Full Thesis Final Version 2021 Anushka

A FRAMEWORK TO ENHANCE THE ADOPTION OF
BUILDING INFORMATION MODELLING AMONGST SRI

LANKAN QUANTITY SURVEYING ORGANISATIONS TO
INCREASE THE ACCURACY OF PRE-TENDER COST
ESTIMATES
ANUSHKA PRASADINI RATHNAYAKE
School of the Science, Engineering and Environment

University of Salford, Salford, UK
Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements of the Degree of

Doctor of Philosophy
2021
ABSTRACT
For decades, construction projects around the globe have been suffered to complete on budget due to
ongoing cost overruns. Accordingly, both developed and developing countries have reported a number of
construction projects that have resulted in increased initial project costs. As a result, several studies have
been undertaken to investigate the causes of cost overruns and found that inaccurate project cost estimates
are a major reason for project cost overruns. Conventional tasks, such as manual quantity take-off, the use
of 2D drawings, and a lack of information that are embedded within the process when preparing cost
estimates, were found to be challenging to produce accurate cost estimates. Nevertheless, through the use
of Building Information Modelling (BIM) many countries, both developed and developing, have been able
to prepare accurate cost estimates by overcoming the consequences of conventional cost estimation
practices. Many BIM adopted countries have identified drivers and barriers as part of the BIM adoption
process and been able to develop BIM frameworks to enhance its adoption.
Many studies indicate that BIM is a buzzword for the Sri Lankan construction industry and placed in BIM
level 0. Majority of the quantity surveying organizations are lagging behind of adopting BIM to improve
the accuracy of pre-tender cost estimates. Therefore, BIM adoption among quantity surveying organisations
has often been criticised, as many have not yet adopted BIM within their practice. Although the literature
indicates the importance of a nationally developed BIM framework, Sri Lanka not yet developed a BIM
adoption framework by identifying national wide barriers and solutions. Accordingly, this research seeks
to explore the issues behind non-BIM adoption to resolve the issue.
This research inquiries into the drivers and barriers to BIM adoption, in order to provide affordable
solutions. Thus, a framework if proposed to enhance BIM adoption, by identifying the gaps in BIM adoption
(drivers and barriers) and the mitigating actions required to overcome these barriers. And the selection of a
specific developing country would permit an in-depth understanding of the process of BIM adoption; thus,
Sri Lanka was selected for the proposed purpose of this research.
This study adopts an explanatory, sequential mixed method that applies a questionnaire survey and a semi-
structured interview within a case study. The case study and survey data were collected separately in Sri
Lanka from June 2017 to January 2018. The collected quantitative data was analysed descriptively and
ranked using a relative important index analysis. The qualitative data were analysed using a thematic
analysis technique to identify the themes and patterns.
The results show that only a few QS organisations have adopted BIM. Nevertheless, it was found that six
major drivers, namely BIM benefits, client demand, professional bodies, BIM-related training,
organisational pressure, and BIM education, influence organisations to adopt BIM. Moreover, the use of a
BIM model, automated quantity take-off, improved visualisation, improved information management, clash
detection and timesaving were the highlighted as the key BIM benefits for QS organisations. In the
meantime, the findings further identified the interrelationships between major drivers. Besides, six major
barriers were also identified, namely financial, organisational, unawareness, the lack of market demand, the
lack of resources, regulatory issues, and sub-factors, which hinder the adoption of BIM. In the meantime,
findings further revealed the root causes for each barrier and identified interrelationships between the major
barriers. Moreover, mitigating actions to overcome the impact of the barriers and their root causes were
also identified. The analysis further showed that some of the empirical findings replicate those in similar
contexts reported in the literature for other countries.
1
A framework was produced and presented at the end of the thesis, which was designed to enable plausible
means to overcome the impact of the barriers found. The proposed framework is expected to benefit
quantity surveying organisations, architects, and other construction industry-related professionals to
evaluate their strengths in BIM adoption (drivers) and to mitigate the impact of barriers that lead to the non-
adoption of BIM. It is also expected to benefit construction-related professional bodies, governments, and
academics by determining their role in support of BIM adoption.
2
DEDICATION
I dedicate this thesis to my loving father, Mahinda Rathnayake, and to my loving mother,
Thamara Priyani Amarasinghe.
3
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I wish to express my sincere gratitude to all the individuals and organisations who have supported me during
my PhD journey.
First of all, I am extremely grateful to my supervisor, Dr Kaushal Keraminiyage, for his continuous support
of my PhD study. His patience, motivation, enthusiasm, and immense knowledge and guidance helped me
throughout the research and writing of this thesis. I have been amazingly fortunate to have Kaushal as a
supervisor. My deepest gratitude also goes to my co-supervisor, Dr. Paul Coates, who has always been there
to listen, help, support and provide guidance.
I am indebted to my previous supervisor, Dr Udayangani Kulatunga. I realized from the very early stages
that I was so lucky to have Dr Coates and Dr Udayangani as joint supervisors. Towards the middle of the
PhD journey, Dr Udayangani left the University of Salford and an agreement was made with Dr Kaushal
to become my main supervisor. Your brilliant supervision, encouragement and support made this research
continue smoothly and enabled its successful completion. Thank-you.
Very special thanks go to all quantity surveying organisations and experts who have participated in this
study by devoting their valuable time. In particular, I would like to thank Mr. Thushara Indika, Rajitha
Abeywardhana, Mrs Sarojini and Mr Janaka Mawella for their enormous support during my fieldwork in
Sri Lanka. I cannot thank my friends enough - Harshana Ekanayake and Malika Amarasena - who have
never allowed me to feel lonely.
Last but not least, I would like to take this opportunity to thank my parents, Mr. Mahinda Rathnayake and
Mrs. Thamara Priyani Amarasinghe, my sister Mrs. Samadhi Rathnayake and my brother Mr. Naveen
Mullegama for their selfless love and affection at all times. Finally, I would like to thank my teachers,
friends and relatives from Sri Lanka for all their love and care.
4
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
AG – Agree
AEC – Architectural Engineering and Construction
AQTO- Automate Quantity Take-off

BDS – Building Description System
BIM – Building Information Modelling
CAD - Computer-Aided Design
CAGR – Compound Annual Growth Rate
DA - Disagree
ESMM - Explanatory Sequential Mixed Method
FW - Framework
GDP – Gross Domestic Product
GLIDE - Graphical Language for Interactive Design
ICT - Information Communication Technology
IQSSL – Institute of Quantity Surveyors Sri Lanka
IT – Information Technology
LOD – Level of Detail
MQTO- Manual Quantity Take-off
NPP – National Physical Plan
PTE – Pre-Tender Estimates
QS – Quantity Surveying
QS’s- Quantity Surveyors
QTO - Quantity Take-off
RII - Relative Important Index
SA- Strongly Agree
SD – Strongly Disagree
SL – Sri Lankan
UK – United Kingdom
USA – United States of America
5
Contents
ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................................. 1
DEDICATION ............................................................................................................................................. 3
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ........................................................................................................................... 4
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ..................................................................................................................... 5
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.................................................................................................................... 15
LIST OF TABLES ..................................................................................................................................... 18
1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................... 20
1.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................... 20
1.2 RESEARCH BACKGROUND .............................................................................................................. 20
1.3 PROBLEM STATEMENT ................................................................................................................... 21
1.4 AIM AND OBJECTIVES .................................................................................................................... 23
1.4.1 Aim .......................................................................................................................................... 23
1.4.2 Objectives ................................................................................................................................ 23
1.4.3 Research Questions ................................................................................................................. 23
1.5 SCOPE OF THE RESEARCH............................................................................................................... 23
1.6 STRUCTURE OF THE THESIS ............................................................................................................ 24
1.7 SUMMARY AND LINK ..................................................................................................................... 24
2 PRE-TENDER COST ESTIMATES AND FACTORS AFFECTING THEIR ACCURACY .... 25
2.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................... 25
2.2 PRE-TENDER ESTIMATES (PTE)………………………………………………………………….25
2.2.1 Importance of the accuracy of Pre-tender cost estimates……………………………………26
2.3 CONSTRUCTION COST OVERRUNS ................................................................................................. 30

2.3.1 Construction Costs Overruns In A Global Context ................................................................. 30
2.3.2 Construction Cost Overruns In The Sri Lankan Context ........................................................ 35
2.3.3 The Causes of Construction Cost Overruns Globally ............................................................. 38
2.3.4 Causes Of Construction Cost Overruns In The Sri Lankan Context....................................... 44
2.4 FACTORS AFFECTING THE ACCURACY OF PRE-TENDER COST ESTIMATES .................................. 46
2.4.1 The Use Of 2D Design Drawings ............................................................................................ 49
2.4.2 Poor Communication .............................................................................................................. 51
2.4.3 Lack Of Information ................................................................................................................ 53
6
2.4.4 Lack Of Coordination.............................................................................................................. 54
2.4.5 Lack Of Proper Site Investigations ......................................................................................... 54
2.4.6 Lack Of Experience And Knowledge Of Quantity Surveyor ................................................... 55
2.4.7 Manual Quantity Take-off (MQTO) ........................................................................................ 56
2.4.8 Time Constraints ..................................................................................................................... 56
2.4.9 Inefficiencies In Existing Cost Estimating Software ............................................................... 57
2.5 SUMMARY AND LINK ..................................................................................................................... 58
3 BUILDING INFORMATION MODELLING AND BIM ADOPTION ........................................ 60
3.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................... 60
3.2 EVOLUTION OF BUILDING INFORMATION MODELLING (BIM) IN THE CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY
60
3.3 BIM DEFINITIONS .......................................................................................................................... 63
3.4 THE USE OF BIM TO ENABLE ACCURATE PRE-TENDER COST ESTIMATING ................................ 66
3.4.1 The Use of BIM 3D Models ..................................................................................................... 66
3.4.2 Improved Information Management........................................................................................ 67
3.4.3 Automated Quantity Take-Off (AQTO) ................................................................................... 68
3.4.4 Improved Coordination and Communication ......................................................................... 70
3.4.5 Improved Site Investigations ................................................................................................... 71
3.4.6 Time Savings ........................................................................................................................... 72
3.5 GENERAL STATUS OF BIM DEVELOPMENT ................................................................................... 73
3.5.1 BIM Maturity Models .............................................................................................................. 73
3.5.2 BIM Supported Documents ..................................................................................................... 76
3.6 BIM ADOPTION TRENDS AROUND THE GLOBE ............................................................................. 81
3.6.1 BIM Adoption Status In Sri Lanka .......................................................................................... 94
3.7 THE DRIVERS AND BARRIERS TO BIM ADOPTION ........................................................................ 95
3.7.1 Drivers Of BIM Adoption ........................................................................................................ 95
3.7.1.1 Government Intervention (GI) ........................................................................................ 100
3.7.1.2 Professional Bodies Intervention (PBI) .......................................................................... 100
3.7.1.3 Client Demand (CD) ....................................................................................................... 101
3.7.1.4 BIM Benefits (BB).......................................................................................................... 102
3.7.1.5 Organisational Intervention (OI)..................................................................................... 102
3.7.1.6 BIM-Based Education (BE) ............................................................................................ 103
7
3.7.1.7 Market Demand (MD) .................................................................................................... 103
3.7.1.8 Resource Availability (RA) ............................................................................................ 104
3.7.2 Barriers To BIM Adoption .................................................................................................... 104
3.7.2.1 Financial Barriers (FB) ................................................................................................... 110
3.7.2.2 Lack of BIM Resources (LBR) ....................................................................................... 110
3.7.2.3 Lack of BIM Awareness (LBA) ..................................................................................... 112
3.7.2.4 Lack of External Pressure (LEP) .................................................................................... 112
3.7.2.5 Lack of Internal Pressure (LIP)....................................................................................... 113
3.7.2.6 Legal Issues (LI) ............................................................................................................. 114
3.8 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK ......................................................................................................... 115
3.9 SUMMARY AND LINK ................................................................................................................... 116
4 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY .................................................................................................... 117
4.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................. 117
4.2 RESEARCH METHODOLOGICAL DESIGN....................................................................................... 117
4.3 RESEARCH PHILOSOPHY............................................................................................................... 119
4.3.1 Ontology ................................................................................................................................ 119
4.3.2 Epistemology ......................................................................................................................... 120
4.3.3 Axiology ................................................................................................................................. 120
4.4 RESEARCH APPROACH ................................................................................................................. 121
4.5 RESEARCH CHOICE....................................................................................................................... 122
4.6 RESEARCH STRATEGY .................................................................................................................. 125
4.6.1 The Use of Case study and Survey as a Combined Method of Research Strategy ................ 127
4.6.2 Case Study Design ................................................................................................................. 129
4.6.2.1 Selection Criteria for each Case Study ........................................................................... 130
4.7 TIME HORIZON ............................................................................................................................. 132
4.8 RESEARCH TECHNIQUE ................................................................................................................ 133
4.8.1 Literature Review .................................................................................................................. 133
4.8.2 Questionnaires ...................................................................................................................... 133
4.8.3 Questionnaire Pre-Testing .................................................................................................... 135
4.8.4 Interview ................................................................................................................................ 136
4.9 DATA SAMPLING .......................................................................................................................... 138
8
4.10 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE RESEARCH ....................................................................... 140
4.11 DATA ANALYSIS APPROACH ...................................................................................................... 140
4.12 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY ...................................................................................................... 143
4.13 OUTCOME OF THE RESEARCH AND VALIDATION ....................................................................... 143
4.14 SUMMARY .................................................................................................................................. 144
5 ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS FROM THE QUANTITATIVE ENQUIRY ............................... 145
5.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................. 145
5.2 PRELIMINARY DATA ANALYSIS ................................................................................................... 145
5.2.1 Response Rate ....................................................................................................................... 145
5.2.2 Coding and Data Entry ......................................................................................................... 146
5.2.3 Instrument Validity and Reliability ....................................................................................... 147
5.3 RELATIVE IMPORTANT INDEX (RII) ............................................................................................. 147
5.4 DATA ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS FROM QUESTIONNAIRE A – SECTION 01 .................................. 148
5.4.1 Professional Background ...................................................................................................... 148
5.4.2 Performing Roles in Organisations....................................................................................... 149
5.4.3 Experience in Construction Cost Estimating ........................................................................ 149
5.4.4 Business Nature of the Current Organisation ....................................................................... 150
5.4.5 Respondents’ BIM Awareness and Usage ............................................................................. 151
5.5 DATA ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS FROM QUESTIONNAIRE A: SECTION 2 ..................................... 152
5.6 RANKS AND RII ANALYSIS FOR THE MAJOR FACTORS AFFECTING THE ACCURACY OF PRE-TENDER
COST ESTIMATES. ................................................................................................................................... 160
5.7 SUMMARY AND LINK: QUESTIONNAIRE A FINDINGS ................................................................... 162

5.8 DATA ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS FROM QUESTIONNAIRE B – SECTION 01 ................................. 163
5.8.1 Professional Background ...................................................................................................... 163
5.8.2 Business Nature of the Current Organisation ....................................................................... 163
5.8.3 Respondents’ BIM Adoption in the Sri Lankan Construction Industry ................................. 163
5.8.3.1 Awareness of BIM .......................................................................................................... 164
5.8.3.2 BIM Software Usage and its Application ....................................................................... 165
5.8.4 The BIM Effect in Current QS Roles ..................................................................................... 167
5.8.5 BIM and its Productivity in Cost Estimating ........................................................................ 167
5.9 DATA ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS FROM QUESTIONNAIRE B – SECTION 2: BIM DRIVERS .......... 169
5.10 RANKS AND RII ANALYSIS FOR BIM ADOPTION DRIVERS........................................................ 173
9
5.11 DATA ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS FROM QUESTIONNAIRE B – SECTION 03: BIM BARRIERS .... 175
5.11.1 Financial Barrier ................................................................................................................ 175
5.11.2 Legal Issues ......................................................................................................................... 176
5.11.3 Lack of Internal Pressure .................................................................................................... 177
5.11.4 Lack of External Pressure ................................................................................................... 177
5.11.5 Lack of BIM Resources........................................................................................................ 178
5.12 RANKS AND RII ANALYSIS OF THE BARRIERS TO BIM ADOPTION IN SRI LANKAN QS FIRMS .. 180
5.13 SUMMARY AND LINK QUESTIONNAIRE B FINDINGS .................................................................. 182
6 ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS FROM THE QUALITATIVE ENQUIRY .................................. 183
6.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................. 183
6.2 CASE STUDY BACKGROUNDS ...................................................................................................... 183
6.2.1 Firm A - Company History and Services .............................................................................. 183
6.2.1.1 Current Status of BIM Application ................................................................................. 184
6.2.2 Firm B - Company History and Services .............................................................................. 184
6.2.3 Firm C - Company History and Services .............................................................................. 185
6.3 FINDINGS FROM THE INTERVIEWS ON THE FACTORS AFFECTING THE ACCURACY OF PRE-TENDER
COST ESTIMATES ................................................................................................................................... 187
6.3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 187
6.3.2 The Use of 2D Drawings ....................................................................................................... 189
6.3.2.1 Changes and Revisions ................................................................................................... 189
6.3.2.2 Lack of Visualisation ...................................................................................................... 189
6.3.3 Lack of Information ............................................................................................................... 190
6.3.3.1 Paper-Based Information Sharing ................................................................................... 191
6.3.3.2 Unusable Information ..................................................................................................... 191
6.3.3.3 Absence of Common Database ....................................................................................... 191
6.3.3.4 Absence of a Rich Information Flow .............................................................................. 192
6.3.4 Inefficiencies in Current Software......................................................................................... 193
6.3.4.1 Incorrect Mathematical Formulas ................................................................................... 193
6.3.4.2 Inaccurate Calculations ................................................................................................... 194
6.3.5 Inadequate Knowledge and Skills of an Estimator ............................................................... 194
10
6.3.5.1 Wrong Assumptions ....................................................................................................... 194
6.3.5.2 Lack of Software Operational Skills ............................................................................... 195
6.3.6 Isolated Working Culture ...................................................................................................... 196
6.3.6.1 Lack of Communication ................................................................................................. 196
6.3.6.2 Lack of Coordination ...................................................................................................... 196
6.3.6.3 Economic Crisis .............................................................................................................. 197
6.3.7 Manual Quantity Take-off (MQTO) ...................................................................................... 197
6.3.7.1 Time Consuming Tasks .................................................................................................. 197
6.3.7.2 Inaccurate Quantities ...................................................................................................... 198
6.3.8 Time Constraints ................................................................................................................... 198
6.3.8.1 Client Pressure ................................................................................................................ 199
6.3.8.2 Time-Consuming Tasks .................................................................................................. 199
6.4 FINDINGS FROM THE INTERVIEWS RELATED TO BIM ADOPTION DRIVERS................................. 200
6.4.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 200
6.4.2 BIM Benefits .......................................................................................................................... 201
6.4.3 BIM Training ......................................................................................................................... 202
6.4.4 Client Demand....................................................................................................................... 203
6.4.5 BIM-Based Education ........................................................................................................... 203
6.4.6 Professional Bodies ............................................................................................................... 203
6.4.7 Organisational Pressure ....................................................................................................... 203
6.5 INTERVIEWS FINDINGS RELATED TO THE BIM ADOPTION BARRIERS AND MITIGATING ACTIONS
204
6.5.1 Financial Barriers ................................................................................................................. 206
6.5.1.1 Cost of Hardware and Software ...................................................................................... 207
6.5.1.2 Training Costs ................................................................................................................. 207
6.5.1.3 Software and Hardware Upgrading Costs....................................................................... 207
6.5.2 Organisational Barriers ........................................................................................................ 208
6.5.2.1 Isolated Working Culture................................................................................................ 208
6.5.2.2 Fear of Sharing Responsibilities ..................................................................................... 209
6.5.2.3 People’s Mind-Sets ......................................................................................................... 209
6.5.2.4 Reluctance to Change ..................................................................................................... 209
6.5.2.5 Lack of Defined Goals and Processes............................................................................. 210
11
6.5.3 Regulatory Barriers............................................................................................................... 211
6.5.3.1 Legal Issues..................................................................................................................... 211
6.5.3.2 Contractual Issues ........................................................................................................... 212
6.5.3.3 Lack of Policies .............................................................................................................. 212
6.5.3.4 Lack of Ethical Behaviours............................................................................................. 213
6.5.4 Unawareness ......................................................................................................................... 213
6.5.4.1 Lack of Knowledge Sharing ........................................................................................... 214
6.5.4.2 Absence of BIM Initiator ................................................................................................ 214
6.5.4.3 Lack of BIM Education .................................................................................................. 215
6.5.4.4 The Gap Between Industry and Academia ..................................................................... 216
6.5.5 Lack of Resources.................................................................................................................. 216
6.5.5.1 Lack of BIM-Experts ...................................................................................................... 217
6.5.5.2 Absence of a BIM Implementation Plan......................................................................... 217
6.5.5.3 Lack of BIM-Models ...................................................................................................... 217
6.5.5.4 Lack of BIM Training ..................................................................................................... 218
6.5.5.5 Limited Internet Facilities ............................................................................................... 218
6.5.5.6 Limited Number of Software Licenses ........................................................................... 218
6.5.6 Lack of Demand for BIM ....................................................................................................... 219
6.5.6.1 Unbalanced BIM Adoption ............................................................................................. 220
6.5.6.2 Lack of Client Demand ................................................................................................... 220
6.5.6.3 Lack of Government Intervention................................................................................... 221
6.5.6.4 Scalability ....................................................................................................................... 221
6.6 SUMMARY AND LINK ................................................................................................................... 222
7 DISCUSSION .................................................................................................................................... 223
7.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................. 223
7.2 FACTORS AFFECTING THE ACCURACY OF PRE-TENDER COST ESTIMATES ................................. 223
7.2.1 The Use of 2D Drawings ....................................................................................................... 223
7.2.2 Lack of Information ............................................................................................................... 224
7.2.3 Inefficiencies in Current Software......................................................................................... 225
7.2.4 Inadequate Estimator Knowledge and Skill .......................................................................... 226
7.2.5 Isolated Working Culture ...................................................................................................... 228
12
7.2.6 Manual Quantity Take-off (MQTO) ...................................................................................... 229
7.2.7 Time Constraints ................................................................................................................... 230
7.3 BIM ADOPTION DRIVERS ............................................................................................................. 231
7.3.1 BIM Benefits .......................................................................................................................... 231
7.3.2 Client Demand....................................................................................................................... 232
7.3.3 BIM Training ......................................................................................................................... 233
7.3.4 Professional Bodies ............................................................................................................... 233
7.3.5 BIM-Based Education ........................................................................................................... 233
7.3.6 Organisational Pressure ....................................................................................................... 234
7.4 BARRIERS TO BIM ADOPTION...................................................................................................... 236
7.4.1 Financial Barriers ................................................................................................................. 236
7.4.2 Organisational Barriers ........................................................................................................ 238
7.4.3 Regulatory Barriers............................................................................................................... 239
7.4.4 Unawareness ......................................................................................................................... 241
7.4.5 Lack of Resources.................................................................................................................. 242
7.4.6 Lack of Market Demand for BIM .......................................................................................... 245
8 FRAMEWORK DEVELOPMENT AND VALIDATION ............................................................ 253
8.1 FRAMEWORK DEVELOPMENT ...................................................................................................... 253
8.2 VALIDATION AND REFINEMENT OF THE FINDINGS ...................................................................... 258
8.2.1 Validation of the BIM Adoption Framework......................................................................... 259
8.3 LINKS AMONG THE CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK AND THE DEVELOPED BIM ADOPTION
FRAMEWORK ......................................................................................................................................... 273
8.4 SUMMARY AND LINK ................................................................................................................... 273
9 CONCLUSION.................................................................................................................................. 274
9.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................. 274
9.2 SUMMARY OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES ...................................... 274
9.3 SUMMARY OF THE KEY RESULTS................................................................................................. 275
9.3.1 Objective 1............................................................................................................................. 275
9.3.1.1 The Use of 2D drawings ................................................................................................. 275
9.3.1.2 Lack of Information ........................................................................................................ 275
9.3.1.3 Inefficiencies in Existing Software (SW) ....................................................................... 276
9.3.1.4 Inadequate Knowledge and Skills of an Estimator ......................................................... 276
13
9.3.1.5 Isolated Working Culture................................................................................................ 276
9.3.1.6 Manual Quantity Take-Off (MQTO) .............................................................................. 276
9.3.1.7 Time Constraints ............................................................................................................. 276
9.3.2 Objective 2............................................................................................................................. 277
9.3.2.1 The Use of BIM 3D Models ........................................................................................... 277
9.3.2.2 Better Information Management ..................................................................................... 277
9.3.2.3 Automated Quantity Take-Off (AQTO) ......................................................................... 278
9.3.2.4 Time Savings .................................................................................................................. 278
9.3.2.5 Improved Collaboration and Communication ................................................................ 278
9.3.3 Objective 3............................................................................................................................. 278
9.3.3.1 Drivers ............................................................................................................................ 279
9.3.3.2 Barriers............................................................................................................................ 280
9.3.4 Objective 4............................................................................................................................. 282
9.4 CONTRIBUTION OF THE RESEARCH TO THEORY AND PRACTICE ................................................. 283
9.4.1 Contribution to Theory .......................................................................................................... 283
9.4.2 Contribution to Practice........................................................................................................ 284
9.5 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY ........................................................................................................ 284
9.6 FURTHER RESEARCH .................................................................................................................... 284
9.7 CONCLUDING NOTE...................................................................................................................... 285
10 REFERENCES .................................................................................................................................. 286
11 APPENDICES ................................................................................................................................... 318
14
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure 2.1: Accuracy of pre-tender cost estimates (abstracted from An, Cho, & Lee, 2011)…………….27
Figure 0.2: Over-budget construction projects worldwide (Forbes, 2020) ………………………………30
Figure 2.3: Cost overruns in Nepal construction projects (Kathmandu, 2020)…………………………...34

Figure 2.4: Project cost overruns in Afghanistan construction projects (Minister of Economy and Cost
Afghanistan MSG, 2019) ..................................................................................................................... 35
Figure 2.5: Colombo Lotus Tower (Daily News, 2019).............................................................................. 36
Figure 2.6: Reasons for cost overruns in major USA construction projects (Ghorbani, 2019)................... 39
Figure 2.7: Major causes of cost overruns in Sri Lankan construction projects (Halwatura, 2013) ........... 45
Figure 2.8: Poor communication over the wall syndrome (Vulcanss, 2015) .............................................. 52
Figure 2.9 Main waste in pre-tender cost estimates in Sri Lanka (Senaratne & Wijesiri, 2008) ................ 53
Figure 2.10 Lack of coordination ................................................................................................................ 54
Figure 2.11: Fishbone diagram of the factors affecting the accuracy of the pre-tender cost estimate ........ 59
Figure 3.1: Development of the definition of BIM from 1975 to 2013 (Latiffi, 2014)............................... 61
Figure 3.2: BIM dimensions (Celauro et al., 2019) ..................................................................................... 62
Figure 3.3: BIM Clash Detection (Silicon Consultants, 2018).................................................................... 67
Figure 3.4: BIM-based communication method (Goh et al., 2017) ............................................................ 71
Figure 3.5: UK BIM maturity model (Bew & Richards, 2008) .................................................................. 73
Figure 3.6: BIM Maturity Index (BIMMI) (Succer, 2009) ......................................................................... 74
Figure 3.7: Malaysian BIM maturity model (CIDB, 2016) ......................................................................... 75
Figure 3.8: The transition to international standards (CIOB, 2018) ............................................................ 80
Figure 3.9: UK BIM adoption 2011-2020 ................................................................................................... 82
Figure 3.10: NBC Roadmap to 2021 (NBC, 2018) ..................................................................................... 83
Figure 3.11: BIM adoption in Europe (CITA, 2017) .................................................................................. 85
Figure 3.12 German Road Map (MagiCad, 2018)....................................................................................... 85
Figure 3.13: Finnish Roadmap 2030 (MagiCAD, 2019) ............................................................................. 86
Figure 3.14: BIM Implementation Framework, Vietnam (ICE, 2015) ....................................................... 89
Figure 3.15: CIDB BIM initiatives (Al-Ashmori et al., 2019) ................................................................... 90
Figure 3.16: Malaysian BIM adoption rate (CIDB, 2017) .......................................................................... 90
Figure 3.17: Details of India’s high-profile BIM projects (Amaranth, 2019) ............................................. 91
Figure 3.18: BIM movement in Thailand (Yomnak, 2020) ........................................................................ 93
Figure 3.19: Indonesian BIM Roadmap (BIMPUPR, 2017) ....................................................................... 94
15
Figure 3.20: BIM adoption by different types of clients (NBS, 2020) ...................................................... 102
Figure 3.21: Conceptual Framework ......................................................................................................... 116
Figure 4.1: Nested Research Methodology Approach (Adapted from Kagioglou et al., 2000) ................ 118
Figure 4.2: Research Onion Model (Saunders et al., 2016) ...................................................................... 119
Figure 4.3: The dimension of the research philosophy (Sexton, 2003) ..................................................... 119
Figure 4.4: The Philosophical Stance Pertaining to the Study .................................................................. 121
Figure 4.5: Research choice (Saunders, 2011) .......................................................................................... 123
Figure 4.6: Explanatory sequential mixed method approach (Creswell et al., 2003)................................ 124
Figure 4.7: Dimensions of a research philosophy (Sexton, 2007)............................................................. 125
Figure 4.8: Types of case study based on number and units (Kulatunga, 2008) ....................................... 129
Figure 4.9: Process of the questionnaire survey ........................................................................................ 135
Figure 4.10: Process of semi-structured interviews................................................................................... 136
Figure 4.11: Sampling Techniques ............................................................................................................ 138
Figure 4.12: Example of the Coding Process ............................................................................................ 142
Figure 4.13: Create themes and sub-themes by using Excel sheet ............................................................ 142
Figure 4.14: Adopted methodology for this research ................................................................................ 144
Figure 5.1: Nature of contract types of organisations ............................................................................... 151
Figure 5.2: Respondents’ awareness of BIM............................................................................................. 152
Figure 5.3: Respondents’ level of BIM adoption ...................................................................................... 152
Figure 5.4: Distribution of respondents based on their professional background in their organisation .... 163
Figure 5.5 Respondents’ BIM awareness .................................................................................................. 164
Figure 5.6: Respondents’ BIM knowledge sources ................................................................................... 165
Figure 5.7: Respondents level of BIM adoption........................................................................................ 165
Figure 5.8: Respondents most commonly engaged BIM software ............................................................ 166
Figure 5.9: Respondents main involvement in BIM areas ........................................................................ 166
Figure 5.10: BIM effect in respondent’s current role ................................................................................ 167
Figure 6.1: Cognitive mapping of factors affecting the accuracy of pre-tender cost estimates ................ 188
Figure 6.2: Cognitive mapping of the use of 2D drawings and its difficulties.......................................... 190
Figure 6.3: Cognitive mapping for the lack of information and reasons ................................................... 193
Figure 6.4: Cognitive mapping of the inefficiencies of current software and reasons .............................. 194
Figure 6.5: Inadequate knowledge and skills of an estimator ................................................................... 196
16
Figure 6.6: Cognitive mapping of isolated working culture and reasons .................................................. 197
Figure 6.7: Cognitive mapping of manual QTO and reasons .................................................................... 198
Figure 6.8: Cognitive mapping of time-constraints and reasons ............................................................... 199
Figure 6.9: Cognitive mapping of BIM drivers for BIM adoption in Sri Lankan QS organisations ........ 201
Figure 6.10: Cognitive mapping of the BIM adoption barriers of quantity surveying organisations in Sri
Lanka ................................................................................................................................................. 206
Figure 6.11: Cognitive mapping of the financial barrier and reasons ....................................................... 208
Figure 6.12: Cognitive mapping of organisational barrier and reasons .................................................... 211
Figure 6.13: Cognitive mapping of the regulatory barrier and reasons ..................................................... 213
Figure 6.14: Cognitive mapping of unawareness and reasons .................................................................. 216
Figure 6.15: Cognitive mapping of lack of resources and reasons ............................................................ 219
Figure 6.16: Cognitive mapping for the lack of BIM demand and reasons .............................................. 222
Figure 7.1: Updated conceptual framework for objectives 1 and 2........................................................... 231
Figure 7.2: Schematic diagram of the significant relationship between BIM adoption drivers ................ 235
Figure 7.3: Updated conceptual framework for objective 3 - BIM drivers ............................................... 236
Figure 7.4: Schematic diagram of the significant relationships between the barriers to BIM adoption. .. 248
Figure 7.5 Updated conceptual framework for objective 3 - BIM barriers ............................................... 251
Figure 7.6 Updated conceptual framework ............................................................................................... 252
Figure 8.1: The BIM adoption framework for Sri Lankan quantity surveying organisations ................... 254
Figure 8.2: Final BIM Adoption Framework ............................................................................................ 269
17
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1: Summary of the importance of accurate pre-tender estimates for each project member………29
Table 2.2: Summary of factors affecting the accuracy of pre-tender cost estimates in Sri Lanka. ............. 49
Table 3.1: BIM definitions .......................................................................................................................... 64
Table 3.2: BIM Supported Documents ........................................................................................................ 76
Table 3.3: Rapidly evolved national BIM digital programs in the EU (NBC, 2018) .................................. 84
Table 3.4: BIM drivers identified from the literature, from 2010 to 2020 .................................................. 96
Table 3.5: BIM barriers identified from the literature publications from 2010 to 2020 ........................... 105
Table 4.1: Justification for selecting the research method (Adapted from Yin, 1994) ............................. 126
Table 4.2: Relative Strengths of Case Study and Survey Method............................................................. 128
Table 4.3: Replication logic strategies for determining the number of cases in multiple-case designs (Yin,
1994). ................................................................................................................................................. 131
Table 4.4 Values designated for the Likert scale....................................................................................... 135
Table 4.5: Research techniques adopted to achieve the objectives of the study ....................................... 137
Table 4.6: Non-random minimum sample size (Saunders et al., 2016) .................................................... 139
Table 4.7: Phases of Thematic Analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006) ............................................................ 141
Table 5.1: Total number and percentage overall responses for questionnaires A and B .......................... 146
Table 5.2: Summary of the reliability test of the overall responses for questionnaires A and B .............. 147
Table 5.3: Distribution of respondents based on their professional backgrounds in their organisations .. 148
Table 5.4: Distribution of respondents based on their roles within the organisations............................... 149
Table 5.5: Distribution of respondents based on construction cost estimating experience ....................... 150
Table 5.6: The use of 2D drawings............................................................................................................ 152
Table 5.7: Lack of information .................................................................................................................. 153
Table 5.8: Inefficiencies in existing cost estimating software................................................................... 155
Table 5.9: Lack of communication ............................................................................................................ 155
Table 5.10: Lack of coordination .............................................................................................................. 157
Table 5.11: Time constraints ..................................................................................................................... 157
Table 5.12: Lack of experience and knowledge amongst quantity surveyors ........................................... 158
Table 5.13: Manual Quantity Take-Off (MQTO) ..................................................................................... 158
Table 5.14: Lack of proper site investigations .......................................................................................... 160
Table 5.15: Ranks and RII factors affecting the accuracy of pre-tender cost estimates............................ 160
18
Table 5.16: The BIM effect on providing early cost advice ...................................................................... 168
Table 5.17: The BIM effect on improving the accuracy of cost estimates ................................................ 168
Table 5.18: BIM Benefits - BIM Drivers .................................................................................................. 172
Table 5.19: Ranks and RII Values of the BIM Adoption Drivers ............................................................. 173
Table 5.20: Financial Barrier ..................................................................................................................... 175
Table 5.21: Lack of BIM Awareness......................................................................................................... 175
Table 5.22: Legal Issues ............................................................................................................................ 176
Table 5.23: Lack of internal pressure ........................................................................................................ 177
Table 5.24: Lack of external pressure ....................................................................................................... 178
Table 5.25: Lack of BIM resources ........................................................................................................... 180
Table 5.26: Ranks and RIIs of BIM Adoption Barriers ............................................................................ 180
Table 6.1: Profile of Respondents ............................................................................................................. 186
Table 6.2: Themes and Sub-themes that extracted from the interviews .................................................... 188
Table 6.3 Themes and sub-themes extracted from the interviews related to the BIM drivers .................. 200
Table 6.4: Themes and sub-themes concerning BIM barriers as extracted from the interviews .............. 205
Table 7.1 BIM Drivers............................................................................................................................... 236
Table 7.2: Barriers and sub-barriers to BIM adoption............................................................................... 249
Table 7.3: Mitigating actions to overcome the barriers ............................................................................. 250
Table 8.1: Barrier, sub-barriers and mitigating actions ............................................................................. 255
Table 8.2: Expert profiles .......................................................................................................................... 258
Table 8.3: Final BIM adoption framework - financial barriers ................................................................ 261
Table 8.4: Final BIM adoption framework – organisational barriers ........................................................ 263
Table 8.5: Final BIM adoption framework – regulatory barriers .............................................................. 264
Table 8.6 Final BIM adoption framework – unawareness ........................................................................ 265
Table 8.7: Final BIM adoption framework – lack of resources................................................................. 267
Table 8.8: Final BIM adoption framework – lack of demand for BIM .................................................... 268
Table 8.9: Barriers, sub-barriers and mitigating actions ........................................................................... 270
19
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
This chapter introduces the research problem and justifies the need for this research. It outlines the research
aim, key objectives, scope, and contribution of the research. Moreover, an outline of the thesis structure is
also given.
1.2 Research Background
Cost overruns in construction projects have been identified as a worldwide issue for both developed and
developing countries (Anigbogu et al., 2019; Cooray et al., 2018; Hutton, 2019; Malkanthi et al., 2017).
Studies have been undertaken worldwide to address the problem and found that inaccurate project cost
estimates represent a major reason for cost overruns (Ahady et al., 2017; Anigbogu, 2018; Kotb et al., 2019;
Rahman et al., 2018; Thabani, 2019; Wong, 2019). Therefore, accurate cost estimates are fundamental for
the successful completion of construction projects.
According to the RIBA Plan of Work, cost estimates are prepared during the pre-tender stage by a consultant
quantity surveyor on behalf of the client (RICS, 2014). They give an approximation of the expected project
cost and therefore help the client to decide on the feasibility of any construction project (Hassan, 2017).
Contractors also prepare cost estimates with a good profit margin during the pre-tender stage, which help
to secure the contract (ICE, 2020; Marjuk, 2006). Therefore, the need for accurate cost estimates is vital for
the client and contractor. Nevertheless, it is difficult to prepare accurate pre-tender cost estimates due to the
challenges associated with conventional practices, such as the lack of coordination, lack of information,
inappropriate software usage (MS Excel), different cost estimating methods (unit method, floor area
method), poor communication, issues with Manual Quantity Take-Off (MQTO), and the use of 2D drawings
(Ghorbani, 2019; Rathnayake & Samir, 2019; Tahir et al., 2018). Thus, managing the effect of conventional
practices could increase the accuracy of cost estimates.
Many countries have found the use of modern technologies, such as Building Information Modelling (BIM),
improve the accuracy of pre-tender cost estimates by minimizing the impact of convectional practices (Agus
et al., 2019; Rathnayake et al., 2019; Saka & Chan, 2019; Ullah et al., 2019). The use of BIM models
enables the flow of rich information as it demands that all project members work on the same platform
(Bui, 2019) through collaboration. Therefore, it improves the level of communication and coordination
among project team members (Abanda et al., 2018). Moreover, the use of BIM models enhances Automated
Quantity Take-Off (AQTO) by eliminating the most tedious task, namely MQTO (Vitasek & Zak, 2018).
Through adopting AQTO, the quantity surveyor (QS) can save significant time on the typical time-
consuming tasks in conventional practice. Therefore, the use of BIM in cost estimate practices has increased
in both developed and developing countries.
Several case studies have been conducted in the USA (Gerges et al., 2017; Wang, 2020) Germany (Ali,
2019; Paul, 2018), Denmark (Paul 2018;), the UK (Babatunde et al., 2019; Malleson, 2018; NBS 2019),
Australia (ABAB, 2020; Hook, 2019), Hong Kong (CIC, 2019; Hatmoko, 2019), Singapore (NBS, 2019;
Ali, 2019) and Canada (Moreno et al., 2019). These collectively indicate that developed countries have
already adopted BIM and are experiencing benefits in the field of cost estimating. Cases studies conducted
in developing countries, such as India (Paul, 2018; Ahuja et al., 2018), Malaysia (Ali, 2019; Tahir et al.,
20
2018; Ismail et al., 2019), China (Ismail et al., 2017; Song et al., 2018; Cicco, 2018), Indonesia (Hatmoko
et al., 2019) and Nigeria (Babatunde et al., 2018; Hamma-Adama et al., 2019; (Onungwa & Uduma-Olugu,
2017), also indicate the use of BIM in the field of cost estimating. Nevertheless, Olawumi and Chan (2019)
state that, compared to developed countries, the adoption of BIM among developing countries seems to be
slow. A recent study conducted by Girginkaya and Maqsood (2019) ranked the USA in first place in terms
of BIM adoption. Moreover, Europe ranked second while the Middle East was ranked third. Africa and
Asia were ranked in fourth and fifth places respectively, which indicates that BIM adoption among
developing countries lags compared to developed countries.
Even though many Asian countries, such as China, India, Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand and Myanmar,
have reported some BIM adoption (Ismail et al, 2019), its uptake in Sri Lanka is reported to lag far behind
other Asian countries (Gunasekara & Jayasena, 2013; Ismail et al., 2019; Rathnayake et al., 2019;
Rathnayake & Samir, 2019; Weddikkara, 2013). Sri Lanka has been undergoing major urbanization and
economic development since the end of the civil war in 2009. As a developing South Asian country (IMF,
2012), the construction industry plays a major role in the development and achievement of the goals of its
society (OBG, 2016). Construction is one of the largest industries in Sri Lanka and contributes about 8%
to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) (Trading Economics, 2017). However, the industry is complex in
nature because it comprises a large number of parties, namely clients, contractors, consultants, stakeholders,
shareholders, and regulators. According to the Central Bank (2019), of a total workforce of 6.2 million
people, or 6.6%, are employed in the construction sector comprising 51% unskilled workers, 33% masons,
10% carpenters, and 1-2% other skilled workers; moreover, approximately 80% of the workforce is casually
employed. Therefore, the performance of the construction industry is a reflection of the economic situation
in Sri Lanka (Langford et al., 2008).
A recent survey report indicated that the value of the Sri Lankan construction industry increased at a
compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 8.6% between 2014 and 2018 (ConsTrack360, 2019). The
President of the Chamber of the Construction Industry in Sri Lanka declared that the sector should continue
to grow for the next 15 to 20 years (Wickremasinghe, 2019). Therefore, the construction industry has
established plans to record a CAGR of 16.4% to thus achieve LKR 2,114.3 billion by 2023. Nevertheless,
this could be an ambitious target, as the industry is suffering from inaccurate pre-tender cost estimates due
to widespread adherence to ongoing conventional practices (Epasinghe et al., 2018; Fernando, 2017;
Kumara et al., 2017; Rathnayake et al., 2018; Rathnayake & Samir, 2019). The late adoption of new
technologies represents an issue that underpins ongoing conventional practice (Epasinghe et al., 2018;
Wijeykoon et al., 2017). As BIM is capable of increasing the accuracy of cost estimates and has gained in
reputation across the global context generally and the South Asian region specifically, its application would
offer a solution to Sri Lankan quantity surveyors wanting to improve the accuracy of pre-tender cost
estimates.
1.3 Problem Statement
Although the construction industries across many developed and developing countries have improved the
accuracy of pre-tender estimates by adopting BIM, its uptake among Sri Lankan quantity surveyors remains
relatively low (Fernando, 2018; Rathnasiri & Jayasena, 2019; Siriwardene et al., 2018). Ismail et al. (2017)
found that, on the Bew-Richards UK BIM Maturity Model of BIM Adoption, the Sri Lankan construction
industry was still at phase ‘0’. However, increased interest in the topic of BIM among professionals in Sri
21
Lanka has been noted, which prompted the BIM Symposium that was held in Colombo in 2017 and
organized by the Institute of Quantity Surveyors Sri Lanka (IQSSL). The presentation titled ‘Quantity
surveyor’s pathway to 5D BIM’ and the BIM-based software ‘CostX’ were introduced to quantity surveyors
(IQSSL, 2017). Moreover, since this event, Rathnayake and Samir (2019) have found that the Sri Lankan
construction industry is no longer at phase ‘0’ in terms of BIM adoption and has since moved to level ‘1’.
This indicates that the use of BIM has gained momentum among professionals in the industry through
increased awareness.
However, a study conducted by Rathnayake et al. (2019) revealed that the majority of quantity surveyors
(67%) do not use BIM, meaning that most are not employing BIM within their practice, and only a few are
achieving profits through its use. Many countries have succeeded in adopting BIM after undertaking
appropriate action to address the barriers. In the literature, few studies have identified barriers to the
adoption of BIM industry-wise (Fernando, 2018; Jasanth, 2016; John, 2016; Siriwardene et al., 2018).
However, studies to identify the factors affecting the adoption of BIM amongst QS professions have rarely
been conducted in the Sri Lankan context. Therefore, the identification of factors affecting both the barriers
and drivers along with the mitigating actions from a QS perspective would accelerate the adoption of BIM
among Sri Lankan quantity surveying organizations. Moreover, many countries have implemented
appropriate actions to overcome the impact of barriers through nationally developed frameworks. Thus, it
may not be appropriate to adopt strategies, roadmaps, or even frameworks by developed economies
(Gunasekara & Jayasena, 2013), as these frameworks would only be compatible with the level of their
construction industries (Rogers et al., 2015). Thus, a nationally developed BIM framework would be a key
requirement for the adoption of BIM amongst Sri Lankan QS organizations (Rathnayake et al., 2019;
Rathnayake & Samir, 2019; Siriwardene et al., 2018). Therefore, this study intends to develop a BIM
adoption framework for Sri Lankan QS organizations to improve the accuracy of their pre-tender cost
estimates.
Accordingly, BIM adoption in Sri Lanka was chosen as the central theme for an in-depth study. The
justification for this choice is as follows; firstly, compared with other South Asian countries, Sri Lanka is
still at the lowest level of development (Gunathilake, 2019). However, the National Physical Plan – 2050
consists of plans to develop a ‘Smart Nation’ by 2050 (NPP, 2019). Kim (2019) indicates that BIM-based
Smart construction represents the best method for Sri Lankans to achieve NPP 2050. Secondly, according
to the Global Construction Report (2020), Asia reported the highest BIM adoption rate (46%) compared to
other regions. Moreover, the majority of South Asian countries have already adopted BIM within their
construction, including India (Amaranath, 2019; Jagadeesh, 2019; Paul, 2018), Bangladesh (Hossain &
Ahmed, 2019; Rakib & Rahman, 2018; Silicon Valley, 2020), Bhutan (CDB, 2019), the Maldives (Silicon
Valley, 2019; Tholhath & Ibrahim, 2019), Nepal (Dahal, 2019; Pradhan, 2018;) and Pakistan (Akdag &
Maqsood 2019; Ali et al., 2018; Farooq et al., 2019). Only Afghanistan and Sri Lanka have not so far
reported widespread BIM adoption. However, as Afghanistan has faced more than three decades of war,
construction projects are more limited in number compared with the Sri Lankan construction industry
(BBC, 2019).
22
1.4 Aim and Objectives
1.4.1 Aim
This research aims to develop a BIM adoption framework for Sri Lankan quantity surveying organizations
to improve the accuracy of pre-tender cost estimates.
1.4.2 Objectives
1. To identify the current status of pre-tender cost estimates and the factors affecting the accuracy of pre-
tender cost estimates in Sri Lanka.
2. To evaluate the development of BIM, and the use of BIM to improve the accuracy of pre-tender cost
estimates.
3. To identify the BIM adoption drivers and barriers along with mitigating actions to overcome the impact
of identified barriers.
4. To develop and validate a BIM adoption framework for Sri Lankan Quantity Surveying firms to
improve the accuracy of pre-tender cost estimates.
1.4.3 Research Questions

The following research questions will also guide the development of the BIM adoption framework for the
Sri Lankan quantity surveying industry.
1. What are the factors affecting the accuracy of pre-tender cost estimates?
2. How does the use of BIM improve the accuracy of the pre-tender cost estimate process?
3. Why is the adoption of BIM limited to a few QS organizations in Sri Lanka?
4. Why have the majority of QS firms in Sri Lanka not yet adopted BIM?
5. How could the impact of these barriers be mitigated or overcome?
1.5 Scope of the Research
This research focuses on the incorporation of BIM into quantity surveying practice. It examines the quantity
surveyor’s role, namely cost estimating, and the responsibilities attached to cost estimating practices.
However, due to its focus on improving the accuracy of pre-tender cost estimates, it excludes other roles
and responsibilities in the quantity surveying profession and other disciplines in the project team. Moreover,
the project life cycle consists of two main phases, namely pre-construction and post-construction (Dietz,
2018). According to the RIBA plan of work pre-tender stage consists of preparation and design stages,
where cost estimates are prepared and required before construction commences (Rhaman, 2019). According
to the RIBA plan of work post tender consists of pre-construction, construction and use. In the post-
construction phase, only bills are prepared but not cost estimates (Nichols, 2019). Therefore, this study will
only focus on pre-tender cost estimates, so post tender activities will not be assessed. Accordingly, the
traditional procurement approach will only be applicable within this study, with the definition selected for
PTE in section 2.3. Both civil and building projects will be part of this study, as Sri Lanka faces significant
cost overruns in both types of projects.
23
This research aims to promote and increase the use of BIM within quantity surveying organizations in Sri
Lanka, through a developed framework with mitigating actions to overcome the impact of barriers.
Therefore, it includes QS practitioners from Sri Lanka, and excludes worldwide QS practitioners, as the
results will vary if participants from countries with different economics, culture, law, and political issues
are included. Moreover, all mitigating actions along with the barriers are addressed from a QS perspective,
which means that the perspectives of other disciplines regarding BIM adoption are excluded. Therefore, the
developed framework is only appropriate to the specific usage of this country and will not generalise the
practice of BIM adoption across a broad global context. If the same study is conducted with the same
targeted population, different countries might have equivalent or distinctive reactions. Thus, the findings
could contribute to the body of references and offer a reliable source for similar research conducted in other
countries.
1.6 Structure of the Thesis
Chapter 1 introduces the context of the study by presenting the research background, problem statement,
aim and objectives, and research scope. Chapter 2 reviews the state of art of cost estimates and identifies
the key concepts related to objective one of this study. It provides an overview of cost overruns globally
and within the Sri Lankan context. Moreover, it examines the link between pre-tender cost estimates and
cost overruns, the importance of accurate cost estimates, and factors affecting the accuracy of pre-tender
cost estimates. Chapter 3 reviews the state of art in BIM and identifies the key concepts related to objectives
two and three of this study. It provides definitions for the key concepts, explores the link between BIM
adoption and accurate cost estimates, BIM adoption in the global context, drivers, and barriers in BIM
adoption and the conceptual framework. Chapter 4 describes the methods used in this study, and justifies
the philosophical assumptions, methodological choices, research approach, research strategies, time
horizon, data collections, and analysis techniques used.
Chapter 5 presents the questionnaire survey data, which is collected to identify the factors affecting the
accuracy of cost estimates, and the BIM adoption drivers and barriers. It also describes the procedures
adopted, the analysis, and the data interpretation. Chapter 6 consists of the analysis of the case studies in
order to identify the factors affecting the accuracy of cost estimates and BIM adoption drivers, barriers, and
mitigating actions. The case study background is presented and followed by the analysis of the cases.
Chapter 7 presents the findings of the empirical study through a comparison of the results from the
questionnaire survey, case studies, and literature review; moreover, it updates the conceptual framework
with these findings. Chapter 8 presents the proposed BIM adoption framework to enhance its adoption in
Sri Lankan quantity surveying organizations; furthermore, it validates the developed framework. Finally,
Chapter 9 presents the conclusions of the study by summarizing the research context and research findings.
It also identifies research contributions to the theory and practice of BIM adoption, whilst also noting the
limitations of the study and future research directions.
1.7 Summary and Link
This chapter consists of an introduction to the research and has explained the background of the study, the
research justification, aim and objectives, and scope. Besides, a summary of the adopted techniques is also
explained. The next chapter provides the literature synthesis for objective 1 of this study.
24
2 PRE-TENDER COST ESTIMATES AND FACTORS AFFECTING
THEIR ACCURACY
2.1 Introduction
This chapter reviews and synthesizes literature relating to pre-tender cost estimates and factors affecting
the accuracy of such estimates. The chapter is structured as follows: Firstly, pre-tender cost estimation is
considered along with the importance of accurate pre-tender cost estimates; secondly, the background of
cost overruns globally and within the Sri Lankan context are discussed. Thirdly, the causes of cost overruns
globally and within the Sri Lankan context are outlined. Finally, factors affecting the accuracy of pre-tender
cost estimates are reviewed.
2.2 Pre-Tender Estimates (PTE)
Cost estimates are prepared during the pre-tender stage and are crucial to determine whether a project is
stepped back or continued (Pasco & Aibinu, 2008; AbouRizk et al., 2008; Chandraratne et al., 2019).
According to RICS (2014), it is important to know the estimated project cost for two reasons;
1. Whether the client can afford the proposed project

2. It offers a basis for comparison when the tenders are returned (RICS, 2014).
Therefore, once the client has decided to construct a building, the first step is to determine how much would
it cost, and this is the point at which the pre-tender cost estimate is prepared. As clients urgently want to
know that how much a project would cost, a consultant carries out the final costing on behalf of the client
before tenders are received (Odusami & Onukwube, 2008). Nevertheless, authors have defined pre-tender
estimates from different viewpoints:
According to Seeley (1996):
The primary role of estimated or pre-tender estimating is to produce a forecast of the

probable cost of a future project before the building has been designed in detail and
contract particulars prepared. In this way, the building client is made aware of his likely
financial commitments before the extensive design is undertaken.
In comparison, Serpell (2005) defined pre-tender estimates as:
… the forecasting of project costs that is performed before any significant amount of
information is available from detailed design and with still incomplete work scope
definition.
25
According to Aibinu et al. (2011) PTE forecasts the cost of a project during the planning and designing
stage. Moreover, Enshassi et al. (2013) defined PTE as “final costing of the work carried out by a consultant
on behalf of a client, before tenders are received.”. According to the RICS (2014), at a time when a
minimum of design work has been produced, pre-tender estimate has to be undertaken under the New Rules
of Measurement (NRM) 1; this exists before the tender stage to avoid problematic analysis.
Accordingly, the researcher’s point of view PTE is “a process of calculating project costs at a stage of
minimum data, such as the scope, design, etc, before the tender”. Therefore, the process of preparing PTE
initially starts with incomplete design drawings provided by the design team.
According to Plebankiewicz et al. (2015) and Peurifoy and Oberlender (2002), the process of preparing a
PTE involves going through a series of steps, such as analysing design drawings, collecting data from
design documents, gathering technical specifications, quantity take-offs, manual mapping with cost
assemblies, noting evaluations and modifications. Thus, the process consists of time-consuming tasks that
mean it takes months to prepare a PTE. As decisions to execute projects are based on pre-tender cost
estimates, this demands accurate pre-tender cost estimates in construction (Chipulu et al., 2020; Enshassi
et al., 2007). Consequently, accurate PTE would benefit different parties in many aspects; thus many,
authors in the literature have highlighted the importance of accurate PTE. The next section will describe
the importance of accurate pre-tender cost estimates from the perspectives of the different parties involved.
2.2.1 Importance of the Accurate Pre-tender Cost Estimates

