CALCULUS I

Unit 2: LIMITS OF FUNCTIONS

LE THAI THANH (010218@tmp.hcmut.edu.vn)

HCMC University of Technology

from oct. 10, 2022 to Oct 15, 2022

LIMITS OF A FUNCTION

DEFINITION OF THE LIMIT

Let f be a function defined on some open interval that contains
the number a, except possibly at a itself. Then we say that the
limit of f (x) as x approaches a is L, and we write lim f (x) = L if
x→a
for every number ε > 0 there is a number δ > 0 such that if
0 < |x − a| < δ then |f (x) − L| < ε. That is

lim f (x) = L ⇔ ∀ε > 0, ∃δ > 0, 0 < |x − a| < δ ⇒ |f (x) − L| < ε

x→a
LIMITS OF A FUNCTION
LIMITS OF A FUNCTION
EXAMPLE
Show that lim (3x − 2) = 4.
x→2

SOLUTION
We have a = 2, L = 4, f (x) = 3x − 2 and we need to find a
number δ > 0 such that

∀ε > 0, if 0 < |x − 2| < δ then |(3x − 2) − 4| < ε

From the last inequality, we have

ε
|(3x − 2) − 4| < ε ⇔ |3x − 6| < ε ⇔ |3(x − 2)| < ε ⇔ |x − 2| <
3
ε
This suggests that we should choose δ = .
3
THE LIMIT LAWS
ALGEBRAIC LAWS
Suppose that C is a constant and the limits lim f (x) and lim g (x)
x→a x→a
exist. Then
1 lim [f (x) + g (x)] = lim f (x) + lim g (x)
x→a x→a x→a
2 lim [f (x) − g (x)] = lim f (x) − lim g (x)
x→a x→a x→a
3 lim [Cf (x)] = C lim f (x)
x→a x→a
4 lim [f (x)g (x)] = lim f (x) · lim g (x)
x→a x→a x→a

f (x) lim f (x)

5 lim = x→a if lim g (x) ̸= 0
x→a g (x) lim g (x) x→a
x→a
THE LIMIT LAWS
LIMIT OF COMPOSITE FUNCTIONS
Suppose lim f (x) = L and lim g (x) = b. Then lim f (g (x)) = L
x→b x→a x→a

EXAMPLE
Suppose that lim f (x) = 3 and lim g (x) = 2. Then
x→2 x→1

lim f (g (x)) = 3
x→1

NOTE: From the above laws, we have, if lim f (x) = L, then

x→a
n n
1. lim [f (x)] = L
x→a
p √n
2. lim n f (x) = L (L > 0)
x→a
THE LIMIT LAWS
DIRECT SUBSTITUTION PROPERTY
If f is a combination or composition of elementary functions and a
is in the domain of f , then

lim f (x) = f (a)

x→a

EXAMPLE
√3
x 2 + 2x − 7
Find lim f (x) where f (x) = √ .
x→1 3x 3 + 5x + 8

SOLUTION
Since the function f (x) is an algebraic function and a = 1 is in its
domain, then
√3 2
√3
√3
1 +2·1−7 −4 4
lim f (x) = f (1) = √ = √ =−
x→1 3
3·1 +5·1+8 16 4
THE LIMIT LAWS
THE INEQUALITY THEOREM
If f (x) ⩽ g (x) when x is near a and the limits of f and g both
exist as x approaches a, then

lim f (x) ⩽ lim g (x)

x→a x→a

THE SQUEEZE THEOREM

Suppose f (x) ⩽ g (x) ⩽ h(x) when x is near a and

if lim f (x) = lim h(x) = L, then lim g (x) = L

x→a x→a x→a
THE LIMIT LAWS
EXAMPLE
1
Find lim x 2 sin2 .
x→0 x

SOLUTION
1
We know that 0 ⩽ x 2 sin2 ⩽ x 2 , and lim x 2 = 0. By the
x x→0
2 2 1
Squeeze Theorem, we obtain lim x sin = 0.
x→0 x
INFINITE LIMITS

