layer graphene/epoxy nanocomposites. J. Sci. Ind. Res. 79, 985–989
(2020)
4. Datta, A., Ganguly, R., Sarkar, L.: Energy and exergy analyses of an externally fired gas turbine
(EFGT) cycle integrated with biomass gasifier for distributed power generation. Energy 35(1),
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11. Yadav, A., et al.: Investigating the effects of amine functionalized graphene on the mechanical
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Chapter 43
Study on the Development and Problems
Faced in Electric Vehicles
Ankit Sharma, Dhruv Sethi, Ishu Kumar, Jatin Yadav, Siddhant Bhatia,
and Amardeep
Abstract In vehicles, zero-emission production and wheels propelled with their own
battery energy is possible only through electric vehicles. The long-term maintenance
cost is very low as well as the lower center of gravity gives better cornering and
turning stability. These advantages have influenced and have made electric vehicles
as a new generation transport both in India and internationally in the automobile
engineering sector. From the time EVs came into picture, there have been a lot
of modifications in their design and some major components like battery pack and
motor. In spite of these advancements and advantages, EVs are still not much popular
in the automobile market, if we look at their growth, there is an increase but it is still
less as compared to S.I and C.I engine automobiles. If we look at the reason behind
that, there are some major setbacks in EVs like charging time, mileage, support of
electrical components like headlights and air conditioners while driving. It’s very
essential to look at the issues in EVs and their causes and to find out the ways how to
overcome them with few modifications keeping the pocket friendly cost in mind. A
number of companies all around the globe are rigorously working on improving the
performance of EVs, India is also actively participating in promoting and providing a
better platform for EVs. As everyone knows those EVs are the future of automobiles
and hence their development is a necessity. So, it will be very intriguing to see the
future of EVs in India and around the globe.
Abbreviations
EV Electric vehicle
U.S. United states
S.I. Spark ignition
DC Direct current
C.I Compressed ignition
A. Sharma · D. Sethi (B) · I. Kumar · J. Yadav · S. Bhatia · Amardeep

Department of Mechanical Engineering, GL Bajaj Institute of Technology and Management,
Greater Noida 201306, India
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2857-3_44
AC Alternate current
PEV Plug in electric vehicle
PHEV Plug in hybrid electric vehicle
BEV Battery electric vehicle
HEV Hybrid electric vehicle
EREV Extended range electric vehicle
BMW Bavarian motor works
UK United Kingdoms
EPCO Electric public charge office
OEM Original equipment manufacturer
INR Indian national rupee
PMP Phased produced programme
43.1 Introduction
EVs were invented during the mid-nineteenth century, at that time electricity was a
popular strategy for automobile propulsion, hydrocarbon cars of that point couldn’t
reach the amount of comfort and easy operation. IC engines were the dominant
propulsion methodology for vehicles for nearly a century; however power has
remained constant in different types of vehicles. It is hard to give all the credit of the
invention of the electric vehicle to a minimum of one inventor or country. Instead, it is
a combination of various events from battery to electric motor which led to the success
of the first electric vehicle. At the starting of the twenty-first century metal–oxide–
semiconductor (MOS) technology was used in the newest electrical road vehicles.
MOSFET (MOS field-effect transistor) power converters allowed operation at very
high frequencies, making it easier to drive and as well as reducing power losses,
resulting in reduction of cost, whereas single-chip microcontrollers were managing
all aspects of the drive management and were capable of battery management too.
In 2010, the electric vehicle market achieved the mark by delivering a combined
one thousand units of all kinds of electric vehicles which were delivered globally.
This reached 3.3 million units by Dec 2018. The global quantitative relation between
annual sales of battery electrical cars and plug-in hybrids went from 56:44 in 2012
to 74:26 in 2019. As of March 2020, the Tesla Model three is the world’s nonpareil
best marketing plug-in electric car, with over 500,000 units [35, 36].
Approximately 2/3 of deaths from pollution on land are caused due to exhaust
emissions from diesel vehicles, nearly about 385,000 people lost theirs in 2015,
according to a study. On-road diesel vehicles were answerable for nearly 0.5% of
health damage to people worldwide in 2015. As several as fourteen of the world’s
twenty most-polluted cities are in India, as mentiones in 2018 World Health Orga-
nization (WHO) report. These stats are horrific and keeping them in mind. In May
2017, India was the first to announce plans to sell solely electrical vehicles by 2030.
The advantages of electric vehicles can be easily seen [1].
43 Study on the Development and Problems Faced in Electric Vehicles 471
43.2 The Key Components in EV
There are many parts of an EV as shown in Fig. 43.1 and they are discussed below:
Traction Battery Pack: The battery’s operation in an electrical automotive is as
associate in nursing electricity arcade system within the type of direct-current elec-
tricity (DC). If it gets indicated by the controller, the battery can flow DC electricity
to the electrical converter to then be accustomed to drive the motor. The foremost
widely used is that of Li-ion batteries.
Power Inverter: The electrical converter functions to vary the DC on the battery
into Associate in Nursing electricity (AC), then this electricity is employed by an
electrical motor. Additionally, the electrical converter on an electrical automotive,
vary the alternating current after regenerative braking to DC current then battery is
recharged.
Controller: This unit is used to control the flow of electricity carried by the traction
battery, dominating the velocity of the electrical traction motor and also the torsion
it generates. It controls working of electric vehicle. The controller can do alternative
things too—it moderates the facility and it will also act as a convertor—where it
converts power from DC to AC [2].
Electric Traction Motor: It is the device that draws power from the traction battery
pack and this motor propels the vehicle’s wheels. Some hybrid electrical cars use a
kind of generator-motor that performs the functions of propulsion and regeneration.
Charger: It is a device used to charge the battery. Chargers take electricity from
external sources, like the utility grid or alternative energy plants. AC electricity is
regenerated into DC electricity then held on within the battery.
Transmission: The transmission uses the mechanical power generated by the
electrical traction motor to rotate the wheels.
Fig. 43.1 Global electric car stock, 2010–2019 [10]

DC/DC Converter: This one amongst the electrical automotive components that
convert higher-voltage DC power produced by the traction battery pack to the lower-
voltage DC power required to run vehicle accessories and recharge the subsidiary
battery.
Battery (auxiliary): In an electrical drive vehicle, the auxiliary battery is required
to provide electricity to power vehicle accessories.
Thermal System-Cooling: This system helps to maintain a correct operation
temperature of the engine, motor, power physical science and alternative elements.
Charge Port: The charge port permits the vehicle to attach to an Associate in
nursing superficial power offered so as to charge the traction battery pack [3–7].
43.3 Growth in EV
In the wake of coming into modern business sectors inside the most recent 5 years, car
deals have continued. In 2010 exclusively concerning seventeen electrical vehicles
were on the streets. By 2019, that reach had gotten vainglorious to 7.2 million, forty
seventh of that were inside the People’s Republic of (“China”). Nine nations had
a serious hundred electrical vehicles out and about. At least twenty nations arrived
at pieces of the overall industry on top of I Chronicles. Deals of electrical vehicles
lidded two. 1 million universally in 2019, outperforming in 2018—effectively a
record year—to zest up the stock to seven. 2 million electrical cars. 1 electrical
vehicle, that represented two. 6% of overall auto deals and concerning I Chronicles
of overall car stock in 2019, enlisted a four-hundredth year-on-year increment. In
2019, indication of a strong move from direct arrangement to moral quality proceed
toward that acknowledge a lot of on restrictive and different essential measures-
similarly as zero-dispatch vehicles orders and effectiveness standards have set clear,
since quite a while past run sign to the vehicle trade accomplice degreed clients that
help the change in a financially property path for regulating party [8, 9].
In the beginning of 2010, the growth EV stock was very less but with time it
increased with rapid rate, as shown in Fig. 43.2. The 2.1 million machine deals in
2019 addresses 6% advancement from the most recent year, down from numerous
years’ deals development, at least on top of 30% since 2016. Three fundamental
reasons put forth a defense for this pattern. Vehicle markets had contracted. Absolute
vehicle deals’ volumes were low in 2019 for every few key nations. Inside the 2010s,
intrusive business sectors like India and China for a wide range of vehicles had less
deals in 2019 than in 2018. Against this backcloth of moderate deals in 2019, the
2.6% piece of the overall industry of electrical automotive in overall vehicle deals
set up a record. In 2019 China (at 4.9%) and Europe (at 3.5%) accomplished new
records in electrical vehicle piece of the pie. Buy sponsorships were decreased in
key business sectors. China cut machine buys allocation by concerning half in 2019
(as a piece of a progressive finish of direct support started in 2016). With 90th of
overall machine deals centered in China, Europe and thus the U.S., this influenced
Fig. 43.2 Global electric car stock, 2010–2019 [10]
worldwide deals and over-shadowed the remarkable five hundredth deals expansion
in Europe in 2019, accordingly fasting the development fever.
The 2018–19 renditions of some basic machine models show battery energy thick-
ness that is 20–100% past their partners in 2012. Further, battery costs have contracted
by more than eighty-fifth since 2010. The conveyance of most recent mass-market
models like the Tesla Model three caused a spike in deals in 2018 in key business
sectors like the U.S. Automakers have proclaimed a different menu of electrical vehi-
cles, a few of that are normal in 2020 or 2021. For progressive 5 years, automakers
have announced designs to release another 200 new machine models, a few of which
are inside the chic machine vehicle market stage [11, 12].
43.4 Major Setbacks and Their Causes
The problems of EV and their causes which are barriers in their growth are as follows:
43.4.1 Charging Time
The total time taken by EV to fully charge an EV is called charging time. Fueling up
our petrol or diesel car takes a few minutes, but charging an EV takes hours. Our car
should be at rest and plugged into charging for the charging time [14]. The charging
time of an electric car can be as less as half an hour or can be longer than a half-day.
This relies on the size and charging speed of the battery.
A normal EV (60kWh battery) takes less than 8 h to completely charge with a
7 kW charger. For many EVs we can travel up to 161 km in approx. 35 min of
charging time with a 50 kW fast charger. The charging time is proportional to the
size of the battery. The greater the size of the battery the greater is the charging time,
as well as slower is the charger longer is the charging time [13, 15].
43.4.2 Driving Range
The driving range can be defined as the distance an automobile can travel with full
residual fuel in the fuel tank (full battery charge in case of EV). EVs are improving
day by day, but still limited driving range creates a “range anxiety” in buyers making it
one of the major hurdles halting the penetration of EVs into the mainstream market.
Although the driving range of many EV models has improved notably in the last
few years, a limited driving range does give a challenge to many drivers [16]. A
cross-country ride in an EV would require some inconvenient stops to recharge them
because of short driving range [17].
43.4.3 Charging Infrastructure
The basic structures and facilities needed for charging EVs are known as charging
Infrastructure or charging stations. This problem varies from location to location. If
you don’t travel long distances and can charge your EV at home or office, then it might
not be a problem for you. But in many cities or apartment residents, unfortunately,
are not able to charge at home due to a lack of a garage. They must rely on public
charging stations or. Even if vehicle charging stations are conveniently located, they
might be occupied because of long charging time. The EV charging station varies
from area to area, but this is an important point to consider before buying an EV [13].
43.4.4 High Upfront Cost
Electric vehicles are more normal in worldwide streets than any time in recent
memory but, stay out of financial plan for many. The cost of a battery inside EV
frames the significant lump of the final cost of the actual vehicle.
Fortunately, electric vehicles are descending in expense when contrasted with
their gas-controlled counterparts. Additionally, tax breaks and state impetuous can
remove a lump from the complete cost [18]. At stream rates and pack assesses, the
typical battery cost for an ordinary electric vehicle is about $7,350, that has plunged
a great deal, 87% over the earlier decade, as shown by Bloomberg NEF. Regardless,
the typical pack cost of $156 each kilowatt-hour (from about $1,183 in 2010) is at this
point more than the $100 edge at which the cost of an electric vehicle should facilitate
a vehicle with an inward burning motor. That would help trigger mass gathering.
43.4.5 Limited Vehicle Choices
Recalling, 2019 was an extreme year for the electric vehicle market. Various new
models were dispatched and vehicle clients have a bigger number of models to pick
from than some other time. Passage is managing introducing the all-electric F-150
pickup and the Mustang Mach-E, a crossbreed SUV. General Motors needs to deliver
an electric pickup in 2021 moreover. Disregarding basic progression, there are still
way minimum electric models to peruse and altogether less great vehicles [13, 19].
43.5 Latest Technology Breakthroughs Solving