The accuracy of pre-tender cost estimates is fundamental to decision making although they are prepared
within a limited timeframe and a minimum of information (Aibunu, et al., 2011; Ismail et al., 2015; Pasco
& Aibinu, 2008). Many authors have defined accurate cost estimates as one that is close to the actual project
cost with minimal error (Azman et al., 2013; Flanagan & Norman, 2006; Serpell, 2004; Azman, 2012). In
comparison, an inaccurate estimate is defined as the degree to which a measurement or calculation varies
from its actual price (Azman et al., 2013; Barzandeh, 2011; Serpell, 2004). The level of estimate accuracy
can be assessed in many ways such as irrespective to the estimated cost, and the proximity of estimates to
the actual value (Ashworth, 2013), the cost of the end product, the cost of an estimated item or through a
comparison of the tender price figures (Barzandeh, 2011).
According to Skitmore (1991), the accuracy of PTE consists of three aspects, namely bias, consistency, and
the accuracy of the estimate. Thus, Pasco and Aibinu (2008) define bias as concerned with “the average of
differences between prices and forecasts”, while measures of consistency are concerned with “the degree
of variation around the average” and accuracy is considered the overall combination of both bias and
consistency. Therefore, Morrison (1984) and Aibinu & Pasco (2008) identified bias and consistency as the
two measures of the accurate cost estimate, as illustrated in Figure 2.1.
26
Figure 2.1: Accuracy of pre-tender cost estimates (abstracted from An, Cho, & Lee, 2011)
Therefore, this denotes associating the mean difference with the estimated and actual prices, whereas
consistency is associated with the degree of variation around the mean (Aibinu & Pasco, 2008; Dysert,
2006). The smallest errors make highly accurate estimates (Flanagan & Norman, 1983). According to
Odinot et al. (2012), consistency can be used as an indicator of accuracy. Correspondingly, Stanley and
Benjamin (2016) identify four outcomes of accuracy and consistency, such as consistently accurate,
consistently inaccurate, inconsistently accurate, and inconsistently inaccurate. Inconsistent information can
produce accurate cost estimates, hence consistent reports can be inaccurate (Odinot et al., 2012). Moreover,
inconsistencies are considered an indicator of inaccuracy (McNally, 2003; Talarico & Rubin, 2003).
Therefore, inconsistency reports illustrate inaccurate estimates (Berman & Cutler, 1996; Brewer &
Hupfield, 2004; Brewer et al., 1999; Fisher et al., 2009). Ideally, the most accurate cost estimates are those
that mostly reflect the actual or tendered price of a construction project (Azman et al., 2013; Barzandeh,
2011; Serpell, 2004).
At the pre-tender stage, the accuracy level of cost estimates is one of the most critical indicators of effective
estimation (Liu & Zhu, 2007). Therefore, the accuracy of the pre-tender cost estimates is vital as inaccurate
figures can be unusable or risky. Faulty estimates could either be overestimates or underestimates.
Underestimated pre-tender cost estimates can result in implementing an unfeasible project and means
limited resources are available for the project, while overestimated pre-tender cost estimates lead to feasible
projects being uncontrolled (Chipulu et al., 2020; Odusami & Onukwube, 2008). Therefore, pre-tender cost
estimate forecasts for construction projects are vital to the client, contractor, and project team for different
purposes (Feng et al., 2010; Oberlender & Trost, 2003).
From the client perspective, the pre-tender estimate gives the most-likely cost of construction to the client.
This is important for the client who needs to determine the feasibility of the project (Alumbugu et al., 2014;
Chandrarathne et al., 2019; Mahamid, 2018). Pre-tender estimates inspire the client to push forward with
the design scheme of a project and to ensure that detailed working drawings are produced (Serpell, 2005).
Thus, if the estimate is high/overestimated, it can mean the client reconsiders the project scope or loses the
opportunity (Amoateng & Osei, 2017; De Silva at al., 2008; ICE, 2019; Odusami & Onukwube, 2008;
RICS, 2014). Moreover, overestimation also discourages the client to deal with a particular company due
27
to potential breaches of his expectations (Barzandeh, 2011; Chipulu et al., 2020). In contrast, low
estimates/underestimates can result in an aborted design, wasted development, or even litigation due to
client dissatisfaction (Chipulu et al., 2020; Odusami & Onukwube, 2008; Shash & Ibrahim, 2005).
Moreover, underestimation could mislead the client as to the size of his investment (Barzandeh, 2011), and
he may be unprepared when the tenders are drastically modified upwards. The client can also use pre-tender
estimates as an indicator of probable costs from the early stages of construction; these can be used to
monitor costs and the project budget (Oladokun et al., 2016; Skitmore & Picken, 2000). It can also serve as
a tool to enable the client to evaluate the tender process and determine the most competitive bid. Moreover,
pre-tender estimates also provide an assessment of capital costs for a specified piece of work (Liu et al.,
2016; Schottlander, 2006).
From the contractor’s perspective, contractors are invited to submit their bids to the project client. If the
submitted tender price is overestimated, in most cases the tender will not be acceptable to the client
(Akintoye, 1998). Therefore, overestimated cost estimates lead contractors to lose jobs. In a competitive
contract, the contractor with the lowest bid frequently gets the job (Alumbugu et al., 2014; ICE, 2019).
Nevertheless, if the bid is too low, the contractor might end up completing the work without profit (Al-
Khaldi, 1990; Hendrickson, 2000). Thus, it has been observed that, in most projects, the client has to pay
more at the end of the project, as the cost tends to be different from the price tendered by the contractor.
Moreover, underestimated costs may lose a contract due to uncertainties associated with the project. There
is, therefore, the need for estimates to be as accurate as possible (Odusami & Onukwube, 2008). According
to Morrison (1984, p.58), the “Accuracy of an estimate is measured by deviation from the lowest acceptable
tender received in competition for the project”. Both overestimated and underestimated cost estimates have
a significant impact on lost opportunities for a contractor (Alumbugu et al., 2014; ICE, 2019). Therefore,
the estimator's aim should be to prepare cost estimates that follow the fine line between overestimates and
underestimates.
From the project team perspective, pre-tender estimates are important for business decision making as they
provide basic information, such as hours, duration, tasks, and resources, which help to prepare the project
schedules (Marjuki, 2006). Apart from basic information, this will also provide general resource
requirements, such as labour, material, and construction equipment. For the project team, the performance
and overall success will most likely be measured and assessed on the capability of the actual costs to
compare with the early cost estimate. Moreover, pre-tender estimates also provide a basis for cost planning
and cost control during tendering and construction by defining the project scope of work and its associated
estimated cost. Therefore, the accuracy of pre-tender estimates is important for the project team. Moreover,
according to Liu et al. (2016), inaccurate cost estimates can create conflict among project team members.
Besides, inaccuracies lead project stakeholders to obtain loans from financial institutions due to conflict
between the cost and benefits of a project (Amoateng & Osei, 2017). Therefore, inaccuracies in early
estimates can point to lost opportunities, inefficient development effort, and reduced expectations on returns
(Mwikali & Kavale, 2012).
28
Table 2.1: Summary of the importance of accurate pre-tender estimates for each project member
Project
Importance of the accuracy of pre-tender estimates References
party
To determine the economic feasibility of a project Skitmore & Picken, 2000;
To give the client an idea about the entire project Serpell, 2005; Shash &
To monitor costs and the project’s budget Ibrahim, 2005; Schottlander,
To secure opportunity 2006; De Silva at al. 2008;
Not to breach the contract and expectations with relevant
Odusami and Onukwube
companies 2008; Barzandeh, 2011;
To avoid aborted design, wasted development, or even RICS 2014; Alumbugu et al
Client litigation due to client dissatisfaction 2014; Liu, Wang and
To evaluate the tender process and determine the most Wilkinson 2016; Oladokun,
competitive bid Oladokun and Odesola,
2016; Amoateng and Osei
To provide an assessment of capital costs for a specified 2017; Mahamid, 2018;
piece of work Chandrarathne et al 2019;
ICE 2019; Chipulu et al,
2020.
Not to lose the contract Morrison, 1984; Al-Khaldi,
To complete the job with a good profit margin 1990; Akintoye, 1998;
Contractor Hendrickson, 2000;
Alumbugu et al 2014; ICE
2019.
To get basic information, such as hours, duration, tasks, (Marjuki, 2006); Mwikali
and resources and Kavale, 2012; Liu et al
To prepare project schedules (2016); Amoateng and Osei
Project To provide the basis for cost planning and cost control 2017.
Team To avoid lost opportunities, inefficient development
efforts, and lower expected returns
To provide rovides financial input needed for preparing
cash flow curves.
According to Table 2.1, the accuracy of pre-tender cost estimates is not just important to a single party but
rather to the entire project team. Therefore, it can be concluded that accurate pre-tender cost estimates are
one of the parameters that can assure a project’s success. As such, the preparation of accurate cost estimates,
especially at the initial stage, is critical (ICE, 2019; Ismail et al., 2015; Thadsagini & Waidyasekara, 2018)
due to various factors associated with the estimation process and project phases. According to Aibinu et al.
(2011), an inaccurate pre-tender cost estimate is the underlying cause of cost overruns. Thus, Ali and
Kamaruzzaman (2001) identified inaccurate pre-tender cost estimates as the biggest factor contributing to
cost overruns in construction projects. Therefore, it can be concluded that there is a close and strong
relationship between the accuracy of initial cost estimates and cost overruns. Therefore, in the next section,
a detailed discussion has been presented on cost overruns.
29
2.3 Construction Cost Overruns
Completion within the established project budget is one of the important criteria for the successful
completion of construction projects (Ramabhadran, 2018). However, project completion within an exact
budget seems more crucial within the construction industry due to cost overruns (Kotb et al, 2019; Murali
& Kumar, 2019; Oluyemi-Ayibiowu et al, 2019). Shehu, Endut & Akintoye (2014) defined cost overruns
as “the difference between final project cost and the cost agreed within the project contract”. The impact
of cost overruns is not specific to one country or one region, but rather a global issue.
2.3.1 Construction Costs Overruns in A Global Context
Even though the general goal of the construction industry is to achieve successful project completions
within the specified budget (Thabani, 2019), cost overruns mean they represent unrealistic targets on many
occasions. Previous and recent studies offer evidence that elaborates on the global situation of cost overruns.
In Germany, Hamburg's Elbphilharmonie concert hall was able to open to the public six years late and more
than €700 million over budget (McCarthy, 2018). Moreover, Berlin’s brand-new airport was meant to open
in October 2011 but was under construction and opened in Autumn (October) 2020 with an excessively
over budget (Forbes, 2020). Figure 2.2 illustrates how projects can become expensive if costs are not under
control. According to this figure, projects undertaken to provide venues for the Athens Olympics cost an
extra $7 billion, which was almost 95% of the actual budget (Podio, 2019).
Furthermore, the FIFA world cup in Brazil cost $2.5 billion more than the planned budget, whilst Franca
and Haddad (2018) revealed that 71% of 231 contracts exceeded their budget by 14%. Moreover, Callegari
and Schaeffer’s (2018) results indicate that construction project costs were, on average, 97.53% above the
initial estimates.
Figure 2.2: Over-budget construction projects worldwide (Forbes, 2020)
30
In 2005, the 2012 London Olympics bid was awarded at around £2.4 billion. After substantial variation, in
2007 it was changed to £9.3 billion, and by the end of the project in 2010, it cost £8.9 billion (Cf. National
Audit Office 2012). The Edinburgh trams project started with an initial cost of £375 million. However, due
to substantial scope changes it was completed at a cost of £776 million three years later (City of Edinburgh
Council, 2014; Economist, 2018). Moreover, the Humber bridge in the UK experienced a 175% cost
overrun following completion. Also, the Channel Tunnel costs - one of the most famous projects overruns
- changed from £2600 million to £4650 million (80% higher than the forecasted costs) (Flyvbjerg et al.,
2017). The Crossrail project has exceeded the established project budget of more than £400m, which
increased to £650m, and the opening date have been set for October 2021 (Price, 2019). Similarly, the 2019
London Thameslink network cost overrun was £5.5 billion, which was significantly more than the initial
budget of £5.0 billion (National Audit Office, 2017). The Great Western Railway modernization exceeded
its original budget of £1 billion, by increasing to £5.58 billion 2019 and it is still under construction (Haylen
et al., 2019). The replacement of Britain’s three invincible- class ‘light’ aircraft carriers by two larger
‘super’ carriers started in 2016 with an initial estimated cost of £3.65 billion. However, at the moment, cost
has increased to £6.8 billion with a revised completion date of 2023 (MOD, 2019). The recent study
conducted by Hutton (2019) found that average cost overruns in the UK totalled almost 80%. Moreover,
according to Locatelli and Brookes (2018), mega scale projects in the UK are significantly affected by cost
overruns.
Furthermore, there are plenty of examples of project cost overrun in different countries around the world,
such as The Great Belt link in Denmark (54% overrun), and the Paris Nord TGV in France (25% overrun)
(Flyvbjerg et al., 2017). Another project that started in 2007 in western France that constructed a new
reactor increased its initial costs through delaying the initial completion date from 2012 to 2019 (Goldsmith,
2019). According to RFI (2019), France’s EDF exceeded its initial costs by 400 million euros, increasing
from 10.5 to 10.9 billion euros, which was more than three times the initial budget. Nuclear plant
construction was scheduled for the end of 2019 with commercial activity starting in 2020 and costs revised
again from €10.5bn to €10.9bn (Keohane, 2019). Germany, Europe’s largest economy holder, also
struggled with construction cost overruns (Kostka & Fiedler, 2016). Accordingly, the average cost overruns
for energy projects ranged from 85% to 91%, whereas in the transport and building sector they ranged
from 32% to 51% in terms of the average cost overruns (Kostka & Anzinger, 2016).
According to a study by Heon et al. (2009), the average final completion cost of seven megaprojects
increased by 122.4% in Korea. Moreover, in the same study, they also found that the average cost overrun
for 29 medium-sized projects was 32.5%. In the USA, the City of Boston’s Central Artery project was
expected to complete at a cost of US$2.6 billion. However, it was completed in 2006 at US$14.8 billion
after 7 years (Gelinas 2007). A report prepared by the General Accounting Office USA pointed out that
77% of construction projects in the USA incurred cost overruns that exceeded 200% from their actual
budgets (General Accounting Office, 1997). In addition, Pickrell (1990, 1992) identified 61% as the average
cost overrun in US rail projects. Moreover, Cantarelli et al. (2012), noticed an average cost overrun of
16.5% for 78 projects, including road (37 projects), rail (26 projects), tunnel (8 projects), and bridges (7
projects).
In Australia, the Sydney Opera house exceeded its construction costs by 1357% by the time its construction
was completed (Podio, 2019). It was also reported that for projects conducted in Western Australia (Auditor
General of Western Australia 2017), out of 20 projects, 15 exceeded their original budget and four exceeded
their approved budget by more than 200%. Recent figures indicated that Australian project cost overruns
31
varied from 20% to 131% between the smallest and largest projects (Petheram & McMahon, 2019).
Moreover, studies also indicated that cost overruns were inevitable in Australian road construction projects
(Andrić et al., 2019; Love et al., 2017; Petheram & McMahon, 2019; Terrill & Danks, 2016).
In Canada, the Spadina subway extension exceeded its initial estimated cost of $400M in 2015
(Siemiatycki, 2015). As reported by Toronto Star (2015), construction of the Canadian city hall and union
station also exceeded its initial estimated cost. Moreover, due to the cost overruns of mega-scale projects,
Niagara Falls Parks and the Recreation Department in Toronto, two project managers were fired (City
News, 2017). In 2015, the world's largest synthetic crude producer declared the new expansion would
subsequently cost $8.1 million, which was $4 billion over the estimated cost (Economist, 2017). In the
USA, it was reported that most construction projects were affected by cost overruns in the highest
percentages. Recent findings indicated that 66% of megaprojects exceeded their initial estimated budget
(James, 2017). Moreover, in New York, the Metropolitan Transportation Authority sued contractors for
cost overruns across several projects (Associated Press, 2019).
A study published by Flyvbjerg et al. (2017) indicated that, in 20 different developed countries 90% of 258
infrastructure projects have experienced cost overruns and that infrastructure projects, in particular, had an
86% risk of exceeding their initial estimates. Moreover, a study undertaken by Alex et al. (2017) noted that
over 800 water and sewer projects had an 86% risk of exceeding their initial estimates. In Hong Kong, it
was reported that more than 40% of railway projects experienced cost overruns (Huo et al., 2018).
Moreover, the recent mega project - Hong Kong-Zhuhai-Macao Bridge - was opened after nine years of
construction with a final cost of 120 billion yuan instead of the estimated 70-billion-yuan; this increase
represented the cost of building almost two bridges (HK, 2018). Senouci et al. (2016) revealed an increase
in terms and cost in 122 construction contracts in Qatar and found that 54% incurred increased costs and
72% saw their deadlines increase. The famous Burj Khalifa was constructed with the latest technologies,
the project cost increased by 71% than initially estimated (Dubai- Architecture, 2014). The above examples
offer clear evidence that construction projects in developed countries have an adverse effect on cost
overruns.
The impact of cost overruns seems to be more severe compared in developing countries than developed
countries (Rajkumar, 2016; Vaardini et al, 2016). Several studies conducted in the Jordanian construction
industry (Al-Hazim & Abu Salem, 2015; Al-Hazim et al., 2017; Tadewos & Patel, 2018) indicated that
project cost overruns varied from 101% to 600%. Nigeria reported 54.62% as an average cost overrun in
road construction projects (Anigbogu et al., 2019). In Ethiopia cost overrun rates varied from 4.11% to
135.06% of the total cost (Tadewos & Patel, 2018). The Nuevo international airport in Mexico started its
construction at an estimated cost of US$9.5 billion (Navarro, 2017). This was the largest project undertaken
by the Mexican government in 50 years and was expected to open in the year 2020. However, by postponing
its opening to the year 2020, Hernández (2017) stated that the project cost increased from its original to
US$10.5 billion. In Nigeria, construction projects incur high-cost overruns rates that range from a minimum
of 50% to a maximum of 216.08%. Moreover, projects with a high completion percentage and low-cost
overruns ranged from a minimum of 44.75% (in terms of cost overrun), at 17% completion to a maximum
of 216.08% cost overrun at 5% completion. However, the projects with a high percentage of completion
time and low-cost overruns ranged from a minimum of 5.56% cost overrun, with 90% completion to a
maximum of 19.27% cost overrun, with 95% completion (Saidu & Shakantu, 2017). In Ghana, a vast
number of projects (95.9%) experienced cost overruns (Coffie, 2019). Moreover, the largest cost overrun
32
at 100% occurred in the Central Region and the Upper East Region, whereas the Upper West Region
experienced the lowest number (87.5%) of project cost overruns (Aigbavboa, 2019). Furthermore,
countries in the Asian region also suffering from severe cost overruns.
In the Chinese construction industry, 75% of projects suffer from cost overruns (CIOB, 2017; HK, 2018).
According to Kaming et al. (1997), Indonesian construction suffers from more than 90% cost overruns.
Meanwhile, according to Shehu et al. (2014), Malaysian construction projects experience cost overruns of
more than 55%. Moreover, a study conducted by Karunakaran et al. (2018) also found similar supporting
factors. These figures indicated that cost overruns are a common worldwide phenomenon in construction
projects but can be more severe in developing countries (Angelo & Reina, 2002; Durdyev et al., 2012).
South Asian countries also report the same issues in the construction industry. Accordingly, studies
conducted in India (Murali & Kumar, 2019; Shanmugapriya & Subramanian, 2018; Wanjari & Dobariya,
2016) indicated that 60% of construction projects suffer from cost overruns with a loss of around US$200
billion. Moreover, by November 2017, there were 11 operational metros in ten cities across India (Kolkata,
Delhi, Bangalore, Gurgaon, Mumbai, Jaipur, Chennai, Kochi, Lucknow, and Hyderabad) with 324 km of
operational metro lines (Metrorailnews, 2018). Existing metros, those under construction and, many of the
metro rail projects are facing cost overruns, schedule delays and safety incidents (Indo-Asian News Service,
2017; Menezes, 2018; Mevada & Devkar, 2018; Rawal, 2018; Senthilvel et al., 2018; Staff Reporter, 2017).
According to the Indian Express (2019), 361 infrastructure projects showed cost overruns of Rs 3.77 lakh
crore.
In Pakistan, cost overruns in building and infrastructure projects were found to pose a major issue for
construction projects (Sohu et al., 2017; Sohu et al., 2018). Figures indicated that the Lowari tunnel was
supposed to completed by 2015 but was completed in 2017 at Rs. 27 billion as opposed to the initial cost
of Rs 7 billion (Business Recorder, 2017). Moreover, the Karachi Hyderabad Motorway was completed by
October 2017 (although it was due for completion in 2015) at a revised cost of Rs 36 billion from the initial
estimated cost of Rs 24.93 billion (Business Recorder, 2017). According to Rana (2017), over 1000 projects
have faced cost overruns; for example, the total cost of housing schemes was Rs7.9 trillion, although
Rs2.231 trillion of which had already been spent. The Planning Ministry needed another Rs5.7 trillion to
complete the work as against Rs.1 trillion allocated this year 2017.
33
Figure 2.3: Cost overruns in Nepal construction projects (Kathmandu, 2020)
In Bhutan, cost overruns in construction projects are a common news headline. Millions of Ngultrum and
months of delays are experienced within bigger projects. For example, Bhutan Electricity Authority (2017)
reported that hydropower projects had cost overruns of 39.92%, 166%, and 93% of the initial costs. As
illustrated in the Kuensel report (2019), for projects executed between 2014 and 2018 the cost overrun
percentage increased significantly, with the highest recorded in the financial year 2016-2017, where time
had elapsed in 64.53% of the works and the cost had increased from the contract price in 585 of the 719
executed works. In Nepal, the latest figures indicated (Figure 2.3) that costs dramatically increased in major
construction projects. Accordingly, the Sikta Irrigation Project was initiated in 2005-06, and was supposed
to be completed by 2014-15 at an estimated cost of Rs12.8 billion. Officials further projected that the project
would not be complete before 2019-20, and by the time it is fully operational, the project is expected to cost
Rs25.02 billion (Shrestha, 2018). Melamchi Water Supply Project is another example of a cost overrun
(according to Figure 2.3); when it started, in 2001-02, the initial estimated cost was Rs17 billion. In 2008,
the cost was readjusted to Rs31.73 billion before it was increased again to Rs 35.54 billion in 2014,
(Commission’s Report, 2017).
Nepal Electric Authority (NEA) developed Chameliya Hydropower Project (CHP). Construction of the
project began in mid-January 2008 and the project was scheduled for completion by mid-June 2011 at a
cost of NRs 8 billion; however, but the cost of the project has since reached NRs 15.6 billion. The cost
overrun in this project is almost 100% of the initial estimated cost. Normally, the cost of 1 MW capacity
34
costs around NRs 150 million but in the case of Chameliya, the cost per MW has now reached NRs 540
million and it is still under construction (Bhandari, 2017).
Figure 2.4: Project cost overruns in Afghanistan construction projects (Minister of Economy and Cost
Afghanistan MSG, 2019).
The Afghanistan construction industry also faces significant cost overruns (Minister of Economy and Cost
Afghanistan [MSG], 2019). Malik et al. (2017) reported that the final project cost of the Kabul Power Plant
had risen to approximately $300 million, which had originally been estimated at $40 million. Moreover,
the headquarters of the Afghan Ministry of Defence in Kabul actually cost three times more than originally
estimated, increasing from $48.7 million to 154.7$ million (SIGAR, 2016). According to Figure 2.4, three
projects have experienced cost overruns and the Doshi to Pul-e-Khumri Road project has the highest cost
overrun percentage at 24%. Kandahar Airport Road has the second-highest cost overrun percentage (Niazi
& Painting, 2017). Moreover, the rural road project in the Chal District of Takhar province is not yet
completed and no variation order has been approved to date. Similarly, the Kamal Khan Dam project is
now at the beginning stage and no cost variation has been approved to date; therefore, the cost overrun is
showing as 0% (Mastoor, 2019).
The above figures indicate that the impact of cost overruns is not just limited to one region or one country;
instead, it an overall issue for both developed and developing counties as well as Asian and South Asian
regions, in which Sri Lanka is located as a developing country. The next section discusses the cost overruns
in the Sri Lankan context.
2.3.2 Construction Cost Overruns in The Sri Lankan Context
As a developing country in the South Asian region, the contribution of the Sri Lankan construction industry
amounted to USD 6.23 Bn in 2018, which was the highest recorded Gross Domestic Product (GDP) at 7.2%
(Balachandra, 2019; Central Bank of Sri Lanka, 2019). By the year 2018, more than 7% of the total
35
workforce were directly employed in the Sri Lankan construction industry (CCI, 2019). The aim of the
National Physical Plan – 2050 is to plan towards a smart nation by 2050, with the intention to move from
a developing to a developed country with a per capita income of 12000 USD (NPP, 2019). This requires an
annual growth rate of 7.5% in the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) (Munasinghe, 2019). Like most countries,
the construction industry is the backbone of the Sri Lankan economy (Wijeratne, 2019). Therefore, the
productivity of the construction industry is a fundamental element of the journey towards becoming a
developed nation.
According to the Oxford Business Group (2018), a vast number of construction projects are underway
across the island. Both local and major foreign investors, such as the Chinese, state-owned China
Communications Construction Company, China Merchant Holdings International, a Hong Kong-based
conglomerate and Indian state-owned company, National Thermal Power Corporation, etc, have already
invested millions in many projects, such as buildings, apartments, hotels, and ports (Finex, 2017). Among
the number of joint venture contracts, some are performed with local contractors, providing an opportunity
for local construction companies to gain experience in different areas, such as technologies (Jayakody,
2017). Nevertheless, according to Gunathilake (2019), most of the projects have exceeded their costs by
75% to 80% of the estimated value.
Construction of the lotus tower, South Asia’s tallest self-standing structure (Figure 2.5) started in 2012 and
was expected to be complete by May 2015 at an estimated cost of Rs.19 billion (Daily News, 2019). It was
one of the mega projects conducted by the Sri Lankan government with Chinese funding and consists of
restaurants, an auditorium, a television tower, a telecommunications museum, a shopping mall, and a
conference room (Abeyratne, 2019). Although it was opened in 2019, it was not fully completed and cost
an extra Rs.5,475 million to the Sri Lankan government (Mudalige, 2019).
Figure 2.5: Colombo Lotus Tower (Daily News, 2019)
36
Colombo port city is another foreign-funded on-going project that started in 2012 and is expected to
complete its first phase by 2021(PWC, 2020). The first phase expectations are to reclaim 233 hectares for
US$ 1.4 million (Colombo Telegraph, 2015). However, the estimated cost has currently increased to US$
1.9 billion (Sirimane, 2019) and further cost overruns are expected (Samaranayake, 2020).
Hotel project Shangri-La Colombo was started in 2012 with an estimated project cost of $550 million; it
was due to complete no later than 2015. However, the project finished in 2017, having exceeded its project
costs by 10% of the total cost (De Alwis, 2017). A study conducted by Silva (2016) identified cost overruns
as a major challenge for building projects in Sri Lanka. Nevertheless, cost overruns are not just limited to
Sri Lankan building projects, as other projects have also encountered the same issue. Southern Expressway
was constructed to connect Colombo and Hambantota in less than an hour and a half having previously
taken four hours and began with an estimated cost of $348.75m. By the time it was constructed, the cost
had escalated to $741.1m, which was more than double the initial estimate (Oxford Business Group, 2019).
Moreover, the expressway from Kadawatha to Meerigama started at $1.1 billion; it was due to begin in
2017 and expected to complete by 2020. However, at the moment, the project has exceeded its cost by an
additional $5.86 billion with extended timelines. Railway construction is also under pressure as many
projects have exceeded their estimated costs (LKR 7.7bn by $50.3m in 2015 and LKR 6.8bn by $44.4m in
2016). Mattala International Airport started to construct in two phases in 2009. The first phase was
estimated at US$209 million but was completed at $285.88 million in 2012. Moreover, the second phase
was estimated at US$190 million but ended up costing $259.89 million (Attanayake, 2018).
The above projects indicate that majority of projects ended up with cost overruns; therefore, it is hard to
accurately estimate the maximum contribution to the economic development from the construction industry.
Most importantly, the majority of the projects are foreign-funded, and the government has to pay long term
debts, including excessive project costs. In the Daily News (2019), it was reported that in 2018, the Sri
Lankan government paid loan instalments of Rs.2400 million and needed to continue paying the same
amount for the next 10 years. Nevertheless, the Sri Lankan government was expecting to execute several
foreign-funded projects, such as the Western Region Megapolis, which is a 15-year, $40bn development
plan for the Greater Colombo area that aims to transform the capital and raise the western region’s GDP to
$230bn by 2030, through $300m worth of 64km long electrified railway. Colombo’s Bandaranaike
International Airport expansion is worth $550m and funded by the Japanese International Cooperation
Agency; however, this is yet to commence (CCI, 2019). Nevertheless, at a time when a massive number of
projects have been launched and have incurred cost overruns, future projects will increase the debt rate
rather than benefit the growth of the country's economy. Besides, cost overruns also result in the following
impacts:
§ From the client’s perspective, the extra cost added to the initially agreed budget will reduce any
returns on investment.
§ From an end-user’s perspective excessive costs will mean they will pay higher rental/lease costs or
prices.
§ From a professional perspective, cost overruns indicate a lack of capability’s in a job role and create
a black mark for their reputation resulting in a loss of confidence and fewer new jobs in the future.
§ From the contractor’s perspective, this indicates a loss of profit and threatens his future career by
minimizing the chances of winning further jobs.
37
§ For the industry as a whole, cost overruns could bring about project abandonment and a drop-in
building activity, poor reputations, an inability to secure project finance or securing it at higher
costs due to added risks (Mbahu & Nkado, 2004).
Therefore, cost overruns have been a topic discussed in both previous and recent literature, as it represents
a significant problem for construction projects. It is claimed that addressing the root causes of this issue
could help to identify appropriate solutions (Ali & Kamaruzzaman, 2010; Durdyev et al., 2017). Therefore,
it is an opportune time for the Sri Lankan construction industry to identify the root causes for cost overruns
and take appropriate action to minimise the impact of such.
2.3.3 The Causes of Construction Cost Overruns Globally

As cost overruns in construction projects are a global issue, over the past decade many researchers have
explored the causes behind this phenomenon (Shah, 2016). However, the issue of cost overruns is still
sufficiently important to attract many researchers to examine the causes. Across North America, an
extensive range of research has been conducted over the years to identify the major causes behind cost
overruns. Canada indicates that inaccurate cost estimates have resulted in cost overruns amongst the
majority of construction projects since the 1970s (Flyvbjerg et al.2002; Gehring & Narula, 1986; Hall,
1982; Merewitz, 1973; Nijkamp & Ubbels, 1999; Pickrell,1992; Tihanski, 1976). However, recent studies
have also reported similar findings, which indicate that the impact of inaccurate cost estimates still exists
in the Canadian construction sector. In addition, as project cost estimates continued to inaccurate over the
period, most projects, but especially megaprojects, suffer from cost overruns (Siemiatycki, 2015, 2016).
According to IMFG (2016) scope changes, changed orders, handover problems, incomplete studies before
project approval: inflation in labour and material costs, inaccurate forecasting (estimates), project delays,
and unforeseen events were reported as the main causes behind cost overruns. A study undertaken by
Bhutan to investigate cost overruns in hydropower projects found unreasonable cost estimates and gaps in
management were the major causes behind cost overruns in the Muskrat Falls hydroelectric project in
Canada (BEA, 2017).
In the USA Flyvbjerg (2016) identified four dimensions as the main causes for cost overruns, namely:
technical, economic, political, and psychological. He further identified six key causes for technical
dimensions; among them were inaccurate cost estimates, design changes, and uncertainties. Nine factors
were identified as the causes of economic issues, and among them were, inaccurate cost estimates, a lack
of resources, and the inefficient use of resources. Psychology is affected by three causes, namely optimism
bias, cognitive bias, and cautious attitudes. Inaccurate cost estimates, the manipulation of forecasts, and
private information were found to be the main causes of the political dimension. These findings indicate
that, apart from the phycological factor, the remaining three factors were mainly caused by inaccurate cost
estimates. Chibuikem (2018) analysed 29 construction projects in the USA and found design issues, poor
site management, contract disputes, fund shortages, poor weather, and government issues as the main causes
for cost overruns. However, Ghorbani (2019) analysed 20 major construction projects that experienced cost
overruns in 2018 and noted that for the majority of projects, 32% of the cost overruns were due to estimation
errors (see Figure 2.6).
38
Figure 2.6: Reasons for cost overruns in major USA construction projects (Ghorbani, 2019)
In South America, Brazil has conducted many types of research on the causes of cost overruns.
Accordingly, a study conducted by Franca and Haddad (2018) found that such causes could be attributed
to groups, namely directors, project managers, and area managers. The study results indicate that unrealistic
initial cost estimates were a common cause for the three groups. Moreover, a change of scope, a lack of
design detail during budgeting, and high indirect costs in a period of low productivity was also found to be
the main causes of cost overrun. Moreover, Callegari and Schaeffer (2018) identified reliable cost estimates
as the main solution to ongoing project cost overruns. In the Venezuelan construction industry, errors in
cost estimates, design errors, changes in project scope, owners or contractor’s interferences, contractor’s
performance, failures in quality performance and controls, delays in approval by owners and work permits,
a lack of skilled workers, and coordination and communication problems were identified as the main causes
behind project cost overruns (de Dikdan & Odríguez-Monroy, 2018; Love et al., 2018; Pietrosemoli et al.,
2016)
In Australia, cost overruns were found to be an ongoing challenge in the majority of constriction projects.
As a result, several studies have been conducted to investigate the causes of these overruns. A study
conducted by Allahaim and Liu (2012), identified market volatility, pressure to alter estimation due to less
accurate initial estimates, novelty, complexity, and time pressure as main causes behind cost overruns.
Although Newton et al. (2014), argued that it is understandable that designs change, clients vacillate,
productivity varies, delays occur, economies cycle, and markets fluctuate; they argued that inaccurate cost
estimates are unacceptable as there is a particular flow to preparing cost estimates. A study conducted by
Terril et al. (2016) found that overly optimistic cost estimates and poor project management and contracting
practices cause projects to be more expensive than they should be moreover, scope changes were the main
causes of cost overruns. Nevertheless, according to Terrill and Danks (2016), scope change has only a minor
impact on cost overruns in Australian construction projects. A recent study conducted by Petheram and
McMahon (2019) to investigate the causes behind dam cost overruns Australia, reported unrealistic cost
estimates systematically misled entire project teams on cost overruns.
39
Previous studies in Africa found that several causes resulted in cost overruns. In South Africa, a study
conducted by Baloyi and Bekker (2011) revealed that project complexity; increased labour costs; inaccurate
cost estimates; differences between the selected bid and consultants’ estimates; variations to orders by
clients during construction, and manpower shortages as the main causes behind the 2010 FIFA World Cup
stadium cost overruns. Studies conducted by Flyvbjerg et. al. (2003) and Ahiaga-Dagbui et. al. (2015)
revealed that inefficiencies in project cost estimations and forecasting during the project planning phase
were the main causes behind cost overruns. A study conducted by Gbahabo and Ajuwon (2017), found the
main cost overrun causes were: inaccurate project costs and schedule estimations; a weak institutional
governance environment ranging from delays in the government approval process to poor enforcement of
contracts obligations, and the prevalence of corruption and kickbacks in infrastructure procurement.
In Nigeria, studies have been undertaken to investigate the causes of cost overruns for decades.
Accordingly, a study conducted by Okpala and Aniekwu (1988) found that price fluctuations, additional
works, delays, inaccurate estimates, fraudulent practices and kickbacks, shortening of the contract period,
and insurance were the main causes behind cost overruns. Studies conducted between 1990 and 2000
reported inaccurate estimates/tender sums, issues with contractors, improper contract knowledge, poor
management of construction programs, poor cost/financial management, inadequate planning and a
contractor’s lack of ability in risk/uncertainty management as main causes behind cost overruns (Elinwa &
Buba, 1994; Odeyinka & Yusif, 1997; Mbachu, 1998; Mbachu & Olaoye, 1999; Ishaya, 2000). Research
conducted between 2001 and 2010, also revealed similar causes, such as inaccurate estimates, poor
management, inadequate planning and scheduling, ineffective resource coordination, and a lack of relevant
tools and equipment (Elinwa & Joshua, 2001; Omoregie & Radford, 2006; Oseghale & Olugbenga, 2008;
Ameh et al., 2010). This indicates, throughout 10 years, inaccurate cost estimates were the main cause
behind cost overruns. Moreover, recent studies similarly identified inaccurate cost estimates as the main
cause for cost overruns as well as from price fluctuations, costly materials, high-interest rates charged by
banks on loans received by contractors, high labour costs, and high machinery costs (Aghimien et al., 2017;
Aljohani et al., 2017; Kadiri & Shittu 2015; Kasimu, 2012; Saidu & Shakantu, 2017). A recent study
conducted by Ohiomah (2019), identified that payment delays to sub-contractors and suppliers, payment
delays to the main contractor, contract information delay, inadequate prime costs, and provisional sums,
price fluctuation/inflation and inaccurate cost estimate as main causes of cost overruns. Therefore, it can be
concluded that inaccurate cost estimates have been the main cause behind cost overruns in Nigeria for
decades.
Studies conducted in Ghana over different decades have reported various causes of cost overruns. A study
conducted by Kaming et al. (1997) found that unpredictable weather conditions, inaccurate cost estimates,
inaccurate production rate predictions by craftsmen, inaccurate predictions of equipment production rates
and material shortages as the main causes. A study by Agyakwah-Baah and Fugar (2010) reported that
delays in payment certificates, underestimated project costs, underestimated project complexity, difficulty
in accessing bank credit, and poor supervision as the main causes of cost overruns. Nevertheless, the recent
studies also have captured similar causes, such as the underestimation of project costs by consultants, poorly
defined project scopes, client-initiated variations and underestimated project complexity (Amoa-Abban &
Allotey, 2017; Amoatey & Ankrah, 2017; Coffie and & Aigbavboa, 2019; Famiyeh, et al., 2017; Shah
2016). Therefore, even though some causal factors have changed over time, it is clear that the impact of
inaccurate cost estimates has been a continuous cause for cost overruns in Ghana. Many more countries in
Africa have reported the impact of inaccurate cost estimates on construction cost overruns, including: Egypt
40
(Elbashbishy et al., 2019; Khoderi & Ghandour, 2019; Kotb 2019), Zimbabwe (Aljohani et al., 2019;
Maxwel, 2019; Sampson et al., 2020; Shah 2016; Taruvinga, 2019; Thabani, 2019), Ethiopia (Ashebir et
al., 2017; Belachew et al., 2017; Gadisa & Zhou, 2019; Kassa, 2020; Nigussie & Chandrasekar,
2020), Tanzania (Jongo et al., 2019; Shabani et al., 2018). Therefore, it can be concluded that the impact of
inaccurate cost estimates has been a key ongoing cause of cost overruns on the African continent.
Section 2.3.1 indicated that cost overruns in Europe were significant. Accordingly, several types of
research have been conducted in Europe and the specifically UK to investigate the causes of cost overruns
over the past decades. Studies conducted by Wachs (1990), Jackson (2002), Siemiatycki (2009) and
Flyvbjerg (2009) found that an uncertain future, difficulties delivering large complex projects, poor
forecasting models, incomplete designs and cost estimates, poor cost estimate reliability, and scope changes
(whether mandated by circumstance or requested by the client) as the main causes of cost overruns. Nicolos
(2004) pointed out that the majority of construction projects cost overruns were due to incomplete cost
estimates and highlighted the use of historical cost data to increase the level of accuracy. Thus, the studies
conducted between 2010 and 2015 also illustrated similar facts, such as cost estimate reliability, scope
changes (whether mandated by circumstances or requested by the client); managerial and technical
difficulties, risk and uncertainty as the major causes of cost overruns (Ahiaga-Dagbui et al., 2013; Ahiaga-
Dagbu & Smith, 2014; Okmen & Öztas, 2010; Jennings, 2012; Love et al., 2011). Surprisingly, recent
studies also illustrate similar findings at a time of widespread use of advanced technology. Accordingly,
the failure to produce accurate cost estimates, a shortage of skilled labour, uncertain weather, planning
problems, changes to design, poor management, skimping on quality, project complexity and high staff
turnover were reported as the main causes behind UK cost overruns (Hutton, 2019; Scott, 2017; UK
Construction, 2017, Zinmagazine, 2020). Although there are other causes to consider, the failure to produce
accurate cost estimates still rank as the most significant in many studies. Nevertheless, Dahl et al. (2017)
found inaccurate cost estimate as the main reason behind Norwegian petroleum project cost overruns. This
was further supported by the study conducted by Lorentzen et al. (2017) who concluded that cost overruns
were driven by unrealistic cost estimates as well as poor weather conditions, high material prices, and large
project sizes. In Italy, recent study results indicate that the size of a project, underestimations, and risks
relating to conditions on-site as the most common root causes of cost overruns (Mangialardo et al., 2018;
Torrieri & Oppio, 2019).
Like most of the continents, countries on the Asian continent also suffer from severe cost overruns (see
section 2.3.1). In the United Arab Emirates (UAE) plenty of research has been undertaken over the years
to investigate causes of cost overruns. A study conducted by Alghonamy (2015) found that underestimates,
frequent changes in design, improper planning, long periods between design and implementation, and
payment delays as the major causes. According to Johnson and Babu (2018), design variation, poor cost
estimations, delays in the client’s decision-making process, the financial constraints of clients, and
inappropriate procurement methods as the main causes of cost overruns. Moreover, Ramabhadran (2018)
found that improvements to productivity, efficient estimation processes, value management, change
management, and procurement management are also crucial to minimize cost overruns in construction
projects. Besides, Seddeeq et al. (2019) surveyed the Saudi Arabian oil and gas construction industry and
found out changes to the design and scope by the client during construction, poor project planning and
scheduling, design errors, inadequate comprehension of the scope of work at the bidding stage, cost and
schedules underestimations were the main drivers of cost overruns.
41
In Qatar, a study conducted by Kasimu (2012) found that awarding contracts to the lowest bidder, site
conditions, incompetent subcontractors, poor site management, inaccurate estimates, and client-led changed
orders were the major reasons for cost overruns. However, the same study also identified that market
conditions, personal experience in contract work, insufficient estimated time for construction items,
material fluctuations, and political situations also resulted in cost overruns. However, Maki (2016)
identified schedule delays, improper planning and scheduling, frequent design changes, inaccurate time and
cost estimates for the project, unrealistic contract durations, and imposed requirements were the main
driving factors of cost overruns.
In Kuwait, design changes, inadequate planning, unpredictable weather conditions, and fluctuations in the
cost of building materials were found to be the major causes of cost overruns (Chimwaso, 2000; Kaming et
al., 1997). However, a study conducted by Kouski et al. (2005) identified that contractor elide, material
related problems, and owners’ financial constraints were the three most important causes of cost overruns.
In Turkey, a study conducted by Arditi et al. (1985) identified that increased material prices and rapid
inflation caused contractors to produce products at an agreed price, Delays caused by changes to design
specifications and financial problems and the underestimation of project costs when setting the project
budget were the main causes of cost overruns. Studies conducted in Bahrain reported that design changes,
mistakes during construction, schedule delays, inadequate supervision and site management, mistakes in
time and cost estimates, delays in the making and approval of different design and drawings, and poor
design as the main causative factors of cost overruns (Abusafiya & Suliman, 2017; Huo et al., 2018).
In Malaysia, a study conducted by Memon et al. (2010) revealed 15 causative factors of cost overruns;
among them were financial problems experienced by contractors, inadequate site management, a lack of
monitoring of work progress by the contractor, incapable contractors, a lack of site labour, indelicate
planning and arrangement by the contractors, unstable construction material costs, and underestimation.
Ramanathan et al. (2012) identified 18 major causes, among them were time extensions, fluctuations in the
cost of raw materials, design changes, unpredictable weather conditions, insufficient project preparations,
and poor cost estimates. Rahman et al. (2013) reported that cost overruns stemmed from variations to the
cost of raw materials, ineffective site management and supervision by the contractor, a lack of contractor
experience in handling large construction projects, construction mistakes resulting schedule delays,
inaccurate cost estimates, and underestimated project durations. Ahiaga-Dagbui et. al, (2015) reported that
inefficiencies in project cost estimations and forecasting during the project planning phase were the major
reasons for Malaysian construction cost overruns. The Department of Statistics (DOSM, 2016) reported
that delays in the preparation of design documents, ineffective communication between stakeholders,
changes in law and regulations, low labour productivity and inaccurate estimates were the main causes of
cost overruns. Several studies conducted by different authors in 2017 found that: inaccurate estimations, a
lack of communication on-site, a lack of skilled workforce, poor project management and unsuitable
construction methods were the major causes of cost overruns (Ghani & Ismail 2017; Khan et al., 2017;
Tahir et al., 2017). Moreover, a recent study conducted by Albtoush and Doh (2019) classified factors into
10 main groups, namely design and contract related factors, estimation related factors, planning and
schedule related factors, project management related factors, labour-related factors, financial related
factors, material and machinery related factors, construction phase related factors, communication-related
factors and external related factors.
Moreover, Kaming et al. (1997) found increases to the price of materials due to inflation, errors in the
estimation of materials, and project complexity as the main causes of cost overruns in the Indonesian
42
construction industry. A study conducted by Rauzana (2016) found similar causes that supported the above
study findings, such as poorly estimated costs, problematic implementation and working relationships,
material cost increases due to inflation, inaccurate material estimation, and the degree of complexity.
Similarly, many more researchers conducted studies in Asian countries and discovered incorrect/poor
estimates of the original cost as a major cause behind construction cost overruns (Durdyev et al., 2017; Le-
Hoai et al., 2008; Malik et al., 2017; Sriprasert, 2000).
Section 2.3.1 revealed that countries in the South Asian context have also suffered from cost overruns for
decades; for example, India suffers from cost overruns. As a result, many researchers have conducted
several studies to address the causes of the issue. Accordingly, a study conducted by Subramani et al. (2014)
examined the causes of cost overruns, and the results indicated that the major causes were slow decision-
making at the planning stage of a project; poor project schedules and management; increases in the prices
of materials and machines; poor contract management; poor design/delays in producing designs; rework
due to mistakes; land-acquisition problems; poor estimation or estimation techniques, and
long periods of time between the design and time to bid/tender. Moreover, a study on road construction
projects investigated the causes of cost overruns and found inadequate project formulation, poor field
investigation, bad cost estimates, poor planning during the execution stage, inadequate equipment supply
plans, a lack of project management during the stage of execution, insufficient working, changes in the
scope of work, changes to law and order were the major contributing factors for cost overruns (Raphael &
Priyanka, 2014). According to the findings of Kumar (2016), delays to the preliminary handing over of
projects, wrong/inappropriate choices of site, inadequate cost estimates, increases to material prices, price
resources constraints, unpredictable weather conditions, fluctuations in the cost of materials, equipment
allocation problems, a lack of cost reports and design changes were the major factors affecting cost
overruns. However, a study conducted by Patil and Pankaj (2016), found different factors such as high
transportation costs, changes to material specifications, the escalation of material prices, and the frequent
breakdown of construction plants, equipment, and rework. The findings of Ahady et al., (2017) indicated
that poor management, changed material prices, inaccurate material estimates, and the financial status of
the contractor as the main causes. Sha et al. (2017) reported inadequate contractor experience, inappropriate
construction methods, inaccurate time estimations, inaccurate cost estimations, poor site management and
supervision, improper project planning and scheduling, incompetent project teams, unreliable
subcontractors and obsolete technologies as the main reasons for cost overruns in the Indian construction
sector. Besides, Tadewos and Patel (2018) found that financial problems, improper planning, land
acquisition and construction delays, design changes, fewer materials and equipment supply issues by
contractors, incomplete cost estimates and incomplete design as the major reason for cost overruns. A recent
study conducted by Prasad et al. (2019) analysed cost overrun factors in India and concluded that delays in
payment for extra work, delays in settlement claims by owners, contractor’s financial difficulties, and late
payments from contractors to subcontractors were the main cost overrun factors.
In Pakistan, a study conducted by Azhar et al. (2008) found that cost data, inappropriate contractual
procedures, additional works, wrong cost estimation methods, poor relationships between management and
labour, stealing and waste on-site, and labour/skill availability were the major issues behind cost overruns.
According to Choudhry et al. (2012), inappropriate government policies and priorities, improper planning,
price increases on major construction materials, and/or price adjustments, land acquisition and resettlement,
inconsistent cash flows, delayed decision by the employer, design errors and changes, inaccurate
estimations, and the relocation of services and utilities were the main issues for cost overruns. A study
43
conducted by Zafar et al. (2016) found different factors to Choudhry et al. (2012); instead, their findings
revealed that the major factors of cost overruns were a shortage of experienced contractors, the project site
location, security problems, low productivity, and mistakes in the estimation of costs for the project.
Moreover, Akram et al. (2017) found that inadequate planning and scheduling, fluctuations in the price of
materials, insufficient fund provisions by the client, inaccurate cost estimates, delays in payment by the
client, financial difficulties faced by the constructor, financial difficulties faced by the client, additional
works, poor financial control on-site, delays in decision making by the client, and frequent design changes
were the most significant impacts on cost overruns. A recent study conducted by Sohu et al. (2018)
revealed that financial difficulties faced by the client, slow information between parties, changes in the
price of materials, design delays, poor site management, poor cost estimation, cash, and payment problems
faced by contractor, and delays in decision making were more recent reasons for cost overruns.
In Afghanistan, a study conducted by Niazi and Painting (2017) identified that corruption, delays in
progress of payments by the owner, difficulties in financing projects by contractors, security, changes to
the order by the owner during construction, and market inflation as the major causes of cost overruns.
However, in the same year Ahady et al. (2017) found that market inflation/deflation, corruption, shortages
in the supply of construction materials, fluctuations to the cost of building and other materials, delays to
the subcontractor's work, a lack of pre-contract project ordination, a lack of skilled labour, improvements
to standard drawings during the construction stage, labour unrest, inadequate cost estimates and
insufficiently skilled labour as the causal factors of cost overrun. Besides, the latest report published by the
Minister of Economy and Cost Afghanistan (2019) revealed that inaccurate design and cost estimates,
inflation (exchange rate/escalation), local communities, the demand for change as the major causes of cost
overruns in Afghan construction. In Bhutan, it was revealed that the poor development of technical and cost
estimates and supervision by sponsors, technical problems that arose during construction, poor
implementation by suppliers and contractors, and changes to external conditions (economic and regulatory)
as the major causes of cost overruns (BEA, 2017). Moreover, the same study revealed that poor project cost
estimates, flaws in technical design, and a lack of detailed study on geological aspects as the most common
causes of cost overruns in the Bhutan construction sector.
Although some authors have concluded that none of the countries can have similar factors affecting cost
overruns (Jarfas, 2010; Wanjari & Dobariya, 2016), the above discussion demonstrates that different
countries face various root causes behind such overruns. Thus, it could also be seen that common factors,
such as inaccurate cost estimates, material costs, weather conditions, appear in most studies on cost
overruns. According to Ahady et al. (2017), inaccurate cost estimates were identified as the most common
root causes of cost overruns in developing countries. However, according to the above discussion, this is
not limited to developing countries but also includes developed countries, such as Canada, the USA and the
UK. Thus, it can be concluded that inaccurate cost estimates are an ongoing common root cause that results
in cost overruns in both developed and developing countries. Therefore, regardless of the category of the
construction, whatever the type of operation, either in a developed or developing country, inaccurate cost
estimates have an adverse effect on cost overruns in almost all the continents around the world.
2.3.4 Causes of Construction Cost Overruns in The Sri Lankan Context
In the Sri Lankan context, a plethora of studies have been undertaken over decades to investigate the causes
of cost overruns, as these have a significant impact on construction projects (see section 2.3.2). Many
studies have been undertaken on road construction projects and, as a result, they have found that design
changes, defects in design, an incorrect assessment of the brief, defects in cost estimates, inadequate site
44
investigations, improper specifications as the main causes of cost overruns (Huiwe et al., 2003; Nishanth,
2005; Wickramasinghe, 2006). Moreover, a study conducted by Wijeykoon (2011) concluded that
inaccurate cost estimates, payment delays, delays in shifting existing utilities, cost escalations, design
changes during construction, issues in land acquisition as the most predominant factors for cost overruns in
Sri Lankan road construction projects. In the same year, a study conducted by Karunasena (2011) identified
design changes and defects in cost estimates as the frequent causes of cost overruns. Moreover, Jeykanthan
and Jayawardene (2012) carried out a study to examine the cost overrun causes of donor-funded road
projects in Sri Lanka. The results were based on 24 road projects and concluded that inadequate feasibility
studies, errors, omissions in the cost estimates, scope changes, and land acquisition were the main causes
for cost overruns. Halwathura (2013) investigated eleven road construction projects and found that poor
estimation was the most significant cause of cost overruns as illustrated in Figure 2.7.
Figure 2.7: Major causes of cost overruns in Sri Lankan construction projects (Halwatura, 2013)
Kumarage (2016) found inaccurate cost estimates, design changes, defects in the feasibility report, and
political corruption as the major causes behind cost overrun in the Southern Expressway. A study conducted
by Cooray (2017) investigated design changes, exceptional weather, high material costs, deficiencies in
cost estimates, and defects in the feasibility report found to be the main causes behind cost overruns in the
Colombo-Katunayake expressway. Dissanayake (2019) reported poor planning, poor design, poor
45
estimation and cost control, poor or non-existent competitive procurement process, lender-nominated
contractors or negotiated contracts, and corruption as the main causes behind the Northern Expressway-
Central Expressway cost overrun. These findings - from both past and recent studies - indicate inaccurate
cost estimates or defects in cost estimates as a major reason behind the cost overruns. Therefore, it can be
concluded that inaccurate cost estimates are an on-going major reason behind cost overruns in road
construction projects in Sri Lanka.
A study conducted by Shanmugam et al. (2006) illustrated that variation, extra works, discrepancies in cost
estimates, day works, and price fluctuations were the main causes of building cost overruns in the Sri
Lankan construction industry. Dolage and Rathnamali’s (2013) findings revealed insufficient/inaccurate
initial cost estimates, a shortage of material in the market, delays in approving extra work, variations by the
consultant, rainy weather, and contractor labour shortage resulted in cost overruns in Sri Lankan building
projects. A recent study conducted by Perera (2016) determined that mistakes and discrepancies involving
initial cost estimates, drawbacks in design drawings, a lack of consultant experience, delays in providing
the necessary approvals and instructions, and the attitude of consultant persons were the main causes of
cost overruns. Moreover, Perera (2017) revealed discrepancies in initial cost estimates resulted in cost
overruns in the construction of Peradeniya Medical Faculty in 2014. As reported by De Alwis (2017), the
Shangri-La hotel construction project exceeded its budget mainly due to last-minute design changes and
issues in the initial cost estimates. These occurred not only in building projects, according to Gamage
(2019), but it was found that exchange rate variations, project scope changes, material price escalations,
unforeseen ground changes, design changes, inaccurate cost estimates, and inaccurate project planning were
the main causes of cost overruns.
Even though the above studies indicate that cost overruns are caused by different factors, inaccurate cost
estimates were highlighted as a common cause in all sectors, such as road, building, and hydropower.
Moreover, the Sri Lankan government decided to form a special Cost Estimate Review Committee, to avoid
cost overruns due to inaccuracies in cost estimates. Harshana (2018) indicates that the impact of inaccurate
cost estimates is more severe than other factors. Besides, the former Finance and Media Minister, Mangala
Samaraweera (2018), stated that a large number of contracts were awarded over and above the engineer's
cost estimates, and the upward revision of cost regularly occurred during the implementation stage. Thus,
the accuracy of initial/pre-tender cost estimates are highly important in overcoming the cost overruns in
construction projects (Hedaya, 2016). According to Perera et al. (2018) and Rathnayake et al. (2018),
conventional practices in preparing cost estimates hinder their accuracy in Sri Lanka. A number of factors
have been identified in the literature by various researchers; thus, the identification of these factors helps to
increase the accuracy of PTE by minimizing or eliminating their effect. Therefore, the next section will
identify the factors specific to the Sri Lankan context.
2.4 Factors Affecting the Accuracy of Pre-Tender Cost Estimates
Inaccurate pre-tender cost estimates are produced due to various factors. At the early stage of the estimates,
these factors should be taken into account to minimize the inaccuracies of pre-tender cost estimates. Several
studies have been conducted to identify the factors that impact the accuracy of pre-tender cost estimates
around the globe. Researchers such as Ji et al. (2014) and Enshassi et al. (2013), have labelled the identified
46
factors under some key categories, such as project characteristics, client characteristics, contractor
characteristics, tendering situation, consultant and design, external factors and market conditions. A study
conducted by Lim et al. (2016), categorized the factors under different key categories, such as consultants,
design parameters, and information. Moreover, Shabani et al. (2018) categorized his findings under
technical factors, external factors, management factors, and personal factors. A recent study conducted by
Chipulu et al. (2020) identified project information, clarity, and details of the drawings and specifications
as the main categories. Nevertheless, as Liu & Zhu (2007) and Enshassi et al. (2015) noted, most factors
can also be categorized under two main categories namely control factors and idiosyncratic factors. The
factors such as quality information, experience and skill level of the estimator, and quality of the
assumptions can be labelled under controlled factors as an estimator can control them to improve the
accuracy of pre-tender cost estimates. These factors influence the accuracy of cost estimates, but are out of
the estimator’s control, such as market conditions, project complexity, weather, contract size, site
constraints, resource availability, type of procurement system and contract work type; these can be labelled
idiosyncratic factors (Liu & Zhu, 2007). This research aims to improve the accuracy of pre-tender cost
estimates through the adoption of BIM. In other words, it aims to improve the efficiency and effectiveness
of the estimation process while improving the performance of the estimator. Therefore, considering the
nature of this research, only control factors will be considered and factors within the idiosyncratic category
will be excluded (see Table 2.2).
This section has evidenced that a plethora of international studies have been conducted to identify factors
affecting the accuracy of pre-tender cost estimates. However, it is important to review the factors affecting
the Sri Lankan context due to the differences in economic policies, project characteristics, practical
problems, and resource availability. In terms of the Sri Lankan context, factors identified in the global
literature could be the same or completely different. However, many researchers have conducted studies to
identify the factors particular to Sri Lanka's construction environment. For example, a study conducted
by Jeykanthan and Jayawardena (2012) found that the following factors affects the accuracy of cost
estimates: error and omission in detail designs, extreme weather, poor documentation, failures in manual
quantity take-off, and the double counting of quantities.
A survey conducted by Wijekoon and Attanayake (2013) to identify the factors affecting the accuracy of
cost estimates in Sri Lankan road projects identified design errors, project complexity, inaccurate quantities,
insufficient time, errors in the original measures, poor document management and adverse weather as the
major factors. Moreover, unforeseen site conditions, design changes, errors and omissions, a lack of
communication, poor weather conditions, inexperienced estimators, insufficient time for the preparation of
estimates, and inaccuracies in quantity take-offs were the main factors found by Haluwithrana and
Ranasinghe (2013). According to Britto et al. (2013), the accuracy and reliability of cost information,
material prices, clear and detailed drawings, estimator experience, quality information, applicable
information, the availability of historical cost data were the main factors identified. Dolage and Rathnamali
(2013) found the rainy weather, inexperienced estimators, insufficient time, unclear design drawings,
insufficient information, poor coordination, a lack of communication, rework and poor site investigation
had a considerable impact on the accuracy of cost estimates.
Perera et al. (2014) conducted a Delphi survey with 33 Sri Lankan construction experts. Although one
finding indicated that design errors were the most critical factor, Perera et al. highlighted poor information
management, insufficient time, estimator inexperience, poor quality information, and unrealistic measures
as similarly critical factors. Hiroshan and Hadiwattage (2014) reported 44 factors, and among them the cost
47
of materials, size of the project, project planning, and project complexity were identified as the most
significant factors. According to a survey conducted by the World Bank Group (WBG, 2014) to identify
factors of inaccurate cost estimates in Sri Lanka, inadequate time, shortfalls inexperience, incomplete
design drawings, major changes in quantity, inadequate site investigations, and errors and omissions in the
design drawings were the major factors impacting the estimate. Dolage and Pathmarajah (2015) found 24
factors that affect the accuracy of estimates, and among them were, poor coordination among staff members,
poor skill development poor communication with other parties, and poor information management.
According to Lalitha and Malkanthi (2017), 21 factors affect the accuracy of pre-tender cost estimates. Of
these 21 factors the following are noted as significant: design changes, unpredictable weather conditions,
fluctuations in the cost of building materials, a lack of coordination at the design phase, the inadequate
review of drawings and contract documents, incomplete design at the time of tender, re-measurements of
provisional works, delays in issuing information, improvements to standard drawings, omissions, and errors
in the BOQ, inaccurate quantity take-off, and lack of experienced project team members. According
to Risath et al. (2017), the major factors affecting the accuracy of cost estimates in the eastern province of
Sri Lanka are: poor communication and coordination, mistakes in design drawings, inadequate estimator
experience, insufficient information at the initial stage, rework due to errors, the lack of use of advanced
technologies, and poor site investigations.
After proposing to set up a Committee to review initial estimates, the Finance and Mass Media
Minister, Mangala Samaraweera (2018), explained several reasons for unrealistic cost estimates, such as a
lack of consideration given to the initial project preparatory works, incomplete and inaccurate project design
drawings and plans, errors and omissions in the engineers’ cost estimates, faulty tender documents,
discrepancies among documents, and lack of proper feasibility studies. As Chandraratne et al.
(2019) identified, the experience and skills of the estimator, the lack of reliable cost estimation, and
incomplete project details are the main factors affecting of the accuracy of PTE. According to Perera et al.
(2019), the type of work, project duration, and location of the project are the main factors that determine
the accuracy of the PTE.
In Table 2.2 these factors are grouped under main headings, such as design, coordination, quantity take-off,
and information. However, according to an argument made during the discussion, weather, market
conditions, and project characteristics are identified as idiosyncratic factors. Therefore, these three
categories will not form part of this research. Apart from that, other factors will be discussed in detail in
the next section.
48
Table 2.2: Summary of factors affecting the accuracy of pre-tender cost estimates in Sri Lanka.
Category Factors
Design changes Control Factor
Inadequate review for drawings Control Factor
Incomplete design Control Factor
Improvements to standard drawings Control Factor
2D Design Drawings
Absence of clear and detail drawings Control Factor
Mistakes in design drawings Control Factor
Rework due to errors in drawings Control Factor
Errors and omissions in drawings Control Factor
Lack of coordination Control Factor
Coordination
Poor coordination among staff members Control Factor
Re-measurements Control Factor
Omissions and errors in the BOQ Control Factor
Manual Quantity Take- Inaccurate quantity take-off Control Factor
off (QTO) Double counting’s of quantities. Control Factor
Errors in original measures Control Factor
Major changes in quantities Control Factor
Delays in issuing information Control Factor
Poor information management Control Factor
Accuracy and reliability of cost information Control Factor
Information Lack of Quality information Control Factor
Lack of Applicable information, Control Factor
Availability of historical cost data Control Factor
Poor documentation Control Factor
Experience and Estimators Lack of experience Control Factor
knowledge Poor skills Control Factor
Weather Unpredictable weather conditions Idiosyncratic Factor
Market condition Fluctuations in the cost of building materials Idiosyncratic Factor
Communication Poor communication with other parties Control Factor
Use of technology Un-use advanced technologies

Control Factor
Lack of conducting site investigations Control Factor
Site investigations
Inadequate site investigations Control Factor
Time constraints Insufficient time Control Factor
Project characteristics Project complexity Idiosyncratic Factor
2.4.1 The Use Of 2D Design Drawings

The history of design drawings can be traced back to Ancient Egypt (Babič & Rebolj, 2016; Pratyush,
2007). In the modern construction industry, different types of drawings are available, such as 2D CAD
49
drawings, 3D drawings and BIM models. However, for this research, the term ‘design drawings’ will refer
only to ‘2D CAD Drawings’. After the era of pen and pencil paper drawings, Computer-Aided Design
(CAD) evolved for drafting, modelling, and measurement purposes (Olatunji et al., 2010). Moreover, due
to the increasingly complex nature of construction projects, the use of 2D drawings has become very
problematic. Nevertheless, the majority of construction firms solely depend on outdated methods, such as
the use of 2D drawings (CIC, 2019; Thilmany, 2018). A recent study conducted by Kumara et al. (2017)
found the majority of Sri Lankan construction projects dealt with 2D CAD drawings, having had more than
two decades of history in using such drawings.
2D drawings provide limited visualization to the consumers, who have to spend a significant amount of
time visualizing the drawings to get a clear picture (Sunil et al., N.D). According to Thilmany (2018),
different people involved in a project visualize the look of a completed building in their minds but not on
the screen. This has become more challenging with the increasingly complex nature of projects. Not only
do non-technical people find it hard to understand 2D drawings but also QS’s encounter difficulties in
reading drawings (BIP, 2020; Jayawardene et al., 2019). A clear picture of the design drawings reduces
conflicts, which could occur during the estimation (Viklund, 2011). However, limited visualization in 2D
drawings increases misunderstanding amongst QS’s about the details provided in the drawings. This can
lead to the wrong assumptions e.g., about material and finishes to be used, and the taking of incorrect
measurements, such as the wrong heights in calculations (Toostep, 2010). Thus, this can lead to inaccurate
cost estimates at the initial project stage (Wong et al., 2014).
Limited visualization does not allow for early clash detection or the identification of drawing errors at the
early stage of the project (Mattsson & Rodny, 2013), which results in design changes. In 2D drawings, this
review process is carried out manually, or by combining 2D CAD drawings digitally. Therefore, there is a
strong relationship between visualization and clash detection, as increased visualizations results in early
clash detection. Thus, clash detection in 2D drawings is extremely error-prone due to the lack of
visualization provided by 2D drawings. Moreover, design changes can also occur due to the lack of
visualization and the failure to conduct early clash detection (Ali & Kamaruzzaman, 2010). In
construction, design changes are considered a factor for changing the entire project cost (Isan, n.d; Ridmika
& Dissanayake, 2017; Madushanka et al., 2017). Therefore, in 2D drawings design changes are inevitable.
In addition, 2D designs lead to errors and omissions, not only in early design stages but also throughout the
construction process, which ultimately mean the production of inaccurate pre-tender cost estimates
(Abeykoon et al., 2019; Monteiro & Martins, 2013). Research undertaken by Senaratne and Wijesiri (2008),
found that 88% of design errors and 88% of rework were due to design changes and caused frequent waste
in the Sri Lankan construction industry. For example, in a road project when designing the pavement of the
road and strengthening the pavement with aggregate base coarse which is replaced by binder coarse leads
for cost overruns. When curve widening on a road is taken up during construction, if this was not included
in the original design, this invariably increases the cost of the project (Isan, n.d) as it would not have been
included in the pre-tender cost estimate. Moreover, Perera et al. (2009) identified that most of the design
changes happen in road construction projects in Sri Lanka due to increasing road widths, changes to the
road surface from Double Bituminous Surface Treatment (DBST) to asphalt paving, the addition of a binder
course layer and the introduction of a hard shoulder instead of an earth shoulder. Therefore, Dolage and
Rathnamali (2013) recommended that a sufficient number of sessions should be undertaken for the design
review process before finalizing the design.
50
Nevertheless, once the changes are made in 2D drawings, e.g. the editing of plans, sections or elevations,
QS has to carry out manual revisions (Robinson et al; 2015; Mahamid, 2017) to identify these changes and
to incorporate them within the existing measures in the estimate. This is a very time-consuming task
involving the entire estimation process. Moreover, views of 2D drawings do not accurately reflect the
design (SolidWorks Corporation, 2017) as lines, circles and curves do not allow any relationship between
the components of the drawing, e.g. window and wall (Weygant, 2011). Therefore, 2D drawings are less
interactive and changes in one view will not automatically be reflected in other views (Reinholdt, 2014).
As PTEs are prepared at a time of limited information, all available information is fundamental for an
accurate PTE. However, 2D drawings consist of lines, circles, and curves, which only provide a graphical
representation of geometric data (Eastman et al., 2011; Thilmany, 2018). They do not provide any non-
geometrical information, such as quantities and measurements for the estimator. Therefore, 2D drawings
are limited with less information available in the drawings, and sections that have to be produced (Bawail,
2018; Gebrehiwet & Luo, 2017; Mattsson & Rodny, 2013). This results in the estimator making unrealistic
assumptions, which decreases the accuracy of the pre-tender cost estimates (Hussain et al., 2018).
Therefore, a question arises as to why most construction firms still adopt outdated error-prone 2D drawings
at a time of complex construction works.
2.4.2 Poor Communication