DEFINITION

lim f (x) = ∞ ⇔ ∀M > 0, ∃δ > 0, 0 < |x − a| < δ ⇒ f (x) > M

x→a

lim f (x) = −∞ ⇔ ∀N < 0, ∃δ > 0, 0 < |x − a| < δ ⇒ f (x) < N

x→a
LIMITS AT INFINITY

DEFINITION
Let f (x) be a function defined on some interval (a, ∞). Then

lim f (x) = L ⇔ ∀ε > 0, ∃N > 0, ∀x > N ⇒ |f (x) − L| < ε

x→∞

and

lim f (x) = ∞ ⇔ ∀M > 0, ∃N > 0, ∀x > N ⇒ f (x) > M

x→∞
SOME USEFUL LIMITS
We consider some useful limits of the elementary functions when x
approaches ±∞.
α > 0 =⇒ lim x α = +∞ and α < 0 =⇒ lim x α = 0
x→+∞ x→+∞
If a > 1, then lim ax = +∞ and lim ax = 0
x→+∞ x→−∞
If a > 1, then lim loga x = +∞
x→+∞
The trigonometric functions (sin x, cos x, tan x, cot x) have no
limits when x approaches ±∞.
π π
We have lim arctan x = and lim arctan x = − .
x→+∞ 2 x→−∞ 2
Sometime, we can write
π π
arctan(+∞) = and arctan(−∞) = −
2 2
lim cosh x = +∞, lim sinh x = ±∞, lim tanh x = 1
x→±∞ x→±∞ x→±∞
ONE-SIDE LIMITS
DEFINITION
The Left-Hand Limit:

lim f (x) = L ⇔ ∀ε > 0, ∃δ > 0, a − δ < x < a ⇒ |f (x) − L| < ε

x→a−

The Right-Hand Limit:

lim f (x) = L ⇔ ∀ε > 0, ∃δ > 0, a < x < a + δ ⇒ |f (x) − L| < ε

x→a+

EXAMPLE
1
Consider the function f (x) = . We have
x
1 1
lim = +∞ and lim = −∞
x→0+ x x→0− x
ONE-SIDE LIMITS
EXAMPLE
(
1 − x, if x < 1
Consider the function f (x) = . We have
x 2, if x ⩾ 1

lim f (x) = lim (1 − x) = 0 and lim f (x) = lim+ x 2 = 1

x→1− x→1− x→1+ x→1

EXAMPLE
1
Consider the function f (x) = 1 . When x approaches 0 from
2 +1
x
1 1 1
the left, we have −→ −∞, then 2 x −→ 0, so that 2 x + 1 −→ 1.
x
This means that lim f (x) = 1. On the other hand, when x
x→0−
1 1
approaches 0 from the right, we have−→ ∞, then 2 x −→ +∞,
1
x
and 2 x + 1 −→ +∞. This means that lim+ f (x) = 0.
x→0
ONE-SIDE LIMITS

THEOREM

lim f (x) = L if and only if lim f (x) = L = lim+ f (x)

x→a x→a− x→a
THE LIMIT LAWS

NOTE
From the Direct Substitution Property we see that if a function
f (x) is defined at a number a then the limit of this function when
x approaches a can be found by replacing x by a. Therefore, in
reality, we often encounter with limits of functions which are not
defined at a. In these cases, we need to apply other tools to
calculate these limits.
THE LIMIT LAWS
EXAMPLE
x 2 − 3x + 2
Find lim .
x→2 x −2

SOLUTION
x 2 − 3x + 2
The function f (x) = is not defined at x = 2, so we
x −2
can not replace x by 2. In order to find the limit we factor the
numerator as x 2 − 3x + 2 = (x − 1)(x − 2) and

x 2 − 3x + 2 (x − 1)(x − 2)
lim = lim = lim (x − 1) = 1
x→2 x −2 x→2 x −2 x→2
INDETERMINATE FORMS AND SOME USEFUL
LIMITS
INDETERMINATE FORMS
We used to find the limits of following indeterminate forms:
0 ∞
, , ∞ − ∞, 1∞ , 0∞ , 0 · ∞, ...
0 ∞

SOME USEFUL LIMITS

sin x tan x 1 − cos x 1
(1) lim = 1, lim = 1, lim 2
=
x→0 x x→0 x x→0 x 2
ex −1 ln(1 + x)
(2) lim = 1, lim =1
x→0 x x→0 x
(1 + x)α − 1
(3) lim =α
x→0 x
sinh x tanh x 1 − cosh x 1
(4) lim = 1, lim = 1, lim =
x→0 x x→0 x x→0 x2 2
INDETERMINATE FORMS AND SOME USEFUL
LIMITS
SOME USEFUL LIMITS
1 x
 