the Problems of EV
43.5.1 Charging and Range
It is the latest technology for battery which is literally very close to the future. It’s
hearsay that Dyson has supplied heavily during this space which the Dyson car thanks
to seem in 2020 is also the central applying a solid-state battery. Different automobile
manufacturers demanding this technology are Tesla, BMW and Toyota Square. In
solid-state battery analysis, the UK government has shown interest and is ready to
contribute an amount of £42 million grant for car growth. Lithium-ion batteries in
present electrical automobiles utilize the liquid solution. This fluid provides a path
between the positive and negative terminals and generates the current that allows
ions a passage between the positive and negative terminals and creates the current
that moves outside of the battery to try to work. In a very compactly packed particles
state battery, the solution and electrodes on the battery terminals square measure each
solid. A diminished, airy and better power battery with an integrated life cycle is made
[20]. Poor varies and a poor charging infrastructure wreaks a terrible combination
and as long as Bharat is one among the various markets trying to ban fossil fuel-
powered vehicles by 2030, there’s a desire for widespread adoption of the technology.
Whereas solid-state batteries don’t solve the present infrastructural problems, they
are doing double the gap associate degree energy unit will travel on one charge.
Solid state batteries are without doubt a stop-gap measure. However, if they’re
as effective as Toyota (and VW) claims they’ll be, they will finally place fossil
fuel-powered cars to rest. At present, most automotive brands will stop producing
fossil fuel-powered cars within the next five–six years, which implies there’ll be
a bigger range of electrical cars on sale, in the near future [21]. The downside of
a supercapacitor is that it is unable to carry upon a charge for a longer period of
time. If supercapacitors were utilized in electrical cars because of the main supply
of capacity, it’d take some time to get completely charged, however drivers would
want to restore each mile. This can be wherever the invention by super dielectrics
provides a serious advance [22]. Grabbing a charge is incredibly rational by chem-
ical compounds prepared by super dielectrics. Along with metropolis and Surrey
Universities, this chemical compound has been utilized in supercapacitors to extend

power depots.
The chemical compound will be organized into one layer and in an exceedingly
polygon lattice to produce an enormous area, that interprets to a broadly hyperbolic
potentiality to carry a charge. This could provide the supercapacitor the flexibility
to charge quickly, in addition to the quirk to carry this charge forward. For electric
four-wheelers, this could work out the prevailing issues of prolonged charging times
and vary eagerness. The utilization of supercapacitors as the major supply of capacity
for electrical automobiles could also be an extended means within the future however
would offer rapid charging of simply a couple of minutes, and good amount of energy
supply with a protracted lifetime of 3,000–5,000 charging cycles [23, 24].
43.5.2 Charging Infrastructure
With the assistance of legitimate arranging, we can have electric chargers in each
territory of the country. These PCOs (Public charge workplaces) would have three
segments viz. batteries to change, a bank of chargers to accuse them of and food while
we backup. They could be online business bundle drop focuses, biometric offices for
Aadhaar and various conveniences. Clean power coming from the network and sun-
based force produced charges EV. Planning charging time and installment should be
possible by cell phones. Legitimacy is that actually like PCO, ePCO will advance
business. Youthful EV chiefs will be slammed in light of the fact that they will see
their pictures on some ePCO dividers as PCO proprietors look at these chargers
regularly [25].
WiTricity is involved with the Chinese wireless EV charging standardization
procedure through its output with China Electric Power Research Institute (CEPRI),
China Automotive Technology and Research Center (CATARC) and the CEC.
Zhejiang VIE Science & Technology Co., Ltd. subsidiary (VIE) and Anjie Wire-
less Technology (Suzhou) Co. Ltd. (Anjie) have permitted WiTricity’s technology
and industry-leading designs which comprises all required outlying systems such as
foreign object detection, position detection and communications. These companies
manufacture and commercialise wireless EV charging systems of high efficiency
for sale to leading automaker brands in the China market. VIE has finished manu-
facturing its pilot production facility to assemble wireless charging systems for its
initial OEM customers. Anjie lately demonstrated a fully autonomous parking and
wireless charging experience on an Xpeng Motors’ EV, showing the world what is
upcoming in autonomous, EV market will stand in the upcoming years [26, 27].
43.6 Future of EV in India
India is tremendously moving toward the adoption of electric vehicles, but the
“National electrical quality Mission came upon (NEMMP) 2020” was really
undraped in 2013 beneath the previous government. Due to improper efforts and
wrong perspective electric cars are facing difficulty in India. Since then, the country
is willing to adopt EVs for a better tomorrow [33]. In India major push was given
to two-wheeler and three-wheeler electric vehicles rather than electric cars, as they
were more popular in India. Despite the challenges and difficulty being faced, major
machine manufacturers are presently observing this wide untapped sector with hope
[30].
According to a survey, 95% of the total sales in the Asian country are of two-
wheelers. Only about 1500 electric cars were sold between 2018 and 2019, but the
sales of electric two-wheelers dropped by 94% in the first six months of 2020. In
2018 about 79% electric vehicles sold were scooters. Once people may find out
that electric cars are more reliable than electric scooter that might increase the sales
of electric cars. Cars are more reliable in terms of safety and space and provide a
better service in this sensitive market of electric vehicles. Electric vehicle market is
very fragile in terms of demand and stability. But soon, Asian countries will shift to
electric cars.
As per the report, a client said they’d take under consideration shopping for an
electric vehicle by 2022. This may be a couple of years before the assumptions made
by experts. However, a pair of thirds (67%) of shoppers in Asian countries said they
are adopting a “wait and see” approach. Consumers in land area unit seeking a less
expensive worth purpose for EVs than customers in numerous countries, with the
planet average tipping worth purpose for EVs being at Rs twenty-seven lakh [28, 32].
The Indian government is on a mission of making EVs popular in India. Govern-
ment has planned various projects by the year 2030. The steps taken in 2019 to
promote electrical vehicles inside the country include:
• Various strategies like dynamic GST are being implemented on EVs.
• INR 1.5 integer tax reduction on loans to buy for electrical vehicles.
• INR 10 K elements assigned to FAME II to push electrical quality through
standardization.
• Government has projected customs exemption on various elements such as elec-
trical drive assembly, aboard charger, e-compressor and a charging gun that will
help minimizing the cost [29, 31, 34].
43.7 Conclusion
If we analyze for the alternative of IC engine automobiles then EV has the best
chance to replace them. IC engines have various user-friendly merits but have a major
setback that is pollution and it is a serious concern as the number of deaths due to air
pollution caused from automobiles is increasing every year. While EVs are almost
zero-emission vehicles resolving the major problem of pollution, along with this has
some other merits also like overall maintenance cost is low and light-weighted (due
to fewer components). Whereas EVs have some of their own setbacks which result
in very less EVs growth and popularity in the automobile market. Gradually as EVs
start becoming a necessity of the globe, modern technologies are developing which
are solving EVs problems. If we analyze the growth of EVs, resolving of problems
and growth of EVs go hand in hand. With every passing year, EVs are becoming
much more popular and numerous new models are launching with advancements.
The future of EVs is bright not only globally but it is bright in India as well The
Nations Government also started many policies promoting EV automobiles and the
aim is to go full electric by 2030.
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Chapter 44
Enhancing Heat Transfer Rate
by Optimization of Commercial
Refrigeration Condenser and Its Design
Metrics
Anas Islam, Vikas Kumar Sharma, and Manish Saraswat
Abstract Optimization of heat transfer rate and size of heat money changer
(condenser) by significant tests met by Refrigeration structure proposals. The heat
transfer rate problem is concerned with the determination of total heat transfer rate,
and the sizing issue is concerned with the determination of the aggregate high temper-
ature exchange surface range. The key element helping for higher heat exchange rate
and base high-temperature exchange zone may be those refrigerant streams out in the
condenser coil, likewise those framework lies over indoor of a bureau. The objective
of the available task will streamline those outlined of a commercial refrigeration
condenser to enhance the heat transfer rate. CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics)
and Condenser software will be used to optimize the design of the components. Struc-
tural dissection about parts will be also will be performed to dissect the deformations
and anxieties happening because of the weights and temperatures of the stream. The
necessary modifications are made to improve the heat transfer rate & reduce the size
of the condenser that enhances the overall heat transfer rate.
44.1 Introduction
The main objective of this project is to reduce the size of the condenser and enhance
the heat transfer rate. The Condenser is a device used to exchange the heat absorbed
to ambient. It rejects heat to an external cooling medium (air or water) [1, 2] be
those procedure of evacuating high temperature from an encased space, or from
A. Islam · V. K. Sharma (B)

e-mail: vikash.sharma@gla.ac.in
A. Islam
e-mail: anas.islam@gla.ac.in
M. Saraswat
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Lloyd Institute of Engineering and Technology, Greater
Noida, UP, India
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2857-3_45
482 A. Islam et al.
Fig. 44.1 Detailed

explanation of condenser
with phase change
A substance, furthermore moving it will a spot the place it cam wood a chance
to be excluded in high face area, low FPI & optimum refrigerant flow through
condenser coil and air flow over the condenser coil are the key for effective condenser
performance [3, 4].
In the present study, the condenser coil circuit is optimized so that the refrigerant
flow through the condenser flows via two tubes parallels and the heat exchange
between the refrigerant and the external surface occurs very quickly [5–7] (Fig. 44.1).
44.2 Experimental Setup of Condenser Optimization
The issues that mainly affect the heat transfer rate in a required convection type
condenser.
44.2.1 Air-Cooled Condenser Selection
Air-cooled condenser might be a common convection sort alternately to constrained

convection sort. On practically as a relatable point, we utilize air-cooled condenser
[8, 9]. In front of measuring a condenser, cautious assessment of the necessities for
a particular establishment will be fundamental. The assessment ought to include,
attention from claiming starting cost, operating cost, administration and aggrega-
tion, furthermore the kind about load [10–12]. A condenser that is excessively little
camwood make unreasonable What’s more make operating issues in easier encom-
passing states a under-size condenser camwood make working issues in higher
encompassing states [13]. It is, therefore, paramount to think about those taking
after factors in front of measuring a condenser:
• Terrible heat dismissal.
• Encompassing temperature.
• Consolidating temperature.
44 Enhancing Heat Transfer Rate by Optimization … 483
• Temperature distinction (TD).

• Wind stream.
Condenser ability is the capacity of the essential high-temperature exchange
equation [14].
Qc = U × A × LMTD
here
Qc = Condenser capacity in Cal/h

(Ref.effect + Heat of Comp + Motor winding heat)
U = Overall heat transfer coefficient K Cal/m2 h.

CA = Effective surface area in m2
LMTD = Log mean temperature difference between the

condensing refrigerant and the condensing medium in ◦ C
Face area = Air quantity/Air velocity

The greatest speed happens between those tubes since the tubes block An and
only those streams acceptably [15]. If B is those dividing among tubes in the face
and c may be the tube dividing among rows, also d may be those tube breadths. The
Reynolds and Nusselt number are defined as follows for this case:
Re = (ρ × do × U ∞)/μ
The Grimson’s correlation is as follows:

where the constants C and n are dependent upon Reynolds number (Tables 44.1 and
44.2).
Enthalpy values taken from P-h chart
H1 = 400 kJ/kg H4 = 270 kJ/kg H2 = 430 kJ/kg H5 = 245 kJ/kg H3 = 420 kJ/kg
H6 = 245 kJ/kg
Refrigerant Effect = H1 − H6
= 155 kJ/kg
Table 44.1 Constant for

Reynolds no, Re Constant C Constant n
Grimson’s equation
0.4–4 0.978 0.44
4–40 0.920 0.358
40–4000 0.698 0.477
4000–40000 0.189 0.600
40000–400000 0.0315 0.852
484 A. Islam et al.
Table 44.2 Observation for

Design of condenser Design consideration
condenser
Tube size 3/8th
Outside diameter of the condenser tube: 0.0080
Inside diameter of the condenser tube 0.0068
Refrigerant used R404A
Evaporator temperature (°C) 7.2
Condenser temperature (°C) 54
Subcooling temperature (°C) 10
Superheating temperature (°C) 10.8
Compressor power (W) 678
Cooling capacity (Btu/h) 5460
Ambient temperature (°C) 43
Fig. 44.2 Existing design

with 12 tube single circuit
Heat Rejection Capacity (HRC) = (Refrigeration capacity * power of

compressor) * FOS
= ((1.6) + (678/1000)) × 1.05 = 2.392 KW
Overall heat transfer coefficient
1/Uo = (At/Ai) × (1/hi condensation) + 1/ho Uo = 47.46 W/m2 K
LMTD condensation = 7.61 °C
44.2.2 CAD Modeling
See Figs. 44.2, 44.3, 44.4, 44.5 and 44.6.
44.2.3 ANALYSIS-Structural Analysis
Boundary Conditions:
Fig. 44.3 New design with