Poor communication is found to be one of the main challenges behind inaccurate cost estimates especially
in the initial stages of the project (Olanrewaju et al 2017; Shanmugam et al, 2006; Sherman 2018).
According to Hussain et al. (2018), communication is the medium of transferring information between the
sender and receiver. Therefore, there is a strong relationship between information and communication, as
rich, high quality information can be received through effective communication. The preparation of
accurate estimates requires the transmission of high-quality information to several parties (Cherkaoui, 2018;
Olanrewaju et al, 2017; Sunil et al, 2015). Even though Jelle (2013) explained that stakeholders should
stick together to yield an accurate cost estimate, cultural differences in the different professions in many
cases mean it is hard to maintain a proper information flow (Dainty et al., 2006; Eastman et al., 2011; Gamil
et al., 2018; Gómez-Ferrer, 2017).
According to Epasinghe et al. (2018), in most cases, papers are used as the medium of sharing information
among stakeholders, which also results in poor communication. Most of the time, QS’s request information
through extensive paperwork (Bhat, 2019; Sunil et al, 2015). Vulcanss (2015) identified this as a ‘wall
syndrome, as shown in Figure 2.8. Thus, it avoids the chances of clashing with other parties and ensures
the consistency and accuracy of information when undertaking accurate estimates (Ling & Boo, 2001).
Therefore, paper-based information sharing among project team members offer less effective
communication.
51
Figure 2.8: Poor communication over the wall syndrome (Vulcanss, 2015)
During the time of President Premadasa (1978-1989), advanced communication tools, such as the Internet,
were not available in Sri Lanka (Silva, 2015). So, communication occurred through letter writing. Hence,
it is disappointing to note that, although advanced technologies like the Internet, email, and many electronic
applications are available, there is very poor linkage between project stakeholders.
Once changes are made, formal feedback from project participants, such as the design team and the
estimating team is essential (Ling & Boo, 2001) to clarify and update estimates. In the Sri Lankan context,
if someone sends an email requesting feedback you will neither get an acknowledgment nor a
communication on what you expect (Silva, 2015; Synder, 2019). Therefore, unresponsiveness has resulted
in a poor feedback system that increases conflicts in design information and results in less accurate cost
estimates (Akintoye & Fitzgerald, 2000). Moreover, the failure to use modern applications, such as email
and smartphones, has also resulted in unresponsiveness and poor communication (Smith, 2019).
Besides competition, a lack of trust, selfishness, and short-term relationships have also resulted in poor
communication which decreases the accuracy of initial cost estimates (Eastman et al., 2011; Hatmoko et
al., 2019). Moreover, unclear responsibilities also result in poor communication as most QS’s lack
knowledge and a solid understanding of their project role (Gamil et al., 2018; Olanrewaju et al., 2017).
Similarly, failures in the identification of stakeholders might result in information transmitted to the wrong
party, or relevant parties might not receive any information, which can also lead to miscommunication
(Azrai, 2012; Gómez-Ferrer, 2017; Löfgren & Wikforss, 2007).
It was also found that the use of different languages could also result in poor communications due to
difficulties in understanding by the receiver (Emmitt & Gorse, 2006; Emuze, & James, 2013; Gómez-
Ferrer, 2017; Hussain et al., 2018; Lunenberg, 2010). Moreover, according to Olanrewaju et al. (2017) and
Gamil et al. (2018) poor coordination among project stakeholders was found to be another reason for poor
communication. Therefore, it can be concluded that there is a strong relationship between poor
communication and poor coordination. Nevertheless, Gamil and Rahman (2017) state that effective
communication is key to the production of accurate cost estimates. Thus, based on the above discussion
poor communication can be concluded as one of the main reasons behind inaccurate cost estimates.
52
2.4.3 Lack of Information
The accuracy of a PTE depends on the amount and quality of available information (Azrai, 2012;
Constructiontuts, 2017; Enhassi et al., 2013). Therefore, the accuracy of the pre-tender cost estimates is
positively correlated with the amount of information available (Kim et al., 2004). However, the use of 2D
drawings only gives the QS access to a limited amount of information with less accuracy (Bawail, 2018;
Gebrehiwet & Luo, 2017; ICE, 2019; Lim et al., 2016; Oladokun, 2009; Mattsson & Rodny, 2013).
Therefore, on most occasions, gaps of missing information are filled by the assumptions made by a QS
which leads to cost miscalculations (Akintoye & Fitzgerald, 2000; Alumbugu et al 2014; Azrai, 2012;
Hussain et al., 2018; Ling & Boo, 2001; Liu & Zhu, 2007; Sunil et al, 2015). Unrealistic assumptions
increase the inaccuracy of pre-tender cost estimates (Dell’ Isola, 2002; Ling & Boo, 2010).
Moreover, as discussed in section 2.3.2, poor communication also results in less information due to paper-
based information sharing, the failure to use modern technologies, cultural differences, and poor feedback
(Epasinghe et al., 2018; Gamil et al., 2018; Smith, 2019). According to Senaratne and Wijesiri (2008), late
information was found to be the main waste in pre-tender cost estimation in Sri Lankan building projects,
alongside defective information, and unclear information, as shown in Figure 2.9. These types of
information help to establish unreliable information flow throughout the project life cycle, which increases
the inaccuracy of cost estimates.
Britto et al. (2015) stated that the common practice of producing pre-tender cost estimates in the Sri Lankan
context means using historical cost data and adjusting to the current market rates (Britto et al., 2015;
Shanmugam et al., 2006). However, the level of accuracy of this information is uncertain. Besides, a lack
of coordination among project stakeholders also leads to difficulties in information sharing (Li et al., 2017).
According to Gutierrez (2017), one-sided data ownership has resulted in limited access to project
information for other stakeholders. Therefore, the relationship between the project stakeholders is highly
significant for the receipt of timely sufficient information and the avoidance of repetitive work. It can be
concluded that the lack of information has a strong effect on reducing the accuracy of the PTE.
Figure 2.9 Main waste in pre-tender cost estimates in Sri Lanka (Senaratne & Wijesiri, 2008)
53
2.4.4 Lack of Coordination
According to Gunaratne et al. (2018) and Sunil et al., (2015), the lack of coordination was noted as another
issue behind the inaccurate PTE. As discussed in 2.3.2, coordination positively correlated with
communication. Therefore, poor communication results in a lack of coordination (Gamil et al., 2018;
Olanrewaju et al., 2017). According to Wanjari and Dobariya (2016), a lack of coordination creates a
communication gap among project parties, including the client, consultant, and contractor. Project parties
have to deal with a large amount of data derived from different stakeholders; therefore, the relationship
among stakeholders is vital for accessing this information at the right time and for the correct location
(Alaloul et al., 2016). However, a poor relationship among project stakeholders also affects the level of
coordination and has led to conflict and misunderstanding during construction and difficulties in obtaining
information from the different parties involved (ICE, 2019; Jeyakanthan & Jayarajah, 2016). For example,
Figure 2.10 shows that the entrance stairs area to avoid was not provided in the design itself. Thus, during
a heavy shower, rainwater accumulates in the corridors through a void area. If there had been effective
coordination at the beginning of the project, this would have been identified, and included in the initial cost
estimates. The isolated working culture among professionals was found to be another reason that has
resulted in a lack of coordination (World Bank, 2017). Therefore, coordination issues might also impact on
the accuracy of the PTE.
Figure 2.1 Lack of coordination
2.4.5 Lack of Proper Site Investigations

Herath et al. (2017) identified that delays in receiving the site investigation report represented another issue
for inaccurate PTEs. Britto et al. (2015) further supported this in confirming that a lack of proper site
investigation could result in an inaccurate PTE. Inadequate site investigations can result in ignoring
important site conditions, such as slopes, natural drainage, access restrictions, and obstructions, which can
help to determine the volume of enabling works and the selection of machinery and plants (Cunningham,
2017). Moreover, if these conditions are not properly included in the estimates, they can lead to cost
overruns due to inaccurate figures in pre-tender cost estimates (Park & Papadopoulou, 2012). For example,
narrow roads to access the site prevent the use of large-scale machinery. If a QS neglects this issue in his
estimate, the cost ultimately increases either through the preparation of wider roads for access or by
changing the type of machinery. Therefore, conducting a proper site investigation is fundamentally
important when preparing the PTE.
Nevertheless, QS’s have tended to conduct no or limited site visits prior to preparing a PTE. This is due
to the limited available time (Towey, 2012). Moreover, time-consuming activities, such as MQTO (see
54
section 2.3.7), have also limited QS site visit (Jeyakanthan & Jayarajah, 2016). Similarly, projects situated
in different geographical locations have also prevented QSs from visiting the site before preparing PTE due
to travel difficulties (Central Bank of Sri Lanka, 2016). According to Halwathura, (2013) a lack of site visit
also influences the hiring of unprofessional staff to prepare PTE. Therefore, it can be concluded that a
smaller number of site visits also results in increasing PTE inaccuracies.
2.4.6 Lack of Experience and Knowledge of Quantity Surveyor

As discussed in sections 2.4.1, 2.4.2 and 2.4.3, the QS has to make assumptions, especially during the pre-
tender stage. Accordingly, when sufficient information is not available when preparing the pre-tender
estimates, the QS has to fill the gaps based on their knowledge or experience (Akintoye & Fitzgerald, 2000).
The reliability of these assumptions is based on the knowledge and experience of the QS. The quality of
their assumptions can be determined by identifying the trend in estimating (Lowe & Skitmore, 1994). In
the previous literature, it has been cited that the accuracy of cost estimates highly depends on the level of
knowledge and experience of the QS (Aibinu & Pasco, 2008; Aljohani et al., 2017; Arain et al., 2006;
Clough & Sears, 1994; Madi, 2003; Trost & Oberlender, 2003;).
Moreover, experienced QSs are capable of determining the quality of the information provided before
making any decision (Oberlender & Trost, 2001). The experience and knowledge of the QS is required, not
only to identify quality information, but also to determine the client’s needs and the different aspects of a
contract (Azrai, 2012). A lack of experience can also lead to reworks during the project, which decreases
the accuracy of initial cost estimates (Aljohani et al., 2017). According to Sunil et al. (2015), a lack of
ability to apply modern techniques in cost estimation also result of a lack of knowledge and experience,
and thereby decreases the accuracy of cost estimates. The ability to manage critical timelines, and physical
and mental work overload also depends upon the knowledge and experience of the QS (Eastman et al.,
2011; Jackson, 2002). An experienced and knowledgeable QS can manage these effectively without being
nervous. Therefore, a lack of experience and knowledge is one of the main factors to affect the accuracy of
cost estimates (Aljohani et al., 2017; Odusami & Onukwube, 2008). Therefore, in Sri Lanka, the accuracy
of a PTE is based on experience and skills of the QS (Chandrathne et al., 2019).
Halwathura and Ranasinghe (2013) identified that the lack of available professional staff to prepare pre-
tender estimates for Sri Lankan clients have resulted in a lack of QS experience and knowledge. This is
mainly due to the client’s financial consideration, which may mean they hire a less experienced QS,
which will reduce the cost of the job. However, in the long term, this will affect the success of the entire
project. Moreover, a lack of available professional QS’s in the country (due to the large number of SL QS’s
working abroad) has also resulted in a lack of QS experience and knowledge to prepare PTE (EDB, 2018).
As most senior QS’s have direct involvement with the project, young QS’s learn through observation. Even
if it is easy to catch up with technical skills, it is harder to transfer soft skills, such as decision making, to a
young practitioner due to the level of experience. Therefore, it can be concluded that a lack of estimator
experience and knowledge is another reason for inaccurate cost estimates.
55
2.4.7 Manual Quantity Take-off (MQTO)
Shen and Issa (2010) defined take-off as “the process of calculating the amount, type and installation
method of all elements in the object, made before the construction process”. Thus, manual quantity take-
off and calculations are the most time-consuming tasks in the entire estimation process (Ashworth et al.,
2013; Cartlidge, 2011; Monterio & Martins, 2013; Sabol, 2008). This was further supported by Mitchell
(2012) and Wong et al. (2014) who stated that 50% to 90% of the time is just spent on counting the elements
from the total allocated time for the preparation of cost estimates. As quantities are determined manually,
extra care is needed when detailing every material type and quantity specified on the construction drawings
(Trivedi, 2019). Nevertheless, human errors in MQTO are inevitable due to various reasons.
According to Jayawardene et al. (2019) and BIP (2020), a QS can take considerable time to read and
understand drawings due to discrepancies in 2D drawings. Moreover, as discussed in section 2.3.1, the
project complexity, limited visualization and design changes are time-consuming tasks that
demand repetitive work (Hanid et al., 2011). A lack of visualization leads QS’s to take the wrong
measurements and dimensions, for example 42 metres taken off as 24 metres which are combined with the
wrong unit of measurements (Bečvarovska & Matějka, 2014; Toostep, 2010;). According to Nigam et al.
(2016), errors are associated with moving data between files (e.g. inserting data from 2D drawings in Excel
to produce estimates) and can similarly lead to the wrong measurements. Moreover, the risk of double
counting is more likely to happen during a manual QTO (Cartlidge, 2013), which adds extra measurements
and costs to the estimate. Once design changes have occurred, QS’s have to track the design changes
manually and update quantities manually accordingly during the estimation (Wong et al., 2014). Manual
re-measures are a tedious time-consuming task that adds extra workload to a QS. Unable to detect all the
changes and update them in all drawings leads to missing elements, which can affect the accuracy of the
cost estimates (Olsen & Taylor, 2017; Sabol, 2008). Also, extra work increases the stress level of the QS
and can mean that inaccurate measurements are taken (Leung, et al., 2008, 2010).
Some clients expect to have accurate cost estimates in order to verify the design alternatives, identify the
ideal design, and apply the best construction method. Hence, MQTO does not produce various accurate
cost estimates for different design alternatives (Ashworth et al., 2013). Moreover, MQTO requires an
experienced quantity surveyor to conduct a QTO; thus, an MQTO estimator’s knowledge of materials, rates,
experience in estimating, and skill in taking off material quantities are essential to ensure an accurate
estimate (Haider et al., 2020). However, it is difficult to perform an accurate QTO manually even for
experienced quantity surveyors. Besides, the estimator’s ability to deal with Excel is also compulsory for
MQTO, as it requires the development of formulas for the quantity calculations (Gołaszewska & Salamak,
2017), and inaccurate formulas result in inaccurate measurements. Therefore, it can be concluded that
MQTO can also negatively impact the accuracy of PTE.
2.4.8 Time Constraints

In the initial project phases, the client provides a limited time period for the QS to prepare a pre-tender cost
estimate. According to An et al. (2011), the most important factor for increasing the accuracy of the pre-
tender cost estimate is to allocate an appropriate time. However, time-consuming tasks, such as the
MQTO (see section 2.3.7) make this more challenging as the process requires considerable time. Moreover,
the use of 2D drawings also takes considerable time, as the QS has to properly understand the drawing. At
56
the pre-tender stage, and due to limited information, the QS might need to chase project stakeholders to get
relevant project information.
Thus, due to the lack of time, in most cases, a QS is unable to collect proper information (Azrai, 2012).
This increases the inaccuracy of pre-tender cost estimates due to missing items, which especially affects
complex projects (Magnussen & Olsson, 2006). Moreover, limited time means a QS has to make many
assumptions that increase the number of mistakes during the pre-tender cost estimation (McGinnis, 2016).
Besides, limited time also encourages a QS to take shortcuts, such as ‘guess estimations’, to complete cost
estimates during the given time (Toostep, 2010); for example, working out a metre square rate for the roof
of another project and multiplying that rate by the area of the proposed project. Also, a QS may take the
overall floor area of building to price the screed, floor finish, and ceilings. The walls make up about 10%
of the floor area and could cause serious price deviation if the floor finish and ceiling are expensive.
According to McGinnis, (2016), the lack of time also effects the building of stakeholder relationships.
Limited time leads them to fulfill individual goals rather than to work as a team. Therefore, it reduces
coordination among the project team. Allocation of sufficient time would support the preparation of
accurate pre-tender cost estimates at the initial stage of the project (Attanayake & Wijekoon, 2013;
Oberlender & Trost, 2000; Sinclair, et al., 2002). Therefore, it can be concluded that time constraints are
another factor to affect the accuracy of the PTE.
2.4.9 Inefficiencies in Existing Cost Estimating Software

Karlsen and Lereim (2005) identified the use of sophisticated technology as a major reason for time-
consuming tasks in pre-tender cost estimations. According to Kumara et al. (2017), MS Excel was found
to be the most popular software among Sri Lankan QS’s when conducting cost estimations. This was further
supported by Epasinghe et al. (2018) who indicated that 76% of Sri Lankan construction industry
practitioners utilise Microsoft Excel to perform cost estimates. According to Akintoye and Fitzgerald
(2000), the use of generic systems, such as Microsoft Excel, represented a major reason for the low
reliability of estimates. This is because Excel is a general spreadsheet program that does not consist of
estimator-specific functions; therefore, it could be hard to maintain a consistent approach to estimating
when using Excel (Hook, 2018). Moreover, Excel has limited compatibility with take-off programs but
requires the input of all information manually, which is prone human error, such as missing information or
double counting (Goaszewska & Salamak, 2017).
Although Excel is effective in its calculations, it leaves plenty of room for human error, especially when
creating formulas (Lee, 2016). With the improvements in estimation techniques, formulas have become
more complex and spreadsheet errors have become more frequent (Caulkins et al., 2008; Chandraratne et
al., 2019). Therefore, this requires QS’s with specific knowledge and experience related to Excel, and
particularly with an ability to define formulas (Torp & Klakegg, 2016). Nevertheless, these formulas can
be easily altered either on purpose or by mistake (Hook, 2018). Moreover, in most cases formulas require
manual adjustment based on the different tax rates as these do not automatically update (Lee, 2016).
Mistakes in formulas lead to miscalculations and it would be hard to determine where such errors are
located (Construction Software Review, 2017). For example, external works may not be accounted due to
failures to check the formulas applied in all the relevant cells across the entire calculation. Besides, multiple
people are involved in a spreadsheet, who can end up restoring issues, which is very time-consuming, and
means more work is created (Hook, 2018). Therefore, choosing the right software is important at the
57
beginning of a cost estimation (Goaszewska & Salamak, 2017). Moreover, the use of inappropriate software
risks increasing inaccuracy amongst pre-tender cost estimates. To summarise, the above discussion was
able to identify the most significant factors and their root causes, which affect the accuracy of PTEs; these
are summarised in Figure 2.11.
This chapter explained the state of the art of the phenomenon related to objective 1. Firstly, the chapter
explored the status of pre-tender cost estimates, its definitions, and the importance of having an accurate
PTE. Subsequently, the chapter describes the status of global and Sri Lankan cost overruns and identified
the major causes for cost overruns both globally and in Sri Lanka. Moreover, the chapter identified the use
of 2D design drawings, poor communication, a lack of information, poor site investigations, a lack of QS
knowledge and experience, Manual Quantity Take-off (MQTO), a lack of coordination, time constraints
and inefficiencies in existing cost estimating software as the significant factors which affect the accuracy
of PTEs.
To mitigate or overcome the impact of the above-identified factors, it is clear that there is a need to introduce
a new estimating practice that is capable of improving the accuracy of pre-tender cost estimates in Sri Lanka
(Britto et al., 2015). In many countries, the BIM-based estimating process has become popular due to its
capabilities for improving the accuracy of cost estimates. Therefore, chapter three describes how BIM helps
to improve the accuracy of pre-tender cost estimates by overcoming the factors identified in this chapter.
58
Figure 2.2: Fishbone diagram of the factors affecting the accuracy of the pre-tender cost estimate
59
3 BUILDING INFORMATION MODELLING AND BIM ADOPTION
3.1 Introduction
This chapter reviews state of art BIM and BIM adoption. The chapter structure is presented as follows:
Firstly, it addresses the evolution of BIM, BIM definitions, and dimensions of BIM is reviewed.
Secondly, it reviews how BIM helps to improve the accuracy of pre-tender cost estimates. Thirdly, the
chapter considers BIM adoption trends in both developed and developing countries, and finally, the
drivers and barriers to BIM adoption are discussed.
3.2 Evolution of Building Information Modelling (BIM) in the Construction Industry
BIM is the latest technological development within the construction industry and operates in a
collaborative 3D environment (MagiCAD, 2020). However, the development of the concept can be
traced more than six decades (Andersen, 2020). During the late 1970’s, Eastman experienced
difficulties in working with construction drawings due to the limitations to visualizations and late
updates (Crotty, 2012; Eastman et al., 1975). Many countries, such as the USA, Finland, and Japan,
have undertaken experiments to develop computer programs to solve issues in construction drawings
(Goubau, 2017).
According to Reddy (2012) and Ahmad-Latiffi et al. (2013), the concept of BIM originated in the late
1970s from Professor Charles Eastman at the Georgia Tech School of Architecture. The development
of BIM does not just reflect one aspect of the construction industry; hence, it has broadened to a wide
range of perspectives, such as design, estimation, construction process, building life cycle, performance,
and technology (Latiffi, 2014). Overall, BIM could be applied to the overall construction life cycle
starting from pre-construction, construction, and through to post-construction (Azhar et al., 2008;
Latiffi, 2014). Figure 3.1 illustrates the development of BIM since 1975.
As illustrated in Figure 3.1, BIM has evolved gradually from a period that started with Building
Description Systems (BDS) that were introduced by Eastman in 1975. BDS was used to detect clashes
in complex projects during design development (Eastman, 1976). However, within a short time, BDS
was rejected by many architects who did not have the opportunity to develop it (Dobelis, 2013). As a
result, the Graphical Language for Interactive Design (GLIDE) was introduced in 1977, which is an
improved version of BDS. GLIDE was used to detect certain elements while ensuring the accuracy of
data in cost estimating and structural design (Eastman, 1997). Nevertheless, BDS and GLIDE limited
the construction stakeholder’s involvement to the design stage; therefore, they needed more advanced
programs to offer more collaboration during the construction phase. As a result, in 1989, Building
Product Model (BPM) was invented which covered design application, estimation, construction
process, and involvement of construction players (Bjork, 1989; Hatti, 1996).
BPM also is known as RATAS in Finland, which was used as a national framework and conceptual
model to program IT in construction (Hatti, 1996). Compared to BDS and GLIDE, BPM acted as a
database consisting of project information throughout its project lifecycle. Therefore, it improved
interpretable communication for Computer-Aided Design (CAD) in construction (Luiten et al., 1998).
With time, AEC required the integration of information and knowledge for design and construction
management; hence, BPM was focused only on product information. Therefore, in 1995, BPM was
further developed as a Generic Building Model (GBM) to capture AEC industry needs (Eastman &
Siabiris 1995). GBM was capable of managing project information by incorporating construction
activities. Nevertheless, as the complexity of the construction industry gradually increased, there was a
60
need for the wider adoption of ICT to accomplish project expectations and higher productivity (Lattiffi,
2014).
Figure 3.1: Development of the definition of BIM from 1975 to 2013 (Latiffi, 2014)
It was clear that technology was developed to accomplish the needs of the industry over different
periods. Likewise, BIM was utilized to fulfill the AEC industry needs. However, BIM cannot be
considered a newly developed concept, but rather a more advanced version of previous technologies.
Therefore, the introduction of the concept “BIM” cannot be traced back to one person, but instead to
many (Hanratty, 2018).
As BIM evolves to provide more sophisticated BIM services, different dimension levels are introduced
to professional roles in the construction industry (Smith, 2014). These dimensions provide a widespread
understanding of the construction project, how it should be delivered, how much it would cost, and the
way it should be maintained (NBS, 2017). Therefore, these dimensions - namely 3D, 4D, 5D, 6D, 7D,
and 8D – are linked to an information model with a particular set of data (McPartland, 2017).
As illustrated in Figure 3.2, 3D BIM or the shared information model is the most familiar dimension to
develop a three-dimensional object via 3D modelling software, such as Revit and a LOD definition
(Warsaw, 2016). These objects consist of geometric (such as volume of concrete, length, width, height)
and non-geometric (labour hours) information; these are fundamental for QSs in the preparation of
accurate cost estimates (Kjartansdóttir et al., 2017). Moreover, this information becomes richer and is
updated promptly as the project progresses (Celauro et al., 2019). Moreover, improved visualization,
improved coordination, and rich information are the key benefits that a QS could experience with the
use of a 3D model (McPartland, 2017).
61
Figure 3.2: BIM dimensions (Celauro et al., 2019)
In comparison, 4D or Construction Sequencing is the fourth dimension, according to Figure 3.2, which
adds scheduling data to the project information in the 3D model (NBS, 2017). This will provide accurate
programme information and an overview of how the project develops sequentially (McPartland, 2017).
For example, a QS can obtain a clear picture of a certain element and how long it takes to construct or
install, the time required for it to become operational, and the order in which the components should be
installed (Kjartansdóttir et al., 2017). Thereby, a QS can accurately determine labour hours, machinery,
most time-consuming tasks, and so forth. Moreover, the ability to get early feedback can minimize the
amount of rework for the QS. Besides, this improves the QS’s confidence level in preparing accurate
cost estimates as it allows communication between team members by assessing project plans in detail
(HKGBC, 2017). Indeed, by being closer to the project team and assessing feedback before preparing
cost estimates, QS can add significantly more value to the cost estimates. Nevertheless, according to
Lee et al. (2016) 4D scheduling is incomplete without the integration of the 5D cost dimension.
The 5th dimension represents the project’s cost information, where the QS can extract accurate cost
information to prepare accurate cost estimates (Vijayeta, 2019). QS can calculate the costs associated
with purchase and installation of a component and the running costs based on the information linked
with a particular object in the model (McPartland, 2017). Therefore, it allows QS to easily extract
quantities and apply rates to generate the overall cost for the development (NBS, 2017). Moreover,
information linked with the model provides notifications to a QS when changes are made and thus to
automatically count them (Hengsberger, 2019). Besides, a QS can inquire about model data at any time
during a project which regularly updates cost reports (Lee et al., 2016). Nevertheless, a QS can only
prepare accurate cost estimates if the given information is accurate. Therefore, in 5D based cost
estimation, the QS has to play an important role by not only checking the accuracy of the information
but also in helping to interpret and fill information 'gaps' (NBS, 2017). Moreover, a clear understanding
of how things are classified in the model is also fundamental for the QS to prepare accurate cost
estimates (Kjartansdóttir et al., 2017). The preparation of accurate cost estimates does not just rely upon
5D. According to the researcher’s perspective, the preparation of accurate pre-tender cost estimates
depends upon the integration of 3D, 4D, and 5D.
In addition, 6D represents the sustainability dimension, and consists of information that reduces the
capital costs of projects through a better understanding of the whole life costs of assets (NBS, 2017).
Therefore, in some cases, 6D BIM models are also referred to as Asset Information Models (AIM)
(Kjartansdóttir et al., 2017). According to McPartland, (2017) 6D mainly helps facilities managers to
pre-plan maintenance activities over the lifetime of building assets. According to Figure 3.2, 7D
represents the operational and maintenance information throughout the lifecycle of the project, which
62
managers can use for management and maintenance organisation (Kumar, 2019). 8D is the most recent
developed dimension and represents information to maintain health and safety by identifying risks and
preventing critical hazardous events during construction (Celauro et al., 2019). In future, new
dimensions will evolve under the Nth generic dimension to enable more accurate decision making
throughout the project lifecycle. However, in the current context, QSs can make reliable decision-
making through the 3D, 4D, and 5D early stages of the project to prepare accurate pre-tender cost
estimates (see section 3.4 for more detail).
Within the AEC industry, BIM contributes to tackle issues while increasing overall productivity
(Walaseka & Barszcz, 2017). Even though architects and engineers were the foremost consumers of
CAD (Tulenheimo, 2015), BIM offers a next-generation solution for all stakeholders in the construction
industry and the effective management of their roles. The AEC industry started using BIM from mid
2000 (Ahmad-Latiffi et al., 2013; Azhar et al., 2008). Thereafter, BIM has been implemented in many
countries, such as the USA, Finland, UK, and Australia. In 2000, BIM was defined as a structured
model representing building elements (Ameziane, 2000). However, over time BIM was defined in
different perspectives. Therefore, the next section will discuss BIM definitions developed over time.
3.3 BIM Definitions
The abbreviation of BIM stands for three common translations, namely Building Information Model,
Building Information Modelling, and Building Information Management (Lindstrom, 2013). BIM has
been defined through various aspects and from different perspectives; Table 3.1 illustrates some of the
definitions over time.
According to Table 3.1, BIM is defined as a: process, technology, digital form, collaborative way of
working, process of combining information and technology, and a system shaping traditional roles. The
majority outline BIM as a digital model to be shared among practitioners for reliable decision making.
Hence, no universally accepted BIM definition exists, which is due to the rapid evolvement of BIM
technology (BCA, 2016; Burr, 2016). Moreover, another reason for existence of different definitions is
the way different professionals feel it is based on their role in the construction sector. For example, the
majority of definitions reflect the architect’s role over the rest of the professions. This study attempts
to improve the accuracy of pre-tender cost estimates through BIM adoption, which reflects the role of
QS. Therefore, a definition derived from the QS perspective would be ideal for this study. However, a
limited number of BIM definitions exist from a QS perspective, such as AIQS, NZIQS, and NIQS
(2018).
63
Table 3.1: BIM definitions
64
Nevertheless, most of these definitions reflect collaboration rather than the role of the QS. As BIM
adoption enhances QS beyond traditional boundaries and increases the efficiency and effectiveness of
the QS role, for this research the term BIM was understood to combine the following two definitions.
Firstly, “A system shaped [by] the traditional role of construction professionals which was shaped by
the traditional construction procedures” (Liu et al., 2017), and secondly, “BIM is amenable; [it] evolved
significantly to make it applicable for all professionals in the built environment as its adoption and use
65
would not only enhance profit and productivity but also increase efficiency and effectiveness” (NIQS,
2018)
Therefore, considering the context of this research, the definition of BIM has been understood as, ‘A
system that enhances QS to the increase efficiency and effectiveness of the traditional role through the
effective use of BIM’. As BIM is capable of addressing most of the challenging aspects of cost estimates
identified in chapter 2, the above definition is aligned with the research focus. Therefore, the next
section discusses how effectively BIM could improve the accuracy of pre-tender cost estimates.
3.4 The Use Of BIM to Enable Accurate Pre-Tender Cost Estimating
The literature findings in section 2.3 revealed that practices, such as the use of 2D drawings, a lack of
information, a lack of communication, and manual quantity take-off, are associated with conventional
cost estimating practices and result in the preparation of inaccurate cost estimates. Nevertheless, the
amount of research on BIM use in cost estimation revealed that, BIM-based cost estimation is more
efficient and accurate as it can address many of the weaknesses associated with conventional cost
estimating practices (Abanda et al., 2015; Azar, 2011; Tokla & Subsomboon, 2020). Therefore, this
section discusses whether BIM can improve the accuracy of pre-tender cost estimates.
3.4.1 The Use of BIM 3D Models

According to Wu et al. (2018), the use of BIM models provides several solutions to overcome the
drawbacks associated with 2D drawings. Haider et al. (2020) defines a BIM model as “richly
describe[ing] buildings through classes of objects that contain their 3D geometry and other
characteristics”. Therefore, the model allows QS to see the final product of the construction including
all elements at a stage where decisions have not been made to execute the project (Gołaszewska &
Salamak, 2017). In other words, it provides improved visualization. Improved visualization was found
to be a key benefit that the BIM model offers to QS (Tokla & Subsomboon, 2020). It enables QS’s to
develop a clear picture through a proper understanding of the concept and design details quickly and
efficiently (Stojanovic et al., 2018), without any extra effort.
Moreover, as it easy to read and understand the BIM model due to improved visualization, a simple
model check significantly reduces design changes in both drawings and construction (Shin et al., 2018).
Even though design changes occur, the BIM model is capable of identifying these changes in all
drawing views and updating sections automatically (Ahn et al., 2016; Ganbat et al., 2018; Trivedi,
2019;). This prevents QS’s from identifying time-consuming design changes and manual
revisions. Improved BIM visualization also offers design alternatives for stakeholders, which avoids
rework and conflict when a design changes (Arnav, 2015; Li et al, 2015).
66
Moreover, visualization helps the QS to absorb and realize project information without any assistance
from an extra party (Nigam et al. 2016). This reduces unrealistic assumptions made by the QS due to a
lack of visualization and confusion when reading drawings. Besides, improved visualization also aids
in early clash detection (Tahir et al., 2018). Clashes occur when constructed components are not
spatially co-ordinated and thus conflict (CIOB, 2018). Technically, two types of clashes could occur: a
‘hard clash' is very time-consuming to identify, e.g. a column running through a wall or pipework
through a steel beam (Richard, 2016). Once an element does not have the required spatial or geometric
tolerances, “soft clashes” occur (for example, an air conditioning unit may require certain clearances to
allow for maintenance, access, or safety that a steel beam would negate) (NBS, 2016). However, the
BIM model allows designers to detect these clashes easily in vibrant colours (Silicon Consultants, 2018;
Wu et al., 2018), as illustrated in Figure 3.3. Moreover, a study conducted by McGraw Hill (2017)
found that BIM was the most practical platform to identify clashes. Even though clash detection helps
designers to overcome design issues (McPartland, 2016), it also reduces the amount of revision needed
by the QS due to design changes (Patel, 2018) and costly variations (Fung et al., 2014; Wong et al.,
2014). Therefore, early clash detection does not only assist designers but also QS’s by saving time on
revisions.
Figure 3.3: BIM Clash Detection (Silicon Consultants, 2018)
3.4.2 Improved Information Management

Another highlighted benefit of using BIM models is improved information management (Mollasalehi
et al., 2017). The preparation of cost estimates is based on two types of data, such as geometric (tangible,
such as the volume of concrete) and non-geometric (intangible, such as labour hours) (Tah et al., 2017).
Thus, the beauty of the emerging BIM model is that it consists of non-geometric data, which the 2D
version missed (Hongling et al., 2019). Moreover, the object-oriented concept of BIM helps to store
information that belongs to each building item and connects it to the cost items (Wu et al., 2018).
Therefore, BIM produces a digital database that could be shared among project stakeholders, rather
than producing a series of separate drawings (Haider et al., 2020; Ismail et al., 2016; Lee et al., 2018;
Tokla, & Subsomboon, 2020). Moreover, it provides multiple aspects of accurate information, which
67
is required by QS’s when preparing accurate cost estimates (Abanda et al., 2017; JD et al., 2017). It
enables the QS to gain a greater understanding of the relationship among the objects and identify pre-
existing information concerning such objects that is not available in documentary format (Chen et al.,
2018). Consequently, it enhances the QS’s understanding of the project information and improves their
decision making by reducing the number of unreliable assumptions (Chen et al., 2018; Wang et al.,
2019; Wu et al., 2019). Any change to the model automatically updates database with project documents
(Haider et al., 2020).
BIM allows access to updated information on any project stakeholder at any given stage of the project
(Haide et al., 2020). As a QS can easily access information at any time and extract the information
needed to provide a reliable basis for decision-making rather use unreliable information (Haider et al.,
2020; NZIQS, 2018). The use of the BIM model operates a collaborative working atmosphere for
project stakeholders in order to more effectively share information and ideas over conventional practice
(Ahn et al., 2016; Dubasa & Pasławskia 2017; Lee, et al., 2019). As a result, project stakeholders tend
to insert, extract, update and modify information, which allows the QS to deal with the most recent and
thus more reliable information (Zhang et al., 2015). A robust database was developed through the
information gathered from different stakeholders, which ultimately improves communication between
project stakeholders and thus simultaneously contributes to effective information management
(Kjartansdóttir et al., 2017; Lee et al., 2018; Namil et al., 2019). Therefore, the QS does not need to
depend upon unreliable cost data when preparing cost estimates. Furthermore, the BIM database can be
compatible with the Industry Foundation Classes (IFC) format, which also improves information
sharing across teams (Ismail et al., 2016). This reduces requests for information (RFI) from the QS as
well as coordination problems (Smith, 2017). Nevertheless, Mayouf et al. (2019) found that QS’s
encountered a lack of information within the BIM models.
This is mainly due to the failure of architects and other designers to provide full details on their BIM
model due to liability issues (Olsen & Taylor 2017; Smith, 2016). The RICS has also highlighted the
importance of accessing accurate and rich information and suggested that the QS needs to improve their
collaboration with designers and other stakeholders to build a reliable relationship and avoid sharing
limited versions of the designer's BIM model (RICS, 2016; Smith, 2016). Gaining trust between the QS
and designers add values not just for the QS but also for designers, as the QS could report
errors/omissions/clashes to the designer for rectification. In return, QS could explain to designers the
data/information needed, in which format and how the model could be improved (Mayouf et al., 2019).
Therefore, this is a win-win situation for both parties. Moreover, Wu et al. (2018) suggested that linking
the model to different professional software, such as ETABS, could also enhance accurate information
from the BIM-based model. Therefore, the use of a BIM model provides a reliable cost database for the
QS to prepare accurate cost estimates.
3.4.3 Automated Quantity Take-Off (AQTO)

AQTO was found to be a key benefit of BIM for QS’s by enabling more accurate quantities over a short
period compared to conventional QTO (Kehily & Underwood, 2017; Khosakitchalert et al., 2020). As
the BIM model comprises computable graphics and data, quantities, counts, and measurements, these
can be extracted directly from objects in the model (Sacks et al., 2018; Whang & Min, 2016). This saves
80% of the QS’s time by eliminating the most time-consuming task in the preparation of cost estimates
(Gadekar, 2018). Moreover, many BIM users claim that BIM-based QTO could be done three to five-
time faster than manual methods (Trivedi, 2019). Therefore, it provides extra time for a QS's that can
be spent on other cost-related tasks and reduces individual stress levels during the preparation of cost
68
estimates (JD & Taylor, 2017). Furthermore, Whang and Min (2016) noted that 95% of accuracy could
be achieved through BIM-based cost estimation.
As Valentine (2019) explains, BIM-based QTO starts with uploading the BIM model to cost support
software. Thereafter, the program will fix the model by identifying information gaps in order to produce
more accurate take-offs. Then, it automatically takes off the quantities and a QS can check
measurements by using a 3D ruler or with the use of technologies, such as Virtual Reality (VR) to
ensure every item has been measured (Trivedi, 2019). Finally, quantities can be exported into an Excel
spreadsheet to create faster estimates, which Gołaszewska and Salamak (2017) claimed would
eliminate cost miscalculations, double counting, and missing elements as quantities are done through
automation. Moreover, according to Mattsson (2013), cost miscalculations also reduce through the use
of BIM as BIM-enabled software can download the model into measuring devices to calculate the
quantities, rather than manually entering the data. In addition, the accuracy of quantities also improved
as rounding errors can be eliminated and omissions are minimized (Olsen & Taylor, 2017). Besides, the
BIM model generates quantities together with external third-party cost estimating software, such as
CostX, Vico Take-off, Zuzia BIM, and Revit, specifically to develop cost estimating (Smith 2017).
Among them, the CostX program was found to be the most widely used software for quantity take-off
in more than 40 countries around the world (Exactal, 2017). As this software is customized for the use
of QTO without any limitations, QS does not require any human interference to develop formulas to
determine the quantities (Exactal, 2018; Signma, 2019). Therefore, it eliminates the errors
associated with the use of Excel, such as altering, manual adjustments, restoring issues, and tracking
errors, in formulas due to unavoidable human errors. Furthermore, with the use of BIM-based software,
once the design or quantity is altered, changes are automatically updated in the costs, which saves the
QSs time for manual re-measures and the identification of changes (Marsh, 2017). According to Trivedi
(2019), many QSs believed that BIM-based platforms, like CostX and Revits eliminate the need for a
thorough study of drawings before undertaking the MQTO, which increases the overall efficiency.
Thereby, it reduces the number of inaccurate assumptions made by a QS due to difficulties in reading
and understanding the set of 2D drawings (Marsh, 2017). In addition, the QS has to deal with one model,
instead of referring many drawings, such as MEP, which reduces errors due to the need to move data
between files (Matejka & Vitasek, 2018). Therefore, QSs are more confident when undertaking QTO
in a BIM platform rather than doing it manually.
According to Kocakaya et al. (2019), accurate automated quantity generation also reduces the risk of
human error and taking the wrong measurements due to the level of QS experience and knowledge.
Nevertheless, Bettemir (2018) and Mohammad et al. (2019) stated that the benefits of AQTO have been
partially achieved as quantity extraction happens according to the parameters set by software vendors
rather than by following the method of measurement or standards operated by countries. For example,
most Autodesk cost estimating products have American and North American measurement standards
and not New Rules of Measurement (NRM). Smith (2017) also stated that the absence of a global
standard prevents the efficient use of BIM-enable cost estimation. However, as different countries have
their standards it is difficult to come up with a global standard. As a result, many countries are currently
developing or already have developed their national standards, which cater to BIM-based cost
estimation (MPO, 2017). In the UK, NRM have been updated to support 5D BIM-based cost estimation
(RICS, 2017). The main objectives of this guidance note are to:
Assist the QS/cost manager in deriving benefits from delivering cost consultancy
services in a BIM environment, by utilizing model data rather than traditional
manual measurement in the production of quantities, and ii) Inform the team in the
69
needs of the QS/cost manager in performing their measurement role in a BIM
environment. (RICS, 2015, p.3).
Moreover, International Construction Measurement Standards (ICMS) have also been introduced to
support BIM-based cost estimation as ICMS presents costs in a consistent format to classify, define,
measure, record, analyze, and present construction and other life-cycle costs (ICMS, 2015). Moreover,
according to Smith (2016), firms are also capable of developing in-house BIM supported software
compatible with their standards.
Moreover, Elbeltagi (2016), noted that AQTO can only generate accurate quantities if the model
consists of quality information. If the details in the model are incomplete, the extracted quantities will
not be accurate (Andersson et al., 2016). Therefore, Oslen and Tyler (2017) suggested that the
developed model should be carefully inspected before starting quantity extraction. Moreover, Firat et
al. (2016) suggested the development of the BIM model should follow appropriate modelling guidelines
for the quantity take-off. Therefore, the BIM-based QTO has reduced and eliminated most of the
negative aspects of MQTO (Whang & Min, 2016). However, effectively addressing the above
shortcomings of AQTO will further improve the accuracy of cost estimates by generating more accurate
quantities.
3.4.4 Improved Coordination and Communication

The use of BIM also provides better solutions to improve communication and coordination compared
to conventional methods (Autodesk, 2018; Koacakaya et al., 2019). The use of a centralized BIM
model creates strong communication among project stakeholders, thereby increasing mutual trust
among the client, architect, and quantity surveyor from the beginning of the project (Goh et al., 2017).
According to Figure 3.4, in conventional practice, communication goes through selected parties;
therefore, in most cases QS’s face difficulties in obtaining accurate information. However, model-based
communication enhances communication between all stakeholders rather than within a certain party.
This provides opportunities for all stakeholders to identify their project team, role, and
responsibilities within the project by sharing ideas and experiences (Zulu, 2017).
Besides, according to Simmonds (2020), working on a shared BIM model promotes team working by
minimizing the isolated working culture and enabling effective discussion, accelerated processes, and
the ability to easily executed identified changes, thereby improving coordination. Moreover, the team
working culture minimizes competition, the lack of trust, and short-term relationships among team
members through the development of strong relationships (Mattson, 2017). Furthermore, this increases
coordination among stakeholders from different cultural backgrounds. The shared BIM model also
offers immediate feedback through BIM revisioning (Exactal, 2018). As Wileman (1993) describes,
visual communication is more effective than verbal communication. Thus, as the BIM model provides
improved visualization, Kopsaftis (2018) believed that improved visualization in the BIM model
increased the team member's communication capacity through a thorough understanding of the
building to be constructed, rather than dealing with a non-technical group of people. Moreover, BIM
can enable trades to understand each other by moulding different jargon into a common form so they
can see their respective interpretations of the model (Svalestuen et al., 2017).
70
Figure 3.4: BIM-based communication method (Goh et al., 2017)
On the other hand, the use of digital applications and mobile devices in BIM-based practice
enables two-way communication, which means it is easy to report errors and progress them with other
parties without any hassle (Sacks et al., 2013; MagiCAD, 2018). For example, videoconferences
establish reliable communication between stakeholders even over long distances (Svalestuen et al.,
2017). Moreover, Harstad et al. (2015) found that the use of tablets increases access to information and
understanding while developing a new way of communication. Besides, the combined use of BIM and
AR (Augmented Realities) helps to minimize poor feedback and unresponsiveness through effective
communication (Kapasa, 2016). As information is shared through BIM-based digital applications, the
entire construction industry is heading towards a paperless but verbose communication system (Zainon
et al., 2018) eliminating communication through the wall syndrome and miscommunication. As
discussed in section 3.3.2, a robust database is developed comprising information gathered from
different stakeholders; this ultimately improves communication between project stakeholders by
sharing information and simultaneously contributes to effective information management (Lee et al.,
2018; Namil et al., 2019). Nevertheless, the use of BIM does not facilitate any solutions to overcome
difficulties in using the different languages identified in section 2.3.2, unless it comes from an
organisational background to utilize common language in the working environment.
3.4.5 Improved Site Investigations

As discussed in section 2.3.5, in conventional practice the QS finds difficulties in conducting proper
site investigations when preparing cost estimates. It was revealed that this is mainly due to the limited
time given by the client, the need for time-consuming activities, such as MQTO, and the use of 2D
drawings. However, the use of BIM helps to eliminate time-consuming activities by replacing 3D
models and AQTO (see sections 3.3.1 and 3.3.3); thus, the QS can better manage their time by
conducting full, effective site investigations before preparing cost estimates. Moreover, with the use of
advanced technologies, such as costings in the Cloud, the QS can get on-site information remotely,
which means saving travelling time (Exactal, 2018; PSR, 2020). The Point Cloud is another regular
feature of BIM that is popular among industry practitioners when obtaining site information (BDC,
2020). This allows the QS to conduct virtual site visits without setting foot on site (Graham, 2020).
71
Moreover, Graham (2020) stated that the use of Point Cloud enabled QS’s to cut down on physical site
visits by 70% to 80%. Also, some countries, such as Poland, use BIM 360 Field from Autodesk to
facilitate site-to-site collaboration, which saves the QS time usually spent wandering around the
construction site (Dubasa & Pasławskia, 2017). This is also improving the quality of site information
as a group can work on it rather depending on an unprofessional individual perspective. Geographic
Information System (GIS) can also be used in site inspections to evaluate site location and building
position (Rojas et al., 2019). According to Natwilai (2019), the use of drones is another BIM tendency
in construction site inspections before construction begins. Nevertheless, even though these methods
seem to be costly, they save both cost and time as ordinary site visits require time to travel to sites, for
checks, in measuring dimensions, taking pictures, and travelling back to the office. Moreover, this
would be a solution for projects aboard, as the QS can exact site information without travelling far.
Notwithstanding, BIM-based site inspections help the QS to measure inaccessible spaces, such as crawl
spaces through scanning (Graham, 2020). Besides, it improves a worker's safety as inspections are
conducted remotely (Wesel, 2020).
3.4.6 Time Savings

According to Lu (2018), every stakeholder in the construction industry is working under time pressures
and QS’s are often under significant time pressures. Discussion in section 2.3.8 revealed that, once the
design is approved, the QS has a limited time frame stipulated by the client to prepare cost estimates.
However, through using BIM, the QS can save time, especially from time-consuming tasks such as
MQTO (see section 3.3.3) and the use of 2D drawings (3.3.1). Moreover, as the model consists of more
information, it requires improved information management (see section 3.3.2). Thereby, QSs often
make inaccurate assumptions and take shortcuts during the preparation of cost estimates. However,
some QS’s believe that the creation of a BIM model is more time-consuming than preparing 2D
drawings (Skanska, 2016). Nevertheless, even if it takes more time at the beginning of the project, in
the long-term BIM models add more value to the entire estimation process by reducing the time for re-
work, re-measurements, and changes detection. Moreover, due to improved communication and
collaboration (see section 3.3.4), the QS can obtain relevant information without any waiting which
also saves time. Lastly, remote site inspections (see section 3.4.5) also enhance timesaving rather
travelling long distances for inspections.
Even though BIM is a solution to reduce unreliable assumptions (Chen et al., 2018; Tahir et al., 2018;
Wang et al., 2019; Wu et al., 2019) and rework (Arnav, 2015; Li et al., 2015), it is not capable of
addressing QSs’ lack of knowledge and experience, of hiring less experienced QS and the lack of
professionals (Gledson et al., 2016). This indicates the importance of hiring experienced QS’s.
Therefore, even with the use of BIM, training is required for QSs to enable the effective use of BIM-
based software and obtain the best results for BIM-based cost estimation. As BIM saves the QSs time
from different time-consuming tasks it is arguably not be an issue to find time to learn BIM-based cost
estimation. However, this discussion illustrates that BIM is capable of addressing the majority of
weaknesses in conventional cost estimation practices and thereby improve the accuracy of cost
estimates. As a result, QSs can prepare more accurate cost estimates within a shorter period. Therefore,
BIM has become more popular among QS's in recent years and is fundamentally transforming the digital
construction era (Smith, 2017; NIQS, 2018). Many countries - both developed and developing – are in
a race to adopt BIM within their practices. Therefore, the next section will discuss BIM adoption by
different countries.
72
3.5 General Status Of BIM Development
Since early 2000, BIM has been widely promoted all over the world and as a result, many countries
have successfully adopted BIM (Jung & Lee, 2015). McGraw Hill conducted an extensive global
survey that tackled BIM evaluation and implementation around the globe since 2007 (McGraw Hill,
2014). Moreover, SmartMarket Report and NBS International Reports also revealed the status of global
BIM adoption. These annual surveys indicated that, as a result of global BIM adoption, varieties of
national-level BIM supported standards, strategies, guidelines and maturity levels, have been developed
over the years. The USA, UK, and Scandinavian countries were the foremost countries to develop these
national initiatives (RICS, 2017). Therefore, different maturity models and BIM supported
documentation has evolved along with BIM globalization.
3.5.1 BIM Maturity Models