1
(5) lim 1 + = e, lim (1 + x) x = e
x→∞ x x→0

0, if n < m
a0 x n + a1 x n−1 + · · · + an

a
0
(6) lim = , if n = m
x→∞ b0 x m + b1 x m−1 + · · · + bm 
 b0
∞, if n > m

EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE
sin 7x
Find lim . We can rewrite
x→0 tan 3x

sin 7x sin 7x 3x 7 7
lim = lim · · =
x→0 tan 3x x→0 7x tan 3x 3 3

EXAMPLE
tan x − sin x
Find lim . We can rewrite
x→0 x3
sin x
tan x − sin x − sin x
cos x sin x − sin x cos x
lim = lim = lim
x→0 x3 x→0 x3 x→0 x 3 cos x
sin x 1 − cos x 1 1 1 1
= lim · 2
· =1· · =
x→0 x x cos x 2 1 2
EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE
√ √ 
Find lim x 3/2 x3 + 2 − x 3 − 2 . We have
x→+∞

(x 3 + 2) − (x 3 − 2)
lim f (x) = lim x 3/2 √ √
x→+∞ x→+∞ x3 + 2 + x3 − 2
√
4 x3
= lim √ √
x→+∞ x3 + 2 + x3 − 2
4 4
= lim r r = =2
x→+∞ 2 2 2
1+ 3 + 1− 3
x x
EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE
x +2 x
 
Find lim .
x→∞ x − 2

x +2 x x −2+4 x
     x
4
lim = lim = lim 1 +
x→∞ x − 2 x→∞ x −2 x→∞ x −2
!x ! x−2 · 4 ·x
4 x−2
1 1
= lim 1 + x−2 = 1 + x−2
x→∞
4 4
4x
 ! x−2  x−2
4
1
= lim  1 + x−2  = e4
x→∞
4
EXAMPLES

EXAMPLE
1
Find lim (cos x) x 2 . We have
x→0

1 1
lim (cos x) x 2 = lim (1 + cos x − 1) x 2
x→0 x→0
h 1
i cos x−1
2
= lim (1 + (cos x − 1)) cos x−1 x = e−1/2
x→0
THE VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL ASYMPTOTES
DEFINITION
The line x = a is called a vertical asymptote of the curve y = f (x)
if at least one of the following statements is true

lim f (x) = ∞ lim f (x) = ∞ lim f (x) = ∞

x→a x→a− x→a+

lim f (x) = −∞ lim f (x) = −∞ lim f (x) = −∞

x→a x→a− x→a+

DEFINITION
The line y = L is called a horizontal asymptote of the curve
y = f (x) if either

lim f (x) = L or lim f (x) = L

x→∞ x→−∞
THE VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL ASYMPTOTES
EXAMPLE
Find vertical and horizontal asymptotes of the function

2x 2 + 3
f (x) =
x2 − 1

SOLUTION
We have
2x 2 + 3
lim f (x) = lim =2
x→∞ x→∞ x 2 − 1

Then, the horizontal asymptote is y = 2. And

2x 2 + 3
lim f (x) = lim = ±∞
x→±1 x→±1 x 2 − 1

Therefore, the vertical asymptotes are x = −1 and x = 1.

INFINITESIMALS
DEFINITION
A function α(x) is called an infinitesimal when x approaches a if

lim α(x) = 0
x→a

For example,
The functions x 2 , sin x, tan x, 1 − cos x, . . . are infinitesimals
when x → 0.
1
The functions , 2−x , . . . are infinitesimals when x → +∞.
x
3 πx
The function x − 1, cot , . . . are infinitesimals when x → 1.
2
EQUIVALENT INFINITESIMALS
DEFINITION
Two infinitesimals α(x) and β(x) when x approaches a are called
equivalent if
α(x)
lim =1
x→a β(x)

In this case, we denote

α(x) ∼ β(x) (x → a)