11 tube
Fig. 44.4 Condenser coil

with fins
Fig. 44.5 Condenser coil

without fins
Inlet: Temperature: 85 [°C]

Outlet: Mass flow rate = 0.0137(kg/s) Ref. Pressure: 14.7 [PSI] Assumptions:
Steady state single phase analysis (Figs. 44.7 and 44.8, Table 44.3).
486 A. Islam et al.
Fig. 44.6 Physical model of

the design
Fig. 44.7 11 *4 row

condenser velocity
streamlines
Fig. 44.8 Temperature

contour
Table 44.3 Velocity and

Inlet Outlet
temperature
MFR 1.380e02 [kg s6ˆ−1] −1.380e02 [kg s6ˆ−1]
Velocity 2.691e+01 [m sˆ−1] 2.458e+01 [m sˆ−1]
Temperature 3.621e+02 [K]{85.32 3.228e+02 {50.32 °C}
°C}
By comparing the two models the outlet temperature of the new design is better. By
optimizing the circuit design from one circuit to two circuit the heat transfer rate of
the condenser is improved by 6% though the height of the condenser is decreased by
9% by reducing one row of the tube. The capacity increased from 3.17 to 3.37 KW.
With this achievement, the higher capacity of the compressor can be used for the
same refrigeration system and can be used in very compact-sized refrigeration units.
The above data is calculated from the LUVATA Thest. Condenser design Software
and the images of the same are shown below (Figs. 44.9 and 44.10).
Fig. 44.9 Input for 11 tubes

condenser
Fig. 44.10 Output for 11

tubes condenser
488 A. Islam et al.
44.4 Conclusion
By optimizing the circuit designs from one circuit to two circuits the heat transfer
rate of the condenser is improved by 6% though the size of the condenser is decreased
by 9% by reducing one row of the tube. The capacity increased from 3.17 to 3.37
KW. With this achievement, the higher capacity of the compressor can be used for
the same refrigeration system and can be used in very compact-sized refrigeration
units. With this new design, the cost of the unit can be reduced by about 5–6%. In
conclusion, by optimizing the circuit design the performance of the condenser can
be improved.
References
1. Peng, Y., Zhang, S.J., Shen, F., Wang, X.B., Yang, X.R., Yang, L.J.: IOP Conf. Ser. Earth
Environ. Sci. 93, 012067 (2017)
2. Mallikarjun, Anandkumar, S., Malipatil, S.: Int. J. Res. Appl. Sci. Eng. Technol. (IJRASET)
2(X) (2014). ISSN: 2321-9653
3. Kalendar, A., Galal, T., Al-Saftawi, A., Zedan, M., Karar, S.S., El-shiaty, R.: Department of
Mechanical & Refrigeration Engineering, College of Technological Studies, PAAET, Kuwait
4. Firoz, R., Kulkarni, S.H.: Int. J. Emerg. Technol. Comput. Appl. Sci. (IJETCAS) 14-450 (2014)
5. Webb, R.L.: Principles of Enhanced Heat Transfer. Wiley, New York (1994)
6. Sharma, A., et al.: Effect of welding parameters on automated robotic arc welding process.
Mater. Today Proc. 26, 2363–2367 (2020)
106–114 (2018)
51(5), 671–680 (2017)
9. Kumar, A., et al.: Evaluation of elastic moduli for different patterns of stone-thrower-wales
defect in carbon nanotubes/epoxy composites. Mater. Today Proc. 4(9), 9423–9428 (2017)
multiple layer grpahene/epoxy nanocomposites. Curr. Nanosci. 14(3), 252–262 (2018)
11. Han, J.C., Glicksman, L.R., Rohsenow, W.M.: An investigation of heat transfer and friction for
rib-roughened surfaces. Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 21, 1143–1156 (1978)
12. Webb, R.L.: Toward a common understanding of the performance and selection of roughness
for forced convection. In: Hartnett, J.P., et al. (eds.) Studies in Heat Transfer: A Festschrift for
E.R.G. Eckert, pp. 257–272. Hemisphere Publishing Corp, Washington
13. Fenner, G.W., Ragi, E.G.: Enhanced tube inner surface heat transfer device and method, USA
(1979)
14. Gee, D.L., Webb, R.L.: Forced convection heat transfer in helically rib roughened tubes. Int.
J. Heat Mass Transf. 23, 1127–1136 (1980)
15. Shukla, M.K., Sharma, K.: Improvement in mechanical and thermal properties of epoxy hybrid
composites by functionalized graphene and carbon-nanotubes. Mater. Res. Express 6(12),
(2019)
Chapter 45
FPGA Implementation of Low Power
Pre-processor Design for Biomedical
Signal Processing Application
Kirti, Harsh Sohal, and Shruti Jain
Abstract A low-power pre-processor system is introduced to extract the informa-

tory data from noisy biomedical signal. The proposed systems hardware is executed
on ZedBoard (Zynq-7000) evaluation Field Programmable Gate Array (FPGA)
board. The proposed methodology is based on the efficient pre-processor system that
depletes low power & resources of FPGA: Windows and Wavelet. The comparison
has been done among different windows and different wavelet-based pre-processor
designs as per resource utilization and on-chip power. The inference has been drawn
from the comparison that Haar wavelet consumes only 2.15% of LUTs, 12.19% of
slice registers and only 25.45% of DSPs. The selected pre-processor design also
consumes only 34mW of dynamic power & 110 mW of static/leakage power. In
future, the introduced pre-processing system will be employed in wearable & portable
biomedical equipment.
45.1 Introduction
A rapid advancement has been observed in the area of noise reduction from the
biomedical signal. It plays a vital role in the accurate diagnosis of the disease by
medical practitioners. A number of biomedical application’s performance is directly
linked with the noise removal methods [1]. The presence of low & high frequency
namely Baseline Wander (BLW), Electromyography (EMG) and Power Line Inter-
ference (PLI) noises, etc., deteriorate the useful information from the Electrocardio-
gram (ECG) signal [2]. Popularly, digital filters are utilized to eliminate the unwanted
noises from the biosignal. The microcontroller, digital signal processor (DSP) &
field-programmable gate arrays (FPGA) are predominantly utilized owing to their
low cost & reconfigurable property, low time to market, etc. The Programmable Logic
Kirti (B)
GL Bajaj Institute of Information and Technology, UP Greater Noida, India
H. Sohal · S. Jain
Department of ECE, Jaypee University of Information Technology, Solan, HP, India
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2857-3_46
490 Kirti et al.
Devices (PLDs) devices emerged as one of the advanced technology that produces
the high-end monitoring system in the hospitals. Among various processing units,
FPGA is selected due to rapid prototyping design during the software simulation
and synthesis. The growing number of design variations via software synthesis has
coming cost-effective in comparison to the hardware prototype variations. It is distin-
guished that FPGAs are hugely utilized in the execution of rapid digital systems for
the retrieval, processing, storage, & transmission of data.
The popular FPGA companies are Xilinx, Actel, Altera & Quick logic. Popularly,
there are two designing environments for realizing digital pre-processing design
filter: DSP and FPGA. The digital design based on FPGA offers re-programmability
and high speed, unlike old methods namely microcontrollers, DSP devices & micro-
processors. In article [3] a technique is programmed in VHDL, which themed on the
optimization of the filter. In this research, a comparison has been taken into consid-
eration with the MATLAB FDA toolbox. An adaptive filter has been suggested
according to the ASIC flow with the assistance of IC design tools and MATLAB
from the Mentor Graphics [4]. A transposed architecture for the FIR filter has been
introduced and the programming is done on VHDL on FPGA [5]. A number of archi-
tectures have been proposed for the multiplier unit design; it provides low delay and
power during the preprocessing stage for FIR filter [6]. There are various benefits of
FPGA processing unit namely high speed, low power & execution time in contrast
with software programmed DSPs. Popular lines as well non-linear digital filters
are proposed such FIR, IIR, Wavelets, Poincare plots, etc., for the preprocessing of
biomedical signals.
Previous studies illustrate that wavelet transform has emerged as an extensively
utilized method for the denoising of ECG, PCG, cough signal, EEG, etc., bio-signals.
In the research article [8], a threshold-based methodology employing Wavelet Trans-
form (WT) is presented for the elimination of unwanted noise resides in the biomed-
ical signal. The cough signal processing a multi-resolution method is given based on
the basis of WT.
In this paper [8], WT centered soft-thresholding procedure is followed for bio-
signal denoising. Although, for cough signal denoising soft thresholding is not an
effective process. Instead, Hard thresholding utilizing Discrete Wavelet Transform
(DWT) is more effective for the cough signal denoising application. An intelligent
system formed on PCG has been introduced in [9]. This system employs denoising
by utilizing DWT for the unwanted noisy signal mix fused with the informatory
signal. The Daubechies wavelet (db6) is used to eliminate the low-frequency noise
present in ECG signal [10].
In this paper, a hardware design for low-power pre-processor to remove the
unwanted signal from the useful biomedical signal is introduced. FPGA is chosen as
targeted hardware due to its ease of implementation and low non-reoccurring cost.
To select the best pre-processor design, authors have also compared various types
of linear filters using window techniques and wavelet function based on resource
& on-chip power consumption. The novelty of our research is, that our proposed
FPGA-based pre-processor design provides flexibility, high speed, minimum area
delay and low power in comparison with other existing technologies.
45 FPGA Implementation of Low Power Pre-processor … 491
The organization of this research work is drafted as: Sect. 2 constitutes the pre-
processor design, Sect. 3 discusses the efficient pre-processor design for biomedical
signals using FPGA. Lastly, the conclusion has been enlisted in Sect. 4 with the
future scope of this application.
45.2 Pre-processor Design
In biomedical signal processing, pre-processor is termed as a system that filters useful

information from the noisy biomedical signal. In this methodology, to select the best
pre-processor design the authors have compared various types of linear filters using
windowing techniques and non-linear wavelet functions. These FPGA-based pre-
processor designs are compared based on resource utilization and on-chip power.
Figure 45.1 illustrates the methodology for the selection of pre-processor design.
There are different types of analysis. The time-domain analysis is carried out
by Shannon Nyquist Theorem, frequency analysis is done by Fourier Transform,
Short-Time Fourier Transform is analyzed by Gabor Wavelet and the last is Wavelet
Transform. The time-domain analysis constitutes of FIR filters employing various
sorts of windowing methods namely Kaiser, Blackmann, Hamming, Bartlett [11]. In
this research, analysis has been done by employing windowing and Wavelet transform
techniques.
In data inspection, the wavelet transform emerged as an important novel time–
frequency decomposition tool. It is useful for non-stationary signals analysis, like
the bio-signals. The WT examines the signal concurrently in both time & frequency
domains. Therefore, it enables to extract more parameters from non-stationary bio-
signals. There is a difference between Fourier analysis and wavelet transform. Fourier
analysis involves the splitting of any signal into sinusoidal waves of different frequen-
cies while wavelet transform consists of the splitting of a biosignal into shift & scale
version of the original wavelet that is entitled as mother wavelet. The researchers
have employed different kinds of mother wavelet functions namely Haar, Daubechies,
Coiflets and biorthogonal [12]. The haar wavelet’s mother wavelet function can be
Fig. 45.1 Methodology for

the selection of
pre-processor design
492 Kirti et al.
expressed as Eq. (45.1).

⎧ ⎫
⎨ 1 0 ≤ t < 1/2 ⎬
ψ(t) = −1 1/2 ≤ t < 1 (45.1)
⎩ ⎭
0 otherwise
The haar wavelet’s scaling function is shown in the Eq. (45.2).