Varieties of BIM maturity measurement and various maturity models have evolved, such as COBIT,
Control Objects for Information and related Technology, CMMI, Capability Maturity Model
Integration, CSCMM, Construction Supply Chain Maturity Model, P-CMM, and People Capability
Maturity Model, (Succer et al., 2017). These enable organisations to identify BIM improvement levels
through their performances. Among them, a BIM maturity model, developed by Mark Bew and Mervyn
Richards in the UK (see Figure 3.5) has been a useful diagram for the supply chain to identify what
they are expected to deliver and their required capabilities, while the client can comprehend what the
supply chain is offering (NBS, 2017). Moreover, any apprentice to BIM can easily assess their current
BIM adoption level by combining BIM dimensions (see section 3.1) with BIM levels 0, 1, 2, and 3
(Mordue, 2019).
Figure 3.5: UK BIM maturity model (Bew & Richards, 2008)
As illustrated in Figure 3.5, the construction industry has moved from the drawing board to the computer
and the digital age through different maturity levels. The different levels are understood as follows:
73
Level 0 - defined as unmanaged CAD, which is the starting point of the model. At this stage, there is
no collaboration between the project team and information is shared through traditional paper drawings
(NBS, 2017). Even though 3D visualizations can be used, 2D lies at the core of all documents; therefore,
quantities, cost estimates, and specifications are not linked with the model (Kjartansdóttir et al., 2017).
At this stage, no digital collaboration can be seen except for paper drawings, electronic prints, or a
mixture of both (McPartland, 2016).
Level 1 – a mixture of both 2D and 3D information using standards such as BS 1192:2007 with a
collaboration tool that develops a common data environment (CDE) (NIBS, 2017). Therefore, this is a
transition level between a paper-based environment into 2D and 3D with a focus on collaboration and
information sharing (RICS, 2014). Compared to level 0, level 1 has minor process changes, such as 3D
CAD use for concept work, although 2D is used for documentation and product information (RICS,
2014). However, data sharing is done electronically in CDE, and collaboration does not occur between
different disciplines (Kjartansdóttir et al., 2017).
Level 2 –different disciplines actively cooperate with others through a model-based collaboration
process (RICS, 2014). Besides, each discipline builds its model and shares information between
different disciplines where collaboration appears (Kjartansdóttir et al., 2017). Any CAD software, and
any discipline use should be capable of exporting to a common file format, such as IFC (Industry
Foundation Class) or COBie (Construction Operations Building Information Exchange). This enables
organisations to integrate data with their model and thereby use the information (NIBS, 2017).
Moreover, NBS developed a guide ISO 19650 that includes information on working at BIM Level 2
(Mordue, 2019).
Level 3 – the preparation of a rich, network-based, integrated model where everyone can depend upon
one model that is stored in the Cloud or another web service (Hengsberger, 2019). Models at this stage
are interdisciplinary nD models that allow for complex analysis from the early stages of the project (UK
Construction, 2018). Moreover, this will merge many strategies, such as Industrial Strategy –
Construction 2025, the Business and Professional Services Strategy 22, the Smart Cities Strategy 23,
and the Information Economy Strategy 24 (Mordue, 2019). However, level 3 is not yet fully defined
and unlikely to happen within the next 10 years (CIOB, 2019).
Succer (2009) investigated the need for a maturity model to assess and reported on significant variations
within service delivery and their underlying causes. Succer developed the BIM Maturity Index
(BIMMI), which reflected on the specifics of BIM technologies, processes, and policies as illustrated
in Figure 3.6.
Figure 3.6: BIM Maturity Index (BIMMI) (Succer, 2009)
74
This model consists of five stages:
1. Maturity Level a (Initial or Ad-hoc): the absence of a BIM adoption strategy, defined
policies and processes, but no collaboration among stakeholders.
2. Maturity Level b (Defined): BIM adoption is driven according to the vision of senior
managers, where most processes, policies, innovations, and opportunities are well documented.
3. Maturity Level c (Managed): BIM implementation strategy is developed with detailed action
plans after careful understanding of the BIM vision and its implementation by the majority of
staff.
4. Maturity Level d (Integrated): BIM implementation integrates into the organisational,
strategic, managerial, and communicative channels, at a stage where business opportunities
arise, modelling deliverables are well synchronized, BIM roles are defined, and BIM standards
and performance benchmarks are incorporated into quality management and performance
improvement systems.
5. Maturity Level e (Optimized): organisations are actively achieving their BIM vision.
Moreover, the BIM implementation strategy, software tools, and collaborative responsivities
are repetitively revisited to align with other strategies to ensure the best possible quality in
processes, products, and services (Succer, 2009).
Figure 3.7: Malaysian BIM maturity model (CIDB, 2016)
Figure 3.7 illustrates the Malaysian BIM maturity model and offers detailed explanation for each level.
Accordingly, the model is designed with four main stages including a defined process and timeline.
Accordingly, different maturity models are developed nationally to measure the BIM adoption status of
particular organisations and countries.
75
3.5.2 BIM Supported Documents
As BIM becomes widely accepted around the world, numerous BIM supported documents, such as
standards, handbooks, and guides are developed to support BIM adoption and to overcome the
challenges faced by the BIM adopters (Davies et al., 2017). These documents are developed
organisationally, nationally, and globally. Moreover, alongside continuous BIM development,
modifications and revisions have been added to some previously developed documents to cater to BIM
needs. Table 3.2 illustrates a summary of some global and nationally recognized BIM supported
documents.
Table 3.2: BIM Supported Documents
76
77
78
According to Table 3.2 different standards, guidelines, and handbooks have been published to support
BIM adoption both on a staged and a professional basis. For example, in the UK ISO 12006-2:2015
and BS 8541-1 were developed to support BIM levels 2 and 3, respectively. While ISO 12006-2:2015
addressed the classification of complaints, its implementation related to CESM4, NBS Create coding
and RICS New Rules of Measurement – NRM 1; BS 8541-1, which addressed the code of practice for
identification and classification. Similarly, RICS, in 2017, issued guidance notes for project managers
under ‘BIM For Project Managers’. Moreover, particular guidance notes and standards have been
developed for quantity surveyors, such as the International BIM Implementation Guide (2015), New
Rules of Measurement (2015), RICS Guidance Notes, BIM For Cost Managers: Requirements From
The BIM Model (2015), International Construction Measurement Standards (ICMS) (2017) and
Australia and New Zealand BIM Best Practice Guidelines (2018), to accelerate BIM adoption among
quantity surveyors through comprehensive guidance. These standards consist of a set of requirements
79
that need to help to achieve the core of a particular standard. For example, PAS 1192-2 consists of eight
core standards covering different areas. Most of the developed BIM documents evolved country-wise,
and the use of BIM surpassed national and geographic borders (CIOB, 2018). For example, standards
like PAS 1192 do not exist in the US where there are national CAD and BIM standards, thus they are
quite complex (Cicco, 2018). Therefore, BIM-globalization has inevitably driven the development of
norms and standards for international use.
Figure 3.8: The transition to international standards (CIOB, 2018)
As a result, in 2018, the International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO) published BS EN ISO
19650-1 and BS EN ISO 19650-2 (UK codes) (see Table 3.2 for more info) (Kosandiak & Philp, 2018).
Fundamentally, BS EN ISO 19650 parts 1 and 2 are based on the UK’s standards, such as BS1192 and
PAS1192-2 (see Table 3.2 and Figure 3.8) and consist of BIM level 2 principles and high-level
requirements for BIM adoption (SFT, 2019).
This collaborative approach would benefit all nations in strengthening their BIM adoption through a
security-minded approach (Kosandiak & Philp, 2018). However, there are some changes between
ISO19650 and the previously developed standards in terms of terminology and language. For example,
ISO19650 uses the term ‘exchange information requirements’ whereas the UK equivalent is
‘employer’s information requirements. Moreover, changes can also be seen in Lifecycle Information
Principles, Information Management Process – Delivery Phase, and BIM Maturity (ISO, 2019).
Therefore, in 2019 PD 19650-0: 2019 was developed to help users of the ISO19650 by explaining the
changes and differences of ISO19650 (Pollok, 2019). Nevertheless, this standard will benefit countries
that are already working at BIM level 2; thus, those who are brand new to BIM are not targeted in the
preparation of SO19650 (BSI, 2018). This indicates that different countries are at different stages of
BIM adoption. Therefore, the next section will describe the current status of BIM adoption around the
globe.
80
3.6 BIM Adoption Trends Around The Globe
Literature indicates that BIM initially emerged in the USA, thus the United States has been a global
leader in BIM adoption. In 2003, the General Service Administration (GSA) developed a 3D-4D-BIM
Program to promote policies to mandate BIM adoption for all Public Buildings Service (PBS)
(Kehmlani, 2012). Moreover, mandates were developed in association with BIM vendors, other federal
agencies, professional associations, open standard organisations, and academic and research institutions
(AEC, 2018). Unlike the UK, in the USA there was no visible government push, and, to date, no
mandates have been issued by the US government to support BIM adoption (Paul, 2018). However,
according to Pollok (2018), the US is unlikely to see a government mandate soon. Nonetheless, many
government departments have developed guidelines and internationally recognized guidelines and
standards include a national BIM standard (Smith, 2014) (see Table 3.2). However, as these standards
are developed individually, none are interconnected (McAuley et al., 2017). However, Wisconsin was
the first US state to mandate BIM on publicly funded projects with budgets of over $5 million (Cicco,
2018). Besides, in 2018, Los Angeles Community College District (LACCD) setup a BIM mandate for
its $9.5 billion construction and renovation project across nine of its campuses (Pollok, 2018). A recent
figure indicated that almost 75% of construction-related organisations have utilized BIM and are
experiencing significant benefits from its deployment (Singh, 2018). According to Pathak (2019), the
US reported a 21.6% annual BIM growth rate between 2016 and 2019, and this is expected to increase.
UK adopted BIM through a clear national strategy and government support (Singh, 2017). From the
starting point of the US National 3D-4D-BIM Program, the UK took further steps to make BIM
‘business as usual’ by developing a framework for maturity (See Figure 3.4) with UK BIM Level 2
(Cicco, 2018). The strategy focused on four sections, such as leadership, vision, collaborative
framework, and client and industry capability and capacity, and aimed to increase the productivity of
the UK construction industry by 2025 through successful BIM implementation and collaboration
through technology (Gov.uk, 2016; National BIM report, 2017). According to Mordue (2019), the UK
government adopted a ‘push-pull’ strategy in promoting BIM adoption. However, the progress of BIM
adoption was relatively slow in the UK until the UK government’s BIM Task Group released its BIM
Policy in May 2011 (RICS, 2015). The BIM task group is a national digital BIM program that evolved
in the UK (NBC, 2018). Besides, the UK government also introduced the Government Soft Landings
(GSL) concept by mandating BIM level 2 (See Figure 3.5) BIM for all the public projects from 2016
(Paul, 2018). With this, all central government-funded projects need to execute ‘fully collaborative 3D
BIM’ (Kocakaya et al., 2019). Thus, since 2016, contractors have had to fulfill BIM Level 2 compliance
in order to secure any government project. Therefore, according to Pollok (2018), the UK has the most
striving and radical BIM strategy in the world and aims to accelerate BIM adoption among UK
designers, contractors, quantity surveyors, and so forth. Moreover, the UK developed various BIM
standards (See Table 3.2) to support BIM adoption over time. Therefore, the UK is capable of taking a
global leadership role in BIM exploitation, BIM service provision, and BIM standards development
(Pathak, 2019).
81
Figure 3.9: UK BIM adoption 2011-2020
A recent survey conducted by NBS (2020) revealed that 73% of the industry is now aware and has
adopted BIM (Figure 3.9), which is 60% higher than 2011 when the initiative started. NBS's (2016)
report revealed that a considerable number of QS organisations are working at BIM level 2; thus,
compared to other professions BIM adoption among QS’s still lag (Marsh, 2017). Nevertheless, at the
moment, BIM has become an important factor in small, medium, and large construction-related
organisations, and at every stage of projects in the UK (Boutle, 2020). Thereby, BIM is no longer
limited to large practices or more complex projects, but is now widespread (Paul, 2018). Therefore, the
UK's next step is to move towards BIM level 3 (See Figure 3.5), which will cover the entire building
life cycle (Bew, 2019) through full collaboration (as discussed in section 3.5.1). In level 3 BIM, the UK
construction industry expects to achieve boosts in productivity, increased data handling, a greater role
for smaller markets, higher quality, and improved clash detection (UK Construction, 2018). Besides,
transformation to level 3 requires advanced work standardization, the creation of commercial models,
and the identification of technologies that will result in a completely digital economy for the built
environment (Hazem, 2019). Nevertheless, Mordue (2019) suggests that this will not be possible for at
least ten years. Thus, the UK is working towards BIM level 3.
Ireland achieved BIM transformation through a BIM adoption strategy that was introduced by the Irish
government in 2017 with Vision 2020, which aimed to support BIM implementation throughout the
project life cycle via established government policies (NBS, 2020). Accordingly, Irish government
policies were: cost certainty at the tender award stage, better value for money (vfm), and more efficient
delivery of public works projects (Ismail, 2018). The strategy mainly consists of action 68 and 69 to
implement level 2 BIM and work with industry organisations to promote BIM (GCCC, 2017).
Moreover, the NBC Roadmap 2018-2021 (see Figure 3.10) offers guidance on how the industry can
integrate BIM between 2018 and 2021 (NBC, 2018). The policies of the roadmap are: 20% reduction
in project delivery program, 20% increase in construction exports, and 20% reduction in capital costs.
Similar to the UK, the Irish government is expected to mandate the public use of BIM in the near future
for the following reasons:
1. To ensure that public bodies invest the necessary resources to adopt BIM in line with the
strategy;
2. To impose standards for delivery across the public sector.
82
As a member of the European Union, Ireland is using international standards, such as EN ISO 19650
series (Lynam, 2018). However, recent figures indicated that 76% of Ireland construction practitioners
are aware of and using BIM, whereas 24% are not (NBS, 2019). The survey results are similar to the
UK figures, and Ireland is expecting nine out of ten construction practitioners to adopt BIM within the
next five years (Archer, 2019). Besides, more than 60% of QS firms have already adopted BIM and
50% are carrying out model-based quantity take-offs (RICS, 2017). Among them 55% of QSs are
working to achieve BIM level 2 within the next few years (CITA, 2019).
Figure 3.10: NBC Roadmap to 2021 (NBC, 2018)
In Europe most of the countries have adopted BIM through open BIM standards and mandates, BIM
mandates for public construction, or through active programs goal-setting by future mandates (Figure
3.11). With the establishment of the EU BIM task group, EU level BIM took a promising step forward.
The aim is “to deliver a common European network aimed at aligning the use of Building Information
Modelling in public works”, by bringing together national efforts into a common aligned European
approach (EU BIM Task Group, 2018). As a result, the EU BIM Task Group published their handbook
2017 in, which aimed to support national-level BIM policy development and to address issues in BIM
adaptation (Magi CAD, 2018). Moreover, as a consequence of BIM use, national digital programs
evolved across the EU, as illustrated in Table 3.3, to support BIM adoption through developed
strategies, standards, and guidelines.
83
Table 3.3: Rapidly evolved national BIM digital programs in the EU (NBC, 2018)
However, in terms of BIM adoption, EU different countries are at different stages. Among them Austria
and Norway are the first countries to launch open BIM standards and an open BIM mandate, requiring
level 3 BIM on public projects (Berger, 2017). Other Nordic countries, France and Russia have also
developed targeted level 2 BIM mandates and are preparing to move to level 3 BIM through different
schedules (Ali, 2019). Considering the current growth of BIM, many other countries have recently
introduced BIM programs with a view to eventually establishing a BIM mandate (McAuley et al., 2017).
Accordingly, Italy has introduced an action plan to mandate BIM for public sector projects exceeding
100 million EUR from 2019, and to fully implement BIM for all public procurement projects from 2022
(Paul, 2018). However, this mandate does not apply to smaller projects such as residential work.
Germany, Spain, and the Czech Republic have different BIM programs and are expected to establish
BIM mandates in a few years (EU BIM, 2018). In Germany, BIM adoption grew with the number of
BIM events organized on a weekly basis throughout Germany; among them, were events organized by
buildingSMART Germany and BIM World, which attracted by many industry practitioners (May,
2020). With increased BIM awareness, 90% of project owners have been requesting BIM, and as a
result, in 2015, the German government announced a digital building platform that was developed by
the German BIM task group in association with industry-related organisations to develop a national
BIM strategy (Steinmann, 2018). Accordingly, the government emphasized the “standardizing of
process and device descriptions, develop[ing] guidelines for digital planning methods, and provid[ing]
sample contracts” (Paul, 2018). However, experts believed that BIM implementation through a national
BIM mandate would be difficult to achieve across 16 autonomous or semi-autonomous states and local
authorities (Biblus, 2018). Nevertheless, the government’s roadmap consists of three phases (see Figure
3.12). With government involvement, a number of BIM pilot projects have been executed, the Berlin
BIM Competence Center has been established, and there are recent attempts to develop the first German
BIM standard (Dobrindt, 2017). Moreover, the government is set to mandate BIM use for public
infrastructure projects by 2020 by achieving the third phase of the strategy (May, 2020).
84
Figure 3.11: BIM adoption in Europe (CITA, 2017)
Figure 3.12 German Road Map (MagiCad, 2018)
In 2012, the Netherlands introduced BIM to their infrastructure projects (ECS, 2016). Even though they
have not published any official BIM mandate, Netherland has one of the highest rates of BIM adoption
countries in the world and almost 60% of projects are BIM-based construction (Dekker, 2018). The
country has formulated different standards to support BIM (see Table 3.2). However, according to Lekx
85
(2018), the only government publication relating to BIM adoption is the RVB BIM norm, which does
not provide any requirements. He also emphasized that the absence of government mandate has not
prevented Netherlands companies from adopting BIM; thus, they have developed their strategies to
support BIM adoption. Nevertheless, government agencies are working with a future vision of shortly
introducing open BIM standards to all infrastructure projects (ECSO, 2019).
According to Figure 3.11, Spain introduced BIM in 2015 and established a BIM commission to develop
a strategy for BIM adoption (Azzouz, 2018). According to the developed BIM adoption strategy, the
use of BIM was mandated for public construction projects in 2018 and for public infrastructure projects
in 2019 (Papadonikolaki, 2018). BIM was introduced in Denmark in 2012, and since then its adoption
has accelerated through standards and classification systems that set the criteria for cross-disciplinary
projects to flourish by semi-government bodies (Paul, 2018). Like most EU countries, the Danish
government also provides stronger support for BIM adoption with mandated BIM use for all the projects
from 2022 (Singh, 2019). In Austria, there is no government strategy for BIM adoption; thus, the
Austrian Standard Institute (ASI) acts as the main responsible body for its adoption. However, in 2015
they adopted BIM through open BIM standards (See Table 3.2), which were developed by the ASI.
However, these are just technical standards and there are no specific legal guidelines to date (Weselik,
2018). Nevertheless, Kompolschek (2017) stated that BIM would be mandatory for all the Austrian
public projects from 2018; however, there is no official documentation that determined whether BIM
has been mandated in Austria.
Finland started working on BIM in 2002, and in 2007 the Confederation of Finnish Construction
Industries mandated that all software packages should pass the Industry Foundation Class (IFC)
Certification (McAuley et al., 2016). In 2010, and due to on-going pressure from the industry, a set of
national BIM guidelines was published entitled the Common National Requirements for Building
Information Modelling (COBIM) for R&D projects (see Table 3.2) (EC, 2016). Currently, Finland has
focused on developing an international standard for BIM to improve information management
efficiency by 50% (BICP, 2017). As a result, the government developed BIM Roadmap 2030 (Figure
3.13) with a series of annual steps to achieve until 2030.
Figure 3.13: Finnish Roadmap 2030 (MagiCAD, 2019)
France is also among the leading BIM adopters in the EU. The government encouraged BIM use for a
housing development project in 2017 (Dekker, 2019). However, the adoption of BIM is not mandatory
in France. The government in 2017, which provided plans for educational kits, released a BIM
standardisation roadmap; it meant that France took a leading position on this in the EU (BICP, 2017).
Plan BIM 2022 was launched at the end of 2018, which encouraged construction stakeholders to
86
introduce BIM within their daily work (Paul, 2018). Switzerland, Belgium, and Portugal have no
planned BIM mandate to date; however, this does not indicate whether BIM is active in those countries.
Thus BIM is actively promoted through organisations and initiatives (Keinonen, 2018). Accordingly,
the majority of EU countries have adopted BIM through strategies, roadmaps, frameworks, standards,
and guidelines developed nationally or internationally.
In Australia, BIM adoption accelerated between 2012 and 2018, and its recently estimated value
indicated that BIM adoption in 2025 would increase Australian GDP growth by an additional 5 bps
(Biblus, 2018). The main push for BIM has come from the Federal Government and various state
government departments, professional bodies, and BIM-related organisations. The state and federal
government has issued a series of long terms plans to accelerate BIM adoption. Accordingly, in 2016
BIM use became compulsory for government-funded infrastructure projects exceeding $50million in
costs (Morrissey, 2019). Besides, the NSW government mandated BIM use for Sydney Metro
Northwest (Consult Australia, 2016). Australian government departments also play an important role
in developing processes and strategies for BIM adoption; however, due to the absence of a nationally
developed strategy, supply chains face difficulties in understanding the various approaches, processes,
and information requirements for each department and state (Paul, 2018). Moreover, Australian clients
are seeking UK support to develop a methodology to measure the level of maturity (Jupp, 2018). In
addition, buildingSmart plays a leading role in BIM adoption by establishing an open BIM alliance for
Australian software vendors in the promotion of open BIM concepts (BICP, 2017). Moreover,
buildingSMART launched BIMcreds in 2017 for BIM practitioners to demonstrate their capabilities
(ABSF, 2017). Furthermore, different departments and organisations, such as NATSPEC, CRC-C1,
ANZRS, and BIM-MEPAUS, have developed a series of standards and guidelines (see Table 3.2) to
enhance BIM adoption, although PAS1192-2 is a widely used standard (Singh, 2017). Besides, ACIF
is a BIM forum established in Australia to facilitate and support an active dialogue between the main
actors in residential and non-residential construction, engineering construction, industry groups, and
government agencies. They support the development of several resources, such as BIM protocols,
standards, digitization and contracting (Biblus, 2018). Furthermore, the Australian BIM Advisory
Board (ABAB) was established to develop working methods and BIM standards at a national level
(Green, 2018). Their vision is for improved productivity and asset outcomes and a Strategy to take
leadership and a coordinating role in the consistent adoption of BIM including its associated integration
and collaborative processes. To accomplish this strategy ABAB developed the Australian BIM strategic
framework, which was designed for use across Australia (ABAB, 2018). Moreover, the development
of the Australian and New Zealand BIM Best Practice Guidelines for QS’s in 2018 (see Table 3.2)
indicates increased BIM adoption among Australian QS’s (NZIQS, 2018).
In Singapore, BIM adoption is widespread as the result of a roadmap that was developed by the Building
and Construction Authority (BCA) with the aim that 80% of construction professionals would adopt
BIM (BCA, 2016). Furthermore, building codes, regulations, and circulars have been published by
various building and construction regulatory agencies (Paul, 2018). Among them, CORNET, published
by BCA in 2012 and 2013, enhanced the implementation of the world’s first BIM electronic submission
(Phang et al., 2020). Thus, in 2015, in Singapore, BIM e-submission was mandated for all construction
projects greater than 5,000 sqm (Kaneta et al., 2016). Moreover, BCA established a BIM fund to fulfil
the cost of training, consultancy, hardware, and collaboration software by accelerating BIM adoption
among practitioners (Ismail, 2018). Moreover, buildingSMART Singapore, a leading BIM-based
organisation, has developed BIM supported guidelines and a library of building and design objects.
Going forward, BCA has implemented a phased voluntary and mandatory submission and processed
construction documents in a native BIM format (Fatt, 2017).
87
In Hong Kong, the Housing Authority is the earliest BIM adopter amongst the public entities (Ho,
2019). Nevertheless, the Construction Industry Council (CIC, 2018) developed a roadmap and
established a BIM task group to develop BIM standards. The developed roadmap reflects both the push
(to advocate the adoption of BIM amongst project clients and asset owners) and pull (to facilitate
industry-wide buy-in and industry-wide ready) strategies (CIC, 2019). In 2018, Hong Kong mandated
BIM use in projects that exceeded $30 million (Hui, 2019). A recent survey conducted by the CIC
(2019) indicated that almost 44% of construction companies have adopted BIM in Hong Kong. Along
with the BIM mandate, different standards and guidelines (see Table 3.2) were published by various
BIM-related organisations. Moreover, to further enhance BIM adoption, the CIC has launched BIM
initiatives, such as promotion & training, the certification of BIM managers/professionals, and BIM
competitions (BSBG, 2019).
China is considered a developing country in the Asian region and started its BIM application relatively
late compared to most developed countries (Liu et al., 2017). Until 2015, BIM application in China was
limited to design phases due to the absence of a government BIM mandate (BSBG, 2019). However,
from 2016 onwards, the Chinese government has become the major force in terms of promoting BIM
in the country (Zhang et al., 2016). Accordingly, the Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural
Development issued guidelines to increase BIM adoption by 90% by 2020 (Paul, 2018). However, it is
not mandatory; therefore, Herr and Fischer (2019) identified the current status of government support
at the level of encouragement due to the lack of introduction to BIM-oriented standards and regulations.
Several standards have been issued (see Table 3.2) to support Chinese BIM adoption; however, the
establishment of BSA (after recognizing China as an international authority of organisation for BIM
standardization by buildingSMART) reinforced the capability to integrate Chinese BIM standards with
advanced countries’ BIM standards (Liu et al., 2017). Nevertheless, most standards have developed
provincially but no nation-wide standards are yet available (Biblus, 2019). Nonetheless, to promote
BIM adoption initiatives such as national forums, BIM themed seminars, BIM building design
competitions, and BIM senior training classes have been held successfully (Singh, 2018).
In Vietnam, the Ministry of Construction, the Institute of Construction Economies (ICE) and the
standing agency of a BIM Steering Committee mainly drive BIM implementation (Ismail et al., 2017).
Accordingly, ICE has developed a BIM framework by aiming to deliver all public projects at level 2 by
2021 (Bui, 2018). The framework is designed in three phases (Figure 3.14), whih are defined as
follows:
1. The first phase (2017-2019) aims to raise awareness and encourage companies to explore BIM
implementation.
2. The second phase (2018-2020) will implement and evaluate BIM in pilot projects.
3. The third phase (from 2021 onwards) involves a nationwide BIM roll-out (Nicolson, 2017)
88
Figure 3.14: BIM Implementation Framework, Vietnam (ICE, 2015)
So far, the framework has been officially implemented through a series of forums, formulating
temporary BIM guidelines, and developing standards, a strategy, and a roadmap. To increase BIM
awareness, the BIM Steering Committee has launched an official website (www.bim.gov.vn) and
several workshops and conferences have been held across Vietnam (BSBG, 2019). Moreover, the
government has created new guidelines to incorporate BIM into university curricula; as a result, many
universities, such as Hanoi Architecture, have already started BIM-based construction courses (Nguyen
et al., 2018). Nevertheless, the Vietnam government is still required to play an important role in BIM
implementation through the establishment of a vision, and developing standards, guidelines, and
contract forms to cover different aspects of construction, such as design approval, quantity take-off,
cost estimation, and so forth (Matthews & Ta, 2020). Additionally, media use in promoting BIM
activities also can be seen in Vietnam; accordingly, seminars, conferences, and BIM documentaries are
broadcast on television channels to increase BIM awareness (Ha-Minh et al., 2020). Besides, a BIM
academic forum has been established to deliver BIM training courses, create a sustainable network,
create effective and efficient communication between stakeholders and to promote social criticism and
support in policies (Vy, 2017).
In Malaysia, the Construction Industry Development Board (CIDB), BIM Steering Committee, and
MyBIM are the leading acting BIM implementation organisations (Ismail et al., 2017). As illustrated in
Figure 3.15, CIDB has undertaken several initiatives to adopt and promote BIM within the Malaysian
context (Al-Ashmori et al., 2019). According to CIDB (2019), recent BIM adoption in Malaysia has
been driven by the Construction Industry Transformation Programme’s (CITP) 2016-2020 Agenda to
transform the Malaysian construction industry to become a more productive, sustainable, and
competitive region through the use of BIM. According to Figure 3.16, the BIM adoption rate in 2017
was 33% (CIDB, 2017). However, CITP aims to achieve stage 2 BIM (according to Malaysian BIM
maturity, see Figure 3.7) by 2020 with a minimum 40% BIM implementation rate (Roslan et al., 2019).
As illustrated in Figure 3.15, CIDB has organized various BIM-related programs, such as National BIM
day, BIM road tour, and so forth, to accelerate BIM adoption. Besides, the BIM guides (see Table 3.2)
provide further guidelines for BIM adoption and reflect the different stages in Malaysian BIM maturity
(CIDB, 2018). Moreover, in 2014 together with BIM steering committee CIDB further developed seven
pillar roadmap with focused to seven pillars such as Standard and Accreditation (P1), Collaboration and
Incentives (P2), Education and Awareness (P3), National BIM Library (P4), BIM Guidelines and Legal
Issues (P5), Special Interest Group (P6) and Research and Development (P7) to motivate construction
stakeholders to adopt BIM (Mohammad et al 2018).
89
Figure 3.15: CIDB BIM initiatives (Al-Ashmori et al., 2019)
Figure 3.16: Malaysian BIM adoption rate (CIDB, 2017)
In 2020, the CIDB is expecting to introduce the Fourth Industrial Revolution 4.0 (IR 4.0) roadmap,
which covers five years from 2020 (Amiruddin, 2019). This roadmap aims to provide clear direction
for industry stakeholders and promote a modernized future through BIM programmes such as cloud-
based integration, which is geared to level 3 BIM adoption (Ahmed, 2019). Besides, as a part of this
roadmap, local authorities are expected to use BIM in the initial submission stage by 2021 (Ikhsan,
90
2019). The Malaysian government has also planned to run pilot projects in 2020 to promote BIM
eSubmission (Bernama, 2019). According to Sharifuddin (2019), Malaysia BIM adoption stands at 17%
compared to 71% in the US, 73% in the UK and 39% in Singapore. Therefore, the ministry is expecting
to increase BIM adoption by 30% by the end of 2020. Sharifuddin (2019) further added that the
government might shortly consider mandating BIM for all public and private projects.
Indian construction is worth around $1.8 trillion and is the third-highest construction market in the
world (NIBT, 2018). According to Mishra (2019), India requires fast BIM adoption, although it seems
relatively slow compared to other BIM using countries. Even though BIM can be employed in almost
all stages in the construction life cycle, in India BIM adoption is still limited to the design phase (Singh,
2018). This indicates that it is more popular among Indian architects than other stakeholders in the
industry. However, the Nagpur Metro Rail project provides evidence of the successful application of
5D BIM technology, which goes beyond the design phase of BIM adoption (Nehru, 2018). India’s BIM
Association (IBIMA) and Zigurat are the most active organisations in terms of BIM adoption in the
Indian context. They have organized a range of events, such as the Indian BIM tour 2019, seminars,
workshops, and a BIM summit to increase adoption through increased awareness (IBMA, 2019). A
survey conducted by IBMA (2019) found that BIM-based construction is only undertaken in a few
locations (see Figure 3.17), thus allocation is limited to mega-scale projects.
Figure 3.17: Details of India’s high-profile BIM projects (Amaranth, 2019)
According to Amarnath CB, founder of the India BIM Association, “We have about 30-40K people
who are using BIM for projects, but most of the people providing these services are for the global
markets. There are very few who are providing services for Indian projects” (Amaranth, 2019).
Moreover, a variety of BIM services, such as 3D BIM Services, Scan to BIM services, Drawing
Production, Virtual Reality, 4D Construction sequencing, 5D Cost Integration, and Facility
Management, have been outsourced to many Indian companies, such as general contractors, design
consultants, architects and developers, including WIPRO, and TATA, from overseas (Zigurat, 2018).
According to the BIM Community (2019), this makes India a major destination for BIM outsourcing
or work-sharing for global countries. Nevertheless, the recent initiatives developed by the Indian
government, such as Make in India, have enhanced BIM growth in the construction industry (Paul,
91
2018). Even though the public sector has mandated the use of BIM for a few selected projects, the
government’s BIM mandate has not yet been initiated (Datta, 2018; The Hindu, 2019). Therefore,
Amaranth (2019) stated the government should publish a BIM mandate, or at least mandate BIM
adoption for all mega projects. However, at the moment, Zigurat and the India BIM Association are in
the process of developing national BIM standards and guidelines for future use (Demian, 2019).
In Pakistan, BIM adoption is at a lower level compared to other developing and developed countries.
Like India, most architects have adopted BIM, but there appears to be relatively low BIM adoption
among other professionals. A recent study conducted by Akdag and Maqsood (2019), revealed that
BIM adoption in Karachi, which is the capital city of Pakistan, is higher than the rest of Pakistan. The
study further revealed that firms, such as Ahmed Associates and Khatri Associates, were found to be
shifting to BIM and utilizing its applications, like 3D coordination, lighting analysis, design review,
and 4D Scheduling (Akdag & Maqsood, 2019). Moreover, Ali, Khan, and Maqsoom (2018) identified
that BIM adoption is limited to large-scale, foreign-funded projects. Nevertheless, the Pakistan BIM
Council is the leading organisation for BIM implementation, and its vision is to reduce construction
costs by 40% through BIM implementation (PBC, 2019). To accomplish the vision, they have
established a mission by covering six areas, namely Awareness & Implementation, Standardization of
BIM, Establishment & Support, Education & Trainings, Certifications & Evaluations, and Projects &
Support. As a result, some universities have started teaching and discussing BIM within their AEC
courses; however, due to the absence of nationally developed standards they are focusing on
internationally developed standards and protocols (Ismail et al., 2017). Nevertheless, according to
Bhatti et al. (2018) many AEC industry stakeholders have raised the importance of a BIM mandate,
although the Pakistani government is still unable to develop this for their construction industry.
Compared to other developing countries, in Thailand, BIM adoption is at a higher level. The Association
of Siamese Architects (ASA) is one of the leaders in BIM adoption in Thailand, and in 2015, they
drafted the first BIM standards and guidelines in Thai (Ongprasert & Parichatrkanont, 2019). As
illustrated in Figure 3.18, BIM adoption in Thailand has increased gradually with the standards
developed over time. Accordingly, BIM guide 1, BIM guide 2, and COET-EIT were developed in 2017,
2019, and 2020, respectively. Besides, the establishment of a BIM club in 2018 and the Thai BIM
association in 2019 also accelerated its adoption among Thailand’s industry professionals.
TBIM consists of various AEC industry professionals and the aim of the association is to promote BIM
through defined standards, guidelines and manuals (TBIM, 2019). As a result, BIM’s working standard
committee has been established to develop various standards and guidelines to support BIM adoption.
Accordingly, TBIM is expecting to implement developed standards by 2020 (Ngowtanasuwan, 2019).
Besides, TBIM was expecting to organise Thai BIM-Expo 2020 for September (Bangkok post, 2020).
Moreover, SCG, FTI, and TBIM have recently entered a “Memorandum of Understanding on
Thailand’s BIM Object Standard”. The aim is to develop internationally recognized BIM standards;
this step further enhances and extends BIM development in the Thai construction sector. As part of the
program, they have launched a website (www.biminone.com) which serves as a BIM library platform
by providing a range of BIM object data on building materials and products for users to download and
create BIM models (SCG, 2020). In addition, several software distributors, BIM academies (such as
MTech) and BIM-based organisations have arranged conferences and workshops to promote BIM
concepts. For example, MTech provides BIM software training in Bangkok while the BIM academy
provides additional support to achieve level 2 BIM (Worthington, 2018). Thereby, most AEC firms
92
have successfully implemented BIM in their construction projects (Kamolwatcharachai, 2017).
However, so far government BIM mandates have not been issued to make the use of BIM mandatory.
Figure 3.18: BIM movement in Thailand (Yomnak, 2020)
Nepal is lagging behind in BIM adoption; to date, no projects have been completed with the use of BIM
tools (Karki, 2019). Although the AEC industry in Nepal has many reasons to adopt BIM, the country
is not in the process of doing so. The majority of construction practitioners are unaware of BIM and the
government has no intention to promote BIM adoption. Recently, Nepal’s Building Information
Modelling Forum (NBIMF) was established in Aalto University Finland, by a group of Nepalese BIM
enthusiasts (Jaiswal, 2019) with a vision to implement BIM infrastructure projects in the Nepalese AEC
industry. Therefore, RISE was developed to educate Nepalese AEC industry professionals about BIM
by focusing on four main areas: BIM Research, Implementation, Standardization, and BIM Education
(Suwal, 2019). Within a short period, they have organized weekly, monthly and annual events, such as
conferences (Yakami, 2019). Moreover, NBIMF also worked closely with Nepalese BIM professionals
to discuss digital construction solutions that could apply to the Nepalese AEC industry (Oli, 2019).
Very little information is available on BIM adoption in Myanmar. Even though the country has not
adopted BIM, most Myanmar BIM practitioners work in Singapore BIM (Win, 2018). Even though,
BIM adoption is not visible in the Myanmar construction industry, like in India some organisations
(such as Silicon Valley) are demonstrating BIM outsourcing services covering different BIM areas such
as 3D, 4D, and 5D, to various international clients (Silicon Valley, 2018). Nevertheless, BIM adoption
mandates, standards or guidelines have not been developed by the Myanmar government and
construction-related organisations (Ismail et al., 2017). Moreover, in Bhutan, a similar situation is
reported. Although the Construction Development Board (CDB) was responsible for promoting BIM,
it has remained inactive on this area (CDB, 2019). Even though CDB developed strong links with India,
Singapore, Malaysia, and the Philippines between 2018 and 2019, BIM adoption in Bhutan is still
lagging (Kuensel, 2019).
93
Recent BIM studies conducted in Indonesia found that BIM growth remains at a lower level and thus
still stands at BIM level 1 (Hatmoko, 2019; Larasati et al., 2018; Telaga, 2017). However, the
Indonesian BIM forum (BIM PUPR) and Indonesian BIM Institute (IBIMI) are leading BIM
organisations in the Indonesian construction context. The vision of IBIMI is “Together, we ensure that
BIM implementation in Indonesia runs well” (IBIMI, 2018). They are in the process of developing BIM
friendly standards, protocols, training, and certification. Moreover, the PUPR BIM team has prepared
various BIM supported resources to enhance BIM adoption. Among them, the Indonesian BIM roadmap
was introduced in 2017, which consists of four main stages, namely adoption, digitalization,
collaboration, and integration (as illustrated in Figure 3.19). Accordingly, they have set up plans for
eight years from 2017, although both BIMPUPR and IBIMI are expecting to achieve this roadmap
within five years (BIMPUPR, 2017). These organisations further organise BIM workshops and
conferences to increase BIM awareness amongst construction practitioners regarding new standards
and policies. However, according to Larasati et al. (2018) there are currently no BIM regulations, such
as a mandate, in Indonesia.
Figure 3.19: Indonesian BIM Roadmap (BIMPUPR, 2017)
The above discussion illustrates that most of the successful BIM countries (both developed and
developing) have adopted BIM through nationally developed roadmaps, strategies, protocols, mandates,
and supporting standards. The countries that have not developed standards, roadmaps, and so forth are
lagging behind in terms of BIM adoption or at a lower level. Therefore, the next section identifies the
category in which Sri Lanka could be placed in terms of BIM adoption.
3.6.1 BIM Adoption Status In Sri Lanka
Studies conducted by many researchers have revealed that BIM adoption in Sri Lanka is at a lower
level, or at “Phase 0” on the Bew-Richards UK BIM Maturity Model (Epasinghe et al., 2018; Fernando,
2017; Gunasekara & Jayasena, 2013; Ismail et al., 2017; Jayasena & Weddikkara, 2012; Nagalingam
et al., 2013). Unlike many other countries, in Sri Lanka BIM adoption is not that popular among
architects. However, the findings of a recent survey conducted by Rathnayake et al. (2018), indicate
that a considerable number of QS organisations (33%) are using BIM-related software, such as CostX,
Revit, and CATO. This indicates that QS’s have become the BIM leaders in Sri Lanka. Moreover,
Rathnayake and Samir (2019) placed Sri Lanka at BIM level one, as most construction organisations
have now transferred to 3D practices. Nevertheless, only the BIMLab Network group (operated by the
University of Moratuwa) was noted as a BIM organisation in Sri Lanka. They are organizing monthly
94
and annual BIM events, such as workshops, conferences and symposiums, to increase BIM awareness
among industry practitioners. However, so far, no regulation, mandate, guidelines, or even BIM
roadmap or strategy have been deployed for BIM adoption in Sri Lanka (Siriwardene et al., 2018).
Thus, some educational organisations have started to introduce BIM within their AEC courses
(Punnyasoma et al., 2019). However, the majority are focusing on 5D applications rather than 3D or
4D. Therefore, it can be concluded that Sri Lankan BIM adoption is at a lower level compared to other
countries and its adoption is limited to only a few professionals in the industry.
Nevertheless, the level of BIM adoption varies from country to country, which is mainly due to various
drivers and barriers that accelerate and hinder BIM adoption (Hosseini et al., 2015; Ismail et al., 2017;
Saka 2019; Venkatachalam, 2017). These barriers or drivers could be similar or utterly different
between countries or professions. Therefore, the next section will establish a systematic review of the
literature for BIM adoption drivers and barriers.
3.7 The Drivers And Barriers to BIM Adoption
Section 3.5 revealed that many developed and developing countries have adopted BIM due to various
motivators or driving factors. In the meantime, the majority of both developed and developing countries
still find BIM adoption challenging due to various barriers. Accordingly, BIM adoption and non-
adoption depends upon drivers and barriers. Moreover, drivers accelerate the adoption of BIM, while
barriers hinder the acceptance of BIM. Therefore, to enable successful BIM adoption, it is vital to
identify these drivers and barriers. The following section will discuss the BIM drivers and barriers that
exist in the literature, from 2010 to 2020.
3.7.1 Drivers Of BIM Adoption

As defined by the Oxford Dictionary (2020), a driver is a force of someone (people) or something
(knowledge, conditions) that has the power to make things happen. However, Partner White Paper by
Microsoft (2009) offers a completely a different opinion: “A Driver is a brief statement that defines
clearly and specifically the desired business outcomes of the organisation along with the necessary
activities to reach them.” Nevertheless, for this study, drivers indicate ‘the factors which inspire the
adoption of BIM into the existing business process’. In the literature, several authors have identified
various drivers in different continuums. Table 3.4 summarises the drivers identified by different authors
in different countries over time.
Table 3.4 illustrates that several driving factors are identified both in developed and developing
countries. Some authors have grouped these factors into different categories, such as external, internal,
and so forth. By examining the range of factors, the researcher grouped similar factors under a
comprehensive heading and a more compact list of drivers were obtained.
95
Table 3.4: BIM drivers identified from the literature, from 2010 to 2020
96
97
98
99
3.7.1.1 Government Intervention (GI)
Successful BIM adoption can be determined through nationally driven leadership and coordination
(Smith, 2014; Won et al., 2013). As such, robust government intervention is vital for the development
and utilization of advanced technologies and processes (David & Steinmueller, 1994). Accordingly,
government intervention or government enforcement is identified as a key BIM driver for many
different countries in the BIM adoption process (Hardi & Pittard, 2015; NBS, 2019; Sawhney &
Singhal, 2013; Zhao et al., 2019). Gao et al. (2014) stated that government involvement could either be
direct or indirect and via various roles, such as project founder, financial sponsor, risk undertaker,
interest moderator, collaboration facilitator and process monitor. Consequently, governments in
different countries have taken various approaches to support BIM adoption. In many countries (USA,
UK, Singapore, etc) BIM adoption has been successful and accelerated through nationally developed
BIM mandates (Hosseini et al., 2016; NBS, 2019; Sawhney & Singhal, 2013). For example, with the
UK BIM Mandate in 2016, BIM adoption was accelerated from 51% to 75% (Rogers, 2017). Moreover,
GI can also be seen through the development of roadmaps (German, Finland, Singapore, Malaysia, see
section 3.5 for further detail), BIM strategies, and protocols (CIDB, 2018; MagiCAD, 2019; Steinmann,
2018). Besides, according to NBS (2015) and NBC (2018) some governments have established BIM
task groups (e.g. UK BIM task group, EU BIM task group) to aid BIM adoption in both the public and
private sector.
Literature also revealed that government legislation, such as BIM standards (see Table 3.2), BIM
guidelines, and government policies have also motivated BIM adoption among industry professionals
(CIC, 2013; Hamma-adama & Kouider, 2019; Ismail et al., 2017; Petrie, 2015). Most of these standards
or guidelines have been developed nationally, thus few have been developed for international use (e.g.
BS EN ISO 19650, see Table 3.2 for further detail) (CIC, 2013; Ismail et al., 2017; NBS 2019; Petrie,
2015). The development of policies for the public sector has ensured good practice amongst
construction stakeholders and afforded more confidence in adopting BIM (Eadie et al., 2013). It was
also found that governments, such as Brazil, have hosted international events like the Olympic games
2016 by enforcing local construction professionals to use BIM in the construction of Olympic stadiums
(Petrie, 2015). However, Kiani (2015) noted that some governments, such as Oman, have decreased the
cost of BIM software through GI. Notwithstanding, some governments, such as Singapore, have
introduced and mandated BIM-based e-submission for construction tenders (Sawhney & Singhal,
2013). Moreover, Rogers et al. (2015) and Ahn et al. (2016) found that government promotion, financial
support, and subsidy have been key drivers for the adoption of BIM amongst construction stakeholders.
Therefore, GI is identified as a key BIM driver in both developed and developing countries.
3.7.1.2 Professional Bodies Intervention (PBI)
According to Table 3.4, professional body involvement was found to be another key BIM driver for
many countries. Some governments were found to be the key BIM leader (UK, Hong Kong, Singapore);
however, for other countries, professional bodies, such as buildingSMART (Germany, Australia), BIM
Alliance (Australia), Australian BIM Advisory Board (ABAB), the Construction Industry Council
(CIC), and the Institute of Construction Economics (ICE), were found to be the key BIM leaders.
Nevertheless, countries where governments led BIM adoption (like the UK, Singapore) also
experienced involvement by professional bodies. The literature revealed that PBI differs between
countries. In some countries (such as Singapore, Hong Kong) preparing roadmaps, building codes,
regulations, and circulars, alongside establishing a BIM task group to develop BIM standards were
noted as key motivators in the adoption of BIM (BCA, 2016; BSBG, 2019; CIC, 2018; Hui, 2019;
Ismail, 2018; Paul, 2018; Zhao et al., 2019). In Singapore, the professional body, BCA, established a
100
BIM fund to fulfill the cost of training, consultancy, hardware, and collaboration software and thereby
accelerate BIM adoption among practitioners (Ismail, 2018; Zhao et al., 2019). Moreover, PBI also can
be seen through the development of BIM initiatives, BIM mandates, and the development of BIM
orientated standards and national BIM guides (such as NATSPEC) (BCIS 2011; NATSPEC, 2011).
Besides, to increase BIM awareness among construction professionals, professional bodies have
organised promotion and training programs, the certification of BIM managers/professionals, BIM
competitions (BSBG, 2019; Worthington, 2018), the launch of official websites, workshops,
conferences, seminars, BIM summits, National BIM days, and BIM road tours, (CIDB, 2018; IBMA,
2019). Furthermore, the establishment of a BIM club and BIM associations or committees (e.g. BIM
working standing committee Thailand) with involvement by professional bodies has also been an
influential factor in the adoption of BIM (Ngowtanasuwan, 2019; TBIM, 2019). PBI can also be seen
through the support for software vendors to promote an open BIM concept (BICP, 2017). According to
the above factors, professional bodies play an important role in promoting BIM in various ways.
Therefore, in developed and developing countries PBI is identified as a key BIM driver to motivate
industry stakeholders to adopt BIM.
3.7.1.3 Client Demand (CD)
The role of the client has been recognized as critical for BIM adoption (Azhar, 2011; Lee & Yu, 2015;
Smith, 2014; Takim et al,. 2013). Therefore, clients have been recommended to act as “innovation
supporters” (Nam & Tatum, 1997), “change agents” (Haugbølle et al., 2015), and “innovation
champions” (Kulatunga et al., 2011) to enable systematic innovation. Clients can be from the private or
public sector. In their report, NBS (2018) referred to organisations as clients. As illustrated in Table
3.4, client demand was found to be a key BIM driver for developed and developing countries (Ali,
2019; Babatunde et al., 2020; Bosch-Sijtsema et al., 2017; Eadie et al., 2013; Enegbuma et al., 2015;
Hosseini et al., 2016; NBS, 2019; Osman et al., 2015; Papadonikolaki, 2017; Saleh 2015).
Papadonikolaki (2017) identified client demand as one of the external pressures aside from the push
from government and professional bodies. In some countries, clients have mandated the use of BIM
within their construction projects (NBS, 2015). Moreover, some clients have decided to fully embed
BIM in their workflows and deliver it as standard for all types of project (NBS, 2019). In addition, some
clients intend to demonstrate BIM benefits, whereas others intended to include them in their project
briefs (Baln, 2019).
As illustrated in Figure 3.20, many clients have repeatedly used BIM, especially in the public sector.
Similarly, in the private sector clients have also applied BIM, although the majority are for one-off
clients (NBS, 2020). Therefore, clients and the client role represent a key driver in the adoption of BIM
for many countries.
101
Figure 3.20: BIM adoption by different types of clients (NBS, 2020)
3.7.1.4 BIM Benefits (BB)
Literature also indicated BB as another key driver for BIM adoption (Table 3.4) (Ahn et al., 2016; NBS,
2015; NBS, 2019; Wong et al., 2011). These benefits vary between professions as well as
organisationally. It was revealed that many organisations have adopted BIM due to the general benefits
it offers, such as cost and time savings, increases in profit, increases in competitiveness, technical
development, competitive advantage to the company, and expected increases in process efficiency and
project delivery (Ali, 2019; Bosch-Sijtsema et al., 2017; Chandra et al., 2017; Hamma-adama &
Kouider, 2019; Hosseini et al., 2016; Musa et al., 2016; Saleh, 2015). Besides, from a QS perspective,
the key drivers in the adoption of BIM also included: clash detection, improved visualisation, the
creation of 2D drawings for take-off, onscreen 3D BIM QTO, automated 3D BIM QTO 5D BIM with
live costing, plans, increased speed and measurement accuracy, better information, better coordination,
improved sustainability, and the ability to create accurate cost estimates (CIDB, 2016; Musa et al.,
2016; RICS, 2017; Shen et al., 2016) (see section 3.3 for further details). In addition, the following are
also highlighted as key BB in the literature: the production of models and drawings for construction
and fabrication, integrating model management tools with enterprise systems to share data, the high
accuracy of model-based documentation, data sharing and access to BIM platforms, development of
virtual design; increased off-site pre-fabrication requiring coordination and information flow, faster
construction cycles, clash detection, fewer construction surprises, reduced wastage, increased accuracy
of the end product, improved project monitoring and change management, improved project
documentation, BIM awareness and government support, streamlining design activities and improving
design quality (Babatunde et al., 2020; Jagadeesh & Jagadisan, 2019; LIAO & TEO, 2017; Sawhney,
2014; Sawhney & Singhal, 2013; Wilis et al., 2017). Therefore, it can be concluded that many
organisations and professionals have adopted BIM by considering its benefits, which include
improvements to their workflow. Therefore, BB are identified as key BIM drivers in both developed
and developing countries.
3.7.1.5 Organisational Intervention (OI)
As discussed in section 3.6.1.1 and 3.6.1.2, GI and PBI have been key drivers within some countries.
Similarly, amongst countries where GI and PBI were noted as low, organisational interventions were
found to be the key BIM leaders. For example, Switzerland, Belgium, and Portugal have successfully
adopted BIM through OI (Keinonen, 2018). Moreover, the Netherlands has successfully adopted BIM
102
through organisationally developed strategies (Lekx, 2018), which indicates that organisational
motivation is a key influencer for BIM adoption. Some organisations have mandated the use of BIM
within their organisation strategy (Bosch-Sijtsema et al., 2017). Accordingly, many organisations have
changed their structure and culture to support BIM adoption and in consideration of their established
vision and mission (Ahn et al., 2016; Badrinath et al., 2016; LIAO & TEO, 2017; Saleh, 2015). This
stimulates people's interest and attitude to adopt BIM (Ahuja et al., 2018; Bosch-Sijtsema et al., 2017;
Ismail et al., 2017) while developing internal demand for BIM use amongst employees (Bosch-Sijtsema
et al., 2017; Papadonikolaki, 2017). Besides, top management support has also been identified as a key
organisational BIM influence in the literature (Zuhairi et al., 2014). Many organisations have deployed
leadership programs, (Sawhney & Singhal, 2013) to prepare management to support BIM adoption.
Moreover, BIM training provided by organisations for existing staff has also increased employees’
interest and their adoption of BIM (Eastman et al., 2011; LIAO & TEO, 2017; Osman et al., 2015). It
was also stated in the literature that an organisation's financial capacity to afford BIM related software
has also determined its adoption of BIM (Hamma-adama & Kouider, 2019; Osman et al., 2015).
Therefore, OI is identified as a key BIM driver in both developed and developing countries according
to the literature (summarised in Table 3.4).
3.7.1.6 BIM-Based Education (BE)
According to Table 3.4 BE is identified as another driving factor for BIM adoption. As discussed in
section 3.6.1.2, professional bodies also conduct different educational programs, such as conferences,
workshops, and seminars, to support BIM adoption through increased BIM awareness. Besides, some
governments have issued new guidelines to incorporate BIM into university curriculums (Nguyen et
al., 2018; Vy, 2017) and as a result, many education institutions play a vital role in promoting BIM
education in different countries. Universities, such as Penn State, Georgia Tech, the University of
Southern California, Montana State University, and Stanford University, are a few examples of
institutions that offer BIM-based curricula and are identified as leaders in BIM education (Barison &
Santos, 2010). Worldwide, 103 schools have introduced BIM into their curricula, of which 75 are in the
United States and only 28 are in other countries (Barison & Santos, 2010) such as Australia, Denmark,
Hong Kong, Finland, Germany, Sweden, the United Kingdom (Din et al., 2011) and Israel (Sacks &
Barak, 2010). Stanford University is an award-winning institution that offers a multidisciplinary BIM
education environment (Bailey, 2011). Some countries, such as Iraq, have offered free BIM courses to
increase its use (Hamada et al., 2016). Besides, some institutions have established BIM-related training
to increase professionals’ theoretical and practical knowledge of its use (BCIS, 2011; Enegbuma et al.,
2015; RICS, 2017; Zuhairi et al., 2014). Nevertheless, literature illustrates BE as a key BIM driver as
it increases BIM awareness and produces BIM experts within the construction industry (Ahn et al.,
2016; Hamma-adama & Kouider, 2019; Kiani, 2015).
3.7.1.7 Market Demand (MD)
MD is another key BIM driver noted in the literature (Papadonikolaki 2017; Thurnell, 2015).
Accordingly, in some countries, such as Brazil and India, BIM-based international firms are working
in the construction industry by providing services for international clients (Amaranth, 2019; Petrie,
2015). Ultimately, due to this practice, MD has increased for BIM in particular countries and local
construction professionals intend to use BIM (Bosch-Sijtsema et al., 2017). Moreover, huge investment
in the construction sector through the participation of international firms has also resulted in greater
BIM adoption due to increased MD (Sawhney, 2014). On the other hand, MD has created competition
among construction practitioners for BIM adoption (Bosch-Sijtsema et al., 2017; Eadie et al., 2013).
Therefore, many construction organisations intend to adopt BIM to secure their position within the
103
industry (Ruikar et al., 2015). Therefore, MD has also resulted in BIM adoption among industry
professionals.
3.7.1.8 Resource Availability (RA)
RA is another highlighted BIM driver in the literature. The availability of financial resources were noted
as a key resource for BIM adoption (Osman et al., 2015). Moreover, some countries, such as Singapore,
have established a BIM fund to support the cost of training employees, consultancy, hardware, and
collaboration software by accelerating BIM adoption among practitioners (Ismail, 2018). Moreover,
according to Ahuja et al. (2018), the availability of BIM software on a trial basis has also encouraged
BIM adoption among practitioners. Besides, the availability of trained BIM professionals was noted as
a key resource that drives BIM adoption (Badrinath et al., 2016; Hamma-adama & Kouider, 2019; Saleh
2015). Moreover, as discussed in section 3.6.1.5, organisations have provided BIM supported tools and
software to promote its adoption. Besides, literature also categorised BIM guidelines, manuals, and
standards, as supportive resources for BIM adoption. Therefore, according to Table 3.4, RA is another
key BIM driver highlighted in the literature.
3.7.2 Barriers To BIM Adoption
As defined by the Oxford Dictionary (2020), a barrier is an obstacle to someone (people) or something
(knowledge, conditions) that has the power to prevent things happening. Nevertheless, this study barrier
notes that barriers are ‘the factors which uninspire the adoption of BIM within the existing business
process’. In the literature, it was noted that several authors have identified various barriers and causes
in different continuums. Table 3.5 summarises the barriers identified by authors in different countries
over time.
As illustrated in Table 3.5, several barriers have been identified in both developed and developing
countries. Nevertheless, some authors have categorised these factors into different categories, such as
external, internal, and so forth. Similar factors were grouped by the researcher under a comprehensive
heading and a more compact list of barriers was obtained as follows.
104
Table 3.5: BIM barriers identified from the literature publications from 2010 to 2020
105
106
107
108
109
3.7.2.1 Financial Barriers (FB)
Literature revealed that the majority of construction stakeholders lag behind in BIM adoption due to cost-
related issues (Pathak, 2019). The general impression among industry stakeholders is that BIM
implementation costs too much compared with traditional construction (Ahuja et al., 2018; Aibinu, 2016;
Alhumayn, 2018; BuildingSMART, 2011; Gerges et al., 2017; Hatmoko et al., 2019; Hosseini et al., 2016;
Koseogle, 2013; McGraw-Hill, 2014; Mehran, 2016; Olatunji, 2011; Sabol, 2010; Smith et al., 2014; TCUF
2010; Wilis et al., 2017; Zhao et al., 2019). According to the CIDB (2016), most hardware in current
practice is unable to run basic BIM software. As a result, in most cases the installation of new hardware,
with extra memory, a better graphics card, widescreen and software is a fundamental step towards BIM
adoption. Thus, the cost of hardware and software was found to be too expensive for the majority of
practitioners (Bosch-Sijtsema et al., 2017; CIDB, 2016; Hardi & Pittard, 2015; Kiani, 2015; Marsh, 2017;
Musa et al., 2016; RICS, 2017). Yusuf (2015) revealed that the installation of hardware and software costs
up to £9,000-£11,000 per workstation. Furthermore, after purchasing the necessary hardware and software,
providing appropriate training for existing staff is identified as another fundamental step in the adoption of
BIM. Nevertheless, according to many researchers, providing training also costs too much for organisations
as well as individuals (Abdulaal et al., 2017; Ahuja et al., 2018; CIDB, 2016; Hamada et al., 2016; Hamma-
adama & Kouider, 2019; Hatmoko et al., 2019; Jamal et al., 2019; McGraw-Hill, 2014; Marsh, 2017; NBS,
2020; RICS, 2017; Wang et al., 2015). For example, Matthews and Withers (2011) stated that
“approximately 1 in 20 employees requiring extra training to become software ‘experts’ at an estimated
cost of £5,000 per person”. Notwithstanding, the annual upgrading costs of hardware and software licenses
also require an additional cost, which is similarly expensive (Abdulaal et al., 2017; Bosch-Sijtsema et al.,
2017; Hamma-adama & Kouider, 2019; Hosseini et al., 2016; Matarneh & Hamed, 2017; Mehran, 2016;
Wang et al 2015).
In the meantime, Marsh (2017) revealed that the cost of the network is another financial issue, as BIM
requires high-end network facilities. As illustrated in Table 3.5, a low return on investment was found to
be another financial issue for the adoption of BIM (Abdulaal et al., 2017; Ali, 2019; Gerges et al., 2017;
Hamma-Adama & Kouider, 2019; Hosseini et al., 2016; Koseogle, 2013; Mehran, 2016). Due to a lack of
evidence on the financial benefits of BIM, many construction practitioners believe that the adoption of BIM
is a waste of money as it does not provide value for money (Ademci & Gundes, 2018; Bosch-Sijtsema et
al., 2017; Sun et al., 2017). However, a study that examined 10 BIM-based projects in the USA recorded
an average 634% return on investment (ROI) as a result of increased productivity and efficiency on current
work practices (Azhar, 2015). Therefore, due to the above reasons, in many studies financial issues were
identified as a major barrier for BIM adoption both in developed and developing countries.
3.7.2.2 Lack of BIM Resources (LBR)
LBR is identified as another barrier for BIM adoption (see Table 3.5) (Ismail et al., 2017; Sawhney et al.,
2014). Accordingly, the literature identified a lack of BIM expertise as a major resource issue for BIM
adoption (Ahuja et al., 2018; Aibinu, 2016; BuildingSMART, 2011; Chan, 2014; CIC, 2019; Hamada et
al., 2016; Hamma-Adama & Kouider, 2019; Hatem et al., 2018; Hosseini et al., 2016; Ismail et al., 2017;
Jagadeesh & Jagadisan, 2019; Jamal et al., 2019; Kiani, 2015; McGraw-Hill, 2014; Marsh, 2017; NBS,
2018, 2019, 2020; Olatunji, 2011; Onugwa et al., 2017; Pathak, 2019; Rogers et al., 2015; Sabol, 2010;
Saleh, 2015; Smith et al., 2014; Tan et al., 2019; TCUF, 2010; Wilis et al., 2017). Therefore, in many
organisations, BIM qualified people who are capable of dealing with BIM related software and tools are in
110
limited numbers (NBS, 2020). Moreover, a lack of industry standards, lack of practice standards and
guidelines, lack of BIM mandates, and a lack of standardised tools and protocols are also identified as
resource issues for BIM adoption (Aibinu, 2016; Alhumayn et al., 2017; Ali, 2019; Chan, 2014; Gerges et
al., 2017; Hamma-Adama & Kouider, 2019; Hosseini et al., 2016; Jamal et al., 2019; Koseogle, 2013;
McGraw-Hill, 2014; Matarneh & Hamed, 2017; Mehran, 2016; NBS, 2019, 2020; Olatunji, 2011; RICS,
2017; Sabol, 2010; Smith et al., 2014; Tan et al., 2019; TCUF 2010). In large-size countries, such as the
USA, states are using different BIM mandates, due to the absence of a nationally developed mandate.
According to Cicco (2018), the US government has not developed a national BIM mandate due to the size
of the country. This suggests that the development of mandates also depends upon the scale of the industry
or country. In most countries, existing traditional contract documents do not comply with BIM-based
practice, as some conditions, such as risk allocation, compensation, insurance, and dispute resolution,
cannot be directly applied to BIM-based practice (Kurul et al., 2013). Nevertheless, as illustrated in Table
3.2, many countries have developed national and international standards, guidelines and protocols to
support adoption. However, from a QS perspective, most available formats are incompatible with BIM
models (Thurnell, 2015). Due to these discrepancies, it would be hard to perform a model based QTO,
based on the regulations provided by standard formats, for example risk allocation and allowances for
waste, jointing, and lapping are not automatically applied to the model. Moreover, BIM performs QTO
without these measures, which increases the inaccuracy of cost estimates (Marsh, 2016). According to
Olatunji et al. (2010), it is hard to develop a country-specific standard with such filters to account for BIM
as it requires considerable investment. Thus, BuildingSMART (2012) indicates that the adoption of BIM
by QS’s relies on the development of common standards for automated quantity measurements. In the
meantime, as discussed in section 3.6.1.1, the development of BIM supported standards through GI was
found to be a key BIM driver for many countries. However, the lack of BIM supported standards, protocols
and guidelines also indicate a lack of GI amongst some countries.
Besides, the lack of training was also identified as another resource constraint for BIM adoption (Ahns,
2016; Building Smart, 2011; Hosseini et al., 2016; Matarneh & Hamed, 2017; Mehran, 2016; NBS, 2018).
FB (section 3.6.2.2) and a lack of BIM awareness were noted as key reasons for the lack of BIM training.
As discussed in section 3.5, many countries have adopted BIM through nationally or organisationally
developed frameworks or strategies. However, the lack of established contractual frameworks for working
with BIM amongst some countries was another resource issue noted (Ahns 2016; NBS, 2019, 2020).
Moreover, it also illustrates the lack of GI (section 3.6.1.1) and OI (section 3.6.1.5). For some countries
(especially developing) the lack of Internet facilities is identified as another resource constraint for BIM
adoption (Hosseini et al., 2016; Onugwa et al., 2017). This is also due to the cost associated with high-
speed Internet, as discussed in section 3.6.2.1. Nevertheless, some countries lack BIM applications (such
as BIM-based software) which was identified as another lacking resource and hinders the adoption of BIM
(Hamada et al., 2016). Moreover, Onugwa et al. (2017) stated that a lack of BIM object libraries also
hinders BIM adoption, as many practitioners encounter difficulties in finding accurate BIM object
information before preparing BIM models. Therefore, it can be concluded that LBR is another key barrier
to the adoption of BIM.
111
3.7.2.3 Lack of BIM Awareness (LBA)
LBA was found to be another key barrier for BIM adoption in the literature (Table 3.5). Accordingly, many
professionals lack an understanding of BIM and its benefits (Alhumayn,, 2018; Alhumayn et al., 2017;
Bosch-Sijtsema et al., 2017; BuildingSMART, 2011; CIDB, 2016; McGraw-Hill, 2014; RICS, 2017; NBS,
2019, 2020). As a result, many professionals believe that it takes too much time to learn, and BIM software
is too complicated to use (Aibinu, 2016; Ahuja et al., 2018; Olatunji, 2011; Smith et al., 2014). Moreover,
many professionals have less experience in BIM use (Hardi & Pittard, 2015), therefore, they are less
confident in selecting appropriate BIM related software that is suitable to their role (Marsh, 2017; Musa et
al., 2016). Besides, due to LBA, many professionals do not intend to use BIM, which decreases demand
(Building Smart 2011; Hardi & Pittard, 2015; Ismail et al., 2017; Matarneh & Hamed, 2017; Onugwa et
al., 2017; Wang et al., 2015;). This indicates a strong link between BIM awareness and demand.
Nevertheless, a lack of BIM related training is one of the key reasons highlighted in the literature for LBA
(BuildingSMART, 2011; CIDB, 2016; Hatem et al., 2018). According to the literature, this lack is
attributed to the finding that many educational institutions pay attention to theoretical aspects rather than
providing practical experience of BIM (NATSPEC, 2013). This creates a gap between knowledge and
skills, where graduates fail to work in a BIM-based collaborative working environment. Moreover,
according to Marsh (2017) and Chan (2014), the lack of interventions by professional bodies has caused a
lack of BIM related training. In section 3.6.1.2, PBI was identified as a key BIM driver for many countries.
However, for some countries (see Table 3.5), the lack of PBI acts as a key barrier for BIM adoption.
Furthermore, the lack of BIM education is identified as another reason for LBA (BuildingSMART, 2011;
Hatem et al., 2018; Marsh, 2017). Many studies indicate that appropriate BIM education would generate
skilled graduates/BIM experts for the construction industry (Wu & Issa, 2014). Various BIM-related
educational activities, such as conferences, seminars, and workshops, are undertaken by the AEC industry
to educate existing professionals (Liu et al., 2015). However, most educational institutions fail to provide
fully BIM-integrated courses to fulfill industry expectations (Liu et al., 2015). Moreover, many universities
and BIM-based education providers have introduced BIM as a ‘software’ and thus only focus on its use as
a form of software (Smith, 2014). Hence, the current need of the industry is to have BIM-ready graduates
who can cope with BIM concepts, management, and working in a collaborative platform (buildingSmart,
2012). Thus, most educational institutions have failed to develop appropriate BIM courses, which fulfill
the need for theoretical and practical aspects, and this hinders the adoption of BIM. Therefore, LBA was
found to be a key barrier to the adoption of BIM.
3.7.2.4 Lack of External Pressure (LEP)
External pressure is one of the main parameters of BIM adoption. In the literature, clients, government
professional bodies, and market demand were identified as main external parties who can offer supportive
external pressure to encourage BIM adoption (Liu et al., 2010). In sections 3.6.1.1, 3.6.1.2, 3.6.1.3, and
3.6.1.7 it was identified that GI, PBI, CD, and MD were key drivers for BIM adoption. Accordingly, for
some countries, GI was found to be a BIM leader, whereas, in some countries, PBI leads the way.
Nevertheless, in some countries, external pressure for BIM adoption which should come from industry
clients, is affected due to the lack of client demand (Abdulaal et al., 2017; Ahuja et al., 2018; Aibinu, 2016;
Ali, 2019; Bosch-Sijtsema et al., 2017; Chan, 2014; Hamma-adama & Kouider, 2019; Hosseini et al., 2016;
Jamal et al., 2019; Kiani, 2015; NBS, 2019, 2020; McGraw-Hill, 2014; Matarneh & Hamed 2017; Olatunji,
2011; RICS, 2017; Saleh, 2015; Smith et al., 2014; Wilis et al. 2017). Many clients still demand traditional
112
2D drawings instead of BIM models due to LBA, as discussed in section 3.6.2.3. Moreover, as a result of
LBA, many clients believe that BIM adds a lack of certainty in terms of the added value to clients (Marsh,
2017). Moreover, the lack of case studies showing the financial benefits of BIM has also deterred clients
from investing in BIM (Yan & Damian, 2008). Simultaneously, clients who have already experienced the
use and benefits of BIM refuse to share their knowledge with other clients, which has also resulted in fewer
requests for BIM (Howard & Björk, 2008).
Besides, the lack of government intervention also results in LEP (Gerges et al., 2017; Koseogle, 2013;
Mehran, 2016). As a result, many countries face difficulties in BIM adoption due to absence of BIM
mandates, the lack of strict government rules and regulations, no clear standardization, and the need for a
government strategy (Ahuja et al., 2018; Alhumayn, 2018; Chan, 2014; CIDB, 2016; Hamma-Adama &
Kouider, 2019; Musa et al., 2016; Pathak, 2019). In many countries, BIM is not mandated yet within the
construction industry. Moreover, the lack of leadership and a coordinated approach from the government
(McGraw-Hill, 2014), weak government efforts (Building Smart, 2011; Hatem et al., 2018), and a lack of
guidance and support from the government (Hamada et al., 2016; Masood et al., 2014; NBS, 2020) have
also resulted in LEP. Furthermore, the lack of interventions from professional bodies was found to be
another reason for LEP in the literature (Alhumayn et al., 2017; Bosch-Sijtsema et al., 2017; Hosseini et
al., 2016; Masood et al., 2014; Matarneh & Hamed, 2017). As a result, professional bodies have failed to
develop relevant policies, standards, and guidelines to support BIM adoption. In the meantime, the lack of
market demand is also identified as another key reason behind LEP, which is due to the lack of maturation
of BIM technology to merit its being sought (Ali 2019), the lack of large-scale projects to implement BIM
(McGraw-Hill, 2014; NBS, 2018), the fact that other practitioners are not on a BIM platform (Bosch-
Sijtsema et al., 2017; Ismail et al., 2017; Ku & Taiebat, 2011; Zhao et al., 2019) and a lack of direction
towards BIM in the industry (CIDB, 2016). Therefore, LEP also can be identified as another key barrier for
BIM adoption.
3.7.2.5 Lack of Internal Pressure (LIP)
Internal pressure is another parameter in BIM adoption noted in the literature. Accordingly, findings
illustrate that many organisational issues have resulted in LIP. Among them, less support from senior
management (due to LBA) (Alhumayn et al., 2017; Eadie et al., 2014; Mehran, 2016; Musa et al., 2016) is
a highlighted issue for many organisations. This has resulted in the lack of an organisational training
strategy (Ali, 2019; Musa et al., 2016), the lack of internal demand from employees, (Bosch-Sijtsema et al.,
2017), adequate advice for BIM adoption (Rogers et al., 2015), and the lack of process standardisation for
BIM adoption (Ahuja et al., 2018) within the organisation. Moreover, organisational management is
responsible for introducing and allocating new roles and responsibilities (such as BIM manager, BIM
modeler, etc) and rewards (Eadie et al., 2014). However, the lack of management support hinders the
involvement of senior management from executing these activities within the organisation.
Cultural resistance is found to be another key issue behind LIP (Aibinu, 2016; Bosch-Sijtsema et al., 2017;
CIDB, 2016; Eadie et al., 2014; Hamada et al., 2016; Hatem et al., 2018; Hatmoko et al., 2019; Musa et al.,
2016; Olatunji, 2011; Smith et al., 2014; Wilis et al., 2017). Many employees intend to use the traditional
way of working (mostly isolated) rather than move to a team working culture (CIDB, 2016; Ismail et al.,
2017). However, BIM requires a collaborative working culture that represents a completely new way of
working compared to traditional practice (Fung et al., 2014). Organisations encounter difficulties when
introducing teamwork culture due to the lack of collaboration among employees during a construction
113
project and the work process (Hamma-adama and Kouider, 2019; Ku & Taiebat, 2011, McGraw-Hill, 2014;
Musa et al 2016; NBS, 2019, 2020); attitude and behaviour (Ahns, 2016; Bo et al., 2015); fixed mindsets
amongst employees (Ismail et al., 2017; Sawhney et al., 2014, Jagadeesh & Jagadisan, 2019, Ali, 2019;
McGraw-Hill, 2014; CIC, 2019); learning difficulties (Bo et al., 2015; Ismail et al., 2017); long processes
(Hosseini et al., 2016; McGraw-Hill, 2014; Matarneh & Hamed, 2017; Musa et al., 2016; Rogers et al.,
2015; Walasek & Barszcz, 2017). Moreover, QS organisations find it hard to change employees’ mindsets,
as they believe BIM adds uncertainty to the QS role (Marsh, 2017), and provokes a fear of extinction for
the QS role (Alhumayn, 2018; Eadie et al., 2014; McGraw-Hill, 2014; Marsh, 2017). Besides, a lack of
trust among employees (Musa et al., 2016) also resulted in cultural resistance as many employees refuse to
share information (Hamma-adama & Kouider, 2019; Mehran, 2016). Moreover, the absence of well-
developed strategies for the purposeful exchange and integration of meaningful information (Musa et al.,
2016) has also prevented employee BIM adoption. Therefore, it can be concluded that LIP is another key
barrier for BIM adoption.
3.7.2.6 Legal Issues (LI)
Literature also revealed that LI are another barrier to BIM adoption (Abdulaal et al., 2017; Ademci and
Gundes, 2018; Aibinu, 2016; Alhumayn, 2018; Hamada et al., 2016; Hamma-adama & Kouider, 2019;
Jamal et al., 2019; Marsh, 2017; Olatunji, 2011; Rogers et al., 2015; Sabol, 2010; Smith et al., 2014; Sun
et al., 2017; TCUF, 2010; Walasek & Barszcz, 2017). Accordingly, literature identified the lack
of interoperability as a key legal issue (Ahns, 2016; Aibinu, 2016; Ali, 2019; Barszcz, 2017; Eadie et al.,
2014; McGraw-Hill, 2014; Musa et al., 2016; Smith et al., 2014; Walasek & Olatunji,
2011). Interoperability can be defined as “a characteristic of a product or system, whose interfaces are
completely understood, to work with other products or systems, present or future, in either implementation
or access, without any restrictions” (AFUL, n.d). Hence, most existing programs were developed to work
standalone and are not capable of sharing data with other programs (Paul, 2018). Redmond et al. (2012)
noticed that many professionals still use different tools in terms of information exchange. The differences
in these BIM tools can result in inefficient information exchange (Chandra et al., 2017; Cheung et al., 2012;
Kurul et al., 2012; Steel et al., 2012). Moreover, these tools have their own data structures and do not
provide a means of linking their database through a standard, which creates the biggest challenge to
interoperability (Bosch-Sijtsema et al., 2017; Paul, 2018). Besides, the use of copyrighted software and
tools has also limited the data exchange between multiple organisations (Steel et al., 2012). From a QS’s
perspective, to get the maximum benefits of BIM adoption, the information should be effectively shared
across all BIM tools and participants. Hence, the lack of interoperability results in a lack of data exchange,
resulting in incompatibility issues between BIM models and estimating platforms (Olatunji, 2011). In the
USA, it was reported that $15.8 billion are lost annually due to interoperability issues (NIST, 2014).
Therefore, challenges due to interoperability must be addressed to enable effective BIM adoption within
QS practice (Steel et al., 2012; McGraw-Hill, 2014).
Moreover, QS mainly depends upon the information given in the model; therefore, accurate information is
vital for a QS to prepare accurate cost estimates. However, due to liability and copyright issues (Eadie et
al., 2014; Mehran, 2016; Musa et al., 2016; Zainon et al., 2017), it is hard to determine the proprietor of the
model. Therefore, a QS has to face difficulties, such as incompatibilities within the BIM data’s estimating
formats, a lack of integration in the model, a lack of trust in the quality of the model; over-complexity
amongst BIM-models and incorrect information in the model (Ahns, 2016; Aibinu, 2016; Bosch-Sijtsema
et al., 2017; Olatunji, 2011; RICS, 2017; Smith et al., 2014). Moreover, further issues are encountered due
114
to the undefined responsibility of model architects or designers, and restricted access to the 3-D model for
other project stakeholders (Bosch-Sijtsema et al., 2017; Eadie et al., 2014). In addition, the absence of a
proper legal system for the model and its data has increased the risk level (Ahns, 2016; Ali, 2019; Gerges
et al., 2017; Kiani, 2015; Koseogle, 2013, Mehran, 2016; RICS, 2017). Therefore, it can be concluded that
LI is another barrier to BIM adoption.
To summarise, the above discussion identified the BIM drivers and barriers in both developed and
developing countries. It was also observed that the factors identified as drivers in some countries were
found to be key barriers in other countries, for example, GI. Therefore, it can be argued that drivers - if not
met – can become barriers in many countries. Moreover, it was also noted that, even though most of the
major barriers are common in the majority of countries, the causes of these barriers vary. For example, in
some countries the causes of financial barriers were found to be the cost of hardware and software, training
costs and annual upgrading costs, whilst for some countries it was the cost of hardware and software,
training costs, annual upgrading costs and return on investment (ROI). In the meantime, some countries
found that network costs posed financial barriers. Hence, even if the key barriers were similar for most
countries, the causes were not, in most cases. Therefore, it is important to identify the key barriers along
with their root causes for the successful adoption of BIM.
3.8 Conceptual Framework