EXAMPLE
sin x
α(x) = sin x is equivalent to β(x) = x, since lim =1
x→0 x
x
α(x) = 1 − cos x is equivalent to β(x) = , since
2
1 − cos x
lim =1
x→0 x/2
EQUIVALENT INFINITESIMALS
We have some useful equivalent infinitesimals:
x3

sin x ∼ x− 

6




x3



tan x ∼ x+



3 



x 2 x4


1 − cos x ∼ − (x → 0)
2 24 

2 x3

x


ex −1 ∼ x+ +



2 6 



α(α − 1) 2


(1 + x)α − 1 ∼ αx + x



2 
INFINITESIMALS
DEFINITION
Given two infinitesimals α(x) and β(x) when x → a. We say that
α(x) is an infinitesimal of higher degree in comparison to β(x), if

α(x)
lim =0
x→a β(x)

In this case we denote

α(x) = o(β(x))
REPLACEMENT BY EQUIVALENT INFINITESIMALS
THEOREM
Given two infinitesimals f (x) and g (x) when x → a. Suppose that
α(x)
f (x) ∼ α(x), g (x) ∼ β(x) when x → a, and lim = L. Then
x→a β(x)

f (x)
lim =L
x→a g (x)

EXAMPLE
tan x − sin x
Find lim .
x→0 x3
x3 x3
We know that tan x ∼ x + and sin x ∼ x − . Therefore,
 3 6
x3 x3 x3
 
tan x − sin x ∼ x + − x− = . Then
3 6 2

tan x − sin x x 3 /2 1
lim 3
= lim 3
=
x→0 x x→0 x 2
CONTINUITY
DEFINITION
A function f is continuous at a if lim f (x) = f (a). Otherwise, we
x→a
say that f is discontinuous at a.

This definition requires three things if f is continuous at a:

1 f is defined at a
2 lim f (x) exists
x→a
3 lim f (x) = f (a)
x→a
CONTINUITY
EXAMPLE

 x2 − 4
Given f (x) = ̸ 2 . Find A such that f is
, if x =
x −2
 A, if x = 2
continuous at x = 2.

SOLUTION
We see that f is defined at x = 2, f (2) = A and

x2 − 4 (x − 2)(x + 2)
lim f (x) = lim = lim = lim (x + 2) = 4
x→2 x→2 x − 2 x→2 x −2 x→2

From the above definition, f is continuous at x = 2 if A = 4.

CONTINUITY
DEFINITION
We have the following definitions
1 A function f is continuous from the right at a if
lim+ f (x) = f (a)
x→a
2 A function f is continuous from the left at a if
lim f (x) = f (a)
x→a−
3 A function f is continuous on an opened interval (a, b) if it is
continuous at every number in the interval.
4 A function f is continuous on an close interval [a, b] if it is
continuous on (a, b), continuous from the right at a, and
continuous from the left at b.
CONTINUITY

PROPERTIES OF CONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS

1 A function f is continuous at a when and only when it is

continuous from the left and from the right at a.

2 The addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and
composition of continuous functions are continuous functions.
3 The elementary functions are continuous on their domains.
THE INTERMEDIATE VALUE THEOREM
THEOREM

Suppose f is continuous on the

closed interval [a, b] and let N
be any number between f (a)
and f (b), where f (a) ̸= f (b).
Then there exists a number c
in (a, b) such that f (c) = N.

The Intermediate Value Theorem states that a continuous function

takes on every intermediate value between the function values f (a)
and f (b). It is illustrated by the above figure. Note that the value
can be taken on once or more than once.
THE INTERMEDIATE VALUE THEOREM
EXAMPLE
Show that there is a root of the equation x 3 − 3x + 1 = 0 between
1 and 2.

SOLUTION
Let f (x) = x 3 − 3x + 1. We are looking for a solution of the given
equation, that is, a number c between 1 and 2 such that f (c) = 0.
Therefore we take a = 1, b = 2, and N = 0 in this theorem. We
have

f (1) = 1 − 3 + 1 = −1 < 0 and f (2) = 8 − 6 + 1 = 3 > 0

Thus f (1) < 0 < f (2); that is, N = 0 is a number between f (1)
and f (2). Now f is continuous since it is a polynomial, so the
Intermediate Value Theorem says there is a number c between 1
and 2 such that f (c) = 0. In other words, the equation
x 3 − 3x + 1 = 0 has at least one root in the interval (1, 2).
That’s all. Thanks a lot

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