10≤t<1
ϕ(t) = (45.2)
0 otherwise
45.3 FPGA Implementation of Pre-processor Design

for Biomedical Signals
This paper proposes an efficient FPGA-based pre-processor design using various

kinds of windowing techniques and wavelet transform. For the implementation,
MATLAB and VIVADO tools are used [13]. The entire process is executed on
the Zynq-7000 evaluation board. To validate the proposed system, the authors have
considered an ECG signal as a biomedical signal. The useful frequency range of infor-
matory ECG signal lies between 0.5 and 100 Hz. In ECG prominently two types of
noises are present: Base Line Wander (BLW) and Electromyography (EMG) [14]. A
low-frequency noisy signal namely BLW is present below the 0.5 Hz and EMG is a
high-frequency noise that occurs above 100 Hz [15].
In this paper, the authors have proposed an architecture for denoising biomedical
signals. Different experiments were performed on the proposed architecture using
different window techniques and different wavelet functions. Figure 45.2 illustrates
the proposed architecture of pre-processor design to eliminate low-frequency and
high-frequency noise.
45.3.1 Window-Based Techniques
In the introduced system, the entire low & high-frequency noises namely EMG,
BLW & PLI can be eliminated. There are different types of window functions,
initially experiments were performed using MATLAB out of which Kaiser, Bartlett,
Blackmann and Hamming windows give the best performance [16].
Due to this reason, in this article hardware simulations were performed using
four window techniques. Table 45.1 tabulated the resource utilization and power-
consumption of different window techniques. It represents that all four window
Fig. 45.2 Proposed architecture for pre-processor design
Table 45.1 Resource consumption & On-Chip power consumption of suggested pre-processor
system on employing window functions
Filler architecture Resource utilization On-Chip power (W)
Slice Slice DSP Dynamic Static
LUT Registers (220) L’
(53200) (17400)
Windows Kaiser 1242 2298 60 0.404 0.111
Bartlett 1242 2298 60 0.395 0.111
Blackmann 1242 2298 60 0.354 0.110
Hamming 1242 2298 60 0.402 0.111
methods consume an equal amount of resources and static power. But in terms of
dynamic power consumption, Blackmann utilizes only 0.354 W.
45.3.2 Wavelet-Based Techniques
Likewise window technology, there are different wavelet functions in litera-

ture. Therefore, simulations with different wavelet functions were carried out on
MATLAB. But Haar, Daubechies, Coiflets and biorthogonal yields the best perfor-
mance. For the hardware simulation, these wavelet function were considered. Table
494 Kirti et al.
Table 45.2 Resource utilization and On-Chip power consumption of proposed pre-processor design
using wavelet functions
Filter architecture Resource utilization On-Chip power (W)
Slice Slice DSP Dynamic Static
LUT Registers (220)
(53200) (17400)
Wavelets Haar 1146 2122 56 0.346 0.110
Daubechies 1566 2862 72 0.424 0.111
Coiflets 1566 2862 72 0.415 0.111
Biorthogonal 1566 2862 72 0.380 0.110
45.2 tabulated the resource utilization and power consumption of different wavelet
functions.
It demonstrates that an equal number of resources are utilized except Haar wavelet
that utilizes only 1146 Slice LUTs, 2122 slice resisters and only 56 DSP. It also
consumes very less dynamic power as compared to other wavelet functions, i.e.,
0.346 W. Figure 45.3 signifies RTL schematic of proposed pre-processor design
which is used to remove low-frequency and high-frequency noise. As the architecture
is same, So the RTL is same for the window and wavelet technique.
This work presents the hardware implementation of pre-processor design for
biomedical signal processing applications. The proposed pre-processor design
removes the low-frequency and high-frequency noise present in the raw biomed-
ical signal. After comparing various types of windowing techniques and wavelet
transforms, Haar wavelet is selected due to its low power consumption and resource
utilization. The Haar wavelet consumes only 21.5%, 12.19% & 25.45% of LUTs,
slice registers and DSPs, respectively, it depletes 34 mW of dynamic power.
Table 45.3 tabulated the comparison of the proposed pre-processor design with
the existing state-of-the-art technique. Only high-frequency noise is eliminated by
the authors of [17], utilizing the Kaiser window function. It consumes 21% LUTs,
24% slice registers, 9% of input/output ports and 89mW of dynamic power targeting
Spartan 3E FPGA board.
Fig. 45.3 RTL schematic of proposed pre-processing block
In this work, a low-power pre-processor architecture is designed for various biomed-

ical signal processing applications. The proposed system is executed on the Zynq
evaluation & development FPGA kit. To validate the low power and low resource
consumption an exhaustive contrast has been made among different windows and
different wavelet functions namely Kaiser, Bartlett, Blackmann, Hamming, Haar,
Daubechies, Coiflets and Biorthogonal. Among them, Haar wavelet is selected
496 Kirti et al.
Table 45.3 Comparison of proposed pre-processor design with previous studies

References Filter Noises FPGA board Resource utilization (%) Power consumption
design removed (mW)
technique LUT Slice I/O Dynamic Static
register block power power
Proposed Haar Low- ZedBoard 2.15 12.19 25.45 34 110
frequency (Zytiq-7000
andhigh- AP SoCl
frequency
[17] Kaiser High- Spartan 3E 21 24 9 89 –
frequency (XC3S500e-
4fg320)
because of good performance with respect to resource & power consumption. It

utilizes 21.5% of Look-Up Table (LUT), 12.19% of slice Register (SR) & 25.45%
DSP blocks. The Haar wavelet utilizes only 34 mW of dynamic & 110 mW of static
power. The suggested low-power pre-processor design will be further utilized in
wearable and portable biomedical equipment.
References
1. Prashar, N., Sood, M., Jain, S.: Design and performance analysis of cascade digital filter for
ECG signal processing. Int. J. Innov. Technol. Explor. Eng. 8(8) (2019)
2. Kirti, H., Jain, S.: Interpretation of cardio vascular diseases using electrocardiogram: a study.
In: 2018 Fifth International Conference on Parallel, Distributed and Grid Computing (PDGC),
vol. 159 (2018)
3. Daitx, F.F., Rosa, V.S., Costa, E., Flores, P., Bampi, S.: VHDL generation of optimized FIR
filters. In: 2nd International Conference on Signals, Circuits and Systems, pp. 1–5 (2008)
4. Ab-Rahman, A.A.H., Kamisian, I., Shaameri, A.Z.: ASIC modeling and simulation of adaptive
FIR filter. In: Processdings of the International Conference on Electronic Design, vol. 12,
pp. 1–4. Penang, Malaysia (2008)
5. Razak, A.H.A., Abu Zaharin, M.I., Haron, N.Z.: Implementing digital finite impulse response
filter using FPGA. In: Processdings of Asia-Pacific Conference on Applied Electromagnetic,
vol. 12, pp. 1–5. Melaka, Malaysia (2007)
6. Tripathi, K., Narkhede, P., Kottath, R., Kumar, V., Poddar, S.: Design considerations of orienta-
tion estimation system. In: 5th International Conference on Wireless Networks and Embedded
Systems (WECON), pp. 1–6 (2016)
7. Nekoei, F., Kavian, Y.S., Strobel, O.: Some schemes of realization digital FIR filters on FPGA
for communication applications. In: 20th International Crimean Conference on Microwave &
Telecommunication Technology. Sevastopol, Crimea, Ukraine (2010)
8. Taquee, A., Bhateja, V., Shankar, A., Srivastava, A.: Pre-processing of cough signals using
discrete wavelet transform. In: Second International Conference on Computing, Communica-
tion and Control Technology, vol. 42 (2018)
9. Nabih-Ali, M., El-Dahshan, E.S.A., Yahia, A.S.: Heart diseases diagnosis using intelligent
algorithm based on PCG signal analysis. Int. J. Biol. Biomed. 2 (2017)
10. Kumar, M., Pachori, R.B., Acharya, U.R.: Characterization of coronary artery disease using
flexible analytic wavelet transform applied on ECG signals. Biomed. Signal Process. Control
31, 301–308 (2017)
11. Kirti, H., Jain, S.: FPGA implementation of Power-Efficient ECG pre-processing block. Int. J.
Recent. Technol. Eng. 8, 2277–3878 (2019)
12. Oliveira, B.R.D., Duarte, M.A.Q., Abreu, C.C.E.D., Vieira Filho, J.: A wavelet-based method
for power-line interference removal in ECG signals. Res. Biomed. Eng. 34(1), 73–86 (2018)
13. Prashar, N., Sood, M., Jain, S.: Semiautomatic detection of cardiac diseases employing dual
tree complex wavelet transform. Period. Eng. Nat. Sci. 6(2), 129–140 (2018)
14. Aboutabikh, K., Aboukerdah, N.: Design and implementation of a multiband digital filter using
FPGA to extract the ECG signal in the presence of different interference signals. Comput. Biol.
Med. 62, 1–13 (2015)
15. Kirti, H., Jain, S.: Comparative analysis of heart rate variability parameters for arrhythmia and
atrial fibrillation using ANOVA. Biomed. Pharmacol. J. 11, 1841–1849 (2018)
16. Venkatesan, C., Karthigaikumar, P., Varatharajan, R.: FPGA implementation of modified error
normalized LMS adaptive filter for ECG noise removal. Clust. Comput. 1–9 (2018)
17. Bhaskar, M.P., Uplane, M.: FPGA based notch filter to remove PLI noise from ECG. Int. J.
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Chapter 46
Design and Implementation of Smart
Energy Meter with Real-Time Pricing
Prem Chand Vashist and Ashish Tripathi
Abstract Smart meters are an electronic device to measure energy consumption

accurately, at precise time intervals. In India, Britishers introduced electricity firstly
in Calcutta in 1879. After the inception of electric power, it took a very long time
to become an Act named “The Electricity Act” framed in 1910. Initially, the cost of
electricity consumption measured by fixed charges, after that, a measuring device
as “Electric Meter” came into the market. This meter has some limitation such as
precision value of meter reading, missing of date and time and kilowatt per hour
etc. This was the measure concern for both the electric consumer and provider to
know the exact value of the electric consumption with other essential information. To
overcome these issues, several technologies have been developed and a new concept
of measuring device was introduced “smart meter” introduced for an accurate result.
In this paper, we discuss things that can overcome the limitations of the existing
smart devices.
46.1 Introduction
After the establishment Electricity Act in India, electro-mechanical meters are being
used as a measurement technique to measure the use of electric consumption for
individual as well as commercial purposes. The traditional meters have some basic
problems such as less accuracy (Class 2 accuracy [1], easy manipulation of reading
through reversing meter [2], measurement issue (only measure reactive power at a
time). In the energy measuring world, the traditional meters have played a significant
role from its inception but due to technological advancement the smart energy meters
are taking their place in the current scenario. In the current system, digital energy
meters are fixed in the premises for calculating the electricity consumption in kilowatt
P. C. Vashist (B) · A. Tripathi

Department of Information Technology, G. L. Bajaj Institute of Technology and Management,
P. C. Vashist
CST, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2857-3_47
500 P. C. Vashist and A. Tripathi
per hour. The recorded data received from the energy meter of the account holder is
taken by the meter reader and provided to the electricity board. On the basic of meter
reading, the account holder has to pay the balance/dues to the electricity board as
per the applicability of the tariff [3, 4].
This process does not end here, and a process of distribution of a hard copy of the
bill against consumed electricity is being done. After that consumers pay their bills.
Consequently, to make the process easy an Android Application-based system ‘to
track consumer electricity usage’ has been proposed in this paper. In the proposed
work a tool has been developed embedded with the existing digital meters to transmit
the electricity consumption data to the server. Similarly, a mobile application has been
developed to provide real-time information to the user about individual electricity
usage. For a detailed analysis of electricity consumption, a web application has also
been developed. The proposed work will help to overcome the limitations of the
existing digital meters such as reducing work overload (reducing the involvement of
one dedicated person for meters of a defined locality), real-time information of the
electricity consumption, error-free reading/on-time bill delivery, etc.
46.2 Limitations of the Traditional Electricity Meter
(a) These meters are unreliable due to unpredictable reading of electricity

consumption in the result user has to be dependent on the monthly electricity
bill.
(b) Such meters require a huge number of employees to measure the reading from
the respective locations.
(c) Also these meters are based on mechanical structure that supports the measure-
ment of the electricity consumptions, which does not give accurate result as
compared to the smart meters [5].
(d) Expensive in terms of maintenances cost, and labor overhead.
(e) Problem in introducing the hourly basis tariffs to consumers for the corre-
sponding meter.
(f) Development and maintenance of software for meter and corresponding
network infrastructure support are complex.
46.3 Practical Utility
Electricity Consumption analytics. Consumer can view consumption at different