A conceptual framework is an extraction of concepts that helps to comprehend the relationship between the
concepts and their influence on the phenomenon being examined (Ngulube et al., 2015). The purpose of
having a conceptual framework is to link the concepts with the research problem while giving direction to
the research. Nevertheless, the above conceptual framework (Figure 3.21) was developed by linking the
objectives of this research with the explored concepts. According to Figure 3.21, the first objective aimed
to identify the factors affecting the accuracy of pre-tender cost estimates. The first and the second objectives
had a significant link through the use of BIM to improve the accuracy of pre-tender cost estimates. The
third objective aimed to identify the drivers, barriers and mitigating actions to BIM adoption. Finally, the
framework connected the research gap to the outcomes of the study.
115
Figure 3.21: Conceptual Framework
This chapter addresses objectives 2 and 3 of this research. Firstly, the chapter describes the development of
BIM, BIM definitions, and BIM dimensions. Then chapter examines the use of BIM to improve the
accuracy of pre-tender cost estimates. The use of BIM models, improved visualization, clash detection,
better information management, Automate Quantity Take-off, time savings, and improved communication
and collaboration were identified as the most prominent factors to improve the accuracy of cost estimates.
Subsequently, global BIM adoption practices and the status of BIM adoption in Sri Lanka were also
explored. Moreover, GI, PBI, CD, BB, OI, BE, MD, and RA were identified as the key drivers for BIM
adoption, whilst, FB, LBR, LBA, LEP, LIP, and LI were identified as the most frequent barriers to BIM
adoption. Finally, the chapter explained gaps in the state of the art BIM adoption and the conceptual
framework’s direction of the empirical research. The next chapter describes the methods adopted to conduct
the empirical study.
116
4 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
4.1 Introduction
A comprehensive literature review was presented in chapters 2 and 3, in order to summarise the key
concepts relevant to this study. The purpose of this chapter is to discuss the most appropriate methodology
that will address the research questions and achieve the established objectives. Based on Saunders et al.
(2012), the mixed-method approach of the ‘Research Onion’ model was adopted, which included semi-
structured interviews and a questionnaire survey.
The methodology consisted of three phases and started with an initial literature review and a questionnaire
survey (A) as the first phase to identify weaknesses in the existing pre-tender cost estimate process. The
survey data was analysed statistically using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS).
Questionnaire survey (B) were conducted for expertise in the field to identify BIM adoption drivers and
barriers. The survey data was analysed statistically. In the second phase, three case studies were selected,
and semi-structured interviews were conducted for expertise in the field to identify factors affecting the
accuracy of pre-tender cost estimates, BIM adoption drivers, barriers and mitigating actions. The collected
data were analysed qualitatively and quantitatively both manually and by using SPSS. Finally, the third
phase of this research involved semi-structured interviews with industry experts to validate the developed
framework that was based on the survey results. Accordingly, the chapter is structured as follows:
• Research Methodological Design

• Research Philosophy
• Research Approaches
• Research Strategy
• Unit of Analysis
• Research Choices
• Time Horizon
• Research Techniques
4.2 Research Methodological Design
According to Creswell (2009), a research methodology is a systematic approach that can be used to achieve
the research aim. Moreover, he further emphasized that the research methodology consists of a set of tools
that is required to complete the research successfully. Billing (2004) identified the research methodology
as a process for the conduct of research. Nevertheless, the consistency of research is fundamental to the
reliability of any findings (King & Brooks, 2016). However, the identification of the most applicable
research method is a critical step, as an appropriate research design can minimize the risk and uncertainties
attached to the research process by identifying difficulties and problems that the researcher might encounter.
Therefore, before conducting any research a proper methodology should be defined. Various academics
have proposed different research models to define such procedures and assist the systematic inquiry. Among
them, the nested model of Kagioglou, Cooper, Aouad, and Sexton (2000) and the Research Onion model
of Saunders et al. (2016) are the two most recognised models in built environment research.
117
Figure 4.1: Nested Research Methodology Approach (Adapted from Kagioglou et al., 2000)
The nested model was developed by Kagioglou et al. (2000) and consists of three layers starting from the
selection of the philosophical stance and narrowing down to the selection of the research approach and
research technique, as illustrated in Figure 4.1. This model provides a complete evaluation of the coherent
implementation of research. Accordingly, the research philosophy clarifies the core assumptions of the
researcher, while the research approach clarifies the form of reasoning, and the research techniques describe
the available tools to collect and analyse the data.
Saunders et al. (2016) developed the six layered Research Onion model that consisted of: the research
philosophy, research approaches, research strategies, research choices, time horizon, and data collection
methods, as illustrated in Figure 4.2. Compared to the Nested model, the Onion model provides a clearer
understanding of the series of steps required to design a research methodology. Moreover, it further
illustrates how each element and its assumptions are interconnected. Therefore, in its clear understanding
of the research methodology components, Saunders et al.’s ‘Research Onion’ was adopted for this research,
as it is capable of providing proper guidance through different layers to identify appropriate methods and
tools to achieve the aim of the research. Based on the Research Onion, the selected procedures for the
empirical study are presented in this chapter.
118
Figure 4.2: Research Onion Model (Saunders et al., 2016)
4.3 Research Philosophy
The first layer of the Research Onion presents the research philosophy (Figure 4.2). When undertaking
research, the primary theoretical perception should be conducted by the researcher (Gray & Malins, 2004).
This primary theoretical perception is referred to as the ‘research philosophy’ (Collins, 2010; Fellows &
Liu, 2015; Saunders, 2011; Trochim & Donnelly, 2001). The research philosophy is a set of beliefs that are
based on the way the researcher views reality. The philosophical assumptions of the researcher helps to:
• Simplify the research design.

• Identify which is appropriate and which is not.
• Recognise and generate, a design external to the researcher’s experience (Easterby-Smith, Thorpe
& Jackson, 2008).
Accordingly, Ontology, Epistemology, and Axiology are the three different assumptions to distinguish a
research philosophy (Figure 4.3) (Burrell & Morgan, 1979; Saunders et al., 2011). Usually, these three
assumptions are identified under three different views. However, Niglas (2010) believes the philosophical
assumptions of a researcher coincide with a point on a multidimensional range between two contrasting
points, usually referred to as objectivism and subjectivism. Therefore, the different patterns of these points
with the combined set of ranges establish the researcher’s philosophical position.
Figure 4.3: The dimension of the research philosophy (Sexton, 2003)
4.3.1 Ontology
Ontology indicates the researcher’s assumptions about the nature of reality. It consists of what is known
and what is considered as social reality, such as political, cultural, historical, and economic value systems
119
(Creswell & Clark, 2007; Dakhil, 2017). As illustrated in Figure 4.3, ontology has two extremes, namely
realism (objectivism) and idealism (constructivist or subjectivist). From the realist view (Figure 4.3), it is
assumed that reality exists with a predetermined nature and structure that is independent of the
determination of the people. From an idealist view, reality can be perceived in different ways subject to an
individual’s experience (Saunders et al., 2012). Therefore, ontology describes what knowledge is and the
assumptions about reality (Miles & Huberman 1994).
In this study, the researcher seeks to develop a new BIM adoption framework for quantity surveying
organizations by identifying BIM drivers, barriers, and mitigating actions for barriers. This knowledge is
not externally generated, and thus is a creation of the social, economic, and cultural facts that we experience
in our day-to-day life, which means that knowledge is socially constructed. Moreover, a fixed variable,
such as objective methods, cannot be used to measure this knowledge. Also, this includes knowledge for
BIM adoption drivers and barriers and mitigating actions generated through people, how they find the BIM
adoption process within their organisations, and how they are a part of the BIM adoption process. Therefore,
ontologically this research tends more towards idealism. Similarly, this research assumes that reality
remains subjective and represents the interpretation and interaction between stakeholders.
4.3.2 Epistemology
Miles and Huberman (1994) describe epistemology as “how we know it” and concerns assumptions about
how knowledge should be acquired and accepted. In other words, epistemology concerns the way of
obtaining recognized knowledge in the field of study. As illustrated in Figure 4.3, epistemology has two
paradigms, such as positivism and interpretivism. At the ‘positivist’ end of epistemology, the researcher
conducts research between observable realities, accepting that everything has a general law. At the
‘interpretivist’ end, researchers conduct research by using humans as social actors to search for knowledge
amongst people (Saunders et al., 2012).
As described earlier, this research study aims to identify BIM adoption drivers, barriers, and mitigating
actions from QS perspectives to develop a new BIM adoption framework. Accordingly, knowledge should
be gathered through participation in the ostensive BIM adoption process. Such knowledge cannot be gained
externally; thus, this research requires socially constructed knowledge. Moreover, knowledge depends upon
people’s perceptions, who are also influenced by a range of socio-economic and cultural factors, and the
knowledge gained from society becomes fundamentally subjective. Therefore, this research tends more
towards the end of the interpretivism extreme by understanding knowledge as a social construction.
4.3.3 Axiology
Axiology is another branch of philosophy and studies judgment about value (Saunders, 2011). According
to Miles and Huberman (1994), it explains, “what research values go into it” and the assumptions about
value systems. As illustrated in Figure 4.3, axiology has two extremes - value-neutral (value-free) and value
biased (value-laden). At the value-neutral end of the continuum, the researcher is completely independent
in terms of data and its interpretations, whilst at the value-biased extreme, the researcher is part of the data
and its interpretation (Saunders et al., 2012). This research study uses people’s thoughts and beliefs to
obtain subjective data for the development of the framework. Moreover, the researcher’s thoughts are also
affected when obtaining subjective data. Therefore, this study tends towards interpretivism where decisions
are value-laden. Figure 4.4 illustrates the philosophical stance related to this study, concerning the research
philosophy continuum.
120
Figure 4.4: The Philosophical Stance Pertaining to the Study
Furthermore, this research involves the study of complicated interactions between organisational
management, senior QS’s, QS’s, and Assistant QS’s, involved in the BIM adoption process in a real-life
scenario. The objective of the study, such as the identification of key BIM barriers and mitigating actions
in the BIM adoption process, demand that this research is more exploratory in nature, than explanatory.
Therefore, this further justifies the selection of an interpretive research paradigm for this research.
4.4 Research Approach
The second layer of the Research Onion by Saunders et al. indicates the type of research approach.
According to Easterby-Smith et al. (2008), the approach enables the researcher to achieve research aim by
finding the answers to the research questions and meeting the objectives of the study. Deductive, inductive,
and abductive are the three types of research approach. The deductive approach allows the researcher to
develop a theory and hypothesis. In many cases, a deductive approach is used in the objectivist ontology
and natural sciences (Collis & Hussey, 2013). The hypothesis is tested by the research findings and, if
required, the theory is modified by rejecting or confirming the established hypothesis (Gill & Johnson,
2010; Hyde, 2000; Johnson-Laird, 1999; Rice & Ezzy, 1999). According to Trochim and Donnelly (2001),
deductive works from the general to the particular, which is also called a ‘top-down’ methodology (Hyde,
2000; Johnson-Laird, 1999; Rice & Ezzy, 1999).
The inductive approach is the opposite to the deductive approach as it starts with observations or a data
collection to build up a theory. Therefore, this approach consists of views that enhance the development of
a hypothesis. Moreover, observations are expected of existing phenomenon (Bryman, 2015; Kothari, 2004;
Patton, 2005; Rice & Ezzy, 1999; Rosenthal & Rosnow, 1991; Teddlie & Tashakkori, 2009). In most cases,
this approach is used in subjectivist ontology. This approach works from specific observations to broader
theories, which are also called ‘base-up’ approaches (Trochim & Donnelly, 2001). Therefore, in this
121
approach, the researcher begins with observations and measures, where the researcher identifies patterns
and regularities, formulates an explorable hypothesis and finally develops general conclusions or theories
(Bryman, 2015; Kothari, 2004; Patton, 2005; Rice and Ezzy, 1999; Rosenthal & Rosnow, 1991; Teddlie &
Tashakkori, 2009).
However, in many studies, researchers have adopted a combination of inductive and deductive approaches,
which is called the abductive approach (Bryman, 2015; Kothari, 2004; Patton, 2005; Rice & Ezzy, 1999;
Rosenthal & Rosnow, 1991; Saunders et al., 2011; Teddlie & Tashakkori, 2009). This combination leads
to more meaningful results, as the abductive approach does not purely adopt deduction or induction (van
Hoek et al., 2005). Compared to the individual approach, the abductive process is more innovative,
perceptive, and progressive as it can be developed using various disciplines that range from learning,
linguistics, logic, neural networks, artificial intelligence, computer science, and so forth (Dubois & Gadde,
2002; Feilzer, 2010; Haig, 2005; van Hoek et al., 2005). Thus, the abductive approach provides a more
successful way of researching certain phenomena (Bryman, 2015; Teddlie & Tashakkori, 2009).
Accordingly, this research aims to develop a new BIM adoption framework to enhance accurate pre-tender
cost estimates. The expected framework offers a guiding strategy for Sri Lankan quantity surveying
organizations, suggesting BIM drivers and mitigating actions to overcome identified barriers and root
causes. Accordingly, this research builds theory for BIM adoption; therefore, this study also incorporates
induction. On the other hand, the researcher evaluated BIM drivers and barriers identified through studies
conducted in other countries to identify key drivers and barriers specific to the Sri Lankan context in order
to develop the BIM adoption framework. Therefore, the researcher is testing an established theory, and thus
research enters a deductive phase. As described above, the abductive approach is a combination of both
inductive and deductive features. Moreover, as Saunders et al. (2012) describe, the abductive approach
means travelling back and forth between theory and data throughout the entire research study by either
developing a new theory or modifying an existing theory, which applies to the current study. Nevertheless,
Gill & Johnson, (2010) and Jogulu & Pansiri, (2011) state the abductive approach better supports the mixed-
method approach.
4.5 Research Choice
The next layer of the Research Onion outlines the research choices, such as the mono method, the mixed
method, and the multi-method illustrated in Figure 4.5 (Saunders et al., 2011). In recent years, there has
been an extensive argument within many of the social sciences regarding the appropriateness of quantitative
and qualitative strategies for research (Hughes, 2014).
122
Figure 4.5: Research choice (Saunders, 2011)
Quantitative research refers to the counting of things (Berg, 2001) in order to build up a relationship
between variables or theories and the findings of previous research using frequently gathered data
(Kraemer, 2002). Newman and Benz (1998) stated that quantitative methods are typically employed in
social research. This method draws on the positivist/objectivist continuum, which discovers theoretical
evidence to confirm proposed theories. Therefore, this method mainly consists of research strategies, such
as experiments, survey research strategies, archival research and case studies (Saunders, 2011).
Conversely, the qualitative method deals with non-numerical data (Kornkaew, 2012), based on people’s
words, perceptions, feelings, etc to confirm any developed theory (Bryman, 2015; Creswell, 2013; Saunders
et al., 2011). This method is more integrated with interpretive and critical paradigms (Hughes, 2014), which
are subjective. Therefore, qualitative research mainly focuses on an individual subject or unit, or even a
case that is central and examined via phenomenological perceptions (Newman & Benz, 1998). This method
mainly consists of research strategies, such as action research, case study research, ethnography, grounded
theory, and narrative research (Saunders, 2011).
Some researchers consider these as two separate strategies, thus some use two methods together in their
research. Bryman (2012) argued for a ‘best of both worlds’ approach in combining qualitative and
quantitative approaches. Hence, Hughes (1997) warns that the combination of both methods could hinder
the legitimacy associated with each method. According to Das (1983) “qualitative and quantitative
methodologies are not antithetic or divergent”. Hence, on many occasions, when it seems to be different,
the fundamental unit might become noticeable with richer perception; in comparison, the situational
incidents and objectives of the study might play a significant role in its design and implementation. This
situation has led the researcher’s to consider ‘triangulation’ in research (Yin, 2013). The aim of
triangulation is to obtain strong measurements by combining methods (quantitative or qualitative) within
the same phenomenon (Amaratunga et al., 2002). Mono-method and Multi-method are the main categories
under triangulation (Saunders, 2011).
In a mono-method, the researcher focuses on one method, either purely qualitative or quantitative. In
multiple methods, two approaches can be identified namely multi-method and mixed method research. In
a multi-method approach, a broader range of methods is used (Bryman, 2015; Creswell, 2013; Saunders et
123
al., 2011) to create individual data sets for each segment of the research and to then analyze these data sets
individually using the different techniques for quantitative or qualitative methodologies (Feilzer, 2010).
This approach will be purely subjective or objective even if it covers more than one philosophical paradigm
(Bryman, 2015; Creswell, 2013; Saunders et al., 2011).
In the mixed-method approach, more than one method is combined to create one dataset (Flick, 2015). In
this case, the researcher starts with a subjectivist philosophy and continues with an objectivist philosophy,
or vice versa (Collis & Hussey, 2009; Kothari, 2004; Patton, 2005; Rice & Ezzy, 1999; Teddlie &
Tashakkori, 2009). Simultaneously, qualitative data can be analyzed using quantitative techniques or vice
versa, as it mixes qualitative and quantitative data, different methods, methodologies, and/or paradigms in
a particular approach. Therefore, considering the following factors, a mixed-method approach has been
selected to address the research question of this study.
• This research attempts to identify key BIM drivers and barriers along with mitigating actions to
overcome the impact of the barriers identified. Therefore, this need cannot be accomplished by
using one type of data, e.g. by using a quantitative method, as it is hard to identify mitigating
actions, as it requires more qualitative data.
• As a result, the use of different types of data collection techniques, such as questionnaires and
interviews, and analysis procedures are required for this study.
• Moreover, it also increase the reliability of the findings, as it offers the chance of checking the
findings derived from one method (ex. quantitative) against those derived from qualitative.
• Besides, the use of mixed methods provides a better understanding of the contextual background
of the research to the researcher through a broader perspective (Bryman, 2015; Creswell, 2013;
Saunders et al., 2011).
Moreover, as different types of mixed method design are available, namely sequential explanatory,
sequential exploratory, concurrent triangulation, and concurrent nested (Bryman, 2015; Creswell, 2013;
Saunders et al., 2011). The overall purpose of the research should be considered (e.g., exploration or
generalization), when deciding on a mixed methods design. Accordingly, this research adopts an
explanatory sequential mixed method (ESMM) approach (Figure 4.6), which consists of separate
quantitative and qualitative data collection methods and analyses, which are divided into two phases within
the study (Creswell et al. 2003).
Figure 4.6: Explanatory sequential mixed method approach (Creswell et al., 2003)
124
As illustrated in Figure 4.6, ESMM starts with quantitative data collection and analysis, which helped to
build qualitative data based on the quantitative findings (Creswell et al., 2003). The second phase consists
of qualitative data collection and analysis, where the researcher can conduct an in-depth qualitative study.
For the present study, the researcher aims to identify key drivers and barriers based on previously developed
theories, which required quantitative data collection. Moreover, these findings required further explanation
if the findings identified statistically significant differences. Therefore, through an in-depth qualitative
study, the reasons behind these results can be further explained. In other words, this helps the researcher to
identify root causes for key factors, and in the meantime, mitigating actions for each root cause. Therefore,
ESMM design exclusively suits this study. Moreover, as the qualitative data collection is based on the
quantitative data findings, it gives a clear understanding to the researcher of what exactly needs to be
obtained within the qualitative data collection. Besides, as the data collection is undertaken over two phases,
the data analysis can be written into two phases in order to provide a clear explanation for the readers
(Ivankova & Stick, 2007).
4.6 Research Strategy
The next layer of the Research Onion represents the research strategy. Denzin and Lincolin (2011) define
the research strategy as “a plan of how researchers going to achieve the research aim by answering
established objectives”. Several authors have proposed various approaches (Creswell, 2003; Lu & Sexton,
2004; Saunders et al., 2012; Yin, 2014); however, an appropriate strategy or strategies should be carefully
selected in order to consider the nature of research questions, objectives, available time, the amount of
available knowledge, the available resources, and the defined philosophical stances (Saunders et al., 2011).
Saunders et al. (2016) listed eight common research strategies: experiment, survey, archival research, case
study, ethnography, action research, grounded theory, and narrative inquiry. However, according to
Creswell (2003), the most frequently used research approaches in social science research are experiments,
surveys, ethnographies, grounded theory, and case studies.
Figure 4.7: Dimensions of a research philosophy (Sexton, 2007).
125
However, some of these strategies are associated with particular philosophical stances, such as ethnography,
which is associated with both realism and interpretivism. A case study, perhaps of an individual
organization, is often associated with interpretivism; case studies are also used in positivistic research.
(Saunders et al., 2011). Figure 4.7 illustrates the relationship between research philosophy and research
strategy (Sexton, 2007). Moreover, Table 4.1 justifies the selection of a research strategy based on the
capability of answering the established research questions.
Table 4.1: Justification for selecting the research method (Adapted from Yin, 1994)
Research Forms of the research Requires control of Focuses on

strategy question behavioural events contemporary events
Experiment How, Why? Yes Yes
Who, What, Where, How
Survey No Yes
many, How much?
Who, What, Where, How
Archival analysis No Yes/No
many, How much?
History How, Why? No No
Case Study How, Why? No Yes
Accordingly, an appropriate research strategy can be selected based on the research questions, which
controls what the investigator exercises over actual behavioural events and the extent of focus on
contemporary events (Table 4.1). For this research, what, how, and why questions were formed. What
questions indicate an exploratory investigation, which is conducted when existing knowledge on the issue
in question is poor (Kohtamäki et al, 2018). Therefore, according to the research questions, all five strategies
can be identified within the research.
The third column of Table 4.1 focuses on the requirement to control behavioural events. Accordingly,
except for the experiments, the other four strategies do not require any controlled behavioural event. The
experiment is a method to test the hypothesis in a controlled environment. Moreover, this method is more
suitable for testing an experimental group against a control group in order to validate or falsify a hypothesis
(Saunders et al., 2012). However, this study aims to conduct an in-depth study on people in an uncontrolled
environment. Hence, the experimental method is inappropriate for this study. The fourth column (Table
4.1) focuses on the type of event, which can be contemporary or not. This study focused on a contemporary
event, namely BIM adoption. Therefore, the historical method is inappropriate for this study as it does not
focus on contemporary events. According to Saunders et al. (2016), the archival method is more appropriate
for investigating past events and changes that happen over time. This study intends to develop a framework
based on recent findings but does not intend to consult past records. Therefore, the archival research strategy
is not appropriate for this study.
Accordingly, the remaining methods are case studies and surveys. As this research poses what, why, and
how types of questions both survey and case study approach can be adopted as the research strategy. The
following section will describe the adaptation of the combined research method, as the research strategy
for this study.
126
4.6.1 The Use of Case study and Survey as a Combined Method of Research Strategy
The importance of combining research methods in research has gained substantial attention (Gable, 1994).
Generally, the combined use of both quantitative and qualitative methods is very popular among
researchers. Hence, the use of combined research strategies, such as fieldwork (e.g. case studies) and survey
research, are not particularly popular among researchers. The reason for this is because many journals
evaluate the use of specialized methods, thus boosting the use of a single method. Gable (1994) suggested
that journals and reviewers of papers should emphasize the advantages of using an integrated strategy by
encouraging junior researchers and doctoral students to use a combined approach within their research
studies. However, according to Gable (1994), the use of a combined research strategy is not new; hence, it
has not been appreciated. Therefore, researchers occasionally use a combined strategy, even if it is
sometimes not emphasised within their report (Nissen et al, 1991). According to Nissen et al (1991), the
following reasons hinder the use of a combined approach;
• Doubts exist over the acceptability or feasibility of combining positivist and interpretive
approaches;
• Vulnerability stems from the close correspondence between many researcher’s value systems and
their single methodology paradigm; and
• Practical concerns arise over possible contradictory results from multiple methods.
Various research strategies can be integrated for better results. However, it was identified that case studies
and surveys were the most suitable strategies for this research. Therefore, case studies and survey
strategy were combined and adopted under a single research design. A survey is a more convenient strategy
to generalize results and based on data gathered from a sample population (Creswell, 2013; Saunders et al.,
2011). This is a non-experimental strategy that can be conducted in a natural setting without any specially
created environment (Boudreau et al., 2001). On the other hand, as this research poses ‘what’ questions,
especially to address objective 1, this requires richer and stronger evidence than case studies can provide.
Moreover, collecting a generalizable data set before conducting the case studies for objectives one and three
would increase the reliability of the qualitative findings. Therefore, as explained in section 4.4, the survey
and case studies were conducted into two phases (firstly, survey and secondly case studies) and presented
in the analysis phase as separate data sets. As Vidich and Shapiro (1955) stated "Without the survey data,
the observer could only make reasonable guesses about study area of ignorance in the effort to reduce bias".
Fundamentally, this strategy relies on quantitative data and quantitative analysis methods to find answers
to the research questions (Oates, 2005). Similarly, the following weakness can reduce the robustness of the
survey research:
• It provides only a "snapshot" of the situation at a certain point in time, yielding little information
on the underlying meaning of the data.
• Some variables of interest to a researcher may not be measurable by this method (root causes of
drivers, barriers and mitigating actions).
These weaknesses could be overcome with the use of case studies. Cases studies are more suitable where
the researcher seeks to find answers to questions starting with ‘how’ and ‘why’, and focuses on
contemporary events over which the researcher has no control (Yin, 2014). Cases studies were selected as
another research strategy for this study for the following reasons;
127
• This study seeks to address research questions starting with “why” and “how” concerning people
and their behaviour over which the researcher has no control.
• It enables an in-depth investigation to identify factors and their root causes which affect the
accuracy of pre-tender cost estimates, BIM adoption drivers, barriers and their root causes, and
mitigating actions through a critical review of the literature and semi-structured interviews.
• It does not require any control environment to conduct the investigation and allows participants to
freely express their thoughts regarding the factors, BIM adoption barriers, drivers, and mitigating
actions.
• It analyses a contemporary event (BIM adoption), which will help the researcher to identify new
themes and results.
Therefore, features of this study fit well with the case study approach, and will help to answer the research
questions. Nevertheless, Lee (1989) identified four major weaknesses in the case study approach, namely
the lack of controllability, deductibility, repeatability, and generalizability. Moreover, the conclusions may
specific to certain organizations where studies have been undertaken and cannot be generalisable (Thomas,
2003; Yin, 1994). This study consists of a set of objectives, where some objectives require a generalizable
data set, and some might not need it. Accordingly, objectives 1 (identify affecting factors for the accuracy
of pre-tender cost estimates) and 3 (drivers, barriers and mitigating actions) of this study need to obtain a
generalizable data set from a large group of people, which cannot be accomplished just by using case
studies. However, as discussed above, the survey approach helps to overcome weaknesses in the case study
approach.
Table 4.2: Relative Strengths of Case Study and Survey Method
Relative strength Case study Survey
Controllability Low Medium
Deductibility Low Medium
Repeatability Low Medium
Generalisability Low High
Discoverability (exportability) High Medium
Representability (potential model complexity) High Medium
Table 4.2 summarises the strengths of these two methods through the dimensions identified. However, it is
observed that many strengths of one method compensate for weaknesses in the other. Gable (1994)
identified the advantages of a combined case study and survey approach. Accordingly, for this study
128
quantitative findings from the survey can be used as a rich source of detail to interpret the qualitative
findings.
Moreover, it also helps to identify and develop a close relationship between organisations and the researcher
by conducting a pilot test to validate survey instruments. Besides, this method also allows the researcher to
collect extra data by returning to the same case to test new ideas. Meanwhile, the researcher can conduct
further study after the survey and supplement this with cross-sectional survey data and richer explanatory
data from the case studies. Therefore, if the researcher misses some points in the survey approach they
could be addressed during the case studies. Therefore, this research adopts a combined strategy of case
studies with a survey approach. Accordingly, the survey approach was mainly used to identify factors
affecting the accuracy of pre-tender cost estimates, BIM adoption drivers, and barriers in the Sri Lankan
context (through findings derived from the literature survey). Furthermore, case studies were mainly used
to identify the root causes of factors affecting the accuracy of pre-tender cost estimates, BIM adoption
drivers, barriers, and mitigating actions.
4.6.2 Case Study Design
A case study has been defined by Yin (2.14, p.18) as “an empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary
phenomenon within its real-life context, especially when the boundaries between phenomenon and context
are not clearly evident”. As this study seeks to evaluate phenomena in a real-life situation, case studies
provide a platform for the researcher to get a clear picture of the relationships and processes within the
phenomena. The justification for selecting case studies has been discussed in detail under section 4.5.1.
Figure 4.8: Types of case study based on number and units (Kulatunga, 2008)
Yin (2009) identified four types of case study design based on the number of cases and units for analysis,
such as single holistic, single embedded, multiple holistic, and multiple embedded designs (Figure 4.8).
The purpose of using cases studies for this research is to identify the key factors and root causes of the
factors affecting the accuracy of pre-tender cost estimates, key BIM drivers, barriers and their root causes,
129
and mitigating actions in Sri Lankan QS organisations. In this context, multiple-case studies allowed
researcher to examine the phenomenon in more than one case along with replication across the cases.
Therefore, the evidence and conclusions from multiple-designs are more reliable and convincing than those
based on single-case designs; thus, the findings are more likely to be generalised (Yin, 2014). Moreover,
multiple case study evidence is often considered more compelling; therefore, an entire study becomes more
robust (Herriott & Firestone, 1983). The critical response from experts involved in the two-different
contexts will help to develop a more robust and valid theory to contribute to knowledge. Accordingly,
multiple case studies have been selected for this study.
According to Yin (2014), holistic and embedded are the two variants of the multiple case study design.
Case study analysis based on one unit is called holistic, whilst analysis based on more than one unit is called
embedded. According to Sekaran (2003, p.132), “the unit of analysis refers to the level of aggregation of
the data collected during the subsequent data analysis stage”. Moreover, according to Yin (2014) the unit
of analysis could be a ‘case’ which can include individuals, event(s), an entity(ies), communities, programs,
practices, and so forth. Accordingly, this research attempt studies the phenomena of BIM adoption from
various perspectives. Therefore, evidence will be collected through different units namely factors affecting
the accuracy of pre-tender cost estimates, BIM adoption drivers, BIM adoption barriers and mitigating
actions to overcome the barriers. Thus, this study is considered an embedded variant. Therefore, a multiple
embedded case study was adopted as the case study design for this study (Figure 4.8).
Yin (2014) identifies four categories, such as single case study, multiple- case study, an option for either a
single-case or multiple-case study, and an option for a multiple-case study only to analyse and present data
derived from cases studies. In this study, the researcher adopted the final option, as it allows the researcher
to analyse and present the research findings as one set of data. According to Yin (2014) multi-case studies
can be analysed as one set of data where the researcher focuses on studying the phenomena itself but not
the case. In this study, the researcher’s focus is to identify factors affecting the accuracy of pre-tender cost
estimates, BIM adoption drivers, BIM adoption barriers and mitigating actions in general, but not the
phenomena existing separately in each case. Yin (2014) provided different examples, such as the research
carried out by Kaufman (1981) to examine the administration behaviour of Federal Bureau Chiefs in six
Federal Bureaux. Although this research was conducted with different chiefs in different bureaux (cases),
the data synthesized the lessons learned from the overall experience rather than focusing on each case
separately (Yin. 2014).
Prior to selecting number of cases, it is fundamental to define the case study boundaries. According to Yin
(2014, p.237), case boundaries can include “the time period, social groups, organizations, geographic
locations, or other conditions that fall within the case”. Boundaries will help the researcher to identify the
limitations of the data collection (Yin, 2014). This is supported by Baxter and Jack (2008) who point out
that, “the boundaries indicate what will and will not be studied in the scope of the research project”.
Accordingly, Sri Lanka was selected as a highly suitable country to conduct the empirical study, as justified
in Section 1.2. Thus, the selection of large-scale quantity surveying organizations located in Colombo
district denotes the boundary for the case studies.
4.6.2.1 Selection Criteria for each Case Study
In a multiple case study approach, there is no generally recognized number of cases for selection
(Tzortzopoulos, 2004). According to Yin (2003), the process of case selection should be dictated by the
replication of logic. The selected cases will be tested, and successful cases will be used to prove or disprove
130
previous findings. Therefore, the number of cases should be decided based on the extent to which new
information or perceptions could be gathered (Dyer et al., 1991). The replication logic of multiple case
design, according to Yin (1994), is illustrated in Table 4.3. According to Table 4.3, this study is considered
under literal replication logic, as three cases marked the point at which data collection saturation was
achieved.
Table 4.3: Replication logic strategies for determining the number of cases in multiple-case designs (Yin,
1994).
Eisenhardt (1989) stated that by filling gaps in theory with relevant examples through polar types of result,
the selected cases should be able to replicate previous cases or the degree of developed theory. Therefore,
to draw final conclusions at the end of the study a thorough but rigid selection of cases is vital to confirm
that the researcher has collected sufficient information. In this research, cases were selected by considering
the research aim and objectives as follows:
a) The research develops a framework to support BIM adoption for QS organisations to improve the
accuracy of pre-tender cost estimates. Therefore, the selection criteria were based on major QS
organisations within the Sri Lankan capital. Considering the financial capabilities to afford BIM
adoption, this study only focused on large scale organizations. In order to select large-scale
organisations, the researcher selected those registered by the Construction Industry Development
Authority (CIDA) in Sri Lanka, as it is the professional body responsible for the registration and
grading of construction organisations in Sri Lanka. Accordingly, CS1 (3000 ≥ X > 1500 Rs. Million
financial limit) and CS2 (X > 3000 Rs. Million financial limit) are large construction organisations;
therefore, the organisations that have obtained CS1 and CS2 are considered when selecting the cases.
b) This study intends to identify factors affecting the accuracy of pre-tender cost estimates through
BIM adoption. Therefore, the selected organisation should mainly deal with pre-tender cost
estimation, or both pre and post, in order to obtain appropriate data covering the pre-tender stage.
c) Moreover, the case study organisations must currently use, or be in the process of adopting, BIM,
as this study aims to identify BIM adoption drivers, barriers and mitigating actions. Selecting
organisations that have already adopted, or are in the process of adopting, BIM would enable the
researcher to obtain more reliable data.
131
d) The selected organisation should also be capable of granting the researcher access to collect required
data within their organisation; therefore, firms in the capital city, Colombo, were chosen.
As BIM is not used much within the Sri Lankan construction industry, before starting the investigation an
assumption was made that few companies have taken BIM as potential business marketing, which led to
the claims to adopt BIM, although their statuses were arguable. In many publications, it was identified that
the primary technology for BIM is the use of 3D parametric tools (Construction Project Information, 2009;
Eastman et al., 2008; Elvin, 2007; National Institute of Building Science, 2007; Smith & Tardif 2009).
Therefore, in this study, organisations were selected based on the use of BIM tools, such as Revit and
CostX. The following techniques were used to identify BIM-based organisations:
a) Direct communication with QS organisations in Sri Lanka

b) Attachment and collaboration with ICTAD and IQSSL (Institute of Quantity Surveyor’s Sri Lanka)
c) Direct communication with construction professionals in Sri Lanka
The researcher was able to identify nine organisations, along with contact numbers and email addresses.
Requests to conduct preliminary interviews were issued through the contact details obtained. Out of nine
organisations, five positively responded to the request. The aim of the preliminary interview was to identify
the level of existing BIM practice within these organisations. The following questions were asked during
the preliminary interviews:
a. As part of the screening process to ensure the company has fully/partially incorporated BIM within
their business.
b. As part of the refinement to the interview questions, to get a brief picture of the company. This
information helps to identify the questions that suit the company’s level of BIM usage.
c. As part of the research strategy, to develop trust and credibility so that the researcher could gain
access to carry out data collection.
With regard to the interviews, three case studies were selected for this study and more detail of the selected
organisations are discussed in Chapter 6. The next section will discuss the selected time horizon for this
study.
4.7 Time Horizon
The next layer of research onion refers to the time horizon, which considers the organisation and
management of the research within the given time frame. Different time horizons are possible, such as
‘snapshot’ cross-sectional or ‘diary’ and longitudinal (Saunders et al., 2016). PhD studies have to be
undertaken within a given time frame. In cross-sectional studies, the researcher undertakes a sequential
process, such as the literature review, methodology, sketching a framework, data collection, and the
researcher can work all stages at the same time. For the longitudinal horizon, each stage depends on the
results of the previous stage; therefore, the researcher can only work on one stage at one time. Time pressure
can mean that researchers take shortcuts (Bell, 2014); therefore, Green et al. (1993) argued that it is
important to define a time horizon for research. This research conducted under a PhD program within a
given period focuses on a particular phenomenon. Research must be undertaken under defined university
rules and regulations. As this research is time-constrained, a cross-sectional approach has been selected.
132
From the semi-structured interviews and questionnaire survey, this research gathers cross-sectional data to
develop the BIM adoption framework.
4.8 Research Technique
The inner layer of Saunders’ et al. Research Onion represents a research technique that consists of data
collection and data analysis methods. Saunders (2011) identified this as the most important part of the
conduct of the research. Saunders (2011) identified some key issues in relation to the data collection, such
as ‘sampling’, ‘secondary data’, and ‘primary data’. Both qualitative and quantitative techniques were
employed for this research, such as triangulation, which boosted the researcher’s personal understanding of
the phenomena. Moreover, the use of both types of method helped the researcher to meet study purposes
by developing a database consisting of all relevant numerical and non-numerical evidence. Therefore, three
linked research techniques have been used in this study, namely a literature review, semi-structured
interviews, and questionnaire surveys. Interviews were selected, as the study demands an in-depth
exploration within the social phenomenon. Moreover, as this study adopted a mixed method design a
questionnaire survey was also incorporated as a research technique. These selected techniques are discussed
further in the context of the current research.
4.8.1 Literature Review

A critical evaluation of the literature helps to develop a clear picture of the research area through gathering
existing knowledge in the subject area (Saunders et al., 2011). Moreover, it also helps to justify the
importance of conducting research and evaluating the current need for a particular study (Khoshgoftar &
Osman, 2009). This research literature involves two stages. In the first stage:
§ A critical literature review was conducted to identify the problem through which it was possible to
develop the research aim and objectives.
§ After developing the aim and objectives, a more extensive literature review was conducted around
the subject area to identify factors affecting the accuracy of the pre-tender cost estimate process,
the use of BIM in the estimation, BIM adoption worldwide, and drivers and barriers for its adoption.
Based on the literature review findings, a questionnaire survey and semi-structured interviews were
conducted, to identify the components of the developed BIM adoption framework.
In the second stage, the literature review was used to explain, justify, collect data, and validate the research
findings.
4.8.2 Questionnaires
The questionnaires used to gather survey data numerically, which is easy to analyse (Dörnyei & Taguchi,
2010). Once the respondent sample is selected (see section 4.8 for information on data sampling), the
questionnaire can be distributed (Babbie, 2011). According to Cohen and Manion (2000), three types of
questionnaire can be identified, as follows:
§ Structured: includes closed questions that are analysed statistically, due to the generation of
response frequencies.
133
§ Semi-structured: contains open-ended questions designed within a certain structure and sequence
that permits respondents to concentrate their answers in a particular way while responding in their
own words.
§ Unstructured: includes completely open-ended questions, letting respondents write whatever they
want with minimal structuring.
In this research, structured questionnaires have been used, as developed by the researcher and based on the
literature review findings (Babbie, 2011; Fellows & Liu, 2008; Tharenou et al., 2007). Two sets of
questionnaires have been developed, one to identify factors affecting the accuracy of pre-tender cost
estimates (Questionnaire A), second to identify the barriers and drivers for BIM adoption (Questionnaire
B). Moreover, questionnaires can be managed by hand, email, or online (Fellows & Liu, 2008; Tharenou
et al., 2007). Therefore, questionnaire A was conducted as a survey (not within selected cases studies), and
copies were distributed mainly by hand and via email. Questionnaire B was limited to the selected case
studies and distributed by hand. This is because respondents need to have BIM knowledge in order to fill
the questionnaire B. Figure 4.9 illustrates how the questionnaire survey was conducted. The questionnaire
offers different advantages; for example, it is easier to collect data from a large population, while collected
responses are easier to process (Babbie, 2011). Moreover, data can be used to develop models of any
particular relationships between the variables studied (Saunders et al., 2012). Therefore, in this context, the
final results of the survey have formed a possible relationship among main research paradigms, which
enables the development of a framework for the research.
134
Figure 4.9: Process of the questionnaire survey
As previously mentioned, questionnaires were developed based on the literature findings (Figure 4.9).
Questionnaire A consists of two sections, namely the background of the respondents and factors affecting
the accuracy of the pre-tender cost estimation process (see Appendix B). Questionnaire B also consists of
two sections, such as the background of the respondents and questions relating to the BIM drivers and
barriers (see Appendix C). Based on the type of data collected, the researcher has to determine the
measurement scale for the questionnaire (Creswell, 2012). The type of data can either be categorical or
numerical. Categorical data cannot be measured in numbers, but rather categorised according to the
variables’ characteristics; meanwhile, numerical data refers to data that can be counted (Saunders et al.,
2009). These two categories also consist of subcategories, such as nominal and ordinal data (categorical),
and interval and ratio data (numerical) (Sekaran, 2003). In this research, nominal, ordinal and interval are
the most used scales as response options for the respondents. According to Creswell (2012), in this research
nominal scales are used to check respondents’ background information, such as working experience, current
role, and so forth, for both questionnaires. Ordinal scales are used to describe the level of BIM awareness,
and the importance of using BIM for cost estimation. Finally, in both the questionnaires, interval scales are
applied to ascertain the level of agreement on the item descriptions in the questionnaire. A 5-point Likert
scale (strongly agree, agree, neutral, disagree, and strongly disagree) was used, and Table 4.4 represents
the values designated for this scale.
Table 4.4 Values designated for the Likert scale
Strongly Strongly
Scale Agree Neutral Disagree
Agree Disagree
Value 5 4 3 2 1
Besides, a separate section for further comments has been added at the end of section 2 in both
questionnaires to minimize the tendency to give an inaccurate answer when the respondents lack knowledge
or opinion on a specific question topic. Once the questionnaire designs were completed, a pilot study was
undertaken with experts to test the success of developed questions.
4.8.3 Questionnaire Pre-Testing

Piloting, or pre-testing, is essential for a questionnaire before its distribution among respondents, as it
identifies and eliminates problems that respondents might encounter when answering the questionnaire
(Cooper & Schindler, 2003; Frazer & Lawley, 2000; Zikmund et al., 2007). A pilot study needs to be
conducted with experts and testing conducted as a two-stage process. As recommended by Frazer & Lawley
(2000), the questionnaires designed for this research were pre-tested with academics. However, all the
selected academics used to work in the industry, therefore their expertise covered both academics and
industry capabilities. Moreover, testing of questionaries also required BIM knowledge (questionnaire B),
therefore the use of academics was more useful in terms of testing questions.
135
Rather than carrying out pre-testing to test the entire questionnaire and survey procedure, the researcher
was able to get specific feedback on each item of the questionnaire from the experts. Moreover, it was
possible to identify complicated words in questions that could lead to problems, and bias caused by the
question order. After pre-testing, revisions were made to both questionnaires based on the experts’
feedback. The revised questionnaires were then released to the selected sample of respondents. Properly
conducted pre-testing can ensure that the data collection process collects precise, good quality answers to
the questions posed in order to achieve the research objectives.
4.8.4 Interview
A qualitative interview allows the researcher to ask questions of the interviewees (Babbie, 2011) to gather
their feelings and views (Tharenou et al., 2007) about the area of study. According to Yin (2009), the
selection of the interview technique is based on the valuation level that the researcher could achieve from
the collected data. The conduct of the interviews is important due to the confidentiality of some evidence,
such as company and personal records. Therefore, in this research, interviews were conducted within the
selected case studies and considered as a primary data collection technique. Kumar & Phrommathed (2005)
and Naoum (2012) defined interviews as a process where the researcher obtains data from a person or
source. They can be conducted face-to-face (Tharenou et al., 2007) or through a medium like the Internet
or telephone. According to Easterby-Smith et al. (2012), there are three types of interviews, namely
‘structured’, ‘semi-structured’, and ‘unstructured’. Moreover, they also highlighted that in qualitative
research in-depth and semi-structured interviews are essential. This research is considered semi-structured,
as the researcher has designed a set of questions based on the questionnaire findings and literature. Figure
4.10 illustrates the semi-structured interview process for this research.
Figure 4.10: Process of semi-structured interviews
136
Hence, this structure could be varied based on the interviewees’ experiences, knowledge, ideas, and
impressions (Robson, 2002). An audio recorder was used to record the conversation alongside taking notes,
which helped when transcribing the interviews and used within the data analysis (Dawson, 2009; Fellows
& Liu, 2008). The transcribed interviews were analyzed using thematic analysis (see section 4.10)
(Tharenou et al., 2007). From the interviews, it was possible to understand the current role of QS
organisations in BIM adoption in Sri Lanka, to identify the drivers that influence the adoption of BIM, to
note the barriers they experienced and why were those barriers occurred, and what actions were or could
be taken to mitigate the impact of the barriers. Moreover, it also helped the researcher to understand the
level of current BIM awareness within the organisation including the extent of their current BIM usage.
The researcher created codes for the analysis to identify the BIM drivers and barriers; this helped to create
particular themes related to the adoption of BIM, and ensured the semi-structured interviews were the most
appropriate technique to gather the data.
Table 4.5 summarises the method adopted to address each objective. Accordingly, different techniques
were used to achieve different objectives. Moreover, some objective solely depended on one technique such
as objective 2. Meanwhile, some objectives required all techniques.
Table 4.5: Research techniques adopted to achieve the objectives of the study
Semi-
Literature Questionnaire
Objectives Structured
Review Survey
interviews
To identify the current status of pre-tender cost
estimates • • •
1
Factors affecting the accuracy of pre-tender cost
estimates in Sri Lanka. • • •
To evaluate the development of BIM, and the use of
2 BIM to improve the accuracy of pre-tender cost • • •
estimates.
To identify the BIM adoption drivers and barriers
• • •
3 The mitigating actions to overcome the impact of
identified barriers. • • •
To develop and validate a BIM adoption framework
4 for Sri Lankan Quantity Surveying firms to improve • • •
the accuracy of pre-tender cost estimates.
After describing the data techniques, the section defines the data sample according to the research context.
137
4.9 Data Sampling
Researchers need to delineate their sample from a well-defined population (Czaja et al., 2014). The concept
of sampling indicates a representation of the selected group from a large population that enables the
researcher to get the information required in order to generalise the findings without the need to study the
entire population (Ary et al., 2010). To avoid bias, the researcher must be confident that the selected sample
represents the population. Therefore, in research, a manageable sample is required which represents the
entire population (Saunders et al, 2016). Probability and non-probability sampling are the two major types
of techniques available.
According to Czaja et al. (2014), probability sampling is also known as random sampling where the sample
is selected by using a random process. In this method, the chance of selecting sample size mostly depends
on the data collection technique (Saunders, 2011). In most cases, probability sampling techniques are more
suitable where statistically analysed data are required (survey-based); therefore, the findings need to
consider whether they represent the entire population (Saunders, 2011). Non-probability sampling
determines the sample by considering judgment, convenience, or quota without engaging any random
process. According to Figure 4.11, both sampling techniques consist of different methods.
Figure 4.11: Sampling Techniques
In terms of this research, multiple methods have been adopted that consider the chosen data collection
techniques. To conduct the questionnaire survey A, probability sampling technique was selected. Under the
probability sampling option, a systematic sampling method was selected. Sri Lankan quantity surveyors
registered with the Institute of Quantity Surveyors Sri Lanka (IQSSL) were the target population. There are
138
about 300 members registered with IQSSL, yet only 169 could be considered within the research sample
(calculated on the Krejcie & Morgan (1970) table). Hence, after contacting IQSSL, it was found that only
120 remained from the Sri Lankan construction industry, as the rest were working abroad. Therefore, for
this research questionnaire, the sample size was limited to 120 quantity surveyors. After contacting IQSSL
it was able to identify charted quantity surveyors, senior quantity surveyors, quantity surveyors and assistant
quantity surveyors from the given list. Therefore, the selected sample consisted of surveyors mainly dealing
with pre-tender cost estimation process, and BIM adoption, which included: charted quantity surveyors,
senior quantity surveyors, quantity surveyors and assistant quantity surveyors. In terms of questionnaire B,
probability stratified method was selected. Using stratified method, it was able to identify the desired
respondents to obtain relevant data. Accordingly, 50 respondents (BIM knowledgeable QS’s) were
identified as the sample size for the questionnaire B.
This research aims to develop a BIM adoption framework; therefore, the views of experts within BIM-
based quantity surveying organisations are important. The in-depth data collection was conducted to
identify the factors affecting the accuracy of pre-tender cost estimates, BIM adoption barriers, drivers, and
the mitigating actions, which were used to develop the framework. In that continuum, each person in the
sample was studied in more detail and researcher focused on a quality rather than quantity sample in order
to collect rich data. Considering the aforesaid argument, purposive sampling was selected to determine the
sample for the semi-structured interviews. According to Figure 4.11, purposive sampling is a sub-set
of non-probability sampling where a specific sample is selected in a non-random way to obtain rich and
specialised data related to a study (Kumar, 2011; Saunders et al., 2011).
Deciding the sample size is more complex in qualitative research compared to quantitative research.
Moreover, unlike in statistical research, in qualitative research, the sample size is an essential consideration
(Kumar, 2011). Once the researcher reached the point of data saturation, they have achieved an adequate
size. Such a point is achieved when no new themes are discovered, or new information is received (Kumar,
2011; Saunders et al., 2011). Saunders et al. (2016), summarises the non-random minimum sample size for
different types of study, as shown in Table 4.6.
Table 4.6: Non-random minimum sample size (Saunders et al., 2016)
Nature of Study Minimum Sample Size
Semi-structured/in-depth interviews 5-25
Ethnographic 35-36
Grounded Theory 20-35
Considering a homogenous population 4-12
Considering a heterogeneous population 12-30
139
By combining purposive and heterogeneous sampling methods, the interviewees were selected from the
selected case studies. Saunders et al. (2016) stated that the minimum non-probability sample size for semi-
structured interviews, which is shown in Table 4.6, 9 semi-structured interviews were conducted.
Moreover, this number was based on similar research conducted by Guest et al. (2016) who found that data
saturation occurred after nine interviews in qualitative studies. Saunders et al. (2009) also recommended
this technique when an in-depth understanding is required about the issues. The sample consists
of management level QS, charted quantity surveyors, senior quantity surveyors, quantity surveyors,
assistant quantity surveyors who are dealing with the main preparation of cost estimates using BIM-related
tools in a BIM adoption process and have more than five year’s experience in the same position and as
organisation managers.
4.10 Ethical Considerations for the Research
Throughout the entire research process, the researcher considered all ethical issues. The main ethical
considerations in this research included inter alia: obtaining the informed consent of the research
participants; conveying assurance to the participants that their anonymity and confidentiality of the research
data would be maintained and preserved; the researcher maintaining objectivity and openness (Fellow and
Liu, 2008; Saunders et al., 2012), and adhering to the University’s ethical research approval process.
Approval was obtained from the University’s Ethics Approval Panel (see Appendix A).
4.11 Data Analysis Approach
Data analysis is based on the researcher’s style of empirical thinking and interpretation. In quantitative data
analysis, descriptive statistical methods were used to analyse the data collected from the questionnaires,
which were processed using MS Excel software. Moreover, a Relative Important Index (RII) was used to
determine the relative importance of the:
1. Factors affecting the accuracy of pre-tender cost estimates,