levels such as aggregated consumption with respect of multiple functions such as
min, max, sum or average. Also, real-time usage can be seen at any instant of the day.
Discovering Patterns of Consumption. In Smart meter data, the load is influenced
due to various factors, such as the appliances used and outdoor weather temperature
[6–8].
46 Design and Implementation of Smart Energy Meter … 501
In pattern discovery, the system can display the raw data as is, and also the load
graphs. Also, knowledge of hourly consumption of customers can be gained by
utilities from the histograms provided by the system. Forecasting. For authorities,
it will be helpful for them to avoid power failures by predicting the periods when
the demand will be at peak. Attaining Feedback. Setting rules and sending alert
messages to customers may help in getting quality service. Automated messages are
transmitted with a priory set time interval after the feedback rule.
The biggest drawback of legacy system is that plenty of electricity goes waste
due to power theft and human mistakes by meter readers. Since power availability is
limited, it is important that energy is used in an improved and productive manner as
a responsible citizen.
Many countries in every corner have clear domino effects, which have been signif-
icantly diminished Global System for Mobile communication (GSM) based smart
meters [9, 10]. A further benefit of smart meter base bill generation scheme is that the
mistakes created by human beings can be minimized to a large number by calculating
and handling costs.
Android Application-based Smart Metering system will be mounted on residential
and commercial apartments where bulk electricity is consumed [11, 12]. Advance-
ment of technology has ensured a very quick, secure and honest exchange of informa-
tion. An Android Application supported and GSM-based smart meter technologies
will bring dramatic improvements in electricity consumption and its billing system
[13, 14].
46.4 Proposed System
The existing electricity distribution, monitoring, consumption tracking by user and

billing system are inefficient and takes long duration in processing. Thus, to overcome
this issue, in the last few years, the government of India along with some private
shareholders, start-ups have come up with the aim of installing smart meters in
households across India. Consequently, market analysis of this field describes the
challenge about the current market share and its potential. The task involved in
launching this product is ensuring that the developed solution is economical and
scalable for Indian markets. So, to end this, a novel system of smart electricity meter
with advanced functionalities whose production and deployment is economical in
nature has been proposed in this paper.
46.4.1 Actual Plan of Work
Different factors on which the proposed system will work are mentioned below.
(a) The system will be able to record the electricity consumption units from the
(b) meter.
(c) Transmit the data to a server in every 15 min.
(d) The web application will be able to analyze the patterns of electricity usage.
(e) Mobile application will show the customer the digital version of his/her meter.
46.4.2 Specification
46.4.2.1 Hardware
Power Supply Block, Microcontroller Block, Relays and Loads Block, and GSM
modem.
46.4.2.2 Software
Apache Spark, R, PHP, Android-based application.
46.4.3 Implementation Layers of Smart Metering Framework
(a) Ingestion Layer: It is responsible for Data Acquisition and Transmission of

data to server.
(b) Processing Layer: It is responsible for upholding Data Storage mechanism
and accessing the data same time.
(c) Analytics Layer: Analytics Layer defines Data Analytics parameters and
algorithms and Data Visualization heads.
46.4.4 Description of the Working Model
Description of the proposed working model is as follows:

(a) Data Acquisition and transmitting the data to the server: To make the
metering circuit on even if the main power supply turns into disabled, a switched
mode power supply has been provided. Similarly, GSM base system allows the
meter to interact with the cloud and then with the mobile app. The smart meter
is having sensitive circuitry and hence it has to support various communications
protocols.
(b) Accessing the data using Apache Spark: Apache Spark is the big data
processing framework made for promptness, classy analytics, and easy to use
process. As the data will be received as streams hence we will be using stream
processing technique to build our data. As the data is gathered from numerous
Fig. 46.1 Block diagram of the working model
sources it becomes quite significant to use Apache Spark as it can perform

analytics on the data with dynamic behavior.
(c) Data Analytics: While working on analytic data, one of the main character-
izations can be the varied electricity consumption in various climatic condi-
tions. By using the streaming linear regression, several interesting features
can be developed through these models. Another algorithm can be seen as
for extracting daily consumption patterns that may occur without the effect of
outside temperature.
(d) Data Visualization: The system works for analyzing data for supply and
demand-side smart meters. Through supply-side analytics, smart grid opti-
mization can be done. Demand-side analytics, allows us to figure electricity
consumption patterns of consumers so as to provide effective services. It can
also provide consumers with an insight of their own consumption, leading them
to save energy.
The block diagram of the proposed working model is shown in Fig. 46.1.
46.4.5 Glimpse of the Working Model
Figures 46.2 and 46.3 show glimpses of the proposed Android App and website
respectively.
Fig. 46.2 Glimpse of proposed working Android app
46.5 Conclusion
The technical development of the electrical distribution grid is an interruptive oper-

ation. In the new scheme of wireless meter readings, the measurement readings are
tracked continuously and the power supply is turned off remotely when the user fails
to pay the mark. It prevents human involvement, performance metering, billing error
mitigation, maintenance cost control. It also reveals the corresponding device noti-
fication information on LCD. The SEM’s benefits are that the amount of individuals
needed is smaller, deposits are not required, power theft can be observed, a bill can
be forwarded to the customer by the deadline.
Fig. 46.3 Glimpse of proposed working website

References
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meters.html#Types_of_Energy_meters_with_respect_to_Class_Accuracy
2. Electro-mechanical energy meters. Source: https://engineerexperiences.com/electro-mechan
ical-energy-meters
3. Aravind, E., Vasudevan, S.K.: Smart meter based on real time pricing. Procedia Technol. 21,
120–124 (2015)
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implementation of low-cost universal smart energy meter with demand side load management.
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9. Fung, A.S., Mohammadi, F., Raahemifar, K., Mohassel, R.R.: A survey on advanced metering
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11. Preethi, V., Harish, G.: Design and implementation of smart energy meter. In: 2016 International
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(2016)
12. Naveenkumar, J.S.: Smart energy meter. Int. J. Tech. Res. Appl. 4(3), 126–129 (2016)
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International Conference on Power, Energy, Control and Transmission Systems (ICPECTS),
pp. 186–189, February. IEEE (2018)
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in smart cities of Tamil Nadu. In: 2019 IEEE International Conference on Smart Cities Model
(ICSCM), January, pp. 1–6. IEEE (2019)
Chapter 47
Optimization of Glass, Carbon
and Graphite Fiber Mono Composite
Leaf Spring Using Genetic Algorithm
Aatif Ameer, Vikas Tiwari, Vansh Pokhriyal, Alok Saxena, Divakar Tiwari,
and Ranjeet Kumar Singh
Abstract Leaf springs are an essential part of automobiles because it provides direc-
tional stability, ride comfort and improves vibrational characteristics. Fatigue stresses
induced in leaf springs directly influenced fatigue life. Fatigue life will increase under
low fatigue stress. This is achieved by reducing unsprung weight. In automobiles,
leaf springs are contributed 10 to 20% of unsprung weight. Thus, researchers tried
to minimize the weight of leaf spring under the same loading conditions. Optimal
design and selection of suitable materials are the ways to fulfill this objective. In
this paper, double tapered composite leaf spring is selected for optimization using a
genetic algorithm. Optimization has been performed for glass fiber, carbon fiber and
graphite fiber composite leaf springs. The optimization result reveals that the weight
of mono leaf spring made by carbon fiber composite is 91.92% lighter than multi-leaf
spring. Thus carbon fiber composite is the most suitable candidate in comparison to
glass and graphite fiber composite fiber mono leaf.
47.1 Introduction
Genetic Algorithm is a natural selection process to obtain the best quality results
with the satisfaction of various constraints. Problem formulation is an important step
in optimization. By optimizing using GA, problem formulation included objective
function, design variables, design parameters, design constraints and fitness function.
Further, various parameters like density of material, modulus of elasticity, fatigue
strength and Poisson’s ratio of the selected material as well as design constraints like
factor of safety, thickness, width and length of leaf spring are other most important
parameters. Rajendran et al. [1] have used genetic algorithm for the optimization
of conventional and glass fiber composite leaf spring. GA includes various design
constraints and selection procedures. The fittest over the all is selected for designing.
Observation has showed 8% reduction of steel spring weight using genetic algorithm.
Kassie et al. [2] have performed design optimization on mono composite leaf spring.
A. Ameer · V. Tiwari · V. Pokhriyal · A. Saxena · D. Tiwari · R. K. Singh (B)

G.L. Bajaj Institute of Technology and Management, Greater Noida, UP 201306, India
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2857-3_48
510 A. Ameer et al.
Optimization was done by using genetic algorithm. During optimization weight is

chosen as objective function. It is observed that 68.14% of weight reduction with
same load-carrying capacity and strength. Qian et al. [3] have used genetic algo-
rithm for the optimization of FRP leaf spring. Thickness is considered as a design
variable. Observation has showed 0.58% improvement in fatigue life and stiffness
of the leaf spring after optimization. Li et al. [4] have used carbon fiber, glass fiber
and Aluminum Alloys for the fabrication of composite leaf spring suitable for elec-
tric aircraft. Investigation has showed optimum position of fibers w.r.t. spring axis
is ±45°. The weight of composite leaf spring is reduced from 4.8 to 3.8 kg after
using GA as an optimization tool. Genetic algorithm was used for optimization of
conventional steel leaf spring. However, GAS was adopted by authors for optimal
design of different structures [5–8].
The first paper reported on the design optimization of leaf spring through genetic
algorithms was reported by Rajendran et al. [1]. In the present work, the conventional
leaf spring is considered as a reference which was followed by [9]. The main objective
of this research is to minimize weight of conventional leaf spring by using genetic
algorithm as an optimization tool and different composites. The objective function
has considered as weight reduction during optimization. The problem formulation
has been considered similar as followed [1] to get optimum weight for three different
composites. Optimization results have revealed that for the same material (GFRP),
there is little deviation in weight. Further, carbon fiber composite leaf has the least
weight in comparison to graphite and glass fiber composites. Thus carbon fiber
composite is the most suitable candidate.
47.2 Problem Formulation
In this section, the similar objective function, design variable, design constraints and
fitness function have considered as followed by [1] to compare results obtained from
modern version GA tool available in MAT lab with older version tool followed by [1].
For better comparison, the similar material is considered and for optimum weight,
CFRP and graphite fiber-reinforced composite materials are also considered.
47.2.1 Objective Function
The objective function for the minimization of weight of leaf spring is made up of
different materials with given parameters. The objective function for this problem is
given below:
f (w) = ρlbt (47.1)

47 Optimization of Glass, Carbon and Graphite Fiber Mono Composite … 511
ρ is the material density, t is the thickness of the leaf spring at the center, b is the
width of the leaf spring at the center and l is the length of the spring under straight
condition.
47.2.2 Design Variables
An optimization and design problems involve many design parameters, which are
used for the optimization purposes and these parameters are called design variables.
In the present problem, the design variables are: (1) width at the center, b and (2)
thickness of leaf spring at the center, t.
The upper bound and lower bound of design variables are:
bmin = 20 mm bmax = 50 mm,
tmin = 10 mm tmin = 50 mm
47.2.3 Design Parameters
It is defined as the parameters which are usually fixed or given in relation to the design
variables. In this problem, the length of the leaf spring under straight condition (l),
applied design load (W), modulus of elasticity or young’s modulus (E), maximum
allowable stress (σmax ) and maximum deflection (δmax ).
47.2.4 Design Constraints
Design constraint is defined as the constraint which shows some functional relation-
ship between the design variables and design parameters. In this problem, design
constraints are bending stress (σb ) and vertical deflection (δ). Values of variables
used in Eqs. (47.2) and (47.3) has taken from Table 47.1.
1.5W L
σb = (47.2)
bt 2
W L3
δ= (47.3)
4Ebt 3
σb max
FOS = (47.4)
σb
512 A. Ameer et al.
Here, FOS is the factor of safety whose value is 2.5 and for Eqs. (47.4) and (47.5),
value of σb and δ is taken to be maximum from the boundary conditions:
σbmin = 400 MPa σb max = 550 MPa,
δmin = 120 mm δmax = 160 mm.
47.2.5 Fitness Function
The fitness function f (x) is derived from the objective function. For the maximization
process, the fitness function is same as the objective function but for the minimization
process, it is different with some modifications. So, our fitness number is:
obj f un(x) = f (w) + A ∗ FOS (47.5)
Here obj f un(x) is the new objective function for the optimization, A is the
violation parameter whose value is considered to be 1. It has been seen that GA works
very ideally for unconstrained optimization problems, this problem is of constrained
optimization problem. So, it is necessary to convert the problem into unconstrained
form. Tables 47.1 and 47.2 have used for the calculation of obj fun (x).
47.3 Parameters of Genetic Algorithm
It is necessary to define the GA parameter for the optimization problem. One has to
fix the parameters according to the particular problem.
47.3.1 Numbers of Parameters
Basically, the number of parameters is same as the design variables. In this problem,
number of parameters are 2, i.e., thickness at center and width at center.
47.3.2 Population Size
In Genetic Algorithm, the population size is an important parameter which directly