2. BIM adoption drivers, and
3. BIM adoption barriers identified through the literature review.
A study by Braun and Clarke (2006) indicated that thematic analysis is the basis for many highly diverse
qualitative approaches. Therefore, to analyse the semi-structured interviews, thematic analysis was used as
it allowed the researcher to identify, analyse, and report the themes within the data. Accordingly, Braun
and Clarke (2006) defined six stages, as illustrated in Table 4.7, which is a step-by-step guide for researchers
when undertaking thematic analysis.
140
Table 4.7: Phases of Thematic Analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006)
For this study Braun and Clarke’s (2006) steps were followed to analyse qualitative data as follows;
• Step 1: As stated all data were transcribed from audio to text using Microsoft Word. Once the data
were fully transcribed, all transcriptions were saved into one folder by allocating a password. The
purpose was to create a database that included all opinions, perspectives, and conceptions on the
phenomenon that were gathered in the same place. A separate code was given to each interview, and
the codes were used while writing the analysis, which enabled the selection of quotations and helped
to form the themes. To become familiar with the data, the researcher started to read the transcript
carefully.
• Step 2: After becoming familiar with the data set, the researcher started the initial coding (see Figure
4.12) to identify important keywords stated by the respondents. As this was the researcher’s first
experience thematic analysis, she did not allow herself to drive the code. Therefore, the codes were
generated from the data, and in some cases, the researcher used the same words used by respondents
to represent the codes.
141
Figure 4.12: Example of the Coding Process
• Step 3: Once the coding was applied to all textual data, the researcher started to identify the links
among similar codes to create sub-themes. However, this was driven by the codes themselves and not
the researcher. In other words, the researcher highlighted the links between codes, which were
suggested by the codes themselves in the sub-themes. A Microsoft Excel sheet was used to accomplish
this step (see Figure 4.13) as it is easier to collect all data under sub-themes. Besides, the same
spreadsheet was used in steps 4 and 5 to create and finalize the main themes. Moreover, lines
(extracted from interview transcripts) included in the Excel sheet were used during the writing of the
report (step six) to support the themes.
Figure 4.13: Create themes and sub-themes by using Excel sheet
• Step 4: Once all codes were placed under the sub-themes, the major themes were created. The major
themes were created as suggested by the sub-themes. Therefore, the researcher was not responsible for
creating them, but rather for representing them. In other words, the researcher did not have any intention
of driving the sub-themes, but left the codes to do so.
142
• Step 5: After identifying the initial themes, the researcher revisited them to clarify their meaning or to
modify the theme names by adding more value. However, this does not mean any changes to the themes;
thus, the themes were clarified in line with the codes and sub-themes.
• Step 6: The last step of the thematic analysis was to write the report. During this step, the researcher
had to bring all the quotations, sub-themes, and themes together to make sense of the data in a textual
written format. The themes and sub-themes were presented as suggested by the codes, which were
derived from the textual script of the data (see Figure 4.12).
4.12 Validity and Reliability
To ensure the validity and reliability of the research two factors needed consideration. The terms validity
and reliability are interpreted differently depending on the context of a qualitative and quantitative study.
Construct validity, internal validity, external validity, and reliability are the four tests listed by Yin (2014)
as suitable for confirming validity and reliability in case study research. Construct validity employs methods
appropriate to the concept under study, as subjective decisions could be involved in the collection of data.
Therefore, the use of multiple data collection techniques helps to confirm construct validity. Internal
validity can be achieved by comparing similar occurrences across the cases. However, as Yin (2014) argues,
for descriptive or exploratory research, internal validity is not essential. The third test concerns external
validity to test the extent that the research findings can be generalized beyond the scope of the case study
concerned. This is provable using replication logic in multiple case studies. Finally, reliability means the
process by which a study can be repeated within and beyond the study. This is most applicable to a positivist
stance; thus, this cannot apply to an interpretivism stance as this type of study conducted in a non-controlled
context (Easterby-Smith et al., 2008). Therefore, in this study reliability is confirmed by following a
standard protocol that can be replicated. Moreover, it can be determined by ensuring that respondents
understood the questions properly (Silverman, 2009).
The reliability of the questionnaire survey data was tested using quantitative techniques, specifically
Cronbach’s alpha using SPSS software, which is the most frequently used reliability coefficient test (Cho
& Kim, 2015). Consequently, the said test was conducted to confirm the reliability of the quantitative data
(see section 5.2.3 for detailed test information).
4.13 Outcome of the Research and Validation
A framework that enables BIM adoption among Sri Lankan QS organizations is the intended outcome of
this research. The final framework was developed based on the analysis of the outcomes. The framework
(see Chapter 7) lists drivers for BIM adoption, barriers and their root causes, and suggests mitigating actions
for each barrier. The framework is validated for authenticity and credibility by another set of expert
interviews. A group of experts was engaged in the validation process, and each driver, barrier, and
mitigating action was validated based on their opinions (see section 8.2 for further information).
143
4.14 Summary
This chapter consists of a description of the methods followed to conduct the empirical study of this
research. Firstly, the philosophical stance of the researcher was justified, following which the research
approach and methodological choice were described, along with the survey design, case study design, and
justification of the case selection. The study adopts an explanatory method by conducting a questionnaire
survey followed by a case study. This chapter then presented the data collection tools, data analysis
techniques, and accordingly, the qualitative data were analysed by using thematic analysis to identify the
sub-themes and themes. The quantitative data were analysed descriptively and RII was used to determine
the rank of each identified factor. This chapter finally illustrates the validation strategies. Figure (4.14)
illustrates the selected methods and techniques for this research study.
Figure 4.14: Adopted methodology for this research
144
5 ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS FROM THE QUANTITATIVE
ENQUIRY
5.1 Introduction
This chapter describes the findings from the quantitative data analysis for both Questionnaires A and
B. The aim of questionnaire A is to identify major factors affecting the accuracy of pre-tender cost
estimates in Sri Lanka by achieving objective 1 of this research. Questionnaire A consists of two
sections; section 1 mainly consists of the respondent’s background and their level of current BIM
adoption. The respondent’s profile was evaluated based on their experience in construction cost
estimating, professional background, current position within the organisation and the business nature
of their organisation. Also, to identify BIM adopted organisations for questionnaire B, respondents
were also asked the level of BIM adoption within their organisation and knowledge in BIM. Section 2
targets the factors affecting the accuracy of pre-tender cost estimates and consists of various factors,
which were based on the findings of the literature review. Questionnaire B was designed to achieve
objective 3, which aims to identify BIM adoption drivers and barriers. This questionnaire consists of
three main sections; section 1 consists of the respondent’s professional background, BIM usage within
the organisation, types of BIM software use and application, BIM usage and productivity, the effect of
BIM on the current role of the Quantity Surveyor, the nature of their organisation’s business, and their
planning for future BIM usage. The second and third sections identify the drivers and barriers for BIM
adoption, respectively.
To analyse both questionnaires, descriptive analyses were applied in which the frequencies or sample
distribution percentages were described using tables, charts, and figures. Descriptive analysis is
important to statistically interpret the data. Ultimately, the patterns that emerge from the data analysis
could be translated in a more meaningful way. For sections 2 and 3 of both questionnaires, the Relative
Important Index (RII) was calculated to identify the key drivers and barriers, and the results have been
presented in tables. The analysis for both questionnaires consisted of various steps, such as the
examination of the preliminary data, coding, and the validity and reliability tests for the questionnaire
responses.
5.2 Preliminary Data Analysis
Before analysing the data, the returned questionnaires needed to be checked and researcher needed to
determine that appropriate data had been obtained for the statistical analysis. The appropriate
questionnaires were then finalised for coding and data entry using Ms Excel and SPSS. Finally, the
validity and reliability tests were conducted on the data for evaluation to ensure that only valid and
reliable responses were used for the analysis.
5.2.1 Response Rate
In this research, questionnaires were distributed among Sri Lankan Quantity Surveyors registered with
Institute of Quantity Surveyors in Sri Lanka (IQSSL). As discussed in section 4.8, the sample size for
questionnaire A was limited to 120 although 102 responses were obtained. The sample size for
questionnaire B was based on the responses received from questionnaire A. The results of questionnaire
A revealed that, out of 102 respondents only 50 respondents were engaged in a BIM-based practice.
Therefore, for questionnaire B sample size was limited to 50 respondents. Table 5.1 shows the total
number and percentage of overall responses in this research for both questionnaires.
Table 5.1: Total number and percentage overall responses for questionnaires A and B
Number of responses
Questionnaire A Sample Percentage (%)
received
Registered with IQSSL 120 102 85%
Unusable Questionnaires 120 0 0
Usable Questionnaires 120 102 85%
Overall Response Rate 85%
Questionnaire B
Registered with IQSSL & BIM-based

50 50 100%
practice
Unusable Questionnaires 50 10 20%
Usable Questionnaires 50 40 80%
Overall Response Rate 80%
For research validity purposes, Baruch (1999) stated that only usable responses should be identified
within the suitable response rate, which directly reflects the numbers and percentage of usable
questionnaires. Therefore, 100% completed questionnaires identified as usable and incomplete
questionnaire identified as unusable. However, by deducting unusable responses from the sample, the
overall response rate was calculated at 85% and 80% for questionnaires A and B respectively.
According to Johnson and Wislar (2012), there is no universally accepted response rate for any research
hence, 60% is generally used as the limit. Nevertheless, Baruch (1999), found an average response rate
of 55.6% was acceptable from his studies. For this research, both questionnaires (at 85% and 80%)
achieved acceptable response rates, which are considered satisfactory for the data analysis.
5.2.2 Coding and Data Entry

For both questionnaires A and B, the finalised responses (102, 40 respectively) were obtained from the
survey, which were then treated as raw data. In order to analyse them statistically, numerical and
character symbols were assigned to the questionnaire items, which enabled the data coding. The coding
was limited to section 2 of questionnaire A and sections 2 and 3 of questionnaire B. Once coding has
been conducted, all data were manually entered into Ms Excel for further analysis. Prior to entering the
data into the software, variables specifying the required information were defined to align with the
earlier coding set. The variables that make up the data files should have been given appropriate name
and value labels. Questionnaire A and B have two sections (section 1 and 2), and three sections (1,2
and 3) respectively for evaluation. Therefore, in sections 2 and 3 of both questionnaires each item is
represented by a unique code.
5.2.3 Instrument Validity and Reliability
Validity refers to the degree to which an instrument measures what it is supposed to measure (Polit &
Hungler, 1985). In this research, the validity of the survey instruments (Questionnaire) was tested
through a pilot study using a set of academics. Rather than carry out pre-testing on the entire
questionnaire and survey procedure, it was possible to get feedback from experts that was specific to
each item in the questionnaire. Moreover, it was possible to identify complicated words in the questions,
problems with leading questions, and bias caused by the question order. Based on their feedback,
necessary revisions were made to both questionnaires before distribution.
In comparison, reliability is concerned with the accuracy of data measurement, which is free of random
error when estimated (Cooper & Schindler, 2003; Pallant, 2013; Zikmund et al., 2007). As this
questionnaire was designed with a Likert scale, the researcher needed to determine the reliability of the
scale. Reliability can be measured using the Coefficient alpha (referred to as Cronbach’s alpha). This
research adopts the following rules stipulated by George and Mallery (2003) that provide the
Cronbach’s alpha values for reliability tests: “_>0.9=Excellent; _>0.8=Good; _>0.7=Acceptable;
_>0.6=Questionable; _>0.5=Poor; _<0.5=Unacceptable”. The summary of the reliability test for both
data sets is presented in Table 4.2; all items in the questionnaire sections have a high level of reliability.
Table 5.2: Summary of the reliability test of the overall responses for questionnaires A and B
Questionnaire A
Number of
Sections Cronbach’s Alpha Reliability
Items
Section 2: Factors affecting the accuracy

0.918 57 High
of pre-tender cost estimates
Questionnaire B
Section 2: Drivers for BIM adoption 0.948 42 High
Section 3: Barriers for BIM adoption 0.938 46 High
5.3 Relative Important Index (RII)
RII has been widely used in construction research to determine the relative importance of the surveyed
variables (Holt, 2014). Chan and Kumaraswamy (1997) used the following formula to determine the
relative ranking of factors. Therefore, in this study RII was computed for the filtered factors from the
descriptive analysis in both the questionnaires.
Equation 5.1 Formula for RII (Source: Chan & Kumaraswamy, 1997)
Where W, which is the weighting given to each factor by the respondent, ranges from 1 to 5; A is the
highest weight (i.e., 5 in the study) and N is the total number of respondents. In this study RII was used
to identify the most important and least important factors such as affecting factors for the accuracy of
pre-tender cost estimates, BIM barriers and drivers.
5.4 Data Analysis and Findings from Questionnaire A – Section 01
This section explains the background information of respondents regarding their current role,
educational background, experience in construction cost estimating, nature of their business
organisation and their current level of BIM knowledge. These data help to describe the general nature
of survey respondents, which has a significant role in determining that reliable outcomes for this
research. The results are presented using tables, pie charts, graphs, and figures.
5.4.1 Professional Background
The respondent's professional background was investigated in order to identify their current role within
the organisation as it indirectly reflects the pattern of responses given for this survey. This survey was
mainly aimed at Quantity Surveyors with a quantity surveying background, as most of their practice
involves construction cost estimating works. The survey results indicated that all respondents were from
a quantity surveying background, which is 100% of the overall percentage (refer Table 5.1). As
illustrated in Table 5.3, the sample consisted of the following: Trainee QS (9%), Assistant QS (28%),
Quantity Surveyors (46%), Senior QS (12%), Charted Quantity Surveyor (3%) and Charted Senior
Quantity Surveyor (2%). Therefore, the results confirm reliable and valid sources who can provide
adequate and useful data for the research.
Table 5.3: Distribution of respondents based on their professional backgrounds in their organisations
Profession Frequency Percentage (%)
Trainee Quantity Surveyor (TQS) 9 9%
Assistant Quantity Surveyor (AQS) 29 28%
Quantity Surveyor (QS) 47 46%
Senior Quantity Surveyor (SQS) 12 12%
Charted Assistant Quantity Surveyor (CAQS) 0 0%
Charted Quantity Surveyor (CQS) 3 3%
Charted Senior Quantity Surveyor (CSQS) 2 2%
Total 102 100%

5.4.2 Performing Roles in Organisations
As the role of the QS consists of many tasks, it is difficult to conclude that by having a quantity
surveying background all respondents would deal with cost estimating within their organisations. In
some cases, they might have been assigned to perform different roles within a quantity-surveying
context. As the main focus of this research is cost estimation, it is vital to confirm whether respondents
have been actively involved in cost estimation within their profession. Therefore, a survey question was
designed considering this subject.
Table 5.4 demonstrates the most common roles amongst respondents within their organisations. Thus,
the most frequently performed tasks are cost estimation (69%), taking off quantities (90%) and the
preparation of BOQ (74%). Moreover, respondents also perform tendering (50%), cost planning (30%),
document preparation (60%), cost control (38%) and interim valuations (67%). As the majority of
respondents deal with cost estimation tasks, their responses met the research requirements, which
required data from the appropriate respondents to generalise relevant findings.
Table 5.4: Distribution of respondents based on their roles within the organisations
5.4.3 Experience in Construction Cost Estimating

Based on the questionnaire, respondents were categorised into five main groups, namely less than 1
year, 1-3 years, 4-5 years, 6-10 years and more than 11 years of experience in construction cost
estimating. The following table (5.5) demonstrates the distribution; the majority of respondents had
more than 5 years of experience (27%) in cost estimating and 23% of respondents had more than 11
years of experience. Nevertheless, the percentage distribution did not differ significantly between the
rest of the groups. Furthermore, 21% of respondents had 4-5 years of experience, 21% ranged from 1-
3 years of experience, and 9% had less than 1 year of experience in construction cost estimation. This
distribution amongst the group of respondents positively contributed to this research by helping to
identify weaknesses in cost estimation and awareness, knowledge, and application within the context
of BIM.
Table 5.5: Distribution of respondents based on construction cost estimating experience
5.4.4 Business Nature of the Current Organisation

It is important to know the business nature of the respondent’s current organisation, as the scope of this
research is pre-tender cost estimation in the Sri Lankan context. Therefore, to confirm that organisations
are based in Sri Lanka, respondents were asked to indicate “In which geographical locations does your
company carry out work?” The results indicate that all 102 (100%) respondents confirmed they work
in organisations that carry out work within Sri Lanka. Apart from Sri Lanka, UAE (50%), India (20%),
Australia (10%) and Maldives (5%) are the other locations in which companies work.
As this research focuses on pre-tender cost estimating, it is vital to know the type of businesses that
these organisations are engaged with. This is because organisations can be involved at different stages
of the construction project lifecycle. Survey results indicate that 60% of respondents work for
contracting quantity-surveying organizations and 40% work for consulting quantity surveying
organisations. Although contracting organisations represent less than 60%, they also deal with pre-
construction works within their business.
Moreover, respondents also were asked what types of contracts they engage with order to certify that
they conduct pre-tender cost estimation (Figure 5.1). The results indicate that 27% of respondents are
completely engaged in the process of preparing pre-tender cost estimates; however, the majority of
respondents (55%) are engaged in the preparation of both pre- and post-contract cost estimates. Only
18% of respondents are totally engaged in the process of post-contract work.
Pre-Contract
27%
Post Contract
Both
55%
18%
Figure 5.1: Nature of contract types of organisations
5.4.5 Respondents’ BIM Awareness and Usage

The background profile for this questionnaire was developed to define the characteristics of an entire
group of respondents, thus verifying the appropriate responses for analysis. However, this section also
examines the level of BIM adoption amongst respondents from a Sri Lankan quantity-surveyor’s
perspective. The aim of this section is to identify and filter the respondents who're in a BIM-based
process for questionnaire B.
To examine their current level of BIM knowledge, they were given a scale of novice, intermediate or
advanced. According to Figure 5.2, of 102 respondents, the majority (63%) considered themselves
intermediates in terms of BIM knowledge. Only 1% of respondents had advanced knowledge, as the
rest (36%) were novices to BIM. Therefore, it can be concluded that most respondents have a moderate
level of knowledge of BIM.
1%
Novice
36%
Intermediate
63% Advanced
Figure 5.2: Respondents’ awareness of BIM
Respondents were also asked to indicate the level of BIM usage within their organisation. According
to Figure 5.3, of the 102 responses, 20% have already adopted BIM while 30% are in the process of
adopting BIM in their organisation. This implies that a considerable number of respondents expected
to use BIM in the near future. They might potentially believe that BIM would continuously bring
improvement to their existing practice; therefore, its usage should be extended for future projects.
Figure 5.3: Respondents’ level of BIM adoption
However, the majority of respondents (50%) have not yet adopted or are not in the process of adopting
BIM in the near future. This might be due to a lack of awareness of BIM and its benefits. However, it
was possible to identify BIM knowledgeable respondents to conduct questionnaire B. Accordingly, the
respondents who have adopted and in the process of adopting BIM (nearly 50) were given questionnaire
B. This is significant as respondents were required to have BIM knowledge to answer the given
questions.
5.5 Data Analysis And Findings From Questionnaire A: Section 2
Section two of questionnaire A aimed to identify the factors affecting the accuracy of pre-tender cost
estimates. Accordingly, the questionnaire consisted of 57 closed-ended questions (factors) under 11
main headings, which were based on the literature review in chapter 2, namely the use of 2D drawings,
a lack of information, software issues, a lack of communication, a lack of coordination, time constraints,
manual QTO, estimator experience and knowledge, and a lack of proper site investigations. The factors
were tested in the questionnaire using a five-scale approach, and the results are discussed below.
The frequency values of the responses identifying issues with the use of 2D drawings are illustrated in
Table 5.6. According to the table, D1 received the highest percentage of agreement (95%), which
indicates the accuracy of design drawings are important for the accuracy of cost estimates. Besides, the
lowest agreement was recorded for D2 (47%). However, the rest of the factors recorded over 65%
agreement among the participants. In terms of disagreement with the factors, D2 received the highest
percentage (25%). Besides, the lowest percentage of disagreement was recorded for D5 and D9 (both
1%). The results indicate that the majority of participants agreed with all statements in Table 5.6.
Therefore, it can be concluded that the use of 2D drawings affects the accuracy of cost estimates.
Table 5.6: The use of 2D drawings
Coding The use of 2D drawings SA AG NU DA SD
The accuracy of the design drawings directly affects the

D1
accuracy of cost estimates. 54% 41% 3% 2% 0%
As 2D drawings do not allow any relationship between

the components of the drawings (Ex: wall and window),
D2
it is difficult to map the costs to each element in the
drawings. 3% 44% 28% 23% 2%
2D drawings have individual views and changes in one

D3
view will not automatically reflect in other views. 16% 71% 11% 2% 1%
The editing of plans, sections or elevations in 2D

D4 drawings requires that all other sections are checked
and updated manually. 30% 57% 10% 3% 0%
The manual revision of drawings is time-consuming

D5
and delays the entire estimation process. 32% 56% 11% 0% 1%
2D drawings provide limited visualisation and make it

D6
more complex for Quantity Surveyors to interpret. 9% 56% 24% 12% 0%
The lack of visualisation may lead to errors, such as the

D7 use of incorrect quantities of building elements,
materials, plants, etc. 21% 57% 17% 6% 0%
Wrong assumptions and incorrect decisions can be

D8 made by QS based on drawings, which would directly
affect the accuracy of cost estimates. 20% 60% 18% 3% 0%
Errors and omissions in drawings significantly affect

D9
the accuracy of cost estimates. 34% 55% 10% 1% 0%
Table 5.7 illustrates the frequency values for responses identifying issues related to a lack of
information. Accordingly, I2 received the highest agreement percentage (93%), whereas the lowest
agreement was recorded for statement I5. However, all statements recorded over 65% agreement among
the participants. In terms of disagreement with the factors, I6 received the highest percentage (5%),
whereas I1, I2, I3, and I4 received the lowest disagreement percentage (1% each). The results indicate
that the majority of participants agreed with all statements in Table 5.7 and resulted in a lack of
information. Therefore, it can be concluded that lack of information is a factor that affects the accuracy
of cost estimates.
Table 5.7: Lack of information

Coding Lack of Information SA AG NU DA SD
The accuracy of cost estimates positively

I1 correlate with the level of given or available
information. 27% 61% 11% 1% 0%
Insufficient information increases the

I2
inaccuracy of cost estimates 40% 53% 6% 1% 0%
Insufficient information leads to inaccurate

I3
decisions/assumptions by the QS 33% 51% 15% 1% 0%
The quality and appropriateness of the

I4 information impacts on the accuracy of
estimates. 24% 59% 17% 1% 0%
Paper based manual information exchange

I5 practices
increases the inaccuracy of cost estimates. 22% 43% 31% 4% 0%
Poor information flow during the estimation

I6 process, which increases the inaccuracy of cost
estimates. 24% 51% 21% 5% 0%
Four issues were extracted from the literature and identified as belonging to the factor ‘inefficiencies in
existing cost estimating software’. These issues were tested in the questionnaire survey and results are
summarised in Table 5.8.
According to Table 5.8, S4 received the highest agreement percentage (82%), whereas S1 recorded the
lowest agreement (36%). On the other hand, S1 recorded the highest disagreement percentage (40%),
which indicates that ‘Generic systems such as Microsoft Excel used for estimation’ is not a root cause
behind the factor inefficiencies in cost estimating software. Moreover, the lowest disagreement was
recorded for S4 (0%). Apart from S1, the remaining statements recorded over 50% agreement among
the participants. Therefore, findings indicate that the majority of participants agreed with statements
S2, S3 and S4. It can be concluded that inefficiencies in existing cost estimating software affects the
accuracy of cost estimates, according to S2, S3 and S4.
The next section of the questionnaire asked about causes related to the lack of communication, as
extracted from the literature. Accordingly, causes and their findings are illustrated in Table 5.9. The
highest percentage of agreement was received for COM1 (94%). In the meantime, the lowest agreement
was recorded for COM10 (55%). In terms of disagreement, COM10 recorded the highest percentage
(20%), whereas COM1 and COM8 recorded the lowest percentage (1%). Thus, all statements in Table
5.9 recorded over 55% agreement among participants, which indicates that the majority of the
participants agreed that COM1 to COM10 resulted in a lack of communication. Therefore, findings
indicate that a lack of communication was a factor affecting the accuracy of cost estimates.
Table 5.8: Inefficiencies in existing cost estimating software
Coding Inefficiencies in existing cost estimating software SA AG NU DA SD
Generic systems, such as Microsoft Excel, which is

S1 used for estimation, represent a major reason for the
reduction in the estimate accuracy. 7% 29% 24% 32% 8%
Current computer programs tend to unrealistically

overestimate, e.g. the software imposes higher risk
S2
allowances compared to estimates through human
interaction. 6% 45% 27% 21% 1%
Generic software, such as Excel, needs to be

S3 programmed manually by the QS before can be used
effectively for estimation. 14% 69% 16% 2% 0%
Human errors in defining repetitive functions in excel

S4
could lead to miscalculations measurements. 20% 62% 19% 0% 0%
Table 5.9: Lack of communication
Coding Lack of communication SA AG NU DA SD
Communication with team members is vital to prepare

COM1
accurate cost estimates. 41% 53% 5% 1% 0%
Communication and data sharing are challenging due

COM2 to intense competition that ultimately results in less

COM3 to a lack of trust that ultimately results in less accurate
cost estimates. 8% 65% 25% 3% 0%

COM4 to, short-term relationships that ultimately result in
less accurate cost estimates. 8% 59% 25% 6% 2%

COM5 to, selfishness that ultimately results in less accurate
cost estimates. 10% 61% 18% 10% 2%
Paper-based manual information sharing affects the

COM6
accuracy of cost estimates. 19% 48% 25% 8% 0%
Formal feedback from project participants, such as the
design team and the estimating team, is essential
COM7
where changes have to be made during the estimation
process 36% 51% 13% 0% 0%
Isolated working culture is a major reason for poor

COM8
communication. 28% 49% 22% 1% 0%
A lack of online meetings or emails for

COM9 communication will lead to less accurate cost
estimates. 18% 46% 28% 7% 1%
Face to face meetings will lead to less accurate cost

COM10 estimates, as it takes considerable time to organise
meetings. 18% 37% 26% 15% 4%
Participants were also asked about the causes related to a lack of coordination, as extracted from the
literature. Accordingly, causes and their findings are illustrated in Table 5.10. The highest percentage
of agreement was received for COO3 (87%). In the meantime, the lowest agreement was recorded for
COO4 (57%). In terms of disagreement, COO2 recorded the highest percentage (3%), whereas COO1
and COO3 recorded the lowest percentage (0%). Thus, all statements in Table 5.10 recorded over 57%
agreement among participants, which indicates that the majority of participants agreed that COO1 to
COO5 resulted from a lack of coordination. Therefore, findings indicate that a lack of coordination is a
factor affecting the accuracy of cost estimates.
Table 5.10: Lack of coordination
Coding Coordination SA AG NU DA SD
The lack of coordination between cost management,

COO1 design, and construction causes difficulties in cost
estimating. 42% 43% 15% 0% 0%
A lack of coordination results in delays and disruption to

COO2 the accurate measurement of works, which create less
A low level of coordination amongst project participants

COO3 results in a low level of communication and information
sharing. 24% 63% 14% 0% 0%
A lack of interactivity among project members leads to

COO4
repetitive work during the preparation of cost estimates. 28% 45% 25% 1% 1%
Poor documentation among project members lead to

COO5
repetitive work during the preparation of cost estimates. 28% 54% 16% 1% 1%
The next section of the questionnaire concerned time constraints and their causes, as extracted from the
literature. Accordingly, causes and their findings are illustrated in Table 5.11. As illustrated in the table,
the highest percentage of agreement was received for T4 (81%). In the meantime, the lowest agreement
was recorded for T1 (72%). In terms of disagreement, T2 and T4 recorded the highest percentage (5%),
whereas T3 recorded the lowest percentage (0%). Thus, all statements in Table 5.11 recorded over 72%
agreement among participants, which indicates that majority of participants agreed that T1 to T4
resulted in time constraints. Therefore, findings indicate that time constraints represent a factor affecting
the accuracy of cost estimates.
Table 5.11: Time constraints
Coding Time constraints SA AG NU DA SD
Limited time given for the preparation of cost estimate

T1
reduces the accuracy of cost estimates. 27% 45% 25% 2% 1%
QS’s are tempted to take shortcuts, such as guess

T2 estimation, when under time pressure to complete a cost
estimate. 21% 57% 18% 5% 0%
Identifying and reflecting on design changes and

T3 incorporating them within estimates or measurements are
the most time-consuming tasks. 10% 68% 23% 0% 0%
Limited time available to the estimator to verify

T4
assumptions increases the inaccuracy of cost estimates. 28% 53% 14% 5% 0%
Participants were also asked about causes related to the lack of experience and knowledge amongst
quantity surveyors, as derived from the literature. Table 5.12 illustrates the findings for the lack of
experience and knowledge amongst quantity surveyors. Accordingly, the highest percentage of
agreement was received for KNW2 (91%). In the meantime, the lowest agreement was recorded for
KNW3 (86%). In terms of disagreement, KNW2 recorded the highest percentage (4%), whereas KNW1
and KNW3 recorded the lowest percentage (0%). Thus, all statements in Table 5.11 recorded over 86%
agreement among participants, which indicates that the majority agreed to KNW1, KNW2 and KNW3
resulted in a lack of experience and knowledge amongst quantity surveyors. Therefore, findings indicate
that a lack of experience and knowledge amongst quantity surveyors represent a factor affecting the
accuracy of cost estimates.
Table 5.12: Lack of experience and knowledge amongst quantity surveyors
Lack of experience and knowledge of quantity

Coding SA AG NU DA SD
surveyor
The accuracy of an estimate heavily depends on the level

KNW1
of estimator experience. 50% 36% 14% 0% 0%
Even though different tools are available for estimation,

professional experience and knowledge are essential to
KNW2
operate them appropriately and achieve accurate
estimates. 49% 42% 5% 4% 0%
Lack of construction technology knowledge will lead to

KNW3 inaccurate cost estimates, due to wrong assumptions made
by QS. 48% 38% 14% 0% 0%
The next section of the questionnaire asked about the causes related to MQTO, as extracted from the
literature. Accordingly, causes and their findings are illustrated in Table 5.13. The highest percentage
of agreement was received for MQTO1 (92%). In the meantime, the lowest agreement was recorded
for MQTO5 (70%). In terms of disagreement, MQTO5 recorded the highest percentage (6%), whereas
MQTO1, MQTO2 and MQTO3 recorded the lowest percentage (1% each). Thus, all statements in Table
5.9 recorded over 70% agreement among participants, which indicates that the majority of participants
agreed that MQTO1 to MQTO5 resulted in MQTO. Therefore, findings indicate that Manual Quantity
Take-Off (MQTO) represent a factor affecting the accuracy of cost estimates.
Table 5.13: Manual Quantity Take-Off (MQTO)
Coding Manual Quantity Take-Off (MQTO) SA AG NU DA SD
Manual quantity take-off and calculations are more

MQTO1
time-consuming tasks in the estimation process. 40% 52% 7% 1% 0%
The QS needs to track and account for design changes
MQTO2 in drawings and update quantities and costing during the
QTO. 32% 57% 10% 1% 0%
Design changes will demand re-measurement, which is

MQTO3 a tedious task and can mean the production of inaccurate
estimates. 21% 60% 19% 1% 0%
The risk of double counting is greater during a manual

MQTO4
take-off. 27% 48% 20% 5% 0%
Conventional QTO does not allow preparing various

MQTO5 cost estimates for different design alternatives, without
the need to go through a substantial rework. 14% 56% 25% 6% 0%
The last question concerns the lack of proper site investigations and the causal factors extracted from
the literature review. Accordingly, causes and their findings are illustrated in Table 5.14. The highest
percentage of agreement was received for SV2 (91%). In the meantime, the lowest agreement was
recorded for SV1 (83%). In terms of disagreement, SV2 recorded the highest percentage (2%), whereas
SV1 recorded the lowest percentage (1%). Thus, all statements in Table 5.14 recorded over 83%
agreement among participants, which indicates that the majority of participants agreed that SV11 and
SV2 resulted in a lack of proper site investigation. Therefore, findings indicate that the ‘lack of proper
site investigations’ represent a factor affecting the accuracy of cost estimates.
Table 5.14: Lack of proper site investigations
Coding Lack of proper site investigations SA AG NU DA SD
The failure to visit a project site may also lead to incorrect

SV1 measurements and the preparation of inaccurate cost
estimates. 33% 50% 16% 1% 0%
The estimator must have prior knowledge of site conditions

SV2 such as ground condition, site access, etc to produce an
accurate cost estimate. 34% 57% 7% 1% 1%
5.6 Ranks and RII Analysis for the major factors affecting the accuracy of pre-tender cost
estimates.
After conducting the descriptive analysis for all the above factors and causes, it was possible to identify
factors and the causes of each factor affecting the accuracy of pre-tender cost estimates. Accordingly,
except for S1, “Generic systems such as Microsoft Excel used for estimation is a major reason for
reducing the accuracy of estimates” the majority of participants agreed on the remaining statements.
Thereafter, based on the findings in section 5.5, RII was calculated and the results were summarised in
Table 5.15. However, as the majority of participants disagreed with S1, this was not considered in the
findings for RII.
Table 5.15: Ranks and RII factors affecting the accuracy of pre-tender cost estimates
Factor Statement Average

RII Value Rank
Category Code RII Value
D1 0.796
D2 0.829
D3 0.837
D4 0.792
The Use of 2D Drawings
D5 0.845 0.806 06
D6 0.755
D7 0.847
D8 0.788
D9 0.769
HI1 0.865
HI2 0.835
Lack of Information HI3 0.810 0.812 04
HI4 0.765
HI5 0.786
S2 0.769
Software Issues S3 0.788 0.786 07
S4 0.802
COM1 0.869
COM2 0.759
COM3 0.755
COM4 0.729
COM5 0.733
Lack of Communication 0.770 09
COM6 0.755
COM7 0.847
COM8 0.810
COM9 0.745
COM10 0.700
COO1 0.855
COO2 0.820
Lack of Coordination COO3 0.798 0.829 03
COO4 0.816
COO5 0.855
T1 0.792
Limited Time T2 0.786 0.778 08
T3 0.755
Manual QTO MQTO1 0.863 0.811 05

MQTO2 0.841
MQTO3 0.800
MQTO4 0.796
MQTO5 0.755
KNW1 0.873
Estimator Knowledge and
KNW2 0.873 0.872 01
Experience
KNW3 0.869
SV1 0.831
Lack of Proper Site Investigations 0.838 02
SV2 0.845
As illustrated in Table 5.15, estimator knowledge and experience were ranked first with an RII of 0.872
and supported with three root causes that were identified through descriptive analysis. Ranked second
was a lack of proper site investigation with an RII of 0.838, which was also supported with two root
causes. The factor ‘lack of coordination’ was ranked in 3rd place with an RII of 0.829 and it was
supported with five root causes. A lack of information was ranked in 4th place with an RII of 0.812, it
was also supported with five root causes. MQTO was ranked 5th with an RII of 0.811 and supported
with five root causes. The use of 2D drawings was ranked in 6th place with an RII value of 0.806 and
supported with nine root causes. Software issues ranked in 7th place with an RII value of 0.786 and
supported with three root causes. Moreover, at 8th place was time constraints with an RII value of
0.778, which was supported by three root causes. Finally, a lack of communication was ranked in 9th
place with RII of 0.770 and supported by 10 root causes.
5.7 Summary and Link: Questionnaire A findings
An analysis of questionnaire survey A was conducted to achieve objective one of the study (‘to identify
the current status of pre-tender cost estimates and the factors affecting the accuracy of pre-tender cost
estimates in Sri Lanka), and findings were presented in this section. A descriptive analysis was followed
by RII and conducted to identify the affecting factors and their root causes, as initially identified through
the literature. The results indicate that estimator knowledge and experience, a lack of proper site
investigations, a lack of coordination, a lack of information, and manual QTO are the major factors
affecting the accuracy of pre-tender cost estimates. However, findings also indicate that the use of 2D
drawings, software issues, limited time, and a lack of communication also have an impact on the
accuracy of cost estimates. Accordingly, findings also indicate root causes for each factor, and the
majority indicated agreement by participants. However, participants did not agree (the majority
disagreed) with S1 ‘Generic systems such as Microsoft Excel used for estimation is a major reason for
reducing the accuracy of estimates’, which indicates that the use of Microsoft Excel is not a major cause
behind software issues. The next section of this chapter explains the analysis of questionnaire survey
B.
5.8 Data Analysis And Findings From Questionnaire B – Section 01
5.8.1 Professional Background

The respondent's professional background was investigated in order to identify their current role within
the organisation as it indirectly reflects the pattern of responses given for this survey. This survey
mainly targeted Quantity Surveyors with a quantity surveying background, which was important given
that most of their practice involves BIM-based construction cost estimating works. The survey results
indicated that all respondents were from a quantity surveying background, at 100% from the overall
percentage (refer to Table 5.1). This sample consists of Trainee QS (7%), Assistant QS (35%), Quantity
Surveyors (27%), Senior QS (13%) and Charted Quantity Surveyors (18%), as illustrated in Figure 5.4.
Therefore, the results suggest reliable and valid sources who can later provide adequate and useful data
for the research.
Trainee Quantity Surveyor

(TQS)
7%
18%
Assistant Quantity
Surveyor (AQS)
13% 35% Quantity Surveyor (QS)
Senior Quantity Surveyor

27% (SQS)
Charted Quantity Surveyor

(CQS)
Figure 5.4: Distribution of respondents based on their professional background in their organisation
5.8.2 Business Nature of the Current Organisation

It is important to have an idea about the business nature and location of the respondent’s current
organisations as this research is limited to the Sri Lankan context. Therefore, to confirm that
organisations are based in Sri Lanka, respondents were asked to indicate, ‘In which geographical
locations does your company carry out work?’ The results indicate that all 40 (100%) respondents
indicated that they work within organisations in the Sri Lankan construction industry. Apart from Sri
Lanka, UAE (75%) and Australia (15%) are the other locations in which these companies work.
5.8.3 Respondents’ BIM Adoption in the Sri Lankan Construction Industry
The background profile has demonstrated the characteristics of the group of respondents, hence
verifying the appropriate responses for analysis. This section further investigates the context of BIM
adoption in the Sri Lankan construction industry, from a quantity surveyor’s perspectives. This consists
of respondents’ BIM awareness, current knowledge, and BIM usage. Moreover, respondents have
further provided detail about the use of BIM software and its main application within their organisation.
5.8.3.1 Awareness of BIM
The level of BIM awareness amongst respondents was assessed based on their level of BIM knowledge
and the way they defined BIM. According to Figure 5.5, 22 respondents defined BIM as just software,
whilst 13 identified it as follows: “BIM gets people and information working together effectively and
efficiently through defined processes and technology”. Furthermore, eight respondents defined BIM as
a technology, and seven identified BIM as both software and technology. In addition, seven respondents
identified that BIM provides a smooth flow of information, whilst only six identified BIM as a process.
As a whole, it can be concluded that the majority of respondents are aware of the BIM, even though it
is not used that much in Sri Lankan QS practice.
Figure 5.5 Respondents’ BIM awareness
Of 40 respondents, 30 (75%) respondents were aware of the benefits and drawbacks, of BIM while only
10 (15%) were not aware of such benefits and drawbacks. Moreover, respondents were also asked how
they got to know about BIM and, according to the survey results (Figure 5.6), the majority (36) heard
from professionals in the industry, while the rest mainly heard through workshops (17), seminars (13),
conferences (4) and websites (10). Interestingly, no one had studied or attended a BIM course within
this sample. This could be due to the lack of availability of BIM courses within the Sri Lankan education
system.
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Professio
nals in Worksho Confere Website
Seminars
the ps nces s
Industry
Series1 36 17 13 4 10
Figure 5.6: Respondents’ BIM knowledge sources
5.8.3.2 BIM Software Usage and its Application
The level of BIM adoption amongst Sri Lankan quantity surveyors was initially assessed as a part of
this survey. As shown in Figure 5.7, 85% of 40 respondents are engaged in a BIM-based practice, while
15% are in the process of adopting BIM.
Using BIM Intending to

85% Other use BIM in
15% near future
15%
Figure 5.7: Respondents level of BIM adoption
The respondents’ experience of BIM-based practice varied from 2-3 years (22%), 4-6 years (63%) and
more than 6 years (15%), which indicates that some organisations are matured in BIM-based practice.
The 34 survey respondents who are using BIM in their practice were questioned on the types of BIM
software they adopt and the main areas in which they actively involved in BIM-based practice. These
two categories of question were designed as multiple-responses, therefore the respondents could choose
more than one answer in accordance with whatever relates to their practice.
According to Figure 5.8, the most commonly adopted software is CostX (100%). This software is
specially designed for quick, BIM-supported quantity take-off, to suit the practice of Quantity
Surveyors to enable accurate and efficient building cost estimation. Moreover, respondents also selected
CATO (39%), which is also another BIM-based cost estimating software, whilst 12% of respondents
also adopted Revit. However, no respondents selected Autodesk quantity take-off, Innovaya and Vico
take-off manager, which were also included in the survey list.
Figure 5.8: Respondents most commonly engaged BIM software
CATO 13
COSTX 30
REVIT 4
0 10 20 30 40
According Figure 5.9, the majority of respondents (98%) use BIM mainly to prepare cost estimates.
This process consists of quantity take-off and the preparation to estimates for particular projects. It can
be seen that respondents used BIM software in this phase, as it was the most important stage in their
practice, especially when considering pre-tender cost estimating, which is one of the most crucial tasks
in the field of quantity-surveying. Quantity Surveyors play a significant role in this phase by ensuring
that they produce accurate cost estimates for the project. Apart from cost estimating, respondents also
adopted BIM technology to perform other roles, such as lifecycle costing (27%), valuation (13%),
feasibility studies (33%) and risk management (8%).
Valuing completed work and arranging

5
payments
Analysing proposed outcomes 3
Identifying, analysing and developing

3
responses to risks
Establishing client requirement and feasibility
12
studies
Cost analysis and lifecycle costing 10
Preparation of Cost estimates 35
Figure 5.9: Respondents main involvement in BIM areas

5.8.4 The BIM Effect in Current QS Roles
The effect of BIM in respondents’ current roles was also investigated. Figure 5.10 illustrates the survey
results of the BIM effect. Accordingly, 27% believed that BIM will not affect their current role,
although the majority (58%) believed that the application of within BIM quantity surveying will
redefine the role of the QS. The remaining respondents (15%) believes that BIM application would
make the role of the QS extinct.
Application of BIM
15% will Not affect the role
27% of quantity surveyor.
Application of BIM
will redefine the role of
quantity surveyor.
Application of BIM
58% will Extinct the role of
quantity surveyor.
Figure 5.10: BIM effect in respondent’s current role
5.8.5 BIM and its Productivity in Cost Estimating

The productivity of BIM usage was also examined as part of the survey. All respondents including users
and non-users were asked, ‘With the implementation of BIM, did your company experience, or do you
anticipate it experiencing, a loss of productivity/ gain of productivity? According to the results, almost
all respondents (100%) selected yes. This indicates that BIM users have already increased their
productivity and that respondents who are going to use BIM in the near future strongly believe that it
will increase productivity. Moreover, respondents were also asked ‘The use of BIM generally improves
the ability of the quantity surveyor to provide good cost advice during early design development?’ Table
5.16 illustrates the responses obtained from participants.
Table 5.16: The BIM effect on providing early cost advice
The use of BIM generally improves the ability of the quantity

surveyor to provide good cost advice during early design Frequency Percentage
development.
SA 7 18%
AG 24 60%
NU 6 15%
DA 3 8%
SD 0 0%
Also, respondents were asked, ‘The use of BIM generally improves the accuracy of cost estimates’ and
the results obtained are summarised in Table 5.17.
Table 5.17: The BIM effect on improving the accuracy of cost estimates
The use of BIM generally improves the accuracy of cost

Frequency Percentage
estimates
SA 4 10%
AG 32 80%
NU 4 10%
DA 0 0%
SD 0 0%
These results clearly indicate that the use of BIM has increased the accuracy of cost estimates through
its benefits, especially in the early stages of a project. Therefore, it can be concluded that the use of
BIM has improved the traditional process of cost estimating, by making the job of a quantity surveyor
easier.
5.9 Data Analysis And Findings From Questionnaire B – Section 2: BIM Drivers
Section two of questionnaire B was developed to identify the drivers of BIM adoption. Accordingly,
the questionnaire consists of 42 closed-ended questions (factors) under seven main headings which
were based on the literature review (Chapter 3). Thus, BIM benefits, Client Demand, Government
Drivers, Professional Bodies, Industry Demand, BIM-based Education, Organisational Pressure are the
main headings. The factors were tested in the questionnaire using a five-scale approach, and results are
discussed below.
Question: Did any BIM benefit encourage you to adopt BIM/will any of the following BIM benefits
encourage you to adopt BIM?
Twenty elements were extracted from the literature and listed as BIM benefits factors. The frequency
values of the responses for each statement are summarised in Table 5.18.
Table 5.18: BIM benefits: BIM drivers
Coding BIM benefits Root causes SA AG NU DA SD
BM1 Improved design quality 38% 54% 7% 0% 0%
BM2 Reduced re-design issues 26% 47% 27% 0% 0%
BM3 The provision of a clear workable model

for end users 19% 71% 8% 3% 0%
BM4 Design changes are reflected consistently

in all drawing views. 37% 47% 15% 1% 0%
The use of
BM5 BIM model An improved, rich three-dimensional (3D)
context that helps a QS to identify
significant cost-sensitive design features 26% 47% 25% 1% 0%
BM6 Any changes made to the model, such as

the editing of plans, sections or 3D views
within the model are automatically made to
40% 42% 17% 1% 0%
all other documentation, drawings, and
outputs, which saves time spent on manual
revision.
IV1 Earlier and more accurate design

visualisation 31% 57% 9% 2% 0%
IV2 Improved Improved clash detection 28% 59% 13% 0% 0%

visualisation
IV3 QS can carry out a 3D virtual walk-through
and ensure everything in the model is
factored in the QTO. 23% 58% 16% 4% 0%
AI1 QS can to extract and distinguish

information from the 3D model 16% 75% 9% 0% 0%
AI2 Easy Access

to QS can upload or download any
Information information at any stage of the project from 16% 66% 14% 4% 0%
these models.
AI3 Information can be filtered 16% 69% 13% 1% 0%
IM1 Efficiencies from the reuse of data 22% 65% 13% 0% 0%
IM2 Improved document management 29% 51% 19% 1% 0%

IM3 Improved
Information Intelligent information management
Management allows data to be stored in a centrally
coordinated model.
19% 59% 21% 0% 0%
ICOM Improved
Improved communication between project
communicati
parties
on 32% 49% 12% 6% 0%
ICOO Improved
Improved coordination
coordination 29% 44% 24% 3% 0%
AQTO1 Cost implications of design changes can be

generated easily without manual re-
measurement. 24% 70% 5% 0% 0%
Automate
AQTO2 Quantity Easily generated and accurate cost
Take-off estimates for various design alternatives. 16% 65% 19% 0% 0%
AQTO3 Preliminary cost plan can be prepared by

extracting quantities from the model. 27% 69% 4% 0% 0%
According to Table 5.18, the findings indicated seven BIM benefits. In term of the use of a BIM model,
BM3 received the highest percentage of agreement (90%), whereas BM2 and BM5 recorded the lowest
agreement (73%). In terms of disagreement with the factors, BM3 received the highest percentage (3%),
whilst the lowest percentage of disagreement was recorded for BM1 and BM2 (1% each). Nevertheless,
the findings indicate more than 73% agreement for all statements under the BIM model. Therefore, the
findings confirm that the use of a BIM model offers key benefits for BIM adoption.
Findings also indicate that improved visualisation represents another BIM benefit. Accordingly, IV1
recorded the highest percentage of participant agreement (88%), whereas IV3 received the lowest
agreement (81%). Besides, the highest disagreement was recorded for IV3 (4%) whereas IV2 recorded
the lowest (0%). Thus, all statements under improved visualization recorded over 81% agreement
amongst the participants, meaning the findings indicated that improved visualization is another key
benefit of BIM adoption. Easy access to information is another indicated benefit; accordingly, AI1
recorded the highest percentage of agreement (91%) whereas AI2 recorded the lowest agreement (82%)
while the highest disagreement percentage was 4%, and the lowest disagreement was for AI1 (0%).
However, all statements recorded over 82% agreement by participants, which indicates that easy access
to information is another BIM benefit that encourages them to adopt BIM.
According to Table 5.18 (showing IM1 at 87%, IM2 at 80%, and IM3 at 78%), improved information
management was found to be another BIM benefit for participants. Accordingly, ‘Efficiencies from the
reuse of data’ received the highest percentage of agreement. This suggests that, compared IM2 and IM3,
IM1 contributes more substantially to improved information management. Besides, the highest
disagreement was recorded for IM2 (1%) and the lowest was for IM1 and IM3 (0% each). However, all
statements received more than 80% agreement, which indicates that improved information management
is another BIM benefit that encourages participants to adopt BIM.
Findings also indicate the majority of participants agreed that improved information management (Ag,
81%; DA, 6%) and improved coordination (Ag, 73%; DA, 3%) are BIM benefits. Besides, findings also
indicated that AQTO is another BIM benefit for participants that encourage the adoption of BIM.
Accordingly, AQTO1, namely ‘Cost implications of design changes can be generated easily without
manually re-measurement’ recorded the highest agreement percentage (94%), whereas AQTO2
recorded the lowest agreement (81%). In the meantime, no participants disagreed with the statements.
However, all statements received more than 81% agreement, which indicates that AQTO is another
BIM benefit (due to AQTO1, AQTO2, and AQTO3) and encourages participants to adopt BIM. Overall,
the above findings indicate that BIM benefits have encouraged participants to adopt BIM. Therefore, it
can be concluded that the BIM benefits are key drivers for its adoption.
Question: Did any of the following factors encourage you to adopt BIM/will encourage you to
adopt BIM?
The purpose of this question was to identify the remaining BIM drivers, aside from the BIM benefits.
Accordingly, Table 5.19 illustrates the frequency values of the responses that helped to identify the
drivers related to BIM adoption. As the table illustrates, organisational intervention recorded the highest
agreement percentage (96%) from participants. This indicates that organisational intervention has been
a strong driver for BIM adoption, whilst the lowest agreement was recorded for government
intervention (411%). In terms of disagreement with the factors, MD received the highest percentage
(51%), whereas the lowest percentage was recorded for PBI and OI (0% each). In addition, BE and GI
recorded 50% disagreement, whilst PBI and CD recorded 88% and 75% agreement respectively.
Therefore, based on these results the majority of participants agreed only with OI, PBI, and CD. The
majority of participants disagreed with the remaining factors (BE, MD, and GI). Therefore, findings
indicated that OI, PBI, and CD are the BIM drivers for BIM adoption; thus BE, MD, and GI were not
major influences for BIM adoption.
Table 5.18: BIM Benefits - BIM Drivers
Coding Factor SA AG NU DA SD
CD Client Demand 20% 55% 24% 1% 0%
GI Government Intervention 21% 20% 9% 20% 30%
PBI Professional bodies intervention 38% 50% 12% 0% 0%
MD Market Demand 21% 25% 3% 32% 19%
BE BIM-based education 21% 26% 3% 30% 20%
OI Organisational Intervention 38% 58% 4% 0% 0%

5.10 Ranks and RII Analysis for BIM Adoption Drivers
After conducting a descriptive analysis for the above factors, it was possible to identify 13 major drivers
for BIM adoption in Sri Lanka. Thereafter, RII was calculated for all the filtered factors and the results
have been summarised in Table 5.20.
Table 5.19: Ranks and RII Values of the BIM Adoption Drivers
RII
BIM DRIVERS Coding Average Rank
Value
RII Value
BM1 0.845
BM2 0.770
BM3 0.810
The use of a BIM Model 0.798 06
BM4 0.790
BM5 0.810
BM6 0.765
IV1 0.805
Improved Visualisation IV2 0.810 0.808 05
IV3 0.810
AI1 0.800
Easy Access to Information AI2 0.760 0.780 08
AI3 0.780
IM1 0.800
Improved Information Management IM2 0.785 0.786 07
IM3 0.775
Improved Communication ICOM 0.770 0.770 09
Improved Coordination ICOO 0.765 0.765 10
AQTO1 0.825
Automate Quantity Take-off 0.811 04
AQTO2 0.775
AQTO3 0.835
Client Demand CD 0.845 0.845 03
Professional Bodies PBI 0.855 0.855 02
BIM-Based Education BE 0.660 0.660 11
Organisational Intervention OI 0.860 0.860 01
Government Intervention GI 0.650 0.650 12
Market Demand MD 0.610 0.610 13
With an RII value of 0.860, the most influential driver for Sri Lankan quantity surveyors to adopt BIM
seems to be organisational intervention. Secondly the intervention of professional bodies was ranked
with an RII value of 0.855, whilst client demand was ranked third, with an RII value of 0.845.
Automated QTO was ranked in fourth place with a similar RII value of 0.811 that was supported by
three root causes. Improved visualisation was ranked in fifth place with an RII value of 0.808 (similarly
supported by three root causes).
The use of a BIM model was ranked in sixth place with an RII value of 0.798 and supported by six root
causes. Besides, improved information management was ranked in seventh place with a RII value of
0.786 and supported by three root causes. Easy access to information was identified as a driver for BIM
adoption and ranked in eighth place with an RII value of 0.780, whilst improved communication was
ranked in ninth place with an RII value of 0.770 and improved coordination ranked in tenth place with
a RII value of 0.765. BIM-based education, Government Intervention and Market Demand took 11th,
12th and 13th places with RII values of 0.660, 0.650 and 0.610 respectively. Therefore, findings indicated
that OI, PBI, CD, AQTO and IV were the key drivers for Sri Lankan QS organisations to adopt BIM.
Moreover the use of a BIM model, Improved Information Management, Easy Access to Information,
Improved Communication and Improved Coordination were among the top ten drivers. The ranking of
BE, GI and MD indicated that these were less influential factors for BIM adoption; in other words, this
indicates a lack of BE, GI and MD within the Sri Lankan context.
5.11 Data Analysis And Findings From Questionnaire B – Section 03: BIM Barriers
Section three of questionnaire B was developed to identify the barriers to BIM adoption. Accordingly,
the questionnaire consists of 46 closed-ended questions (factors) under eight main headings developed
from the literature review (chapter 3). Client Barriers, Industry Barriers, Legal Barriers, Educational
Barriers, Lack of Resources, Lack of Professional Support, Financial Barriers and Cultural Barriers
form the main headings. The factors were tested by using a five-scale approach in the questionnaire,
and the results are discussed below.
5.11.1 Financial Barrier
The frequency values of the responses that identify the root causes related to financial barriers, and
these are illustrated in Table 5.20. According to the table, FB2 received the highest percentage of
agreement (81%), which indicates the cost of training is one of the barriers for BIM adoption. Besides,
the lowest agreement was recorded for FB1 (57%). However, FB3 recorded 80% agreement among
participants, which indicates that the majority of participants concurred with all factors. In terms of
the disagreement, FB3 has received the highest percentage (12%) whilst the lowest percentage was
recorded for FB2 (5%). Therefore, due to the results for FB1, FB2 and FB3, it can be concluded that
financial concerns represent a barrier to the adoption of BIM.
Table 5.20: Financial Barrier
Coding Financial Barrier SA AG NU DA SD
FB1 Cost of new hardware and software 14% 43% 35% 7% 0%
FB2 Cost of training existing staff 20% 61% 14% 5% 0%
FB3 Cost of software updates 34% 46% 8% 12% 0%
5.11.2 Lack of BIM Awareness

As illustrated in Table 5.21, five root causes have been tested which were extracted from the literature
and grouped under lack of BIM awareness. Accordingly, LBA5 received the highest percentage of
agreement (84%), which indicates that a lack of BIM education programmes has resulted a lack of BIM
awareness. Moreover, the lowest agreement was recorded for LBA2 (70%). In terms of disagreement
with the factors, LBA1, LBA3, LBA4 and LBA5 received the highest percentage (3% each). Besides,
the lowest percentage of disagreement was recorded for LBA2 (1%). Nevertheless, all statements in
Table 5.22 recorded over 70% of agreement amongst participants, which indicates that the majority of
participants agreed with the statements. Therefore, due to the findings for LBA1, LBA2, LBA3, LBA4
and LBA5, the lack of BIM awareness poses another barrier to BIM adoption.
Table 5.21: Lack of BIM Awareness
D
Coding Lack of BIM Awareness SA AG NU SD
A
Lack of BIM-Related Continuous Professional 70 20 0
LBA1
Development (CPD), Seminars and Conferences 7% % % 3% %
LBA2 Lack of BIM Understanding About What it Will Actually 63 29 0

Achieve 7% % % 1% %
LBA3 20 53 24 0
Lack of Understanding of BIM Benefits
% % % 3% %
LBA4 17 59 22 0
Lack of BIM-Related Training
% % % 3% %
LBA5 10 74 14 0
Lack of Education Programmes on BIM
% % % 3% %
5.11.2 Legal Issues

The findings indicate that legal issues represent another barrier to BIM adoption, which is attributed to
a number of root causes, as illustrated in Table 5.22. According to Table 5.22, LI5 received the highest
percentage of agreement (69%), which indicates that a lack of interoperability has resulted in legal
issues. Moreover, the lowest agreement was recorded for LI3 (21%). In terms of disagreement, LI4
received the highest percentage of disagreement (26%) whilst the lowest percentage was recorded for
LI5 (4%). The findings also indicated that the highest percentage of the participants with a neutral
opinion about the statements was recorded to the LI3 (63%), while the lowest neutral opinion percentage
was recorded to the LI5. However, findings indicated that the majority of participants had neutral
opinions on LI2, LI3 and LI4. This could be due to lack of understanding of, or experience in, BIM-
based contracts and forms. Nevertheless, the majority of participants agreed with LI1 and LI5.
Table 5.22: Legal Issues
Coding Legal Issues SA AG NU DA SD
Data ownership is still being developing and therefore too

LI1 8% 46% 34% 12% 0%
risky.
Design responsibility is still being developing and therefore

LI2 4% 35% 46% 15% 0%
too risky.
The legalities in terms of contracts are still being developing

LI3 8% 13% 63% 15% 0%
and therefore too risky.
LI4 Liabilities are still being developed and therefore too risky. 4% 31% 39% 26% 0%
LI5 Lack of interoperability 7% 62% 27% 4% 0%

5.11.3 Lack of Internal Pressure
The findings indicated that a lack of internal pressure is another barrier to BIM adoption, which was
attributed to a number of root causes, as illustrated in Table 5.23. Accordingly, LIP2 received the
highest percentage of agreement (90%), which indicates that a lack of support from senior management
resulted in a lack of internal pressure. Besides, the lowest agreement was recorded for LIP5 (43%). In
terms of disagreement, LIP3 received the highest percentage at 12%, whilst the lowest percentage was
recorded for LIP1 (0%). The findings also indicated that the highest percentage of participants with a
neutral opinion about the statements was recorded for LIP5 (46%), while the lowest percentage for a
neutral opinion was recorded for LIP2 (14%). Nevertheless, except for LIP5, the remaining statements
in Table 5.23 recorded over 51% of agreement amongst participants, which indicates that the majority
agreed with the statements. Therefore, due to the findings for LIP1, LIP2, LIP3, LIP4, LIP5, LIP6 and
LIP7, it can be suggested that a lack of internal pressure forms another barrier to the adoption of BIM.
Table 5.23: Lack of internal pressure
Coding Lack of internal pressure SA AG NU DA SD
LIP1 Lack of detail regarding BIM implementation 26% 51% 23% 0% 0%
LIP2 Lack of support from senior management 23% 58% 14% 4% 1%
LIP3 Fear of extinction of the QS role 11% 40% 37% 12% 0%
LIP4 People’s refusal/reluctance to learn 19% 33% 38% 10% 0%
LIP5 Inflexible mind-set amongst staff 15% 28% 46% 11% 0%
LIP6 Weak cooperation between different disciplines 15% 36% 40% 9% 0%
LIP7 Strong resistance to change 11% 54% 32% 4% 0%
5.11.4 Lack of External Pressure

In the literature, it was revealed that a lack of external pressure could form another barrier to the
adoption of BIM, which was attributed to various issues. Therefore, 11 elements were extracted from
the literature and grouped under a lack of external pressure within the questionnaire. The results are
summarised in Table 5.24.
Accordingly, LEP10 received the highest percentage of agreement (88%), which indicates that a lack
of professional involvement resulted in less external pressure to adopt BIM. Besides, the lowest
agreement was recorded for LEP9 (44%). In terms of the disagreement with the factors, LEP11
received the highest percentage (14%), whilst the lowest percentage was recorded for LEP2 (0%). The
findings also indicated that the highest percentage with a neutral opinion about the statements was
recorded to the LEP9 (52%), while the lowest percentage of those with a neutral opinion was recorded
for LEP10 (8%).
Nevertheless, except for LIP9, the rest of the statements in Table 5.24 recorded over 52% agreement
from participants, which indicates that the majority of participants agreed with the statements.
Moreover, findings further indicated that clients, the government, market demand and professional
bodies are the main influencers externally. Therefore, the findings from LEP1 to LEP11 indicated that
a lack of external pressure forms another barrier to BIM adoption.
Table 5.24: Lack of external pressure
Coding Lack of external pressure SA AG NU DA SD
LEP1 Lack of client demand 17% 55% 23% 5% 0%
LEP2 Client limitations due to high cost Client 13% 72% 15% 0% 0%
LEP3 Lack of client awareness 19% 62% 17% 1% 0%
LEP4 Lack of government direction 26% 57% 14% 4% 0%
LEP5 Absence of BIM mandate 17% 55% 23% 5% 0%

Government
LEP6 Insufficient BIM standards and protocols 16% 53% 21% 5% 5%
LEP7 Absence of BIM implementation plan 20% 44% 35% 1% 0%
LEP8 Perceived lack of industry adoption 7% 45% 40% 7% 0%

Market
None of the practitioners are on a BIM Demand
LEP9 8% 36% 52% 5% 0%
platform
LEP10 Lack of professional involvement 10% 78% 8% 4% 0%

Professional
LEP11 Bodies
Lack of professional body involvement 11% 66% 9% 14% 0%
5.11.5 Lack of BIM Resources

The findings also indicated that a lack of BIM resources represent another barrier to BIM adoption,
which was attributed to a number of root causes, as illustrated in Table 5.25. Accordingly, LBR2
received the highest percentage of agreement (94%), which indicates that a shortage of experts in the
BIM field signify a major lack of resource for BIM adoption. Besides, the lowest level of agreement
was recorded for LBR4 (60%). Moreover, LBR4 received the highest level of disagreement amongst
the factors (12%), whilst the lowest percentage of disagreement was recorded for LBR2 (0%). The
findings also indicated that the highest percentage of the participants with a neutral opinion about the
statements was recorded to the LBR3 (36%), while the lowest percentage was recorded to the LBR2
(5%). Nevertheless, all statements in Table 5.25 recorded over 60% agreement from participants, which
indicates that the majority agreed with the statements. Therefore, the findings for LBR1, LBR2, LBR3
and LBR4 indicated a major lack of resources for BIM adoption; therefore, it can be concluded that this
lack represents another barrier to BIM adoption.
Table 5.25: Lack of BIM resources
Coding Lack of BIM Resources SA AG NU DA SD
LBR1 Lack of resources within the organisation 29% 54% 15% 3% 0%
LBR2 Shortage of experts in the BIM field 27% 67% 5% 0% 0%
LBR3 Lack of internet facilities 11% 51% 36% 3% 0%
LBR4 Absence of a BIM implementation plan 22% 38% 28% 12% 0%
5.12 Ranks and RII Analysis of the Barriers to BIM adoption in Sri Lankan QS firms
After conducting a descriptive analysis for all factors, it was possible to identify six major drivers and
associated root causes for BIM adoption in Sri Lanka. Thereafter, the RII value was calculated for all
the filtered factors and results are summarised in Table 5.26.
Table 5.26: Ranks and RIIs of BIM Adoption Barriers
RII
BIM BARRIERS Coding Average RII Rank
Value
FB1 0.690
Financial Barriers FB2 0.755 0.726 03
FB3 0.735
LEP1 0.730
LEP2 0.780
LEP3 0.775
LEP4 0.775
Lack of External Pressure LEP5 0.730 0.720 04
LEP6 0.595
LEP7 0.735
LEP8 0.670
LEP9 0.665
LEP10 0.765
LEP11 0.695
LI1 0.655
LI2 0.690
Legal Issues LI3 0.595 0.647 06
LI4 0.580
LI5 0.715
LBA1 0.740
LBA2 0.730
Lack of BIM Awareness LBA3 0.745 0.745 02
LBA4 0.750
LBA5 0.760
LBR1 0.785
LBR2 0.830
Lack of Resources 0.753 01
LBR3 0.710
LBR4 0.685
LIP1 0.780
LIP2 0.790
LIP3 0.655
Lack of Internal Pressure LIP4 0.670 0.704 05
LIP5 0.650
LIP6 0.670
LIP7 0.710
As per the results, the most influential barrier to the adoption of BIM amongst Sri Lankan quantity
surveyors seems to be a lack of resources, which was ranked first with an RII value of 0.753 and four
supportive root causes. A lack of BIM awareness is ranked in second place with an RII value of 0.745
and supportive 5 root causes, whilst finances are the third ranked another barrier to the adoption with
an RII Value of 0.726 and three supportive root causes. A lack of external pressure is ranked in fourth
place with an RII value of 0.720 and 11 supportive root causes; moreover, a lack of internal pressure is
another barrier but ranked in fifth place with an RII value of 0.704 along and seven supportive root
causes. Finally, legal barriers hinder the adoption of BIM by Sri Lankan QS firms, which are ranked in
sixth place with an RII value of 0.647 and five supportive root causes. Therefore, the findings indicate
that a lack of resources, lack of BIM awareness, financial barriers, a lack of external pressure and a lack
of internal pressure are the top five barriers to BIM adoption. However, legal issues also have an impact
on BIM adoption, which was ranked in sixth place.
5.13 Summary and Link Questionnaire B findings
This section presented an analysis of questionnaire survey B, which achieved objective three of the
research, namely, to identify the drivers and barriers which impact on the adoption of BIM by Sri
Lankan Quantity Surveying firms. A descriptive analysis was conducted followed by the calculation of
the RII value, which enabled the researcher to identify the main drivers and barriers derived from the
literature. The results indicated that 13 BIM drivers whilst organisational intervention, professional
bodies intervention, client demand, automated quantity take-off and improved visualisation formed the
key drivers. Moreover, six key barriers were also noted, namely: a lack of resources, lack of BIM
awareness, financial barriers, lack of external pressure, a lack of internal pressure and legal issues. The
next chapter explains the analysis of the case studies.
6 ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS FROM THE QUALITATIVE ENQUIRY
6.1 Introduction
This chapter presents the findings collected from three different Sri Lankan Quantity Surveying firms
using semi-structured interviews. Accordingly, case studies A, B, and C were used to identify the factors
affecting the accuracy of pre-tender cost estimates BIM adoption drivers, barriers, and mitigating
actions. The chapter starts with a summary of the background to each case study; this is followed by
the findings from the case studies from which themes and sub-themes are presented as suggested by the
interview responses. Finally, the chapter ends with a summary of the findings.
6.2 Case Study Backgrounds
6.2.1 Firm A - Company History and Services

Firm A was established in 1994 as a grade-A consultancy quantity surveying firm in Sri Lanka. Firm A
provides a wide range of quantity surveying services to national, state, and local government agencies,
as well as private-sector owners and developers in Sri Lanka and abroad. The main headquarters are
located in Colombo Sri Lanka, whilst they also operate two overseas branches in Qatar and India. The
growing reputation of firm A meant it was able to extend its service to countries such as the Maldives,
Oman, United Arab Emirates, Hawaii, USA, Australia, Qatar and India.
This firm is capable of offering a wide range of consultancy services focused on Quantity Surveying
and Project Management. Furthermore, Architectural Services, Cost Management, Construction
Management, Claims Management, and Dispute Resolution are also among their services. So far they
have dealt with varieties of construction projects, such as hotels and leisure, commercial, institutional,
housing, health, and infrastructure - both nationally and internationally. Therefore, the service scope of
firm A range from complete pre and post contract quantity surveying services to partial and outsourced
services, as follows:
Firm A quantity surveying services in the pre-contract phase include:
§ Preliminary cost planning and procurement advice at the concept design stage;
§ Preparation of tender documents, such as Bill of Quantities;
§ Advice on alternative design solutions;
§ Advice on relevant methods of procuring work and on the selection of contractors and
specialists suited to the work;
§ Feasibility Analysis - Initial cost estimates to establish feasibility, planning, and investment in
construction work and to set a budget;
§ Building Morphology Studies - Strategic advice on the economics of building shape,
specification, and orientation, etc.
Firm A quantity surveying services post-contract phase include:
§ Management of cost administration;
§ Handling of the procurement process;
§ Financial management of construction contracts;
§ Timely financial statements projecting final cost;
§ Settlement of the final account, upon completion and reconciliation.
Firm A is dedicated to providing professional services to their clients and, as a result, they have
registered with the Royal Institute of Chartered Surveyors UK (RICS), the Australian Institute of
Quantity Surveyors (AIQS) and the Institute of Quantity Surveyors, Sri Lanka (IQSSL). It thereby
upholds the professional values, rules, regulations and ethical standards espoused by these institutions,
and its principal officers are individual corporate members of one or more of the above institutions.
6.2.1.1 Current Status of BIM Application
Firm A started using BIM within their practice in 2014. So far so they have acquired more than 10
licenses for Costx-5D estimating and CATO and they are in a process of increasing these numbers
shortly. In the year 2015, Firm A selected the Causeway CATO cost and program management software
solution to support its BIM operation in both Qatar and Sri Lanka. Causeway Executive Vice President
Paul Madeira said: “We very much value the relationship we have formed with Firm A and her team
and we look forward to working with them to ensure they gain the maximum benefit from their
investment in Causeway.” As a solution to integrating BIM tools into their practice, they are capable of
providing BIM-related QS services, such as:
§ The extraction of drawings from the 3D model;
§ The automated measurement from Building Information Models (BIMs);
§ Determining associated information, such as the Material Taking Off, Weight, Surface Area
and Centre of Gravity (CostX, CATO);
§ Preparing cost estimates using CostX and CATO;
§ Cost Planning.
Firm A has highly experienced and skilled staff (mainly QS’s) who can provide the quantity surveying
services mentioned above for all project sizes and tiers of complexity for a solid spectrum of industries.
Experienced Quantity Surveying specialists provide a pro-active, dedicated service from inception to
completion, by combining reliable cost and contractual advice with effective execution. From
establishing feasibility and preparing a Bill of Quantities to the financial management of construction
contracts and understanding the final report, the company aims to guarantee maximum commercial
value throughout the lifecycle of the task.
6.2.2 Firm B - Company History and Services
Firm B has operated within in the Sri Lankan construction industry since 1968 and carry out work as a
limited company. In 2008, after changing ownership, the company came up with its new name. Firm B
is a Chartered Quantity Surveying Company, which provides services in different areas, such as project
management, contract administration, cost management, value engineering, and the increasing need for
value that all clients will face against today’s rapidly transforming construction industry.
Although firm B is a Sri Lankan based company, after they started a branch in Oman 2009, quantity
surveyors have been able to deliver many government and private projects which include the
multibillion U.S. Dollar landmark development of the Muscat International and Salalah Airports for the
Ministry of Transport and Communication. Apart from Oman, they also deliver projects in many
Middle East countries and Australia.
In terms of resources, the company has hired professionals to build a mix of cultural and professional
backgrounds; this is based on the belief that diversity will increase the productivity of their company.
The staff consists of Chartered Quantity Surveyors (RICS and MRICS), Project Managers, Engineers,
Architects, Contracts and Claims Managers, Expert Witness, and the like. In the Oman office, they
employ over 80 professionals and in Sri Lanka, they have 30 employees. The company regularly
conducts carrier development programs, which allows them to share their knowledge and refresh
current knowledge. Therefore, they are capable of going beyond traditional methods to produce
practical, reliable, innovative, and cost-effective solutions that fit into the client’s budget.
The firm B provides a wide range of cost consultancy services for both public and private clients. The
services they offer cover both the pre and post contract stages. Firm B is dedicated to providing
professional services to their clients and as a result, they have registered with the Royal Institute of
Chartered Surveyors UK (RICS) to uphold the professional values, rules, regulations, and ethical
standards espoused by this institution. Like form A, their principal officers are also individual, corporate
members this institution.
Firm B believes that, as long as they understand that change is the challenge, their future is secure. They
state that they like to achieve this growth through dynamic change and by introducing new systems,
methods, and technologies. As a result, in 2014, they started working with BIM and its tools. The main
BIM tools that they currently use is CostX, and so far so they have obtained six licenses for their Sri
Lankan office. The main BIM-based process area they are engaged in is cost estimation. Therefore,
they are capable of providing the following BIM-based services for the clients,
• Extracting drawings from the 3D model;
• Automated measurement from Building Information Models (BIMs), and
• Preparing cost estimates using CostX
With the productivity they have gained after integrating BIM, they are shortly in the process of
developing BIM-based QS services.
6.2.3 Firm C - Company History and Services
Firm C was established in 1984 as a grade-A quantity-surveying firm in Sri Lanka. Firm C provides a
wide range of quantity surveying services to national, state, and local government agencies, as well as
private sector owners and developers in Sri Lanka and abroad. The main headquarters are located in
Colombo Sri Lanka.
This firm is capable of offering a wide range of services focused on Quantity Surveying. In addition,
Architectural Services, Cost Management, Construction Management, Claims Management, and
Dispute Resolution are also among their services. So far so they have dealt with a range of construction
projects, such as hotel and leisure, commercial, institutional, housing, health, and infrastructure both
nationally and internationally. Therefore, the service scope for firm C range from complete Pre and Post
Contract Quantity Surveying services to partial and outsourced services as follows:
Firm C: Quantity Surveying services in the Pre-Contract phase include:
§ Preliminary cost planning and procurement advice at the concept design stage;
§ Preparation of tender documents, such as the Bill of Quantities;
§ Advice on alternative design solutions;
§ Advice on relevant methods of procuring work and on the selection of contractors and
specialists suited to the work;
§ Feasibility Analysis - Initial cost estimates to establish feasibility, planning, and investment in
construction work and set a budget;
§ Building Morphology Studies - Strategic advice on the economics of building shape,
specification, and orientation, etc.
Firm C: Quantity Surveying Post-Contract services include:
§ Management of cost administration;
§ Handling of the procurement process;
§ Financial management of construction contracts;
§ Timely financial statements the projection of final cost;
§ Settlement of the final account upon completion, and reconciliation.
Firm C expects to provide more dynamic QS services to its customers in collaboration with modern
technologies. As a result, they are in the process of adopting BIM and its tools into their organisation.
So far, they have started using CostX in the first phase of their BIM adaptation. In the meantime, they
have obtained 10 licenses and are expecting to increase the number of licenses soon. The main BIM-
based process area they are engaged in is cost estimation. Therefore, they are capable of providing the
following BIM-based services for their clients:
§ Extracting drawings from the 3D model;
§ Determining associated information, such as Material Taking Off, Weight, Surface Area and
Centre of Gravity (CostX);
§ The automated measurement from Building Information Models (BIMs), and
§ Preparing cost estimates using CostX.
Along with the current productivity they gained after integrating BIM, they are in the process of
developing BIM-based QS services (apart from cost estimating) shortly.
Accordingly, all the selected case studies have adopted, or are in the process of adopting, BIM into their
organisations, especially in cost estimate practices. Nine semi-structured interviews were conducted for
all three case studies and the respondent’s profiles are illustrated in Table 6.1.
Table 6.1: Profile of Respondents
BIM
Respondent
Description adoption
No
status
General Manager, XX Pvt Ltd, Charted QS, Member of RICS, and

CSA01 visiting lecturer for QS and Project Management, more than 17 years
of experience
Senior Quantity surveyor, BSc in quantity surveying and construction

CSA02 and dip in arbitration, and team leader, more than 15 years of Adopted
experience.
Managing director of XX Pvt Ltd, Charted consultant, FRICS, AIQS,

CSA03
charted manger from UK, Canada, more than 25 years of experience.
Senior QS, having more than 23 years of experience in both local and
CSB01
foreign construction projects.
Charted QS, having more than 45 years of experience in cost
CSB02
consultancy work in both local and foreign construction projects.
Senior QS, having 6 years of experience in both pre and post contract
CSB03
QS work.
Chief QS at XY Pvt Ltd, more than 26 years of experience in cost

CSC01
consultancy work.
In a process
Charted senior QS, more than 35 years of experience in both pre and
CSC02 of adopting
post contract, in construction stage.
BIM
Assistant QS, RICS and CIOB, having experience more than 6 years
CSC03
in both pre- and post-contract work.
6.3 Findings from the Interviews on the Factors Affecting the Accuracy of Pre-Tender Cost
Estimates
6.3.1 Introduction
This section presents the themes and sub-themes extracted from nine in-depth face-to-face semi-
structured interviews. The interviews were conducted with nine experts who deal with preparing pre-
tender cost estimates within the selected firms (see section 4.8 in chapter 4). The data were analysed
using thematic analysis (see section 4.10 in chapter 4) and seven main themes alongside sub-themes
were extracted from the data. These themes and sub-themes are presented in Table 6.2.
According to Table 6.2, different themes were extracted from the data collected from the semi-
structured interviews. Underneath each theme different sets of sub-themes were identified. Moreover,
Figure 6.1 illustrates the cognitive mapping of the main factors including their subfactors.
In the following sections, the themes and sub-themes will be presented alongside quotations extracted
from interviews. It is vital to mention that the given codes (see Table 6.1) refer to the case study
interview from which the evidence was extracted; thus the code indicates from which interview the
quotation was taken from. For instance, if a quotation was extracted from case A and interview 01, the
coding in the text will be as follows “the quotation"(CSA01).
Table 6.2: Themes and Sub-themes that extracted from the interviews
Figure 6.1: Cognitive mapping of factors affecting the accuracy of pre-tender cost estimates
6.3.2 The Use of 2D Drawings
The use of 2D drawings in construction works is the most common practice in the Sri Lankan
construction industry. Even at a time when complex projects are prevalent, the use of 2D drawings
within practice is inevitable. CSA01 endorsed this by stating “… most of the cases we are getting
drawings in 2D format, even for complex projects”. Furthermore, CSC02 and CSA02 expressed similar
thoughts. However, the use of 2D drawings becomes more challenging when preparing accurate pre-
tender cost estimates, especially for mega-scale complex projects. CSC02 explained, “When it comes
to a complex project, it’s really hard for us to prepare accurate cost estimates using 2D drawings”.
Nevertheless, even though the use of 2D drawings is more common in local construction projects,
foreign contracts practitioners tend to use 3D drawings and BIM models, due to client requests. This
indicates that, the majority of local projects still use 2D drawings. Nevertheless, there are a number of
reasons, which make the use of 2D drawings more difficult.
6.3.2.1 Changes and Revisions
First of all, changes and revisions made to the drawings throughout the project are more challenging to
deal with. During the design stage, an architect develops drawings without any participation by a QS
Once the design is complete, the QS has access to the drawings to prepare the cost estimates. In most
cases, these drawings are incomplete and subject to many changes and revisions. CSC02 endorsed this
by stating “The biggest issue is to deal with changes and revisions, Updated version of shop drawings”.
Moreover, CSA02 indicated that “We usually have to deal with 2000, 3000 drawings for a year, once
a change is made, we have to identify changes drawing by a drawing which is very time-consuming”.
As the QS has limited time to prepare pre-tender estimates, dealing with a number of revisions in a
number of drawings is more challenging. Besides, obtaining accurate information related to drawing
elements also resulted in changes and revisions. CSA02 agreed with this, stating, “QS’s face many
difficulties when dealing with 2D drawings, as many drawings do not contain proper information”.
Respondents complained that, due to isolated working cultures (discussed under section 6.3.5), no one
wants to share any information. Moreover, responses also identified that the architect’s last-minute
submissions and client alterations also resulted in changes and revisions. Respondent CSA03
complained that “….as QS’s we should be the first part to be informed if there are any changes happen,
hence no one does it as this is a designer lead construction industry”. Therefore, it is hard for a QS to
deal with last-minute changes, especially within a tight schedule, as it takes considerable time to check
drawings one by one, to evaluate the changes, and incorporate them within the estimates or the
measurements already taken as there are no automatic updates. CSA02, CSA03 and CSC02 expressed
similar thoughts. Therefore, it is clear that a QS’s failure to identify the changes to drawings will
increase the inaccuracy of cost estimates.
6.3.2.2 Lack of Visualisation
Another reason mentioned by respondents is the lack of visualisation in 2D drawings. As 2D drawings

consist of lines, circles, etc, it does not provide a clear picture for the QS prior to the preparation of cost
estimates. Therefore, in most cases, the QS has a blurred image of the final product while preparing the
cost estimates. According to CSA01 “…. due to lack of visualisation, it’s really hard to identify certain
elements for measuring purposes”. According to many respondents, the lack of visualisation becomes
more severe due to the complex nature of projects. The present nature of construction is more
competitive in developing ‘varieties of structure’ that no one has seen before. CSA01 emphasized that,
even for an experienced QS, it is hard to visualise the design and its elements, especially in complex
projects. CSA02 agreed stating that “… even if we go through all the set of drawings every section and
elevations and to visualize how it’s gone be in the final product, in most cases our visualisation might
be wrong”. Besides, even if a group of QS’s assess drawings prior to the preparation of cost estimates,
individuals could still develop entirely different images of the final product. As a result, many
respondents indicated that taking off inaccurate quantities are inevitable as they depend upon their own
visualisations. Moreover, responses also indicated that incomplete drawings also result in a lack of
visualisation. Especially in the pre-tender stage, the QS receives incomplete drawings to prepare cost
estimates, which provides insufficient background to enable an accurate idea of the final product.
CSA03 endorsed this by stating “If we can get more complete drawings, the cost estimates will be more
accurate”. Therefore, respondents considered the use of 2D drawings more challenging due to the lack
of visualisation they afford. Furthermore, many respondents believe that, rather that sticking with 2D
drawings, the use of a model helps them to prepare more accurate cost estimates. According to CSA01
“if we have a model, it’ll always help to understand elements properly as it provides sufficient
visualization for QS to get an idea about the final product”. Besides, as the QS can depend upon one
model rather their own imagination, it enables more accurate quantity take-off without omitting
elements. Therefore, respondents prefer the use of models instead of 2D drawings, as they can support
more accurate cost estimates without extra effort.
Consequently, responses indicate the use of 2D drawings has become more challenging due to changes,
revisions and a lack of accurate visualisation in the 2D drawings. Accordingly, Figure 6.2 illustrates the
cognitive mapping of 2D drawings and their difficulties.
Figure 6.2: Cognitive mapping of the use of 2D drawings and its difficulties

According to Figure 6.1, the interviewees’ responses also revealed that the lack of information is
another factor to affect the accuracy of pre-tender cost estimates. Particularly in the pre-tender stage,
the availability of sufficient quality information is fundamental in the preparation of accurate cost
estimates. However, CSA02 complained that “…most of the time we are not getting sufficient
information at the beginning of the project”. Although similar types of projects e.g. housing, could be
undertaken based on previous (completed) project data, unique projects cannot be undertaken
accordingly. However, the interviewees’ responses indicate several reasons, which result in a lack of
information.
6.3.3.1 Paper-Based Information Sharing
According to the interviewees’ the majority of information in the Sri Lankan construction industry is
shared on papers. As stated by CSA01, this practice is more common, especially in the government
sector. Even though private sector firms have managed to share information electronically (e.g. emails),
the government sector’s traditional practices have hindered the efforts of the private sector. CSB03
endorsed this by stating “…. as a company, we always trying to use a computer-based system, but when
it comes to other parties, they always prefer a paper-based system”. This has resulted in a lack of
information flow in many construction projects, where the QS cannot obtain information when needed.
As paper-based information sharing is more time consuming, in most cases many QS’s do not receive
relevant information on time. Besides, respondents also indicated that the isolated working culture
(section 6.3.5) also accelerated the use of paper for information sharing. Moreover, it was also found
that the fear of using new technologies also promotes paper-based information sharing among
practitioners. For example, CSA02 stated “…… it’s really hard to get a reply for an email, once we ask
information’s through emails responsible parties are not responding”. Moreover, most respondents
said that many professionals do not opt for online meetings via Skype or any other online medium.
According to CSC01 “…many parties refuse their meeting to be recorded, as they don’t want to
highlight their errors, and they think that it’s not good for their carrier”. However, respondents further
emphasised that the use of a paper-based system is more suitable for small scale projects, such as
houses, but once the project complexity increases, it becomes more challenging to manage this
information on paper. However, according to interviewees, the majority of professionals prefer paper-
based information sharing than modern methods and technologies, which results in a lack of
information.
6.3.3.2 Unusable Information
Respondents also note that unusable data represents another reason for the lack of information.
Accordingly, when the specification is misaligned with the general drawing or detail drawings, or it
does not match each other, respondents find it difficult to use the given data to prepare accurate cost
estimates. in such instances, as stated by CSA02, “…in such discrepancies we have to write back to the
designer and get the answer, then only we can finalize the estimate, which is very time-
consuming”. CSC02 expressed similar thoughts. However, the interviewees’ lack of communication
(discussed under section 6.3.5.1) and lack of coordination (discussed under section 6.3.5.2) were two
main reasons for unusable information. Besides, as discussed under section 6.3.2.1, loopholes in paper-
based information sharing have also resulted in the production of unusable data. It is also important to
keep contact with relevant parties to produce usable data. However, unfortunately, most of the project
team members deal with charted accountants to obtaining data, rather than contact the QS. As a result,
in most cases it is not applicable to obtain information. Therefore, unusable data results in a lack of
information when preparing cost estimates.
6.3.3.3 Absence of Common Database
Another reason for the lack of information is the absence of a common database. Respondents
mentioned that both the private and government sector have created databases for their individual use.
However, CSA01 complained that “either party does not provide any access to their databases, which
have worsened the situation of getting proper information”. Moreover, some respondents believed that
the formulation of a general database is the responsibility of relevant construction authorities and
professional bodies. Nevertheless, according to CSC02, construction organisations, such as ICTAD,
SIDA, have no intention of developing a common database for the construction industry. However,
most respondents indicated the importance of having a common database for the Sri Lankan
construction industry. Thus, responses confirm that the absence of a common database has resulted in
a lack of information when preparing cost estimates.
6.3.3.4 Absence of a Rich Information Flow
Interviewee responses also identified the absence of rich information flow as another reason for the lack
of information. As discussed in section 6.3.2.1 many organisations share information through paper
documents. As a result, both private and government sector organisations have failed to maintain a
proper database consisting of previously conducted project information for future use. This has resulted
in the development of poor information flow, where the QS cannot obtain that much information when
needed. Besides, CSA01 complained that “even if they have proper database access to information is
limited to the top management”. Therefore, the majority of access to project information has been
denied in most organisations and construction projects. As a result, it is challenging to develop a rich
information flow throughout the project, as not all the members are aware of the project information.
CSB01 endorsed this by stating “as QS’s we should aware what’s going on within the site, hence due
to poor information flow we are updating in the last minute”. Respondents believe that, if organisations
grant access to employees and project members, this could help to maintain a flow of rich information.
On the other hand, this will increase the availability of information while improving its flow. Moreover,
respondents noted the use of paper-based information sharing, which also results in poor information
flow (see section 6.3.2.1). Therefore, it is clear that the absence of rich information flow has also
resulted in a lack of information when preparing cost estimates.
Consequently, responses indicate that a lack of information is a factor that affects the accuracy of pre-
tender cost estimates due to paper-based information sharing, unusable data, the absence of a proper
database, and poor information flow. Accordingly, Figure 6.3 illustrates the cognitive mapping of the
lack of information and its reasons.
Figure 6.3: Cognitive mapping for the lack of information and reasons
6.3.4 Inefficiencies in Current Software

As illustrated in Figure 6.1, the responses also revealed that inefficiencies in current software are
another prevailing factor that increases the inaccuracy of cost estimates. As stated by CSA02, “when
you do TDS sheets manually you need to do the arithmetic in the calculator to get done the
job”. Moreover, respondents find that manual calculations are more challenging as a QS cannot easily
repeat them. Besides, to change one-dimension, a QS has to carry out the entire process from the
beginning. As a result, many QS’s have tended to carry out their measurements with the help of different
software. According to respondents, the most commonly used software among Sri Lankan quantity
surveyors is MS. Excel due to its user-friendliness. Accordingly, Excel is mostly used to calculate
quantities extracted from the drawings. According to CSC03 “Excel helps QS by easily replacing one
figure and to get the outcome”. However, due to various reasons, respondents indicated the use of Excel
is not 100% accurate.
6.3.4.1 Incorrect Mathematical Formulas
The use of Excel compromises several mathematical formulas. Respondents noted that the use of
incorrect mathematical formulas increases the inefficiencies of the software. As highlighted by the
respondents, several mathematical formulas can be associated with Excel, which increases the
inefficient use of the software. As highlighted by the respondents, the wrong assumptions of a QS
represent a reason for incorrect mathematical formulas. CSA02 endorsed this by stating “it's
compromised with a lot of mathematical formulas like if command, where QS’s have to do a lot of
assumptions”. The use of wrong assumptions can result in incorrect formulas and subsequently
incorrect measurements and cost estimates. For example, CSC01 stated, “in SUM, we cannot see the
range, so if we have 100 data, 99 will be calculated, and 1 will be missed”.
Respondents also indicated that the QS’s lack of SW operational skills (discussed in section 6.3.4.2) is
another reason for incorrect mathematical formulas. Besides, as Excel is not specially designed to
calculate quantities, once a spreadsheet is created through the application of relevant formulas, it is hard
for someone else to trace it to check whether the quantities are correct. According to CSA01 “Sometimes
the formulas I’ve created can’t remember to me once I’m using”. Similarly, CSA02 stated, “if you
copied something else over there you will get the wrong answer as you cannot trace it unless otherwise,
somebody has tracked it”. Therefore, many respondents suggested the use of unique software for
quantity calculation and the preparation of cost estimates to enable more accurate cost estimates. On
the other hand, it will save a QS time typically spent developing formulas.
6.3.4.2 Inaccurate Calculations
Inaccurate calculations are another reason for software inefficiencies, according to the interviewees.
The use of Excel consists of a lot of hidden calculations, where need more careful attention, especially
where changes are required. CSA01 emphasised this by stating “coming back to the use of SW we need
to be very careful because we’ve found many mistakes due to hidden calculations”. However,
respondents also indicated that the use of software will increase the overall efficiency of the cost
estimate process by 20% - 30%. Moreover, according to the respondents, missing elements or quantities
when transferring measurements to an Excel sheet for calculation represent another reason for
inaccurate calculations. As the automatic transferral of quantities does not happen, the QS needs to pay
more attention to this process.
Therefore, responses indicate that the inefficiencies in current software affect the accuracy of pre-tender
cost estimates due to incorrect mathematical formulas and inaccurate calculations. Accordingly, Figure
6.4 illustrates the cognitive mapping of inefficiencies in current software and its reasons.
Figure 6.4: Cognitive mapping of the inefficiencies of current software and reasons
6.3.5 Inadequate Knowledge and Skills of an Estimator

According to Figure 6.1, the responses indicated inadequate estimator knowledge and skills as another
factor that affects the accuracy of cost estimates. Moreover, the responses indicated that several reasons
result in the inadequate knowledge and skills of an estimator.
6.3.5.1 Wrong Assumptions
Wrong assumptions were revealed as one of the main reasons behind the inadequate knowledge and
skills of an estimator. In many instances, especially at the pre-tender stage, the QS has to make
assumptions mainly due to a lack of available information to perform the tasks (cost estimation).
According to CSA01 “knowledge and experience of QS are vital to make reliable assumptions during
cost estimation”. If not, it mainly affects the accuracy of cost estimates. Nevertheless, the responses
indicate that a lack of awareness of current rates lead to the wrong assumptions. In the Sri Lankan
context, the market prices fluctuate every day. Therefore, in many projects, escalations are inevitable.
Although escalations are not problematic if payments can be claimed, according to CSC03 “if you don’t
have any clause to claim for escalations, you have to predict for two years ahead by aligning prices
with the market, specifications, drawings and pricing preambles”. Therefore, when updating current
rates, it is fundamental for a QS to make reliable assumptions. Therefore, CSB03 suggested that “a
professional should always update themselves for the sake of their job and to deliver a good service”.
Moreover, respondents also believe that the QS’s weaknesses in reading and understanding 2D
drawings also result in the wrong assumptions. CSA02 endorsed this by stating “as a QS you should be
able to read the drawings properly, as every single line represents something”. A failure to properly
identify the elements illustrated in drawings could result in an inaccurate understanding of a drawing
and its elements. For example, CSC01 stated “When it comes to interior works, once you measure the
furniture the visualization of the entire design looks like. But in real life, different types of chairs are
there with different costs”. Therefore, it can be concluded that the QS should have a reasonable level of
knowledge and experience to read and understand drawings and thus make appropriate assumptions.
6.3.5.2 Lack of Software Operational Skills
Respondents also identified a lack of software operational skills as a reason for the inadequate
knowledge and skills amongst estimators. The use of any software requires expert knowledge and
experience as the software itself cannot sort the issues. For example, CSA02 stated “certain
contingencies and certain risks that you need to include when you do measurement using SW”. Thus,
through his experience, the QS should know the percentage that needs allocating, which indicates the
importance of QS awareness about the allocation of risk.
Likewise, the QS also has to foresee many things, such as ground conditions. Moreover, professional
experience is also required for measurements especially when developing appropriate formulas
(discussed in section 6.3.3.1). For example, CSB01 stated that, “measuring concrete and formwork is
different. Because concrete you have to measure by volume and formwork by area”. Therefore, the QS
needs to have proper knowledge about measurement rules to effectively and accurately complete the
job. Besides, as different SW requires various operational skills and knowledge, respondents
emphasised the need for proper QS skills to prepare accurate cost estimates.
Therefore, responses indicated that the inadequate estimator knowledge and skills affect the accuracy
of pre-tender cost estimates, due to wrong assumptions and the lack of software operational skills.
Accordingly, Figure 6.5 illustrates the cognitive mapping of inadequate knowledge and skills of an
estimator and its reasons.
Figure 6.5: Inadequate knowledge and skills of an estimator
6.3.6 Isolated Working Culture

According to Figure 6.1, respondents identified isolated working culture as another prevailing factor
behind inaccurate cost estimates. As stated by CSA01 “…the Sri Lankan construction industry is mostly
driven by the individuals rather than the organisations”. As a result, many practitioners (especially
designers) prefer individual working practices, which has ultimately created isolated working practices
within the industry. Respondents suggest many reasons have resulted in an isolated working culture.
6.3.6.1 Lack of Communication
According to respondents, poor communication among construction professionals is found to be a key

reason behind isolated working culture. The most commonly stated reason for poor communication
is paper-based information sharing, which is discussed under section 6.3.2.1. As a result,
communication among professionals is at a lower level. Besides, many practitioners resist the use of
electronic methods of communication, such as email. As a result, CSA02 stated that “…… it's hard to
get a reply for an email, once we ask information’s through emails responsible parties are not
responding”. Moreover, respondents also noted that freelance working professionals are another reason
for poor communication, as they do not maintain an effective link between the industry and
professionals. For example, CSB02 stated, “Recently we have come across 300 quarries of a project,
but still the majority of the quarries are outstanding due to poor communication”. This is mainly due
to many freelance practitioners working within projects. However, respondents indicated that the risk
of unsolved mismatches and discrepancies due to poor communication could result in inaccurate cost
estimates. Therefore, CSC02 stated, “…even though our responsibility is to produce error-free cost
estimates, due to poor communication, it has become harder to produce error-free cost estimates”.
6.3.6.2 Lack of Coordination
Respondents also identified a lack of coordination as another reason for isolated working culture. Many
respondents indicated that 95% of the areas were not properly coordinated before the tender documents
were submitted. Accordingly, a lack of communication (discussed under section 6.3.5.1) was found to
be the main reason for a lack of coordination. Moreover, as discussed under section 6.3.5.1, poor links
among professionals is another reason for the lack of coordination. It was also noted by respondents
that many practitioners refuse to coordinate with other professionals due to a lack of trust. CSA03
endorsed this by stating “People refused to share anything with others thinking it’s going to be a threat
to them due to lack of trust”. Therefore, many respondents believe there is a need for a system to
improve coordination. Accordingly, CSC02 suggested that “…If we have a central system like BIM,
it'll bring all the stakeholders working on the same platform, which ultimately improves the
coordination”.
6.3.6.3 Economic Crisis
Respondents identified that the economic crisis are as another reason for isolated working culture.
Accordingly, many respondents believe that the developing economy has resulted in an economic crisis
in Sri Lanka. CSA01 endorsed this by stating “due to a developing country, many clients expecting to
get done the at the lowest cost”. Even though quality is an important parameter, cost seems to be a
prominent factor for clients due to the economic crisis. As a result, individual construction practitioners
have experienced greater demand within the industry than large-scale organisations. As they can earn a
lot more, many professionals work as freelancers rather than for an organisation. Moreover, as noted
by respondents, political instability can also result in an economic crisis.
Hence, the responses indicate that an isolated working culture affects the accuracy of pre-tender cost
estimates due to poor communication, lack of coordination, and the economic crisis. Accordingly,
Figure 6.6 illustrates the cognitive mapping of isolated working culture and its reasons.
Figure 6.6: Cognitive mapping of isolated working culture and reasons

As illustrated in Figure 6.1, respondents identified that MQTO is another factor that hinders the
accuracy of pre-tender cost estimates. According to the respondents, MQTO is more challenging due
to various reasons.
6.3.7.1 Time Consuming Tasks
Accordingly, the interviewees’ responses indicated that time-consuming tasks represent a key reason
for the greater challenge of MQTO. MQTO was found to be the most time-consuming task in the entire
estimation process. Accordingly, respondents identified poor visualisation as a time-consuming task.
As stated by CSB01 “QS needs to spend extra time on identifying the elements on 2D drawings due to
poor visualization”. Besides, respondents also indicated a lack of detail in 2D drawings, which is
discussed under section 6.3.2 and resulted in the QS spending more time gathering appropriate
information. Moreover, along with design updates (especially from the client) a QS is required to update
estimates accordingly, as it does not update automatically. CSA02 stated, “we have to waste our time
for updating information based on the changes”. Not only that, but respondents also complained it takes
a longer time to detect these changes and incorporate them with existing measures. Therefore, the
responses indicated that MQTO is more challenging due to time-consuming tasks.
6.3.7.2 Inaccurate Quantities
It was also noted by respondents that MQTO is challenging due to inaccurate quantities. Respondents
complained that missing elements and double counting are inevitable in MQTO, even for the well-
experienced QS. This situation becomes more critical when the project complexity increases. According
to CSA02, “in AutoCAD drawings, you have to measure all the areas including floor finishes, skirting,
wall finish, etc. it's like redoing the AutoCAD drawings which require manual deductions”. If the
deductions are disregarded, ultimately measurements or quantities become inaccurate. Moreover,
respondents further noted discrepancies in software, such as AutoCAD, which also results in inaccurate
quantities. For example, CSA03 stated, “… in most cases, AutoCAD will not follow rules in Standard
methods of measurements, therefore we cannot expect 100% accuracy in manual QTO”. Besides,
responses also revealed that the limited time given to prepare cost estimates have also resulted in
inaccurate quantities (discussed under section 6.3.7). Inaccurate assumptions (discussed under section
6.3.4.1) are the most frequently stated reason for inaccurate quantities by respondents.
Therefore, responses indicated that MQTO is a factor that affects the accuracy of pre-tender cost
estimates due to its associated time-consuming tasks and inaccurate quantities. Accordingly, Figure 6.7
illustrates the cognitive mapping of MQTO and its reasons.
Figure 6.7: Cognitive mapping of manual QTO and reasons

According to respondents the limited given time to prepare cost estimates also results in the preparation
of inaccurate cost estimates (see Figure 6.1). Many clients and designers expect QS to complete the
entire cost estimate within a shorter period. Therefore, respondents have identified that limited time is
one of the major factors to affect the accuracy of cost estimates. Accordingly, respondents further stated
the reasons behind time constraints.
6.3.8.1 Client Pressure
In most cases, the client has provided limited time for the QS to prepare cost estimates and this adds
more pressure to the QS during the preparation of cost estimates. According to CSA01 “…there’s more
tendency to make errors during manual QTO, due to substantial QS pressure”. As a result, in most
cases, estimates do not provide accurate cost predictions. Respondents further identified that double
counts and missing elements are inevitable due to increased QS pressure. Moreover, respondents also
complained that clients and designers take plenty of time to undertake the design but expect the QS to
complete the most important part, which is the cost estimate, within two or three days. For example,
CSB02 stated “, last two days we’ve submitted a BOQ, and it was a crucial one. they took almost five
months to develop the design and gave us only one month to prepare the estimates”. This indicates that
clients do not have any concern about the importance of preparing accurate cost estimates but only the
cost of the project.
6.3.8.2 Time-Consuming Tasks
Time-consuming tasks, which are discussed under section 6.3.6.1, were also found to be another reason
for time constraints. Accordingly, MQTO, drawing updates, and obtaining information requires extra
time for the QS to prepare cost estimates. Moreover, it is essential to conduct site visits before preparing
cost estimates in order to identify any restraints, site access, and ground condition. However, many
respondents believed that site visits are time-consuming within the time available to them. As a result,
many respondents stated that they are unable to conduct proper site investigations due to time
limitations. As stated by CSA01 “… failing to identify site conditions, the estimate gets inaccurate due
to missing or extra elements being added”. For example, CSB02 stated, “if the roads are too narrow,
it’s no point of adding pump cars within the estimate”. Therefore, even though many respondents agreed
that site visits are important before preparing cost estimates, the limited time given prevents them from
undertaking such investigations.
Therefore, responses indicated that time constraints are another factor that affects the accuracy of pre-
tender cost estimates due to client pressure and time-consuming tasks. Accordingly, Figure 6.8
illustrates the cognitive mapping of time constraints and their reasons.
Figure 6.8: Cognitive mapping of time-constraints and reasons
According to the above analysis, the findings indicated seven significant factors that affect the accuracy
of pre-tender cost estimates. The use of 2D drawings, lack of information, inefficiencies in current
software, inadequate estimator knowledge and skills, isolated working culture, Manual Quantity Take-
off (MQTO) and time constraints were the main factors affecting to the accuracy of pre-tender cost
estimates. Moreover, these findings helped to identify the reasons behind each factor. The next section
will demonstrate the findings related to the analysis unit of BIM drivers.
6.4 Findings from the Interviews Related to BIM Adoption Drivers
6.4.1 Introduction
This section presents the themes and sub-themes related to BIM drivers were extracted from nine in-
depth face-to-face semi-structured interviews. The interviews were conducted with nine experts who
are or have adopted BIM within their firms (see section 4.8 in chapter 4). The data were analysed using
thematic analysis (see section 4.10 in chapter 4) and six main themes alongside sub-themes were
extracted from the data. These themes and sub-themes are presented in (Table 6.3).
Table 6.3 Themes and sub-themes extracted from the interviews related to the BIM drivers
structured interviews. Underneath these themes, different sets of sub-themes were identified. Moreover,
Figure 6.9 illustrates the cognitive mapping of the main drivers including their subfactors.
Figure 6.9: Cognitive mapping of BIM drivers for BIM adoption in Sri Lankan QS organisations
In the following sections, the themes, and sub-themes will be presented alongside quotations extracted
from interviews. It is important to note that the given codes (see Table 6.1) refer to the case study
interview from which the evidence was extracted thus indicating from the interviews from which a
quotation was taken. For instance, if a quotation was extracted from case A and interview 01 then the
presentation in the text will be such: “the quotation"(CSA01).
6.4.2 BIM Benefits
Many respondents indicated that the benefits of BIM accelerate the adoption of BIM within their
organisations. Moreover, these benefits help them to overcome most of the difficulties they face during
conventional practice. Accordingly, respondents stated that Automated QTO (AQTO) is the main
benefit they gain by using BIM. In CSA02’s words, “AQTO does accurate measurements without
spending time for manual calculations”. This indicates that AQTO saves plenty of QS time, which used
to be spent on manual QTO. However, respondents also noted that accurate measurement can only be
expected with the use of accurate BIM models. CSA01 endorsed this by stating “a model with
inaccurate information is like rubbish in rubbish out”. Whereas, a QS has to rely on their assumptions;
for example, CSB02 stated, “If we click one of the elements in the model if it not defined properly (for
example 200mm thick) again you have to do many assumptions or to go back to the design team”.
Therefore, the accuracy of the model is important for accurate measurement. With an accurate model,
respondents emphasised that they could increase the accuracy of measurements as there is a lower
tendency to miss elements in AQTO. CSC02 endorsed this by stating “…it’s easy to export it wherever
you want, whatever the measurement you are giving or taking from it, automatically calculate and
inbuilt into your software, so you won’t miss any elements”; as a result, a QS is able to get rid of the
most time-consuming task in the entire cost estimation process, namely the MQTO. Moreover, CSB01,
CSA02 and CSC03 offered similar views that also supported this.
According to respondents, a major difference compared to conventional practice is the use of models
instead of 2D drawings in BIM-based cost estimation. The use of a BIM model provides better
visualisation; indeed, respondents identified improved visualisation as another benefit offered by BIM.
According to CSA01 “Estimators can get a clear picture about the end product, as the use of the model
has improved the visualization of elements”. The views of CSB04 also reflected this comment.
Therefore, the QS does not need to put extra effort into visualising the final product or to depend on
their imagination as before. Moreover, respondents also noted that improved visualisation increased the
accuracy of measurements, as the QS can filter elements in the model. As stated by CSB01“The
improved visualization enhanced QS’s take accurate measurements without any missing elements or
double counting”. As a result, the overall accuracy of the cost estimate ultimately increases, whilst
CSA02 and CSC02 also offered similar views.
According to the respondents, better information management is another BIM benefit that drives
adoption. Respondents claimed that, with the use of BIM, they are able to maintain a proper database
that consists of a large amount of data. According to CSB01, the “BIM model allows us to easily grab
any information given, at any stage of the project”. As a result, they can produce accurate cost estimates
with the use of accurate information. Therefore, the use of a BIM model has improved the management
of information as the model is integrated with necessary data, which means the QS does not have to
trace back to the architects whenever they require any data. Besides, along with improved information
management, they are able to minimize the use of paper documents for sharing information, especially
with their foreign clients. For example, CSB03 stated, “once we were having meetings, I observed that
the many parties having separate documents sets such as drawings, specification, etc. Thus, now we
are mainly relying on one resource which is the model”. Therefore, the responses indicated that they
tend to share information electronically instead of by paper.
Another BIM benefit pointed out by respondents is time-saving. Accordingly, respondents identified
that the ability to track changes in the model is one way of saving time, which used to be a very time-
consuming task. CSA01 endorsed this by stating “by comparing models the recent changes made to
model can be easily identified”. Agreeing with this statement, CSC03 stated that, “the use of 3D model
automatically updates all the changes made to model as well as in the estimate”. As a result, the QS
does not need to spend extra time identifying the changes and incorporating them in the estimate.
Besides, respondents also noted that AQTO (as discussed above) is another way of saving time. For
example, CSA02 stated, “previously when we did the take-off, normally we give those measurements to
be checked by someone else (arithmetic check)”. With the use of BIM, there is no need for someone
else to check the quantities, which reduce both the time and resources required for one job. As a result,
respondents noted that they were able to increase their overall productivity at the same time. Moreover,
according to CSA01 and CSB02, the ability to detect clashes at the early stages has also resulted in time
savings by reducing the need for changes and revisions. CSB02 endorsed this by stating “… the use of
model also enhanced to identify any clashes at the first stage of the project, which reduces the future
changes and revisions by saving QS’s time”. Therefore, based on the findings it can be concluded that
the benefits of BIM represent a key driver for Sri Lankan QS organisations to adopt BIM.
6.4.3 BIM Training
As part of BIM adoption, organisations have organised training for employees related to BIM and its
uses increase awareness of both its theoretical and practical uses. Therefore, respondents pointed out
that training provided by the organisation is another driver to adopt BIM. CSB01 endorsed this by
stating “we had different pieces of training before we start using BIM and after we started using BIM”.
Accordingly, organisations have used their senior professionals to train employees using tutorials and
CPD. However, according to CSA02 “…. a few months later experts came from Indonesia to train
ourselves, by [that] time our people were more familiar with BIM use”. According to respondents, the
training received by their clients also helped them to adopt BIM. In the meantime, some companies
have used their strategies to train employees. For example, CSA01 said, “I did a small kind of strategy
by forming a small group of seniors and I’ve given them a task to study certain areas of costs for each
individual and to do a presentation about their findings, and it worked very well”. Accordingly, training
has been provided continuously throughout the BIM adoption process. As stated by CSB02 “we have
continuous training also when someone joining the company, we do a dedicated session for him/her”.
Therefore, respondents also indicated that continuous training provided by organisations accelerate
BIM adoption within their working places. Therefore, according to the findings, training represents
another driver for BIM adoption.
6.4.4 Client Demand
Client demand is as another driver for BIM adoption. According to respondents, many organisations
have adopted BIM due to demand from their foreign clients. The use of BIM is one of the main
requirements of our foreign clients. CSA01 said, “…. even though we don’t get any BIM demand from
the local industry, we do get demand for BIM foreign clients regularly”. This statement further reflects
a lack of demand from local industry. However, according to respondents, many firms adopt BIM due
to client demand, as they do not want to lose foreign contracts. Therefore, client demand is another
driver for BIM adoption.
6.4.5 BIM-Based Education
Responses further indicate that BIM education is another driver to adopt BIM. Accordingly, some
private sector institutions have started BIM-related courses. However, according to CSB01 “…when it
comes to private universities, they do provide just a BIM introduction, which is not enough to adopt
BIM”. Moreover, the statement further indicates that government universities still lag behind in BIM
education. In the meantime, many respondents believe that they require the practical use of BIM
alongside theoretical knowledge, which is currently lacking in Sri Lanka. However, respondents
indicated that seminars, CPD, and workshops conducted around the Colombo area have been beneficial
in the adoption of BIM. Nevertheless, CSB01 and CSA01 complained that these BIM programs are still
limited to Colombo, at a time where it needed island-wide. Therefore, CSB01 believes that “…it is high
time to introduce BIM to SL industry island wide”.
6.4.6 Professional Bodies
Responses also revealed that support received from professional bodies also helped them to deliver
BIM within their practice. Accordingly, professional bodies have organised workshops, conferences,
and CPD to increase BIM awareness. Respondents claimed that the efforts of professional bodies have
increased BIM awareness, which has helped them, especially amongst professionals who are novices
to BIM. Nevertheless, as stated by CSB01, “…professional bodies are doing something, but it does not
enough to implement BIM within the Sri Lankan context”, which indicates the industry is expecting
more effort from professional bodies. According to CSA03, “First professional bodies and universities
should get together, and make standards, for BIM”. This indicates that there is poor linkage among
universities and professional bodies and a lack of BIM standards within the industry. However,
respondents noted that the University of Moratuwa has established a BIM group to promote BIM within
Sri Lanka. However, respondents complained that most of the workshops are limited to the Colombo
area. As CSC02 stated, “They should organise seminars, CPDs, conferences, and workshops not only
in Colombo but also island-wide, as many industry practitioners have traveling problems”. Therefore,
findings indicate that professional bodies are another driver for BIM adoption, thus their efforts need
to be extended.
6.4.7 Organisational Pressure
As mentioned in section 6.4.3, many organisations have started using BIM due to the demand they
received from their foreign clients. As a result, many QS organisations have pressured their internal
staff to use BIM. CSA01 endorsed this by stating “Yes, we already implemented BIM in our firm since
May 2017. We have mandated BIM within our organisation, we do cost estimation using BIM tools as
per the client's request”. According to respondents, top management was noted as the most influential
factor for their adoption of BIM. CSB01 expressed, “our top management wants us to incorporate BIM,
so as a result, we all have to learn more about BIM to make it happen”. Accordingly, top management
has introduced strategies to implement BIM within their organisations. Respondents noted these were
helpful for their BIM adoption journey. As stated by CSC01 “As it ultimately creates BIM friendly
environment, we didn’t have no reasons to say no to BIM”. Moreover, as discussed under section 6.4.2,
organisations have also organised continuous training sessions for employees to increase both their
theoretical and practical knowledge. Therefore, respondents found that organisational pressure is
another driver for their adoption of BIM.
According to the above analysis, the findings indicated six significant drivers that accelerate BIM
adoption. BIM benefits, BIM training, client demand, BIM-Based education, professional bodies, and
organisational pressure were found to be the main findings under the analysis unit of the BIM drivers.
Moreover, findings have also helped to identify the reasons behind each factor. The next section will
demonstrate the findings related to the analysis unit of BIM barriers and mitigating actions.
6.5 Interviews Findings Related to the BIM Adoption Barriers and Mitigating Actions
This section presents the themes and sub-themes related to BIM barriers were extracted from the nine
in-depth, face-to-face semi-structured interviews (see Table 6.1). The interviews were conducted with
nine experts who are adopting BIM within their firms (see section 4.8 in Chapter 4). The data were
analysed using thematic analysis (see section 4.10 in chapter 4) and six main themes alongside sub-
themes were extracted from the data. These themes and sub-themes are presented in Table 6.4.
Table 6.4: Themes and sub-themes concerning BIM barriers as extracted from the interviews
structured interviews. Underneath the themes, different sets of sub-themes were identified. Moreover,
Figure 6.10 illustrates the cognitive mapping of the main barriers including their subfactors.
In the following sections, the themes and sub-themes will be presented alongside the quotations
extracted from the interviews. It is important to mention that the given codes (see Table 6.1) refer to
the case study interview from which the evidence was extracted, thus indicating from which interviews
the quotation was taken from. For instance, if a quotation was extracted from case A and interview 01
then the presentation in the text will be: “quotation" (CSA01).
Figure 6.10: Cognitive mapping of the BIM adoption barriers of quantity surveying organisations in
Sri Lanka
6.5.1 Financial Barriers

One of the most commonly stated barriers by respondents was the financial barrier. Even though many
parties want to adopt BIM, high investment costs have hindered its adoption. However, according to
CSA03 and CSC02 it is not just a waste but a long-term investment. According to CSB02, “As it is
expensive, I don’t think individual practitioners can afford for it”, which indicates that BIM adoption
would be limited to large-scale organisations but not for small or medium scale businesses due to the
high cost. CSA01 endorsed this by stating “…. Of course, it’s expensive, but for large scale companies
like us the cost is affordable, the company is willing to invest money because we’ve proved that the use
of BIM is very productive, especially when we have tight schedules”. Supporting this, CSA02 and
CSB02, also expressed similar thoughts. Therefore, it is fair to assume that large-scale QS organisations
are willing to invest money to adopt BIM within their organisations. However, the responses indicate
that, even for large-scale organisations, it is too expensive to bear due to various reasons.
6.5.1.1 Cost of Hardware and Software
Respondents identified that the purchase of new hardware and software is too expensive for
organisations to bear. Accordingly, organisations have to purchase new hardware, software, and
software licenses. However, CSA03, CSA01, and CSA02 complained that they were only able to get
six software licenses due to the high cost, although they employ more than 30 people. Moreover,
respondents also revealed that, due to the current situation in the construction industry, many
organisations try to increase their profit margins by cutting down on unnecessary expenses. CSB02
said, “So for them dumping money into additional SW is a question due to the low profit they are getting
if the cost of BIM considerably has to come down, otherwise it's hard to afford”. This could result in
low productivity, as many people cannot work on a BIM platform. Respondents further indicate that
the lack demand for BIM by the industry has also resulted in organisations not investing in BIM. CSB01
endorsed this by stating “At this moment if the BIM models getting more demand, we can spend money
to get the software’s”. Nevertheless, CSB03 had a different perception of this. He said, “my perception
is you don’t need fancy software, just download the drawings on google drive, that is something lacking
within the Sri Lankan professionals”. However, the majority of respondents indicated the cost of
hardware and software results in a financial barrier.
6.5.1.2 Training Costs
Training costs were found to be another reason behind the financial barrier. Many respondents indicated
that the costs too high to provide training for existing staff. It was also emphasised that some
organisations lag behind on investing in training for people due to high labour turnover. CSA03
endorsed this by stating “…. once we trained a person, there are many companies to recruit them”.
Therefore, CSA01 believed that early BIM adopters have to make many sacrifices for BIM adoption.
However, some organisations had to hire foreign BIM experts to train their local staff when they were
introducing BIM-based software, e.g. CostX, which is very expensive. However, respondents suggested
that collaborative training would minimize the training cost for organisations. For example, CSA01
stated that “We had special discussions with designers, as a result, we had a lot of training on BIM use,
for project XX. We got some suppliers to do some presentations on how to perform measurement work
on a live model. So, we trained for uploading a drawing, making the dimension group, take-off, how
the measurements are stored, to prepare a spreadsheet, and how to take final output”. Which costs
them less than hiring experts. However, respondents indicated that training cost as another reason for
the financial barrier.
6.5.1.3 Software and Hardware Upgrading Costs
Respondents also stated that the upgrade of licenses is another associated cost of BIM. Accordingly,
many software packages require annual upgrades, which costs a lot. According to CSA01 “once you
entered a maintenance agreement you have to pay it annually”. Then, only software performance
updates are required; moreover, without such updates, it is difficult to expect the maximum outcome.
Therefore, respondents noted that, in most cases, organisations have to bear the annual upgrade costs
of software and hardware as part of their BIM adoption.
Moreover, respondents also identified a lack of goals as another reason for the financial barrier, which
is discussed under section 6.5.2.5. Therefore, findings indicated that finance is a barrier that affects the
adoption of BIM due to its associated costs, such as hardware and software, training costs, upgrading
costs, and a lack of goals and processes. Accordingly, Figure 6.11 illustrates the cognitive mapping of
the financial barrier and its reasons.
Figure 6.11: Cognitive mapping of the financial barrier and reasons
6.5.2 Organisational Barriers

Respondents also identified organisational barriers as another key deterrent to the adoption of BIM. As
a result, only a few organisations have adopted BIM, but the majority have not. Respondents further
indicate several reasons why organisations have not adopted BIM.
6.5.2.1 Isolated Working Culture
Accordingly, respondents indicated that the isolated working culture of the Sri Lankan construction
industry prevents organisations from adopting BIM. Many practitioners work as individuals or as
freelancers rather than for an organisation. According to CSA01 “…they always try to work isolate,
especially designers”. As a result, many professionals do not intend to share anything with other parties,
which means a lack of transparency. Moreover, CSB03, CSA01, CSA02, CSA04, and CSB01 identified
that the Sri Lankan construction industry is an architecture driven industry, and that architects do not
want to be challenged by any other party due to their ego. Therefore, many professionals tend to work
alone rather than collaboratively. However, the main rationale for BIM-based practice is true
collaboration or working on the same platform, which includes architects, engineers, contractors, QS,
and so forth. CSB02 endorsed this by stating “As QS’s we have to filter other mistakes, loopholes,
discrepancies, so it takes a long time. These things would not happen if we can work on the same
platform”. Thus, according to CSA03, CSB03 collaboration is still impossible due to freelance
professionals. Respondents further emphasised that, even though - to some extent - collaboration could
be seen in private sector organisations, it is still not a part of the culture of government sector
organisations. Accordingly, CSA03 believed that “Sri Lanka can change to BIM-based practice if the
phycology and mentality of employees changed positively”. Therefore, CSA03 suggested that training
university students and professionals on the industry on an ad hoc basis could overcome this. This
indicates that such awareness should start at the university level before graduates step into the industry.
Another reason for isolated working culture as stated by respondents is an economic crisis. As part of
a developing country in construction, Sri Lankan clients are more concerned with the economic aspect
than the size of the project. CSA02 endorsed this by stating “…. if I’m the client my aim to get the job
done at the lowest cost”. As a result, many clients hire freelance professionals rather than employing a
larger organisation. Therefore, respondents noted that many professionals work as freelancers to
provide services at a low cost. Moreover, respondents further emphasised that individual working
practices could earn a lot compared to levels experienced by organisations. Therefore, the economic
crisis is another reason for the isolated working culture in the Sri Lankan construction industry.
Therefore, based on the findings it can be assumed that isolated working culture is one of the reasons
for the organisational barrier, as it has meant that collaboration between industry participants is hidden.
6.5.2.2 Fear of Sharing Responsibilities
The fear of sharing responsibilities was found to be another reason for the organisational barrier. Many
employees refused to share responsibilities with their colleagues. According to CSB02 “…. the core of
the BIM is a collaboration, thus until people understand that we need to work as a team through shared
responsibilities it’s hard to adopt true BIM”. Respondents further noted that sharing responsibilities is
another way of improving communication and coordination among project team members. However,
respondents emphasised that people’s mindsets have hindered the sharing of responsibilities. Thus, true
collaboration is fundamental to work in a BIM environment. For example, CSB03 stated “…. the
current project we are dealing with architects are quick drawings all the mark-ups and changes, and
they email them to India as soon after the meeting finished. The changes are made in India on the model
and that will be emailed by the next morning”. This indicates true collaboration through shared
responsibilities, while improving overall productivity at the same time. However, respondents identified
that the fear of sharing responsibilities amongst employees has meant that some organisations have not
transitioned to a BIM-based environment.
6.5.2.3 People’s Mind-Sets
People's mindsets represent another reason for the organisational barrier. Managers indicated that many
employees do not welcome any change, especially amongst senior-level employees who do not want to
change traditional working practices. CSB01 endorsed this by stating, “Many traditional QS’s prefer to
deal with standard TDS sheets and take-off”. However, responses also revealed that younger
generations are more welcoming of industry changes. CSB01, CSA02, and CSB03 noted that new
graduates prefer an easier way of working rather than sticking into conventional systems. As CSA02
stated, “…...younger generation is very much into IT rather than senior professionals in the industry.
So, they will very easily grab the change”. Nevertheless, according to some respondents, getting used
to a new technology can be disastrous, as they believe once they get used to it, they would not perform
traditional cost estimating or measurements if needed. Accordingly, CSB02 complained, “most of the
fresh graduates are used to electronic measurement methods because it's faster and more accurate, and
they are trying to depend solely on a software”. This indicates that getting used to new technologies
hides the QS’s capabilities to conduct manual take-off. Therefore, it is clear that the blend of both
manual and automated ways of conducting quantities is important for a QS, particularly as the
construction industry has not fully adopted BIM.
6.5.2.4 Reluctance to Change
Employees who are reluctant to change were found to be another reason for the organisational barrier.
Many employees do not need any change in their day-to-day working practices. As CSA02 states,
“Sometimes people say I’m familiar with AutoCAD, so we don’t want anything else”. Besides, some
organisations are willing to adopt BIM-based practices; hence, the majority of the industry remains
wedded to traditional practices, which means it is hard to implement BIM even within their
organisations. For example, CSA04 stated “…. we have some problems, especially with the government
sector, as they still dominate with traditional practice. They don’t want to update with new technology”.
As a result, private sector organisations still lag behind in terms of BIM adoption, as they do not want
to undertake two practices (conventional and BIM) at the same time. Respondents also noted that many
employees do not want any change, as they believe that the adoption of BIM will mean they lose their
job, which indicates a lack of BIM knowledge. Moreover, some do not want to change because they
believe it is hard for them to learn, especially amongst senior-level professionals. CSB03 endorsed this
by stating “…. some people think the use of BIM is a big shift and a big change”. However, CSA01,
CSC02 noted that the transformation to BIM is an enhancement to their role even though there are some
slight changes in their working practice. Therefore, CSB03 suggested that “you have to look at the use
of BIM as an enhancement, if not you going to be stuck on Oh my god there’s a lot of work to do”.
Besides, the responses further identified that employees refused to change due to selfishness and lack
of trust, especially amongst seniors in the industry who do not want to share any information with other
parties. Moreover, difficulties in using English were found to represent another reason for this
reluctance to change. CSB03 endorsed this by stating “I also think language is a barrier because all
these things are developed in English; it caters more towards English speaking group and economies,
but how does it transform to other languages?” Amongst the majority of Sri Lankans, Sinhalese is their
native language, meaning that BIM could be hard to deal with in a foreign language for some
professionals. However, according to CSB02 “I don’t think there are any language barriers, as many
of our employees can pick [up] anything very fast”. This is particularly the case for the younger
generation as they are fluent in English; nevertheless, it could be more difficult for most senior
professionals in the industry as they may not be as fluent in English. Nevertheless, CSA01, CSA02, and
CSA03 emphasised that within their organisations they did not encounter any resistance to BIM, which
they attributed to the existing culture of their organisations. CSA03 endorsed this by stating “Our
company maintains the very innovative culture, as a result, everyone wants to learn BIM. If someone
learns something it’ll be shared with everyone”. This indicates that organisational culture has a strong
influence on an employee’s phycology. Therefore, CSA01 suggested that the establishment of
continuing innovative cultural environments helps to positively change the phycology of people, which
makes the process of BIM adoption easy.
6.5.2.5 Lack of Defined Goals and Processes
The interview results show that the lack of defined goals and processes represent another reason for the
organisational barrier. Respondents indicated that many organisations do not have proper goals
concerning what to achieve through BIM. CSA01 endorsed this by stating “if I’m to implement BIM
within my organisation, my first step would be to identify the goals”, which is lacking at the moment.
For example, CSC03 stated, “If I need [to] start working on improving the accuracy of cost estimates
or reducing my cost of construction or increasing profit, those should become my end goals”. This
indicates it is important to know exactly what organisations want to fulfil through adopting BIM.
Moreover, respondents also indicated that many organisations do not have proper processes to achieve
their end goals. Therefore, CSB03 suggested that it important for organisations to identify appropriate
processes to achieve BIM-related end goals. Moreover, according to respondents, having identified
goals and processes will reduce the size of the investment. According to CSB03, “…. this is going to
be a solution for all the companies as a way of overcoming financial barriers”. Thus, defined goals
help to identify exactly what BIM-related tools are requires and what technologies can help to improve
workflow/goals. According to Sureman (2009) “BIM is essentially like the survival of the fitters. Many
numbers of years down the road people who use BIM and utilized BIM appropriately will sustain in the
industry, those who want will fade off”. This indicates the adoption of BIM is possible for any
organisation with carefully defined goals and processes. Accordingly, CSB03 suggested, “we don’t
need fully BIM to be implemented, the understanding what BIM is and trying to improvise some of these
processes and goals would lead the BIM adoption”, which indicates the importance of identifying the
goals and process for organisations to enable better BIM adoption.
Therefore, the findings indicated that the organisation is another barrier to affect BIM adoption, and
this is due to isolated working culture, fear of sharing responsibilities, reluctance to change, and a lack
of defined goals and processes. Accordingly, Figure 6.12 illustrates the cognitive mapping of
organisational barriers and their reasons.
Figure 6.12: Cognitive mapping of organisational barrier and reasons
6.5.3 Regulatory Barriers