influences the ability to search an optimum solution in the search space. The
population size in this problem is taken as 25 for all the materials.
47.3.3 Maximum Generations
It is the process of termination of the loop that has been carried out fixing the
maximum number of generations, here it is 25.
47.3.4 Cross-Over Probability
Cross-over probability is defined as the probability that cross-over will occur

at a particular mating; that is, not all mating must reproduce by cross-over. It
recommended to have a high cross-over probability, i.e., 0.9.
47.3.5 Mutation Probability
This mutation probability determines how many chromosomes should be mutated in

one generation and it is recommended to have a low mutation probability, i.e., 0.001
(Tables 47.1 and 47.2).
Table 47.1 Input parameters of glass epoxy, carbon epoxy and graphite epoxy
S. Input parameters Glass epoxy Carbon epoxy Graphite epoxy
No.
1 Spring length under straight condition 1220 1220 1220
(mm)
2 Density of material (kg/m3 ) 2600 1600 1824
3 Young’s modulus (MPa) 32.5 × 103 120 × 103 73 × 103
4 Deflection (mm) 160 160 160
5 Load (N) 4500 4500 4500
6 Maximum allowable stress (MPa) 550 550 550
514 A. Ameer et al.
Table 47.2 Input GA parameters of glass epoxy, carbon epoxy and graphite epoxy
S. No. Input parameters Glass epoxy Carbon epoxy Graphite epoxy
1 Number of parameters 2 2 2
2 Population size 25 25 25
3 Mutation probability 0.001 0.001 0.001
4 Cross-over probability 0.9 0.9 0.9
5 Maximum generations 25 25 25
6 Initial population [20 10] [20 10] [20 10]
7 Minimum and maximum bound for 20–50 20–50 20–50
width (mm)
8 Minimum and maximum bound for 10–50 10–50 −50
thickness (mm)
Genetic algorithm is a global optimization tool that works in random fashion. Due to
this reason variables are fluctuating highly in initial generations. After 5 generations,
optimal values of each variable are obtained. It has been shown in Figs. 47.1, 47.2
and 47.3. Table 47.3 represents the optimal values of design variables (width and
thickness) and objective function (weight) for the leaf springs made by glass, carbon
and graphite fiber composites. Figure 47.4 represents a comparison between optimal
values of weights of glass, graphite and carbon fiber mono composite leaf springs.
The steps followed during weight reduction process are shown in Fig. 47.5.
Initially consider conventional leaf spring which has 9.28 kg weight. During opti-
mization, multi-leaf spring was replaced by a mono leaf spring without any alteration
Fig. 47.1 Variation of weight of glass epoxy with number of generation

Fig. 47.2 Variation of weight of carbon epoxy with number of generation
Fig. 47.3 Variation of weight of graphite epoxy with number of generation

516 A. Ameer et al.
Table 47.3 Optimum design values of glass epoxy, carbon epoxy and graphite epoxy
S. No. Design values Glass epoxy Carbon epoxy Graphite epoxy
1 Width (mm) 27.3165 22.8841 24.6455
2 Thickness (mm) 23.4120 16.6904 19.2169
3 Estimated weight (Kg) 2.0286 0.74555 1.0539
Fig. 47.4 Weight of

different mono leaf spring 2,0
after optimization
1,5
Weight in kg
1,0
0,5
0,0
Fiber glass Composite Carbon Fiber Composite Graphite Fiber Composite
Type of Composite
in load-carrying capacity and length of leaf spring. In the next step, three types of
composite materials are considered as replacements of conventional leaf spring. For
identical composite (GFRP) material, problem formulation, and optimization tool
used by [1], the result is slightly deviated. It is found that carbon fiber mono leaf
spring has the least weight.
47.5 Conclusion
1. In comparison to other optimization tools, GA is optimized globally due to this

reason, it is a more powerful optimization technique.
2. In comparison to conventional leaf spring, mono composite leaf springs made
by GFRP, Graphite fiber reinforcement polymer and CFRP are 79.13, 88.69 and
91.925% lighter, respectively, after optimization.
3. In comparison to GFRP leaf spring, Graphite fiber reinforcement polymer and
CFRP leaf springs are 48.28 and 63.05% lighter, respectively.
4. CFRP leaf spring has minimum weight in comparison to GFRP and Graphite
fiber reinforcement polymer leaf spring.
STEP1:
9.28 kg
79.13%wt
Reduction
STEP2:
2.03 kg
48.28%wt
88.69%wt
Reduction
Reduction
STEP3:
1.05 kg
91.92%wt
63.05%wt
28.57%wt Reduction Reduction
Reduction
STEP4:
0.75 kg
STEP1: Weight of conventional steel spring

STEP2: Weight of GFRP mono leaf spring with optimization
STEP3: Weight of Graphite fiber reinforced polymer mono leaf spring with optimization
STEP4: Weight of CFRP mono leaf spring with optimization
Fig. 47.5 Steps followed during optimization
References
1. Rajendran, I., Vijayarangan, S.: Optimal design of a composite leaf spring using genetic algo-
rithms. Comput. Struct. 79(11), 1121–1129 (2001). https://doi.org/10.1016/S0045-7949(00)001
74-7
2. Kassie, A.A.: Design of single composite leaf spring for light weight vehicle. Int. J. Mech. Eng.
Robot. Res. 34–41 (2014). https://doi.org/10.23883/ijrter.2017.3192.jtt1n
3. Qian, C., Shi, W., Chen, Z., Yang, S., Song, Q.: Fatigue reliability design of composite leaf
springs based on ply scheme optimization. Compos. Struct. (168), 40–46 (2017). https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.compstruct.2017.02.035
4. Li, D., Fan, Z., Zhang, Y., Zang, J., Yang, F.: Optimum design and experiment of composite leaf
spring landing gear for electric aircraft. Chin. J. Aeronaut. 33(10), 2649–2659 (2020). https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.cja.2020.03.010
5. Yu, W.J., Kim, H.C.: Double tapered FRP beam for automobile suspension leaf spring. Compos.
Struct. 9, 279–300 (1998)
6. Goldberg, D.E.: Genetic Algorithms in Search, Optimization, and Machine Learning. Addison-
Wesley, Reading, MA (1989)
518 A. Ameer et al.
7. Deb, K.: Optimization for Engineering Design: Algorithms and Examples. Prentice-Hall, New
Delhi (1996)
8. Raol, J.R., Jalisatgi, A.: From genetics to genetic algorithms solution to optimization problems
using natural systems. Resonance 43–54 (1996)
9. Yu, W.J., Kim, H.C.: Double tapered FRP beam for automotive suspension leaf spring. Compos.
Struct. Elsevier BV (4), 279–300 (1988). https://doi.org/10.1016/0263-8223(88)90049-9
Chapter 48
Prospects of bioCNG in Modified Diesel
Engine
Rahul Sharma , Amit Pal , and N. A. Ansari
Abstract As fossils fuels are depleting at a faster rate and from the standpoint of the
environmental concept, it is necessary to use alternative sources of energy that could
replace fossils fuels in existing engines. Dual fuel engines are economically attractive
replacement for traditional diesel engines or obsolete diesel engines with slight vari-
ation in engine design. Furthermore, this engine suffers from inferior performance,
slow-burning rate and higher levels of carbon monoxide and un-burnt hydrocarbons
at lower loads. Various engine experts have also found an increased delay period
and knocking tendency while exploring dual-fuel engines. Because of the accom-
panying reasons, numerous scientists have discovered a different strategy for the
substitution of diesel, one of which is the utilization of biofuel as an enhancement
for diesel fuel. World over there is growing trends for the generation of bioCNG with
proper management of organic waste. The extraction of power from biogas (bioCNG)
under dual fuel mode has risen as a potential vitality transporter to address the envi-
ronmental issue associated with the compression ignition (CI) engine. This review
significantly focused on the utilization of gaseous fuel (bioCNG) to CI diesel engine
under dual fuel mode with diesel and diesel–biodiesel blend as pilot fuel. Different
engine characteristics, such as ignition, performance and exhalations of the dual-fuel
engine utilizing gaseous fuels have been gathered and assessed. Findings of various
literature suggest that CI engine performance in dual fuel mode slightly deteriorates
but the corresponding reduction in harmful pollutants occurs with the introduction of
gaseous fuel. Overall, it can be concluded that utilizing bioCNG in pilot diesel and
diesel–biodiesel blend results in improved performance with reduced exhalations at
higher loads.
R. Sharma (B)
Department of Mechanical Engineering, G.L. Bajaj Institute of Technology and Management,
A. Pal · N. A. Ansari
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Delhi Technological University, Delhi 110042, India
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2857-3_49
520 R. Sharma et al.
48.1 Introduction
Biogas can be produced utilizing an anaerobic digestion of natural assets (animal

sewage, rural deposits, landfills and so on) additionally as a spotless and sustainable
fuel is consistently accessible at any spot for IC engine. Thus, it very well may be
a fantastic option as a vaporous fuel in diesel engine in dual fuel mode, the biogas
stream rates influence the brake thermal efficiency (BTH) of the engine and brings
about improved BTH. The double-fueled CI engine has displayed higher specific
fuel utilization when contrasted with neat diesel [1]. For biodiesel activity at high
compression ratio (CR), the diesel engine would correspond to better performance,
combustion and emission than low value of CR. This may be because of increased
chamber temperature and pressure bringing about better ignition [3]. Methane and
biogas showed good antiknock tendency due to which it can be used in engine
rather than petrol engines and thus, gains higher brake thermal efficiency and power
[4]. Bio-fuel (biodiesel and biogas) conveyed from biomass presents a practical
elective choice to supplant petroleum products. In this circumstance, the European
Commission Directive 2009/28/EC for transportation zone intended to supersede
10% of non-environmentally friendly power source with bio-fills continually by
2020 [5]. Comparable properties of biodiesel make it the most encouraging option
of traditional diesel fuel. As indicated by research, Bio-CNG is a form of biogas where
all undesirable gases are eliminated to create a high measure of pure methane gas.
Due to its high degree of methane and less carbon dioxide, bioCNG can be harmless
to the ecosystem with low emissions level. bioCNG consists of 92–98% methane and
carbon dioxide is around 2–8%. bioCNG is having calorific value around 52 MJ/kg,
i.e., 167% higher than biogas. The potential for biogas in India from different sources
at around 62 million tons for each annum. Due to the problem of disintegration of
metal with the presence of water fumes, hydrogen sulphide and carbon dioxide make
biogas more destructive and unsatisfactory. To handle this issue, biogas redesigning
and sterilization are preferred. Biogas redesigning or sanitization is the cycle by
which impurities in the crude biogas stream are consumed or cleaned, leaving more
methane per unit volume of gas. Biogas sterilization is the cycle by which pollutants in
the rough biogas stream are burned through or cleaned. Now a day’s advancement for
biogas is water cleaning, pressure swing adsorption, layer and chemical scrubbing.
Biomethane can likewise be compressed and packaged into chambers. bioCNG is
assessed to supplant 66% of India’s natural gas imports, which is currently at 429
billion cubic feet. At present 17 biogas plants are operational in India which are
spread in nine states and Maharashtra showed the highest share [38] (Fig. 48.1 and
48.2).
48 Prospects of bioCNG in Modified Diesel Engine 521
Food waste Cooking
Purification and compression
P
Agro-waste biogas bioCNG Industries
Other organic Automotive

waste
Fig. 48.1 Biogas redesigning process
Fig. 48.2 BioCNG capacity in 9 states of India
48.2 Flammable Gas (BioCNG) as an Essential Fuel

Utilized in Diesel Engine
Reza Mahmoodi demonstrated that reformed biogas (RBG) supplanting extent

increases with equivalence ratio of 0.43, the mean ignition temperature decreases
to 1354, 1312, 1292 K which are about 3.5, 6.6, 7.9% lower than the standard diesel.
In-chamber pressure increases up to 22.63%. NOx emissions against CO are reduced
significantly. RBG more than 40% showed marginal reduction in residue and UHC
emissions [1]. Performance of engine with 12.65 CR was evaluated at 30°, 35° and
40° BTDC. Highest brake power developed by the engine was found at advance
Fig. 48.3 Schematic diagram of dual fuel diesel engine
of 35°. As contrast with diesel as pilot fuel, decrease in power was 31.8, 35.6 and
46.3% on CNG, methane improved biogas and rough biogas, separately, in light of
its change from CI to SI mode. The methane improved biogas showed compara-
tive engine performance as of CNG with respect to brake power (BP), specific fuel
consumption (SFC) and brake thermal efficiency (BTH) [4]. Sunmeet Singh Kalsi
and colleagues presented that “pongamia pinaata biodiesel (B100) was utilized as
pilot fuel though biogas structure” was simulated by mixing of CO2 (30, 40% and
half by weight) in natural gas (NG) and utilized as the main fuel. BTH of the engine
reduces with an increase in CO2 content in flammable gas. NOx and smoke emissions
diminished altogether with the biogas-fuelled engine though HC and CO emissions
increases [5] (Fig. 48.3).
The indicated thermal efficiency (ITH) was processed utilizing Eq. (48.1):
3600P
ITH = (48.1)
mdiesel × Hµdiesel + mbioCNG × HµbioCNG
where P represents for indicated power, mdiesel is the mass of petroleum diesel and
mbiocng is the mass of bioCNG.
The mdiesel was processed utilizing Eq. (48.2):
Hµbiocng ∗ mcng
mdual = mdiesel + . (48.2)
Hµdiesel
48.3 Literature Review of Dual Fuel Engine Characteristics
Xiangyu Meng et al. experimentally investigated that on a volume basis, 80% diesel
and 20% n-butanol as pilot fuel leads to a decrease in both NOx and CO emissions
as compared with neat diesel. At medium load condition, the blend of pilot fuel and
n-butanol can improve indicated thermal efficiency (ITH) for low CNG replacement
rates. There is a decrease in CO emission but an increment in NOx emissions. It
was found that THC emissions are more delicate to the CNG replacement rate [7].
Abhishek Paul and colleagues experimentally investigated that diesel ethanol mix
D95E5 (95% diesel 5% ethanol) with use of low proportion of CNG creates a superior
emission characteristic as compared with base diesel operation and diesel-ethanol
mix operation. Results depicted ethanol’s potential in diminishing NOx emission,
brake specific energy consumption (BSEC) and smoke opacity [8]. Arat, Hüseyin
Turan and colleagues experimentally investigated that 30HCNG fuel blend with half
diesel substitution rate influence the engine performance as torque, BP and BSFC
value were diminished 4.3, 8, 26.8% individually as well as NOx and CO2 emissions
were diminished by 47.2, 16.7% separately while 8% increase in CO emission [9].
Olivier Bordelannea and colleagues presented that utilization of crude biogas can
be conceived in a CNG engine for lean combustion. In such a case natural gas can
be mixed with up to 70% volume of crude biogas [10]. Probir Kumar Bose and
colleagues experimentally investigated that at 80% load condition, NOx level for
hydrogen advancement without exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) is 1211 ppm while
with 20% EGR NOx level is 710 ppm as well as a decrease in NOx emissions due
to decrease in peak ignition temperature [11]. Kraipat Cheenkachorn and colleagues
presented that the greatest part of NG in the double fuel engine operation was up to
77.90% at 1300 rpm. Double fuel activity indicated less SFC and BTH [12]. Sunmeet
Singh and colleagues experimentally investigated that BTE of the engine improved
up to 64% of HCNG energy share. Share of HCNG energy is less as compared
with base CNG.NOx emissions increases with HCNG however it is less than base
biodiesel [13]. Kyunghyun Ryu experimentally found that indicated mean effective
pressure (IMEP) of biodiesel-CNG duel fuel combustion (DFC) mode is lower than
that of diesel single fuel ignition (SFI) mode at higher infusion pressure. smoke
pollutants were decreased at all working conditions and NOx emissions additionally
displayed decreasing pattern aside from full load engine operation in biodiesel–CNG
DFC. DFC yields higher CO emissions as compared with diesel SFI at all engine
operation aside from 100% burden [17]. Euijoon Shim and colleagues presented
that optimization strategies like throttle and hot-EGR caused HC and CO emissions
reduction, improvement in combustion efficiency and enhancing combustion stability
while fulfilling NOx and PM spreads under EU-VI guidelines [18]. X. Meng et al. and
colleagues experimentally found that at 7.5 bar IMEP, B10CNG60 and B20CNG60
caused improvement in ITH and lower the THC emissions, while keeping same
degree of NOx discharge comparative with the cases at the 80% CNG replacement
rate [20].
It is critical to take note of that indigenous ability to create natural gas vehicles has
empowered huge scope to gaseous fuel. As the fuel replacement system extended the
business needed to react to take into account the developing business sector. The busi-
ness, particularly the transport business, needed to adjust and indigenize the innova-
tion rapidly. Industry reaction anyway shifts across vehicle portions. More industries
are reacted more emphatically to the item sections that had administrative directs
for transformation like transports, three-wheelers, cabs and light business vehicles.
This comprehensive review gives a forthcoming assessment to the researchers exam-
ining the methods for improving the emission and engine characteristics by utilizing
bioCNG in dual-fuel diesel engine (Table 48.1).
48.4 Summary [1–37]
Considering the above-written review, it was found by all the researchers that bioCNG
can be utilized in diesel and diesel/biofuel engine with little or minor engine modifica-
tion. The engines performance, ignition and emissions characteristics in generalized
form can be summarized in the following points:
1. Proper injection strategy, injection pressure of bioCNG in a diesel and
diesel/biofuel engine operation results in decrease in ignition delay period as
observed higher during biodiesel blend compared to diesel fuel.
2. Low-temperature combustion and lower hydrogen to carbon ratio, high amount
of energy is transferred to the exhaust ultimately reduce power output. To over-
come this problem, preheat the fuel (diesel and diesel/biofuel blend) using
exhaust gas.
3. Proper control of fuel injection timing, injection pressure as well as premixed
burning of pilot fuel leads to peak in-chamber pressure.
4. In most of the cases the use of bioCNG with pilot fuel (diesel and diesel/biofuel
blend) results in greater heat release rate.
5. BSFC is higher in case of biodiesel blends with respect to diesel fuel. It declines
with the increase in engine speed and brake power. Lower heating value and
higher density incremented BSFC.
6. BTE in some cases is higher and in some cases lower, which eventually depends
on the biofuel used. The essential reason for lower BTE is higher viscosity,
density than diesel.
7. Increasing engine load corresponds to an increase in NOx emissions but with
use of bioCNG in pilot fuel (diesel and diesel/biodiesel blends) lowered it at all
load conditions as compared to diesel fuel.
Table 48.1 Summary of experimental Investigation by various researchers
Author Details about equipment’s used Summary of engine characteristics
Performance Emission Combustion
Reza Mahmoodi et al. [1] Single cylinder CI engine – Reduction of 50% in NOx With increase in RBG
emission substitution ratio above 0.43,
With increase in RBG above reduction in mean combustion
40%, Soot and Unburned temperature
hydrocarbon emissions In-chamber pressure increases
slightly decreased to 22.63%
Lijiang Wei et al. [2] Detailed review BTH of double fuel mode is Diminishing the NOX , CO2 In-chamber pressure is lower
lower at low and medium and particulate matter Ignition delay is higher
engine loads while under high emissions, yet the HC and CO
burden conditions, it is increases
comparative or somewhat
higher contrasted with normal
diesel mode
48 Prospects of bioCNG in Modified Diesel Engine
Manjunath Channappagoudra Modified CI engine Increase in brake thermal Decrease in HC and CO Increase in chamber pressure
et al. [3] efficiency by 21.29% for emission to 21.66 and and heat release rate (HRR) by
0.48 kg/hr Bio-CNG flow rate 10.78%, respectively 18.17 and 19.22%, respectively
using B20+Bio-CNG5 (In
maximum load condition)
(continued)
525
526

R Chandra et al. [4] Modified engine (5.9 kW) Brake thermal efficiency is – –
highest for methane enriched
biogas as compared to biogas
and specific fuel consumption
increases as compared to CNG
Sumeet Singh Kalsi et al. [5] Bio-diesel fueled diesel engine Reduction in brake thermal NOx and smoke decrease for –
efficiency (BTH) of the engine biogas-fueled engine
with an increase in proportion Slightly increase in value of
of CO2 in natural gas HC and CO emissions
Devendra Pratap Singh et al. A Review – Mustard oil is a promising –
[6] new biofuel for NOx
reduction. and inophyllum is
completely non-edible and
trans-esterified oil shows
similar engine performance
and emission characteristics
like other biofuels
(continued)
R. Sharma et al.
Xiangyu Meng et al. [7] AVL 5402 diesel engine Increase in thermal efficiency Decrease in NOx and CO –
for 90% diesel and 10% emission for 20% n-butanol in
n-butanol blend blend
Abhishek Paul et al. [8] 4-stroke, single cylinder CI 95% diesel and 5% ethanol Reduction in NOx –
engine blend showed better Decrease in brake-specific
performance as compared to energy consumption and
base diesel and diesel ethanol smoke opacity
blend
Arat,Hüseyin Turan et al. [9] 3.6 L, 4-cylinders, four-stroke, Better performance CO emission increases by 8% –
water-cooled compression characteristics at 30 H-CNG Reduction in NOx and CO2 to
ignition engine fuel mixture with 50% diesel 47.2 and 16.7%, respectively
Olivier Bordelannea et al. [10] Hybrid CNG vehicle – Reduction in emission level by –
87% for biomethane fuelled
hybrid vehicle
Probir Kumar Bose et al. [11] 5.2 kW 4-stroke single cylinder Increase in BTH by 12.9% At 80% load NOx value –
vertical diesel engine without exhaust gas decreases from 1211 to
recirculation for a mass flow 710 ppm (with 20% EGR.)
rate of 0.15 kg/h and decreases HC emission decreases by
with EGR 57.69% without EGR. and it
became increases with EGR
(continued)
527
528

Kraipat Cheenkachorn et al. 6-cylinder inline water-cooled – CO and HC emissions –
[12] diesel engine increases while NOx and CO2
decreases
Sunmeet Singh Kalsi et al. 7.4 kW single cylinder diesel BTH increases to 64% CO and HC emission –
[13] engine decreases for a blend of
HCNG. and B100
R. Mohsin et al. [14] 6-cylinder direct injection Torque and power became Increase the CO emission by –
diesel engine higher for a blend of (15–32%) and NOx emission
B20-CNG by (6.67–7.03%)
Reduce UBHC (5.76–6.25%)
and carbon dioxide
(0.47–0.58%)
Cheolwoong Park et al. [15] 6-cylinder natural gas engine – CO and HC emission –
increased significantly while
NOx emission decreases
Amin Paykani et al. [16] Modified heavy duty CI engine Improvement in performance Results indicate that HC and –
CO emissions increases
Reduction in soot and NOx
emissions
(continued)
R. Sharma et al.
Kyunghyun Ryu [17] Single cylinder diesel engine – Higher CO emission at all load Combustion stability is high at
except full load conditions higher injection pressure
IMEP is lower as compared to
single diesel fuel mode
Euijoon Shim et al. [18] Heavy-duty single cylinder – Increase in CO and HC –
engine emission and decrease with
optimum injection strategy
Euijoon Shim [19] Single cylinder heavy duty Attained indicated thermal It is found that all ACTs lead –
diesel engine efficiency (ITH) of 45.3% to decrease in the NOx and
PM emissions to achieve
EU-VI
X. Meng et al. [20] 4-stroke single cylinder diesel B10CNG60 and B20CNG60 Decrease in HC emission as –
engine showed improvement in ITH compared to 80% substitution
of CNG
Ibrahim Elgarhi et al. [21] 4-stroke diesel engine With an introduction of HHO – –
gas, BTH increases and BSFC
decreases
(continued)
529
530

M. Mofijur et al. [22] Detailed study – Biodiesel–diesel and –
ethanol–biodiesel–diesel
blending (5 to 10% ethanol
and 20–25% biodiesel)
correspond to a decrease in
CO, HC and PM emissions
Dori Yuvenda et al. [23] CNG-diesel DF engine Retarding IT would result Chamber pressure and heat –
decrease in CO, HC and NOx release rate for injection
emission timing (130° After TDC)
Murugan Rangasamy et al. Modified automotive diesel Increase in BTH for dual fuel - –
[24] engine RCCI engine as compared to
CDC and lower exergy loss in
M/BD blend as compared to
blend of M/D
Fatemeh Sadat Mirhashemi Comprehensive review – Decrease in NOx emission –
et al. [25] with blending of biofuel
through proper control on
injection parameter and
blending proportions
(continued)
R. Sharma et al.
M. Krishnamoorthi et al. [26] A single cylinder, 4-stroke Higher BTH about 22% for 77% lower oxides of nitrogen –
water cooled compression Syngas/diesel blending mode (NOx) and PM respectively as
ignition engine with an injection duration of compared to conventional
19° bTDC diesel
Jinwen You et al. [27] 6 cylinder turbocharged heavy EGR using proper intake Decrease in –
duty engine throttling cause improvement emissions for diesel/natural
in BTH gas DF engine at low load
Ganesh Duraisamy et al. [28] 3-cylinder, turbocharged, At a premixed mass part of BSNOx and ash emissions are –
CRDI, diesel engine 80%, Highest brake BTH is decreased for both double fuel
about 31% for both RCCI ignition with an increase
Methanol/Diesel and in methanol mass portion
Methanol/PODE blend which
is 3.5% higher than the regular
diesel burning
(continued)
531
532

Hanyu Chen et al. [29] A 6-cylinder prototype marine It is shown from performance Results indicate that there is In-chamber peak pressure of
engine characteristics that brake decrease in CO and NOx light hydrocarbons PCCI
specific fuel consumption is emissions although THC engine is decreased by 18.1%
higher and brake thermal emission is higher with and HRR presents a consistent
efficiency is lower in light respect to diesel variation trend
hydrocarbons PCCI engine Engine
contrasted with diesel engine
Manjunath Channappagoudra Kirloskar, 3.5 kW (TV1) diesel It was found that 29. Results showed that emission Ignition characteristics is
et al. [30] engine deg.bTDC IT has presented characteristics were better for better for 29.deg.bTDC IT
improved performance for 29 bTDC IT as compared to
dual fuel engine infusion timings 20, 23, 26
and 32. deg.bTDC
Mohd Hafizil Mat Yasin et al. – Results indicate that there is Decrease in CO, UHC and –
[31] an increase in BSFC as well as NOx emissions is obtained for
slight variation in BP and B5
torque between B5 and diesel
due to minute effect of
biodiesel properties in B5
(continued)
R. Sharma et al.
Md. Hasan Ali et al. [32] – – Lower emissions of UHC, CO –
though higher level of NOx is
obtained
A.M. Liaquat et al. [33] 1-cylinder 4-stroke diesel Increase in BSFC for biodiesel CB5 and CB15 would
engine blended fuels for entire speed correspond to the reduction in
range as compared to neat CO and HC emissions
diesel fuel whereas, CO2 and NOx
emissions were increased as
compared with conventional
diesel
Byungchul Choia et al. [34] Turbocharged CRDI diesel – THC and CO emissions –
engine increased as compare with
D100 mode at the low engine
load conditions
NOx emissions increased for a
blend of n-butanol/diesel
Gaurav Paul et al. [35] 2-cylinder DI diesel engine It was found that the use of Emissions like NOx and An increase in maximum
jatropha as a biodiesel would Carbon dioxide increases chamber pressure and decrease
result in an increase in BSFC while smoke and PM in IT with an increase in
whereas BTH decreases emissions decreases biodiesel blends share
I Wayan Surata et al. [36] – To enhance the performance of – –
the engine, 20% LPG was
admitted to 80% of biogas
(continued)
533
534

M.Shahabuddinet al. [37] Conventional diesel engine Blend, B20+1% results in Blend, B20+1% caused –
1.73% and 9% hike in brake reduction in CO, NOx and
power as compared with B20 CO2 emissions as compared
and OD, respectively with other fuels
Blend, B20+1% show 26%
and 6% decrease in SFC as
compare with fuel B20 and
OD
R. Sharma et al.
48.5 Conclusions
Utilization of bioCNG in modified diesel engines requires several factors to be

considered. Following conclusions could be drawn from the present study:
1. HC and CO emissions increase for diesel-bioCNG engine operation. From the
literature survey, it is found that if oxygenated fuel is used and blend with diesel,
reduction in both emissions occurs.
2. Use of biofuel blend caused slight penalty on performance in terms of BTE
and BSFC due to low calorific value of biofuel. Comparable performance is
achieved with use of diesel-bioCNG engine operation for low substitution ratio
and high engine load condition.
3. Particulate matter and soot emissions and smoke opacity decrease up to a certain
extent in biofuel blends.
4. bioCNG with lower substitution ratio of diesel with biofuel can be utilized with
little or minor engine modifications.
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Author Index
A G
Amardeep, 9, 367, 469 Gandhi, Sonal, 397
Ameer, Aatif, 509 Govil, Vinamra Kumar, 227
Ansari, M. A., 259 Gupta, Anuj, 429
Ansari, N. A., 519 Gupta, Deepa, 207
Awatramani, Jasmine, 323 Gupta, Shorya, 299
Gupta, Shradha, 197
Gupta, Tarun Kumar, 77
B Gurjar, Siddharth Singh, 445
Baghel, Navneet Singh, 19
Bahri, Harshit, 115, 177
Bansal, Ashish, 19 H
Bansal, Chetan, 411 Hanief, Mohammad, 241
Bansal, Mohit, 275 Hasteer, Nitasha, 323
Bhati, Aditya Kumar, 445
Bhatia, Siddhant, 469
I
Islam, Anas, 357, 481
C
Chaturvedi, Rishabh, 357, 387, 419, 459
Chauhan, Pankaj Kumar, 43
J
Chauhan, Sandeep, 19, 77, 411
Jain, Shruti, 489
Chauhan, Shailendra Singh, 445
Jha, Mayank Shekhar, 131
Chauhan, Vinit, 33
Joshi, Shivani, 397
Chauhan, Yash, 445
Chhonkar, Ankit, 19
Choudhary, Shilpa, 377
K
Kalra, Sahil, 1, 131
D Kaura, Shivendra, 275
Datta, Priyanka, 275, 287 Khan, Sabah, 43
Dohare, Deepti, 333 Kirti, 489
Kumar, Aditya, 9
Kumar, Deepak, 1, 131
F Kumar, Harshit, 367
Farozan, Shama, 105 Kumar, Ishu, 469
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license 539
to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2857-3
540 Author Index
Kumar, Kuldeep, 93 Saxena, Pooja, 165

Kumar, Manoj, 387, 459 Saxena, S. S., 445
Kumar, Nagendra, 227, 275 Sethi, Dhruv, 469
Kumar, Pradeep, 55 Shantanu, 9
Kumar, Rajiv, 397 Sharma, Abhishek, 377
Kumar, Rishabh, 429 Sharma, Aman, 215, 357, 419
Kumar, Singh Sonu, 105 Sharma, Anil Kumar, 189
Sharma, Ankit, 469
Sharma, Bhupendra Prakash, 299
L Sharma, Devesh, 19
Lather, Rohit Singh, 33 Sharma, Himanshu, 19
Sharma, Kailash, 227
Sharma, Mayank, 93
M Sharma, Rahul, 19, 33, 519
Mahendru, Ajay, 349 Sharma, Sanjeev, 189, 197
Malhotra, Pranav, 299 Sharma, Saurabh, 105
Mathur, Aditya, 411 Sharma, Vikas Kumar, 215, 387, 481
Mathur, Akanksha, 33 Shukla, Prashant, 165
Maurya, Bajrangi, 143 Shukla, Vidit, 377
Mausam, Kuwar, 403 Shylaja, C., 313
Mavi, Pankaj Kumar, 445 Sindhwani, Rahul, 299, 323
Meenu, Maninder, 1 Singh, Anil P., 349
Mehrotra, Rajat, 227, 259 Singh, Harkirat, 299
Mehta, Tushar, 33 Singh, Harvendra, 115, 177
Mishra, Puneet Kumar, 313 Singh, Jaydeep, 367
Mishra, Shivam, 55 Singh, Karanjot, 367
Mittal, Shivi, 207 Singh, Kaushalendra Kumar, 115, 177
Singh, Parshuram, 67
Singh, Pradeep Kumar, 155, 419, 459
N Singh, Prince Kumar, 93
Nafees, Khalid, 349 Singh, Priyanka, 299
Singh, Ranjeet Kumar, 509
Singh, Ravindra Pratap, 403
P Singh, Shailesh Kumar, 367
Pal, Amit, 519 Singh, Vimal, 397
Parmar, Nirbhay Singh, 429 Sohal, Harsh, 489
Patel, Sachin, 9 Srivastava, Ashish Kumar, 93
Pokhriyal, Vansh, 509 Srivastava, Prabhat, 207
Ponam, 67 Srivastava, Priyank, 299
Prasad, Brijesh, 227 Srivastava, Vishal Shankar, 77, 93
Priya, Om, 105
T
R Tanveer, Mohd. Qamar, 349
Rai, Amrita, 313 Tiwari, Divakar, 509
Rani, Pooja, 1, 245 Tiwari, Rajesh, 189
Rawat, Ritwick, 9 Tiwari, Vikas, 509
Rohilla, Rajesh, 287 Tomar, Mihir, 445
Tripathi, Ashish, 499
Tripathi, Pragati, 259
S
Saraswat, Manish, 155, 481
Satyapal, Harendra Kumar, 105 V
Saxena, Alok, 509 Vashist, Prem Chand, 499
Author Index 541
Vats, Mudita, 377 Y

Yadav, Himanshu, 93
Verma, Aman, 93 Yadav, Jatin, 469
Yadav, Omprakash, 19, 411
Verma, Gaayan, 323 Yadav, Rajat, 155, 215, 403
Yadav, Ramashankar, 397
Vimal, 189 Yadav, Vinod Kumar, 429

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Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 239

Veeredhi Vasudeva Rao

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/8767

ISSN 2190-3018 ISSN 2190-3026 (electronic)

International Conference on Computational and Experimental Methods in Mechan-

Pretoria, South Africa Veeredhi Vasudeva Rao

1 Damage Detection in Eggshell Using Lamb Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

8 Applicability of Banana Fiber as Reinforcement in Composites . . . . 77

19 Emotional Intelligence: Assessing Its Impact on Financial

30 Groundwater Recharge Using Artificial Filter Mechanism . . . . . . . . 333

41 Investigation on Automobile Fire and Its Root Causes . . . . . . . . . . . . 445

Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539

About the Editors

Veeredhi Vasudeva Rao holds Bachelor’s Degree in Mechanical Engineering and

Dr. Adepu Kumaraswamy graduated in Mechanical Engineering from Kakatiya

Pune, funded by Department of Defence R&D, Ministry of Defence, Government of

Dr. Ambuj Saxena completed his bachelor degree in Mechanical Engineering

Amardeep Department of Mechanical Engineering, GL Bajaj Institute of Tech-

Yash Chauhan Department of Mechanical Engineering, G.L. Bajaj Institute of

Mayank Shekhar Jha Centre de Recherche en Automatique de Nancy, Université

Aditya Mathur Department of Mechanical Engineering, G L Bajaj Institute of

Om Priya Aryabhatta Center for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, Aryabhatta

Himanshu Sharma Department of Mechanical Engineering, G.L Bajaj Institute of

Kaushalendra Kumar Singh Department of Mechanical Engineering, G. L. Bajaj

Ashish Tripathi Department of Information Technology, G. L. Bajaj Institute of

Sahil Kalra, Maninder Meenu, and Deepak Kumar

Abstract The application of Lamb waves is gaining attention in the scientific

S. Kalra (B) · D. Kumar

1.2 Lamb Wave Analysis in Thin Shell Structures

1.3 Finite Element Analysis of Eggshell Using Lamb Waves

1.4 Material Properties and Element Size

Dimensions of Oval: Shown in Fig. 1.1.

Fig. 1.1 Geometry of egg

Loading: Impulse signal as a concentrated load on the exciter.

mesh element size 0.001

Hence, the maximum increment time step = 1E−7 s is found to be appropriate.

Fig. 1.2 Healthy egg with

Fig. 1.3 Egg with hair line

Fig. 1.4 Input signal sent to Input Signal

1.5 Post-processing of Finite Element Results

Fig. 1.5 Output signal

1.6 Conclusion and Future Scope

Sachin Patel, Ritwick Rawat, Shantanu, Aditya Kumar, and Amardeep

Reduction of vehicle weight is a recommended strategy to address growing concerns

S. Patel · R. Rawat · Shantanu · A. Kumar · Amardeep (B)

Fig. 2.1 The Ackerman turn

Fig. 2.2 Ackerman centre

2.2 Steering System and Mechanisms

Fig. 2.3 Rack and pinion

2.3 Rack and Pinion

2.4 Variable Ratio Steering

2.5 Re-circulating Ball/Steering Box

Fig. 2.4 Recirculating ball steering system [7]

2.6 Sources of Ackerman

Ackerman distinguishes between direct and circular movements. The directional

2.7 Ackerman Principle and Steering Geometry

Fig. 2.5 Ackerman drive

Fig. 2.6 Steering system prototype [11]

Fig. 2.7 Steering system overall geometry [11, 12]