According to respondents, regulations were found to be another barrier to BIM adoption (see Figure
6.10). Accordingly, respondents identified several reasons which result in a regulatory barrier.
6.5.3.1 Legal Issues
Accordingly, legal issues were found to be the main reason for the regulatory barrier. Respondents
revealed that the ownership of the model is the most significant legal issue for BIM adoption. CSB03
endorsed this by stating “There are significant legal barriers in terms of who owns the models, as a
result, that has created some challenges in a legal context, stakeholders are like who owns the model,
who’s the fault is that, who should take the responsibility if something goes wrong, etc.” This is not just
affected by the Sri Lankan context, but the failure to define ownership of the model is recognised as a
worldwide issue. Therefore, respondents believed that anyone could change the model at any time
through cyber-crimes, which is highly risky. As a solution CSA03 suggested that, “... in lump sum
contract[s], [a] BIM model should freeze”. Hence, attention should be given to all types of contract,
most importantly by defining the ownership of the model. Furthermore, the undefined responsibilities
of the model were found to represent another legal issue that prevents a teamwork mindset amongst
employees. Therefore, CSC01 suggested that, “That is something as an industry we have to get over,
we have to bring the employees mind-setters we all are working here as a team, so everyone is
responsible for the work they do”. Without that mindset, it is more challenging to move BIM adoption
forward.
6.5.3.2 Contractual Issues
Contractual issues were identified as another reason behind the regulatory barrier. Different countries
use different forms of contracts; for example, in Sri Lanka SMM7 is used. Respondents complained
that many BIM-based tools and software are created based on UK and USA construction contract forms,
which means it is not capable of handling any other contractual forms. CSB03 endorsed this by stating
“….in SL context, all those Revit families and tools we are using to design or to model the building,
doesn’t accurately reflect with Sri Lankan standard contracts”. Therefore, respondents indicated the
importance of developing BIM-based software following Sri Lankan contract forms. In CSB01 words
“if the BIM tools or software can integrate with SMM7, … BIM adoption will be more accelerated
among Sri Lankan practitioners”. CSA04 and CSA03 also offered similar comments to CSB01.
Respondents identified the absence of BIM-based contracts was another reason for contractual issues.
Accordingly, many respondents noted that existing contracts do not cater to BIM requirements. As
stated by CSA03, “When we do taking-off on a BIM model we realized there are gaps, such as we don’t
have any BIM manager, as it's not stated in the contract to recruit a BIM manager”. This indicates the
need at least to realign existing contracts following BIM. However, from a different perspective, CSA01
argued that, “If you know your method of measurement, SW will give you quantities, and you can create
your estimate aligned with your given standards. So, there’s no need for realignment of standards”.
Similarly, CSB02 stated “Even if you are going to use BIM for the entire project process there no need
for realigning. Because of the UK, Australia, and Canada, they have different standards. So, I don’t
think that the manufacturers will cater to all methods of measurements”. It should be noted that
interviewees who believe that BIM is just a tool offered these responses. However, many industry
experts define BIM as a process. Moreover, the use of internationally developed common contracts is
fundamental. As a result, many professional bodies have introduced BIM friendly contracts, such as
RICS which has introduced the International Construction Measurement Standards Coalition (ICMSC)
for quantity surveyors and cost consultants to deliver cost estimates and financial reports in line with
BIM (RICS, 2019).
6.5.3.3 Lack of Policies
Respondents also indicated that the lack of policies form another reason for the regulatory barrier.
According to respondents within the Sri Lankan construction sector, supportive, well-defined policies
are lacking. According to CSA01 “professional bodies and [the] government have to take lots of
initiatives, especially for defining relevant policies”. This indicates the lack of professional government
involvement in BIM adoption. However, many respondents believe that a properly defined set of
policies would accelerate BIM adoption. As CSB03 states, “It is one aspect that helps BIM adoption
through defined policies such as mandates”. Respondents also emphasised not just the policies, but also
that enforcement is essential to implement such policies. Accordingly, CSA02 endorsed this by stating,
“…. empty policies don’t make any sense unless there’s no empowerment to implement them”.
Therefore, CSB02 suggested the consideration of issues and repercussions when developing policies,
as they see policies as a strong BIM driver for the Sri Lankan construction sector.
6.5.3.4 Lack of Ethical Behaviours
The lack of ethical behaviours also highlighted another reason for the regulatory barrier. Respondents
indicated that the use of trial software versions has resulted in a lack of ethics within the industry/
organisations. According to CSA03, “In Sri Lanka, only a few companies are using licensed original
software, but the majority of them are using trial versions”. This also could be attributed to a lack of
financial resource. However, as BIM-based tools are not available in trial versions, organisations have
to purchase original versions. However, respondents complained that the use of trial versions is unfair
for companies who have purchased the originals. Therefore, CSB01 stated, “…certain standards and
guidelines should be introduced for organisations and individuals to use authorised BIM tools and
software”. This also indicates that the lack of policies has also resulted in a lack of ethics within
practice. Therefore, the findings indicated that regulations are another barrier that affects BIM adoption
due to legal issues, contractual issues, a lack of policies, and a lack of ethical behaviour. Accordingly,
Figure 6.13 illustrates the cognitive mapping of the regulatory barrier and its reasons.
Figure 6.13: Cognitive mapping of the regulatory barrier and reasons
6.5.4 Unawareness
Unawareness is another barrier noted by respondents. Accordingly, CSB03 said, “At the moment BIM
is in a very immature stage, little to non-existence within the Sri Lankan construction industry”.
Similarly, CSA01 added that, “many professionals have a fair knowledge about BIM, and it’s not
enough to implement BIM”. Supporting this, CSB02 stated that “Many of the employees are having
theoretical awareness, but they don’t have the practical aspect of BIM”. Supporting this statement
CSA01, CSB01 and CSA03 expressed similar thoughts. These statements indicated that BIM awareness
among construction professionals is at a lower level and is limited only to the theoretical aspects of
BIM but not the practical side. However, respondents indicated several reasons which have resulted in
unawareness.
6.5.4.1 Lack of Knowledge Sharing
The interview findings revealed that loopholes in knowledge sharing between professionals and young
professionals in the industry have resulted in BIM unawareness. CSB03 endorsed this by stating “…in
SL for some reason, many senior professionals hide everything only for themselves. There’s is no
spreading teaching from senior professionals to young professionals”. Agreeing to this CSB04 said:
“People are selfish, they don’t want to share their knowledge with others”. This shows discrepancies in
a working culture that has been practicing for a long time; as a result, in many organisations, seniors
dominate young practitioners without offering proper opportunities to improve their skills. Accordingly,
CSA01 stated: “As a result, young professionals are not bold enough to learn, they are not innovative,
and they are not pushing boundaries in the industry”. Respondents also stated that isolated working
culture (section 6.5.2.1) is another reason for a lack of knowledge sharing. As a result of isolated
working culture, many professionals do not communicate enough. Responses revealed that awareness
should come from young professionals as they are the future of the industry; therefore, respondents
consider that senior professionals should have more responsibility to increase BIM awareness through
shared knowledge.
6.5.4.2 Absence of BIM Initiator
Respondents also noted that the absence of an initiator to implement BIM within the Sri Lankan context
also has resulted in unawareness. CSA01 endorsed this by stating the “Financial barrier is not the main
barrier we have; hence, the initiation”, as there is no party responsible for initiating BIM within the
industry. Supporting this statement, CSB03 and CSA02 expressed similar thoughts. According to
respondents, named professional bodies and the government should be the initiators. Furthermore, many
respondents identified that the involvement of professional bodies is fundamental to the adoption of
BIM as it is the easiest way of increasing BIM awareness among industry professionals. In CSB01’s
words “This should start with professional bodies like IQSSL, CIDA, ICTAD and Architectural
institutes”. CSB03, CSA01, CSA03, CSB02, CSA02 and CSB04 expressed similar thoughts.
Respondents also revealed that, at the moment, some professional body involvement can be seen. For
example, CSB01 stated, “…professional bodies are doing something, introducing BIM, BIM models,
workshop, conferences but it does not enough to implement BIM within Sri Lankan context”. Therefore,
CSA03 suggested that “First professional bodies and universities should get together, and make
standards, for BIM”, while CSA02 stated “They should organise seminars, CPD, conferences, and
workshops not only in Colombo but also island-wide, as many industry practitioners have traveling
problems.” However, even though anything is possible in this country, nothing is moving due to the
silence of many professionals and professional bodies.
Respondents further identified that the government should also be responsible for the absence of BIM
initiators, as they believe the government should also act as another initiator. Accordingly, respondents
complained that they have lost large scale projects, such as Altaire, in which BIM could have been
applied. Thus, they lost the chance, as the government has not taken the necessary action to support
BIM adoption. CSB03 stated “...If large scale projects are not using BIM, then it’ll be a very few
opportunities for Sri Lanka to involve in BIM-based projects”. Moreover, respondents further indicate
that those requests should come from the professional level, such as architects, QS, or engineers, which
is not happening. However, from the QS perspective, CSB01, CSA04, and CSB02 stated that architects
should be the initiators of BIM adoption, as they are the first in the construction line. Accordingly,
respondents have identified three main sectors - professional bodies, government and architects - who
should be BIM initiators with the aim of increasing BIM adoption. Thus, CSB03 stated, “if they don’t
do it, who will do it then?”.
6.5.4.3 Lack of BIM Education
Respondents also found that a lack of BIM education has resulted in unawareness. Accordingly,
respondents indicated that a proper BIM education is still lacking in the Sri Lankan context. CSB03
stated that a “Broader understanding of BIM, such as what BIM is, what it entails, is severely lacking”.
Those discrepancies can be seen in developed countries, such as the UK, the USA, and Scandinavia,
but is significantly lacking in Asian counties. This has ultimately resulted in a lack of BIM experts
within the country. CSA01 endorsed this by stating “when we were to introduce CostX, we had to hire
experts from Indonesia and Singapore to train our employees”. According to respondents, one of the
main reasons for the lack of proper BIM education within SL is attributed to the fact it is still not part
of the Sri Lankan education curriculum. CSA01 said “Unfortunately BIM is not included in the
education system”. CSB01, CSB02, CSB04 and CSA03 expressed similar thoughts. This indicates that,
even though several government universities exist, BIM teaching is still at an immature stage.
Moreover, CSB01 stated that “…we don’t have BIM courses within the Sri Lankan context to learn
BIM”, which indicates the need to establish BIM-related courses. However, respondents noted that the
only acting body at the government level for BIM is The University of Moratuwa. They organise BIM-
related workshops and seminars to increase BIM awareness, but these do not cover the entire industry.
Hence, responses revealed that some private sector institutions conduct BIM-related courses. CSB04
endorsed this by stating, “Few BIM-related courses are conduct[ed] in the private sector, but it does
not fulfill the need of the industry”. This indicates there are only a few BIM education service providers
in the private sector. Moreover, CSB01 stated that “…when it comes to private universities, they do
provide just a BIM introduction, which is not enough to adopt BIM”. Many respondents believe that
they require practical use of BIM along with theoretical knowledge, which indicates that courses are
not sufficient or appreciated. Therefore, responses indicate that universities have a big role in terms of
BIM adoption. CSA01 endorsed this by stating the “University has to take the first step of BIM adoption
by introducing or updating existing curriculum with BIM”. Supporting this statement, CSA01 expressed
similar thoughts. Moreover, CSB03 suggested that “…the best way to teach BIM for SL students is to
ask students to dream what BIM could be after giving them some idea about BIM. That kinda
conversation is important for them to learn more”. This indicates the importance of providing the
practical aspect of BIM. Besides, education should not only target students but also industry
professionals, such as architects, engineers, quantity surveyors, etc.
According to CSB02, proper BIM education would be a driver for the Sri Lankan industry to adopt
BIM. CSA03 suggested that, apart from standard BIM courses, workshops, live projects, CPD and
conferences would also accelerate the use of BIM within Sri Lanka. Besides, respondents further
identified a lack of demand from the industry as another reason to establish proper BIM education
within the country. In CSB01’s words “In SL it’s really hard to find a proper institution for proper BIM
education, the reason for this at the moment we don’t have any demand coming from the industry for
BIM”. Respondents further noted a lack of BIM demand, especially during professional gatherings, as
not many conversations relate to BIM. Hence, CSB02 had a different perspective; he stated that
“the first step would be to provide knowledge conducting CPD, seminars, conferences, etc., then only
they will start thinking about BIM. Afterward, demand will come for it. Without knowing the product
there’s no demand coming from the industry”, which illustrates the need for proper BIM education to
increase demand. Therefore, respondents believe that it is time to introduce BIM to the SL industry on
an island-wide basis.
6.5.4.4 The Gap Between Industry and Academia
Respondents also revealed that the gap between the industry and academia is another reason for
unawareness. CSB03 endorsed this by stating “…. unfortunately, academics are not connected [to] the
industry; they create ideas and thoughts, but there’s no one to tested them”. According to respondents,
the main reason for not connecting industry and academia is isolated working culture, as discussed
under section 6.5.2.1. According to CSA01, “There are some researchers who have done some
research; hence, in the majority of papers only a few case studies have used compared to theories and
models”. Therefore, respondents expressed dissatisfaction with the quality of research papers. In
CSB03’s words “…when there are fewer case studies, how do you know what you are talking about
will work or not? Until we test them within the industry, we cannot tell it will work or not”. Notably,
most of the respondents drew attention to the lack of communication that worsens the gap between
industry and academia. CSB03 said, “Communication between industry and academics is in a very low
stage in [the] Sri Lankan construction industry”. Agreeing with this statement, CSA01 stated “If you
send an email, you won’t get a reply, so you have to contact them. They are more oriented towards the
documentation”. Therefore, this is a cultural issue, which is discussed in section 6.5.2.1.
Therefore, findings indicated unawareness as another barrier that affects BIM adoption due to the lack
of knowledge sharing, the absence of BIM initiators, a lack of BIM education, and the gap between
industry and academia. Accordingly, Figure 6.14 illustrates the cognitive mapping of unawareness and
its reasons.
Figure 6.14: Cognitive mapping of unawareness and reasons
6.5.5 Lack of Resources

The lack of resources is another barrier noted by the respondents (see Figure 6.10). Accordingly,
respondents identified the lack of various resources that prevent the adoption of BIM.
6.5.5.1 Lack of BIM-Experts
Respondents identified a lack of BIM experts as the main lack of resource for BIM adoption. CSB04
endorsed this by stating “We don’t have proper BIM educated people to launch BIM within our
companies or in the industry”. CSA03 and CSA04 expressed similar thoughts, which indicates that
BIM experts lack within the industry due to a lack of proper BIM education, as discussed under section
6.5.4.3. However, respondents highlighted the need for the role of a BIM manager, as he can coordinate
with each party involved. As CSA03 states, “Architects don’t want anyone to meet the client. in case
the client needs any change, no one would know what happened in that meeting, except client, if we
have BIM managers, they can pass the information for the entire project team”. Nevertheless,
respondents indicated that they had to hire international BIM experts to support BIM adoption within
their organisations, which is highly expensive.
BIM experts can either be from academia or the industry. Although respondents noted that some
academics have conducted some research on BIM, as many academics do not have proper links with
the industry, it is unlikely that they can help to meet the need for BIM experts. According to CSB03
“When talking about the BIM expert in SL, our experts are limited only to the academic sector; thus,
we don’t have any experts in the industry”. This indicates that experts are only limited to the academic
sector, but none are based within the industry to develop the practical side of BIM. This further reveal
that BIM education is still limited to theoretical aspects (as discussed in section 6.5.4.3), but there is a
lack of opportunity to experience BIM in a real-life context. In other words, the lack of proper training
has also resulted in a lack of BIM experts. Therefore, CSA04 suggested that hiring BIM experts would
offer a solution; even though it is expensive, this could be a short-term solution. However, respondents
also suggested the establishment of proper BIM education, as it could rapidly create local BIM experts.
6.5.5.2 Absence of a BIM Implementation Plan
The interview findings further indicated the absence of a BIM implementation plan is another
fundamental lack of resource for BIM adoption. This seemed to be an issue organisationally and
nationally. In CSB02’s words “We need a clear BIM implementation plan or a strategy/ framework for
our organisation to adopt BIM”. In the meantime, CSA01 stated that, “Let’s say we use BIM up to some
extent, that doesn’t mean that we can implement full-scale BIM in a project, for that top management
of the companies needs to step forward with a proper execution plan”. This statement implies that
employees expect top management to develop a proper strategy for BIM adoption as the most
responsible party. Besides, many countries have adopted BIM through nationally developed strategies
or frameworks. Therefore, the responses also indicated that there’s a need for a nationally developed
implementation plan for BIM adoption in SL. Accordingly, many respondents believed that the lack of
government intervention has resulted in the absence of a nationally developed BIM implementation
plan. Therefore, CSB02 suggested that, “for the development framework, we can use early adopters to
share their experience about the use of BIM, its advantages, barriers they face during adoption, and
the actions they have taken”.
6.5.5.3 Lack of BIM-Models
According to respondents, the lack of BIM models represents another key lack of resource. Thus, the
most important requirement of a QS undertaking a BIM-based cost estimation is the BIM model.
However, the responses revealed that the QS does not get a BIM model from the architects. CSB01
endorsed this by stating, “The main reason not to find any local BIM projects is still the architects are
not using BIM tools, so we don’t get any BIM model to perform BIM-based cost estimation”. CSB01
and CSA03 expressed similar thoughts; moreover, CSB02 stated, “if we are not getting any models,
how come we do 5D cost estimation?” CSC03 and CSA02 also expressed similar thoughts, which
indicates that a BIM model is an important resource for the QS in BIM-based practice. Respondents
complained that it is the architect’s responsibility to design drawings in the BIM model. Furthermore,
CSB01 guaranteed that, “If architects start doing BIM models, definitely QS firms and other
practitioners in the industry will start doing BIM-based practice”. Therefore, according to CSB01,
CSA03 and CSB02, architects should be the initiators for BIM adoption. Responses also revealed that
there is only one architect firm creating drawings in a BIM format, while the rest are not. For example,
CSA03 stated the, “Colombo city project they issued drawings in BIM format”. According to
respondents, another reason for the lack of BIM models is unbalanced BIM adoption among
professionals, which is discussed under section 6.5.6.1. Therefore, respondents suggested that the most
important step for BIM adoption within the QS organisation would be to introduce BIM for architects
in the industry. If not, CSB02 stated there is “no point [for] QS’s to adopt BIM, as we can’t measure in
BIM tools”.
6.5.5.4 Lack of BIM Training
A lack of BIM training was found to be another lack of resource in the Sri Lankan context for BIM
adoption. Accordingly, respondents indicated that companies do not attempt to train employees, which
is the main reason for the lack of BIM training. Many organisations find training costs them a lot.
CSC01 endorsed this by stating “…. training people going to be expensive as we don’t have any BIM
experts within the country”, so the organisation has to hire international BIM experts, which is
expensive. Besides, labour turnover was also highlighted as another reason for the lag in training
amongst organisations. CSA01 endorsed this by stating, “once we trained an employee, there are many
organisations to recruit him”. However, CSB03 had a different opinion, stating that “My personal view
is, if someone [is] interest[ed] in BIM, they’ll learn by themselves, the thing is it’s just not a teaching
of SW as there are plenty of BIM SW available, what’s the point of teaching just one SW? It’s like telling
them to go to the ocean and fish for just one type of fish”. As for some professions, there is specific
software available, for example, QS’s CostX for measurement and estimation. Moreover, there is no
point for a QS to learn Revit as it is developed for designing. Another reason for the lack of BIM
training, as highlighted by respondents, is the absence of proper BIM educational places to provide BIM
training, which is discussed under section 6.5.4.3. Therefore, CSB03 suggested that, if all the
construction organisations can organise a place to study and train, BIM would be more beneficial for
all professions and more cost-effective. However, this should not be limited to a certain area, but rather
based on an island-wide need.
6.5.5.5 Limited Internet Facilities
Responses also identified that limited Internet facilities represents another lack of resource that impacts
BIM adoption. As CSA03’s indicates, “High-speed internet is essential for BIM-based cost estimation”;
furthermore, CSB02 expressed similar thoughts. In Sri Lanka, Internet facilities are very expensive and
not fast enough. CSB02 said, “…. if we are to use BIM, we need fast broadband for our offices for
cheaper cost”. Therefore, respondents emphasised that government contribution is essential to reduce
the cost of internet facilities at the organisational level.
6.5.5.6 Limited Number of Software Licenses
Another insufficient resource highlighted by respondents is the limited number of software licenses.
Many organisations have only managed to get a limited number of software licenses. As CSA02 stated,
“We’ve got only six licenses for CostX, but 20 employees are working here, so at a time only one can
use one software”. Agreeing with this CSA01 stated that “We have purchased four licenses, but more
than 30 employees are working, so the number of licenses is not enough”. These statements indicate
that organisations have managed to get a few software licenses, but these do not cover the needs of all
available staff. In the meantime, respondents complained that due to a limited number of licenses,
productivity has decreased. CSB02 endorsed this by stating “…once all the licenses are utilized,
anybody else can log in to the system”. Due to the unethical behaviours discussed under 6.8.4, many
organisations are using trial versions for various SW. However, it is hard to find trial versions for BIM-
related SW; as discussed in section 6.6.1, one of the main reasons for a limited number of SW is the
cost of SW. as CSB01’s indicated, “As it is very expensive, many local firms cannot bear that cost”.
Furthermore, responses also indicated that the lack of demand for BIM from the industry has meant that
organisations have not increased the number of software licenses, as it not profitable. Therefore, it can
be assumed that a lack of demand has also resulted in a limited number of BIM software licenses.
Accordingly, the above findings indicated that a lack of resources is another barrier that affects BIM
adoption due to the lack of BIM experts, the absence of a BIM implementation plan, the lack of BIM
models, a limited number of software licenses, limited Internet facilities, and a lack of training.
Accordingly, Figure 6.15 illustrates the cognitive mapping of a lack of resources and its reasons.
Figure 6.15: Cognitive mapping of lack of resources and reasons
6.5.6 Lack of Demand for BIM

Respondents identified that the lack of demand for BIM was as another barrier to its adoption. In
CSC02’s words “At the moment we have no, or a very limited, demand coming from the industry for
BIM-based projects”. Respondents noted that various reasons have resulted in a lack of demand for
BIM within the industry.
6.5.6.1 Unbalanced BIM Adoption
Unbalanced BIM adoption was identified as the main reason for low BIM demand. Accordingly, CSB03
stated, “In BIM adoption, people don’t focus and concentrate on the equal development of all of the
factors such as technology, process, and people”. This indicates there is not just one aspect to consider;
thus, all factors need to be balanced equally. For example, CSA01 stated, “…think you got the
technology, and process, as you got all the fancy SW; from all these SW you can extract all the accurate
information, your company has set out multiple processes, the government has defined policies, but if
the people aren't trained to do it, it’s not going to work”. Therefore, the adoption of BIM cannot be
classified as just the use of technology, or process, but rather the combination and equal use of people,
process, and technology (PPT). However, many respondents complained that unawareness (discussed
under section 6.5.4) resulted in an unbalance adaptation of these factors.
Besides, respondents also noted that the lack of BIM use among professionals has also resulted in
unbalanced BIM adoption. CSB01 endorsed this by stating, “the current situation in Sri Lanka is only
QS have started using BIM”; however, not many architects or engineers are using it. However,
according to CSA01 “…. the earlier adopters should be architects, as architects are the initiators in
the construction process, and they should prepare drawings using BIM”. Unfortunately, within current
practices, only a few architectural firms are using BIM; moreover, it is not just QS’s or architects who
should implement BIM, but rather all parties in the construction process at the same time. Therefore,
CSA03 suggested that “we need to implement BIM, not just for one profession, but also every profession
in the industry should be part of BIM”. Accordingly, findings indicated the uneven adaptation of PPT,
and the lack of professional BIM use have mainly resulted in unbalanced BIM adoption. Furthermore,
respondents identified that many professionals do not intend to use BIM due to the lack of client demand
(discussed under section 6.5.6.2) and the lack of BIM training (discussed under section 6.5.5.4).
However, respondents noted the importance of government involvement to mitigate unbalanced BIM
adoption. In CSA01’s words “…. many countries have made BIM a mandate, so they don’t have any
options unless using BIM if you want to do a project in a modern way; of course, the government will
have to initiate this”. CSA02, CSA03, CSB01, CSB03 and CSC03 expressed similar thoughts while
many respondents identified the BIM mandate as a major driver, which accelerates the use of BIM
among construction professionals. Furthermore, some respondents suggested mandating the use of BIM
for all foreign contractors. As CSA03’s indicated “if we have a mandate that foreign contractors to use
BIM within projects going on Sri Lanka, with training for local industry practitioners, BIM adoption
will be … accelerated among Sri Lankan construction professionals”. This also creates an opportunity
for local practitioners to train themselves. However, as CSB03 stated “…. the government has to be
mindful in mandating BIM, as they need to consider certain aspects”, especially for local projects. For
example, CSB01 stated, “if it was mandated to utilise BIM for projects which exceed cost 15 million
and above, that particular contractor is not engaged with many projects, sometimes the cost for BIM
adoption doesn’t justify. So, then what happen SL companies have to dig to get side-line, as they don’t
have enough resources”. This indicates it is not just about the scale of the projects considered, but also
organisational capacity, which should be considered before introducing mandates.
6.5.6.2 Lack of Client Demand
Respondents also revealed that a lack of client demand has also influenced low BIM demand generally.
Most organisations provide their services for foreign companies and projects due to demand from
foreign contractors. As CSA01 explained, “only a few organszations are dealing with BIM-based
practices, and even them mostly provide BIM services for international clients”. This indicates that
client demand is a significant BIM driver for construction organisations to adopt BIM. However,
CSB01 stated, “At the moment we don’t get any demand for BIM from Sri Lankan clients”. CSB02,
CSB03, CSB04, and CSA01 expressed similar thoughts, which indicates that client demand from local
clients is almost non-existent. Therefore, it significantly affects the overall demand for BIM as not many
organisations deal with foreign clients. Besides, according to respondents, the major reason why do not
ask for BIM is unawareness (discussed in section 6.5.4). In CSA04 words, “If clients know BIM and its
benefits definitely, they will go for it”. CSA01 and CSA02 expressed similar thoughts. CSB01 suggested
that “….as a part of the BIM adoption process, the foremost step would be the raise client’s awareness
of BIM and its benefits”. The existence of the construction industry depends on clients. According to
CSA01, BIM adoption also depends upon the client’s decision as the individual who invests money on
projects. Agreeing with this, CSB02 stated that, “If clients don’t have a proper idea about BIM, they
will ignore the use of BIM”. Therefore, the client plays a significant role in BIM adoption.
6.5.6.3 Lack of Government Intervention
The lack of government intervention was another reason for the lack of demand for BIM; indeed,
CSA02 said, “even though the government intervention should be a must, I have no idea up to what
extent its practical to expect government involvement”. CSA03, CSB01 and CSB02 expressed similar
thoughts, which indicates it is hard to expect government intervention for BIM adoption. Accordingly,
respondents indicated that political corruption is a major reason for the lack of government intervention.
CSA02 stated, “…if you are using e-tendering, once you upload quantities at the end it’ll come as it is,
so no one can edit the final figures or cheat…” But in traditional practice, anyone can edit the final
figures as they want. In terms of selecting contractors - especially for government sector projects - in
most instances, political influences can be seen in the Sri Lankan construction sector. As a result, the
government has no intention to go beyond traditional methods. Therefore, CSB02 asked, “so how can
we expect any government involvement?”. Besides, an economic crisis represents another reason for
the lack of government intervention. As a developing country government expectation are quite
different to modern technological aspects. Nevertheless, respondents further complained that the lack
of professional involvement (discussed under section 6.5.4.2) also result in a lack of government
intervention. Respondents believe it is the responsibility of professional bodies to report the need for
BIM within the construction industry to the government. Only then will the government pay attention
to BIM adoption. Therefore, CSA03 suggested the involvement of government agencies on behalf of
the government to encourage the implementation of BIM.
6.5.6.4 Scalability
Through the responses, scalability is also identified as another reason for the lack of demand for BIM.
According to CSB03, “it is important to decide whether the size of the Sri Lankan construction market
will fit for BIM or not”. Furthermore, CSB01 said: “As this is a scale game, it is important to consider
how to increase the scale and how to get a better return when you run a larger incrementation”. This
indicates the importance of determining the scale of BIM adoption. Therefore, CSB01 suggested that,
“if SL is … too small a market to adopt BIM, one way is to try to increase the scale, so then your
approach is not just BIM adoption in SL but South Asia. Or it could be done through a comparative
model; compare a small country where the scale is small, and if they have adopted BIM identify what
they did and how they did”. Moreover, CSA01 suggested, “as many large-scale local projects are done
by international contractors, the best way to increase the scalability is through shared BIM adoption”,
which indicates working with international contractors collaboratively to provide BIM services by
covering certain areas, such as the development of the BIM model. In other words, this means
outsourcing BIM services.
Accordingly, the above findings indicated a lack of demand for BIM as another barrier that affects the
its adoption, due to: unbalanced BIM adoption, a lack of client demand, a lack of government
intervention, and scalability. Accordingly, Figure 6.16 illustrates the cognitive mapping of the lack of
demand for BIM and its reasons.
Figure 6.16: Cognitive mapping for the lack of BIM demand and reasons
According to the above analysis, findings indicated six significant barriers, which hinder the adoption
of BIM. Financial barriers, organisational barriers, regulatory barriers, unawareness, lack of resources,
and a lack of demand for BIM were found to be the main findings from the analysis. Moreover, the
findings also indicated the reasons behind each barrier and the mitigating actions.
A case study analysis is one of the principal methods of analysis used in this study and addresses the
defined objectives. This chapter presented the factors affecting the accuracy of pre-tender cost
estimates, the driving factors for BIM adoption and BIM adoption barriers, and the mitigating actions
in Sri Lankan quantity surveying firms. Accordingly, the following chapter discusses the findings from
both types of data analysis.
7 Discussion
7.1 Introduction
The purpose of this chapter is to conceptualise the research findings by evaluating the findings derived
from the questionnaire survey, case studies (semi-structured interviews) and existing literature to
develop a framework for BIM adoption in Sri Lanka. The chapter is divided into three sections. The
first compares and summarises the findings from this study with current literature. The second section
describes the development of the framework that was based on the findings. Finally, the third section
presents the findings of the validation process.
7.2 Factors Affecting the Accuracy of Pre-Tender Cost Estimates
7.2.1 The Use of 2D Drawings

The results of this study indicate that the use of 2D drawings hinders the accuracy of pre-tender cost
estimates. The use of 2D drawings is more challenging due to the lack of visualisation, changes, and
revisions to the drawings. Findings from the case studies (qualitative) (see section 6.3.1) endorse this
position, as many respondents find that the lack of visualisation results in the calculation of inaccurate
quantities by QS’s due to the difficulties they face in identifying certain elements, especially for
complex projects. Furthermore, changes and revisions mainly occur due to last-minute submissions by
the architect, client alterations, the isolated working culture, and insufficient information. Besides,
results also indicate that changes and revisions are more time-consuming meaning that a QS has to
spend considerable time detecting these changes and incorporating them within the existing cost
estimate. Furthermore, respondents identified the lack of visualisation from 2D drawings (section 5.5
see Table 5.6); the majority agreed with this barrier by stating that it increases the inaccuracy of pre-
tender cost estimates. Moreover, respondents further agreed that updates and changes made to 2D
drawings hinder the accuracy of pre-tender cost estimates (section 5.5, Table 5.6). Therefore, the
findings indicated that lack of visualisation, and changes and revisions are heavily impacted by the use
of 2D drawings, meaning that it is more challenging for a QS when preparing accurate cost estimates.
Accordingly, the factor “use of 2D drawings” was ranked in the 6th place among nine main factors, as
illustrated in Table 5.15. In agreement, GenieBelt (2019) mentioned that the preparation of accurate
cost estimation using 2D drawings can be particularly challenging in complex projects. Autodesk
(2016) positively supported this view indicating that lines and circles in 2D drawings provide poor
visualisation for the QS with frequent revisions and changes. Therefore, it can be concluded that the
use of 2D drawings is more problematic due to the lack of visualisation, changes, and revisions to
drawings.
Thus, Sri Lankan QS organisations need to re-consider the use of 2D drawings when increasing the
accuracy of pre-tender cost estimates. The world’s top construction organisations have already made a
transition from 2D design to 3D design due to prevailing issues with the use of 2D drawings (Mackay,
2016). Moreover, QS’s have identified that the transition from 2D to 3D is the key to increasing the
accuracy of cost estimates (Allplan, 2019). As noted in section 3.3.1 the use of 3D BIM models helps
the QS to develop a clear picture of the project through a virtual 3D walk, which ultimately improves
the visualisation (Azhar et al., 2008; BIM Talk, 2013; Haque & Mishra, 2007; Shen & Issa 2010;
Underwood & Isikdag 2010; Viklund, 2011). Also, the ability to detect clashes has reduced manual
revisions and changes (Thurairajah & Goucher, 2013) thereby saving the QS time. Therefore, the use
of BIM models has improved the accuracy of pre-tender cost estimates through improved visualisation
and by minimising the changes and revisions required within clash detection.
The results from this study illustrate that the lack of information is another prevailing factor that hinders
the accuracy of pre-tender cost estimates. The lack of information mainly occurs due to poor
information flow, paper-based information sharing, unusable data and the absence of proper databases.
Findings from the case study analysis (section 6.3.2) endorse this position, as many respondents find
that poor information occurs as from: restricted access to the information provided for quantity
surveyors; the absence of proper databases, and paper-based information sharing. In many
organisations, top management is typically the only authorised party with complete access to company
databases. This can limit employees’ contributions to the entire information flow, as they do not have
the right to upload or download any information. Moreover, as a result of limited access, the majority
are reluctant to share information with other employees.
Findings also revealed that paper-based information sharing occurs due to the isolated working culture
and the fear of new technologies. In the government sector, the use of email and the Internet is especially
limited meaning a reliance on paper-based document sharing practices. As a result, many professionals
refuse to adopt new technologies. Therefore, private organisations struggle to fully adopt new
technologies, due to limitations in the government sector’s current practices. This indicates that isolated
working culture heavily influences the use of paper-based information-sharing among professionals.
In addition, the results from this study reveal that unusable data is another reason for the lack of
information. Unusable data results from a lack of communication and coordination among project team
members, and paper-based information sharing. Moreover, the study found that the absence of a general
database similarly results in the lack of information. In particular, private organisations have their own
databases, whereas the government sector uses their own databases. Thus, there is no generally
developed database for the Sri Lankan construction industry, such as BCIS (British Cost Information
Service). Moreover, the authorities responsible have not attempted to develop a general cost database
for the Sri Lankan construction sector.
The results in quantitative section 5.5 (Table 5.7) revealed that respondents further agreed with the
majority that the lack of information results in the preparation of inaccurate pre-tender cost estimates.
Moreover, they believed that poor information flow, the absence of a proper database and unusable data
are factors affecting on the lack of information. Besides, respondents also agreed that manual
information exchange (paper-based information sharing) also results in a lack of information. As such,
the findings indicate that the lack of information mostly occurs due to a poor flow of information, paper-
based information sharing, unusable data and the absence of an appropriate general database.
Accordingly, the factor ‘lack of information’ was ranked fourth among nine main factors, as illustrated
in Table 5.15; this indicates that insufficient information has a significant effect on the accuracy of pre-
tender cost estimates.
This view was further supported by the literature; according to the Muhammed et al. (2018), the use of
accurate information from reliable sources is important to ensure accurate estimates. Therefore,
obtaining accurate and sufficient information at the pre-tender stage can increase the overall accuracy
of pre-tender cost estimates. Nevertheless, due to incomplete designs, in most instances the QS fails to
gather sufficient, accurate information prior the preparation of pre-tender cost estimates. As a result,
the QS receives incomplete design drawings with missing information, which ultimately results in a
poor flow of information (Hiyassat et al., 2018). Moreover, Muhammed et al. (2018) confirmed the
importance of access to a well-maintained database that could help the QS to develop accurate cost
estimates. However, paper-based information sharing has resulted in the creation of poor databases for
most organisations, as the information is not stored electronically. Braaf et al. (2016) positively
supported this view by indicating that important information is sometimes buried in paper documents
(such as 2D drawings), which the QS is not informed of, and is not verbally advised. Therefore, in order
to improve the accuracy of pre-tender cost estimates, Sri Lankan QS organisations need to overcome
the ‘lack of information’.
As noted in section 3.4.2 the use of BIM helps to overcome a lack of information through the use of 3D
BIM models, which consist of rich information. Rather using series of 2D drawings, BIM model provide
access to digital database where QS can gather accurate and reliable data during the early stage of the
project. Moreover, the QS can share, download and manage any information at any stage of the project,
which ultimately creates a rich flow of information throughout the project. This flow automatically
generates a more reliable database for the entire project. As BIM allows all project participants to work
on the same platform, it can improve communication and coordination among project team members
by eliminating unusable data. Moreover, it also minimises paper-based information sharing as it
prevents the maintenance of an isolated working culture. Therefore, the use of BIM has improved the
accuracy of pre-tender cost estimates by overcoming the fact of lack of information.
7.2.3 Inefficiencies in Current Software
Results from the qualitative analysis illustrate that inefficiencies in current software also result in the
preparation of inaccurate cost estimates in Sri Lanka. The results indicate that the majority (90%) of Sri
Lankan QS’s use MS Excel for measuring purposes, which is attributed to its user-friendliness.
However, the results also indicate the use of Ms Excel is not 100% accurate due to applications of
incorrect mathematical formula and wrong calculations. Findings from the case studies (section 6.3.3)
endorse this position as the many respondents find that the use of wrong assumptions, the inability to
trace the changes, and a lack of SW operational skills represent as the main reasons for incorrect
mathematical formulas. Excel is not specifically designed for QS measuring purposes; instead, it is a
general software application that conducts calculations based on the formulas and commands which the
user creates. Therefore, Excel can be compromised through the application of many mathematical
formulas, on which the QS has to make assumptions when creating these formulas. In most cases, these
assumptions are not accurate due to the lack of information, as discussed in section 7.2.2. Therefore,
inappropriate assumptions result, which mean the development of inaccurate mathematical formulas,
which ultimately result in inaccurate calculations.
Responses also indicated that QS’s lack of software (SW) operational skills represents another reason
for incorrect mathematical formulas. Many QS’s are not skilled enough to develop their own formulas,
as they are not sufficiently familiar with Excel. Even though some professionals have a degree of skill
to use Excel, they do not update their system with the latest versions so miss the advantages offered by
new SW features. In addition, once a formula is developed it is hard to remember the commands used,
and it is hard for a third party to track them if they are not familiar with the development of formula or
use of Excel.
Moreover, in most cases these files are shared among professionals in a secured version (non-editable),
to prevent fraud or corruption, which could result in million-pound losses. This also prevents the
traceability of changes undertaken by different parties outside from the person who developed the file.
Even if it is possible to pinpoint the location of every related file, tracing the logic of formulas from
one related cell to another can be time-consuming. Similar problems will be encountered when
troubleshooting any questionable data. Therefore, responses illustrated that the inability to trace
changes as another reason for wrong mathematical formulas. Findings from the qualitative data also
revealed that hidden calculations, missing elements or quantities, and wrong mathematical formulas are
the main reasons for wrong calculations. Accordingly, responses indicated that many mistakes arise due
to the hidden calculations made within Excel. Thus, when a change is made to a formula, all hidden
calculations might not automatically change, which means that manual checks are required. Moreover,
according to the respondents, missing elements or quantities can also result in wrong calculations. The
respondents indicated that this occurs when transferring measurements to an Excel sheet for calculation.
Missing one element will result in entirely incorrect calculation. It can be also seen from the results that
wrong mathematical formulae also result in wrong calculations. Therefore, even when a QS conducts
an accurate take-off of quantities or measurements, the use of wrong mathematical formulae will result
in incorrect calculations.
Furthermore, this is similar to the results for the quantitative analysis (section 5.5, Table 5.8), where
participants agreed with the majority of inefficiencies in current software results in inaccurate pre-
tender cost estimates. Moreover, respondents believed that human error from manual programming
increases the use of wrong mathematical formulae, which also indicates inefficiencies in the current
software. On average, due to human error, a spreadsheet will contain one error for every 20 cells
containing data (Worthington, 2016). Besides, respondents also confirmed that wrong calculations
occur when the SW unrealistically overestimates, meaning that higher risk allowances are added
compared to those included by human interaction. The results of both findings indicate that wrong
mathematical formulae and incorrect calculations are the leading factors for inefficiencies in current
software. Accordingly, the factor “inefficiencies in current software’s” was ranked seventh among the
nine main factors, as illustrated in Table 5.15 which indicates that this also has a significant effect on
the accuracy of pre-tender cost estimates.
This view was supported by the literature; according to Hook (2018), it is challenging to maintain a
standardised approach to estimating when using Excel for cost estimating as it does not offer estimator
specific functions. Moreover, QS mistakes within embedded formulae can mean significant
inconsistency in the calculations, as it difficult and time-consuming to pinpoint the mistake (Blog,
2019). Besides, formulae can be easily changed – either on purpose or by mistake. According to Baio
and Anna (2016), the use of dedicated software reduces such errors by applying predefined cost
formulae and calculations. Therefore, rather than using generic software like Ms Excel, to increase the
accuracy of pre-tender cost estimates, Sri Lankan QS organisations have to re-consider the use of
specific software that is specially designed for cost estimating purposes.
As noted in section 3.3.3, BIM has its own developed software, such as CostX, Vico Take-off, Zuzia,
etc, which are designed for cost estimation. This means such SW is specially designed for estimation
purposes, and therefore conducts automated quantity take-offs. Moreover, it generates accurate cost
estimates without the need for manual programming. The QS does not need to spend extra effort
creating mathematical formulas for calculations. Therefore, with the effective use of the right BIM
software for cost estimating increases the accuracy of the final cost estimate.
7.2.4 Inadequate Estimator Knowledge and Skill
The results from this study illustrate that inadequate estimator knowledge and skill form another factor
hindering the accuracy of pre-tender cost estimates. The lack of SW operational skills and wrong
assumptions are the main factors that illustrate inadequate knowledge and skill. Findings from the case
studies (section 6.3.4) endorse this position, as many respondents find that the wrong assumptions occur
from the lack of updates, a lack of awareness of current rates, and the difficulties in reading 2D
drawings. Many QS’s are not up to date with the current business side of the construction industry; as
a result, they are not capable of identifying important circumstances, such as price escalations during
the preparation of cost estimates. Therefore, in most cases the assumptions made by the QS are
inaccurate due to lack of updates and awareness about current rates. Wrong assumptions also occur due
to difficulties in reading 2D drawings, which was discussed under section 7.2.1. If the QS is not skilled
enough to read drawings properly, they could add extra or miss items in the cost estimate. Besides,
qualitative findings also revealed that the QS is unable to develop appropriate formulas (discussed in
section 7.2.3) and inadequate knowledge of risk allocation has also resulted in a lack of SW operating
skills. As SW does not manually calculate risk, the QS needs to decide the amount of percentage that
should be allocated for risk.
Furthermore, this finding is similar to participants’ responses for the quantitative analysis (section 5.5,
Table 5.12), to which the majority of participants agreed that the accuracy of pre-tender cost estimates
heavily depends upon the knowledge and skills of the estimator. Moreover, they believed that the wrong
assumption and lack of SW operational skills are the prevailing factors for the inadequate knowledge
and skill of an estimator. Besides, the majority of participants agreed that the QS’s knowledge and skills
are highly important in preparing accurate cost estimates even though plenty of tools and technologies
are available.
Accordingly, the factor “inadequate knowledge and skill of an estimator” ranked first among nine main
factors illustrated in Table 5.15, indicating that inadequate knowledge and skill amongst estimators
have a strong effect on the accuracy of pre-tender cost estimates. Similarly, Lim et al. (2016) identified
that cost estimation is an experienced-based process, which indicates the importance of estimator
knowledge and experience for accuracy. Muhammed et al. (2018) positively supported this view by
indicating that the experienced QS plays an important role in the assumptions that the estimator uses to
calculate an accurate estimate. Moreover, the ability to generalise information based on limited design
data was suggested as a skill that has been developed through experience (Brendon et la, 2016).
According to Lim et al. (2016), 15 years of experience as a QS could enable the development of a great
QS or estimator; this indicates the importance of QS experience and knowledge. A lack of experience
does not indicate that a QS is unable to prepare accurate estimates, hence experience matters a lot in
terms of operating SW and preparing estimates as it reduces the risk associated with preparing
inaccurate cost estimates. Nevertheless, a more experienced QS tends to solely depend on their
knowledge and experience rather accept modern technological aid. As human errors are inevitable -
even for a highly experienced professional - the use of new technologies would make their job more
accurate and risk-free. Therefore, in order to improve the accuracy of pre-tender cost estimates, Sri
Lankan QS organisations need to overcome the issues associated with inadequate estimator knowledge
and skill.
However, as discussed in section 7.2.3, the use of BIM-based SW, such as CostX, eliminates the use of
wrong assumptions, as the BIM model (as pointed out in section 3.3.1) mostly consists of relevant
information. Moreover, as these types of SW are specially designed for cost estimating purposes, the
QS does not need to put in extra effort by making assumptions. For example, Cubicost TAS can overlay
the BIM model with PDF/DWG drawings, so the QS can reduce the risk of inheriting errors from the
model. In addition, it also has an error analysis function that enables the QS to interrogate the model
and auto-process the overlaps. Moreover, as it conducts automated quantity take-off and generates
accurate cost estimates, it eliminates manual programming or the need to develop mathematical
formulae for calculations. Therefore, the QS does not require in-depth SW operational skills, and can
thus be concluded that the effective use of BIM and its tools results in improved accuracy of pre-tender
cost estimates by overcoming the issue of inadequate estimator knowledge and skill.
7.2.5 Isolated Working Culture
The results of the qualitative analysis (see section 6.3.5) illustrated that isolated working culture in Sri
Lanka also results in the preparation of inaccurate cost estimates. Results indicate that the Sri Lankan
construction industry is mostly driven by individuals rather than organisations. The results of the
qualitative analysis also illustrate that isolated working culture mainly occurs due to a lack of
coordination, lack of communication and the economic crisis. Findings from the case studies (section
6.3.5.1) endorse this position, as many respondents find a lack of communication through: the use of
freelance consultants, poor links among construction professionals, paper-based information sharing,
the lack of response to emails, and a lack of coordination. Rather discussion, face-to-face meetings or
the minimal use of email, paper-based processes (discussed in section 7.2.2) seem to be the prominent
way of sharing information among Sri Lankan construction professionals.
This situation has worsened due to freelance working consultants in the industry. It can be seen that
many consultants are working individually within the industry as they can earn more than working in
an organisation. In a way, freelance consultation is a way of overcoming the economic crisis, as many
clients want to get their job done at a lower cost. As a result, many freelance consultants are working
in the industry. Nevertheless, even though some freelancers work collaboratively with other parties,
some have weak interaction with other parties, which ultimately results in a lack of coordination among
professionals. Findings also revealed that the lack of coordination mainly occurs due to the lack of
communication, lack of trust and lack of linkages among professionals (section 6.3.5.2). Many
professionals refuse to share information with other parties, as they are not sufficiently trusting of them;
moreover, this is perpetuated through poor links among professionals. Therefore, even if the tender is
submitted, many areas are not properly coordinated. Apart from that, findings also revealed that
economic crises (in general) mainly occur due to political instability and Sri Lanka’s status as a
developing country (section 6.3.5.3). As a developing country, its economy fluctuates most of the time,
and this worsens due to political instability within the country. The political situation has always had a
strong impact on the country's economic growth. Therefore, many Sri Lankan clients are still locked
within the mentality of getting a job done at a lower cost than clients in developed regions.
Furthermore, this is similar to findings for the quantitative analysis (section 5.5, Table 5.9) in which the
majority of participants agreed that the accuracy of pre-tender cost estimates heavily depends upon the
type of working culture. Hence, they believed that the lack of communication and coordination are the
main reason for the isolated working culture but not the economic crisis. Accordingly, aside from the
findings from the qualitative analysis, the quantitative results further indicated that selfishness, a lack
of trust, and intense competition among professionals also result in a lack of communication. Besides,
as illustrated in Table 5.10, the majority of respondents agreed that repetitive work arises due to the
poor links among professionals, which is attributed to the lack of coordination. Participants believed
that the lack of coordination occurs as a result of poor linkages among professionals, which arise due
to isolated working practice. Indeed, GC (2017) mentioned that one third of employees have no strong
relationship with employees at work, due to isolated working culture. ICE (2019) further supported this
view by indicating that due to poor relationships, employees do not tend to demonstrate strong
communication and coordination. This is particularly important between the designer and QS where
communication is crucial for the preparation of accurate cost estimates in order to resolve differences
between the designer’s drawing copies and those used by the QS. Some organisations operate in this
isolated working culture (paper-based information sharing) while many employees try to work in
isolation due to personal issues, a lack of fit within organisations and a lack of interpersonal trust.
Besides, political considerations and the economic climate were also identified as strong drivers, which
accelerate the isolated working culture (Silicon, 2018). Therefore, it can be concluded that a lack of
communication, lack of coordination and economic crises are factors that create an isolated working
culture within the construction industry. Indeed, it is clear that an isolated working culture affects the
accuracy of pre-tender cost estimates in Sri Lanka; thus, QS organisations need to overcome the issues
associated with an ‘isolated working culture’.
Nevertheless, many leading organisations are working hard to promote teamwork and employee
relationships as it brings considerable benefits (GC, 2017). Golaszewska and Salamak (2017) suggested
that introducing processes like BIM help to improve teamwork. As pointed out in section 3.3.4,
maintaining good communication is vital when working in a BIM environment. The use of a BIM model
requires continuous communication and coordination among team members (Popov et al., 2008) -
especially between the designer and the QS - as it helps to build strong, long-lasting relationships among
team members. This makes the QS job easier to prepare accurate cost estimates as they receive instant
information when sudden changes and updates occurs. Improved collaboration also results in improved
communication amongst working parties. The communication improves due to better access to
information, which thereby reduces the level of work carried out in isolation (Marsh, 2017). Therefore,
the use of BIM improves the accuracy of pre-tender cost estimates through improving the team working
culture.
The results of this study identified that MQTO is another factor that hinders the accuracy of pre-tender
cost estimates. The respondents identified that, due to inaccurate quantities and extensive time
requirements, MQTO is the most challenging task in the entire cost estimate process. Findings from the
qualitative case studies (see section 6.3.6) endorse this position, as many respondents found that the
lack of information, time constraints, missing elements, double counting, inaccurate assumptions,
manual deductions, project complexity and discrepancies in 2D drawings are the main reasons for
generating inaccurate quantities in MQTO. Although the QS spends considerable time on the QTO,
missing elements, double counting, and manual deductions are inevitable due to the complex nature of
projects. Therefore, professionals agreed that, even amongst highly experienced QS’s, it is hard to
expect 100% accurate quantities in MQTOs. Results also indicated that poor visualisation, changes
detection and information updates in MQTO required an extensive amount of time. Thus, the QS has
to invest extra effort in carrying out these tasks in a pressurised situation.
The results in section 5.5 (Table 5.13) revealed that respondents further agreed with the above findings.
They believe that double counting, missing elements and wrong assumptions are the main reasons for
the production of inaccurate quantities. Moreover, they also believed that a MQTO is more challenging,
as it does not allow for the preparation of various cost estimates for different design alternatives without
substantial rework. Besides, respondents further agreed with the majority that, due to the lack of
visualisation in 2D drawings, substantial amounts of time are required for MQTO, as the QS needs to
update information and detect changes.
Accordingly, the factor “Manual Quantity Take-off (MQTO)” was ranked fifth among the nine main
factors, as illustrated in Table 5.15, which indicates that it has a strong effect on the accuracy of pre-
tender cost estimates. Similarly, Gołaszewska and Salamak (2017) identified that MQTO is a time-
consuming process that is prone to human error. Tops (2019) similarly indicated that the accuracy of a
MQTO solely depends upon the estimator’s knowledge and experience. The accuracy of cost estimates
heavily depends upon the accuracy of quantities taken during the QTO process. Thus, an accurate take-
off can only be undertaken if properly developed designs and details are available. As discussed, in
pre-tender stage many designs are incomplete and as such, even an experienced QS cannot guarantee
the accuracy of the quantities taken due to high risk of human error. Thus, MQTO is a major issue that
needs to be considered by Sri Lankan QS organisations when improving the overall accuracy of pre-
tender cost estimates.
Nevertheless, as noted in section 3.3.3, BIM has the ability to accelerate QTO for a construction project
while increasing the accuracy of cost estimates by overcoming deficiencies associated with MQTO
(Olsen & Taylor, 2017). Automated QTO was the most significant benefit offered by BIM that was
identified by QS’s, who specified cost estimate programs such as CostX (Eastman et al., 2008;
Meerveld, 2009; Wong et al., 2014). This can speed up the QTO process and thereby lead to fewer
mistakes and omissions caused by human misunderstanding (Marsh, 2017). However, the use of
automated QTO has created new problems; for example, data relating to the take-off must be input
during the design stage and the take-off only shows the material quantity included in the 3D model
instead of the quantity of used materials (Olatunji et al., 2014). According to Gołaszewska and Salamak
(2017) these issues could be overcome by maintaining close cooperation between the design team and
quantity surveyors at every stage of the project. Therefore, automated QTO speeds up the process by
generating accurate quantities over a shorter time period with fewer miscalculations and omissions due
to human error.
The results of this study indicate that time constraints represent another factor to affect the accuracy of
pre-tender cost estimates. Especially in the pre-tender stage, limited time is given for the QS to prepare
cost estimates. Findings from the case study analysis (see section 6.3.7) indicated that client pressure
and time-consuming tasks are the main consequences of time constraints. Accordingly, findings in
section 6.3.7.1 pointed out that limited time given by the client to prepare cost estimates pressurise the
QS. Hence, in most cases, the QS has to work under pressure to meet the given deadline without
considering the accuracy of cost estimate. Apart from that, the findings in section 6.3.7.2 indicated that
time-consuming tasks are another reason for time constraints. Accordingly, the MQTO, site visits,
obtaining information and drawing updates were identified as the most time-consuming tasks.
Respondents further indicated that the QS does not get enough time to conduct site visits before
preparing cost estimates and as a result the QS can fail to identify and include some items, such as
accessibility (roads), to the estimate. This indicates a strong relationship between site visits and the
accuracy of pre-tender cost estimates.
Furthermore, these findings are similar to participants’ responses from the quantitative analysis (section
5.5, Table 5.11) to which the majority agreed that the limited time given for the preparation of cost
estimates reduces their accuracy. Accordingly, they believed that, due to the time constraints, the QS
has to carry out a substantial workload under pressure, and as a result, they tend to take shortcuts - such
as guess estimation - which increases the inaccuracy of cost estimates. Moreover, the findings in Table
5.14 illustrated that the majority of respondents agreed that the lack of site investigations were due to
limited time, and that this led to inaccurate cost estimates. They confirmed that the QS’s awareness of
site conditions is essential to prepare accurate cost estimates. Accordingly, the factor ‘time Constraints’
was ranked eighth among nine main factors, as illustrated in the Table 5.15; thus, indicating that time
constraints have a strong effect on the accuracy of pre-tender cost estimates. Therefore, it can be
concluded that client pressure and time-consuming tasks, such as site visits, are consequences of time
constraints, which affects the accuracy of pre-tender cost estimates. Torp and Klakegg (2016) identified
that the limited time given to prepare cost estimate is a crucial factor that affects the accuracy of pre-
tender cost estimates. Hatamleh et al. (2018) indicates that accurate estimates can only be prepared if
the estimator considers the site constraints (access, storage, services) during the preparation of cost
estimates. This indicates the importance of conducting site visits prior to the preparation of cost
estimates.
Moreover, as pointed out in section 3.3.6, the replacement of automated QTO saves the significant
amounts of time that the QS had to otherwise spent on counting things, which subsequently increases
the pressured environment. Therefore, to overcome ‘time constraints’ Sri Lankan QS’s need to find
more efficient ways to address time-consuming tasks, such as MQTO, which will save considerable
time to spend on other tasks, such as site visits. The use of BIM will save extensive time through the
application of automated QTO (Ajibade & Aibinu, 2012); this means reducing QS time spent on
collecting information from various sources and stakeholders (Mattsson, 2013). Therefore, saved time
can be used to conduct site visits and prevent the QS from taking shortcuts, such as guess estimations,
which increase the accuracy of cost estimates.
The above discussion summarises the factors affecting the accuracy of pre-tender cost estimates and
the use of BIM to improve the accuracy of pre-tender cost estimates by overcoming the identified
affecting factors. Figure 7.1 illustrates the updated version of the conceptual framework for objectives
1 and 2 based on the discussion within section 7.2.
State of BIM use

Factors affecting to the
accuracy of pre-tender 1) The use of BIM
models
cost estimates
2) Improved information
1) The use of 2D drawings management
2) Lack of information 3) The use of BIM-based
3) Inefficiencies in current tools & software
software 4) Inadequate estimator
4) Inadequate Estimator knowledge & skill
Knowledge and Skill 5) Improved
collaboration
5) Isolated working culture
6) Manual Quantity Take- 6) Automated QTO
off (MQTO) 7) Eliminate time-

7) Time constraints consuming tasks
Figure 7.1: Updated conceptual framework for objectives 1 and 2
7.3 BIM Adoption Drivers
The study results indicated that BIM benefits, client demand, challenges in traditional cost estimation,
government intervention, BIM education, and BIM training are the key drivers for BIM adoption that
were recognised by respondents as drivers for BIM adoption.
7.3.1 BIM Benefits
The study results indicate that BIM benefits are the main key driver for Sri Lankan QS organisations to
adopt BIM within their current practice. The case study findings (qualitative) (see section 6.4.1)
endorsed this position, with many respondents finding that the use of a BIM model, automated quantity
take-off, improved visualisation, improved information management, clash detection and time-saving
are the main benefits that BIM has to offer to improve the accuracy of cost estimates. Respondents
indicated that the BIM-model denotes a major difference between traditional cost estimation and the
BIM-based cost estimation. As a result, the use of BIM models has made the job of a QS easier by
saving time which they used to spend on tracking changes, manual QTO, etc. However, respondents
also noted the importance of the accuracy of the BIM model and its embedded information. As every
measurement taken is based on the model and its given information, the model must be accurate from
the outset to ensure a better outcome. Moreover, automated QTO was found to be the major driver
amongst respondents for the adoption of BIM, as it generates accurate quantities and estimates by saving
the QS time. Improved visualisation has also resulted in BIM adoption by offering early clash detection
due to the use of a BIM model. As a result, the QS can easily identify the elements in the model without
any misinterpretation. Besides, as every element in the model consists of all the information the QS
needs, they can easily grab the data at any stage of the project without any disturbance. Therefore, it
can be concluded that respondents were able to increase visualisation, automated quantity take-off and
improved information management with the use of a BIM model. Therefore, there is a relationship
between the use of BIM models and increased visualisation, automated quantity take-off and improved
information management (see Figure 7.2). Besides, respondents also agreed that the use of BIM has
improved productivity by minimising the demand for resources and the time needed for one task.
Furthermore, it is similar to the participants’ responses from the quantitative analysis (section 5.9, Table
5.18) in which the majority agreed on the following benefits of BIM use: the use of a BIM model
(ranked sixth, Table 5.20), improved visualisation (ranked fifth), information management (ranked
seventh), automated QTO (fourth), improved communication (ninth) and coordination (tenth).
Moreover, they further agreed that easy access to information (ranked eighth) also offers a strong benefit
to adopt BIM. Accordingly, respondents confirmed with the majority indicated that BIM benefits are a
key driver for BIM adoption. Besides, Mohammad et al. (2018) indicated that the advantages of BIM
would influence its adoption among quantity surveyors. Moreover, BIM enables estimating capabilities,
such as visualisation, coordination and communication, automated QTO, information management and
time saving which also encourages its BIM adoption (Anifowos et al., 2018; Rathnayake et al., 2018).
As the use of BIM eliminates most of the major challenges in the traditional cost estimating process,
many QS organisations tended to use BIM as a solution. Therefore, it can be concluded that the benefits
of BIM act as a main driver for Sri Lankan QS organisations to adopt BIM within their current cost
estimating practices.
7.3.2 Client Demand
The study results indicate that client demand is one of the main key drivers for Sri Lankan QS
organisations to adopt BIM. The qualitative case studies findings (see section 6.4.3) endorse this
position, as many respondents find they tend to use BIM due to the requests from foreign clients.
Accordingly, as they do not want to lose future contracts, organisations have started to implement BIM
within their practices. This indicates a strong relationship between client demand and organisational
pressure (see section 7.3.6) as clients requests pressurise organisations to adopt BIM. Respondents from
the quantitative data collection further supported this finding (section 5.9, Table 5.19), by strongly
agreeing that client demand drives the adoption of BIM. Moreover, client demand was ranked third out
of the ten driving factors (see Table 5.20). These findings reflect those of Siriwardhana et al. (2018)
who indicate that some local clients (Sri Lankan) have requested BIM for apartment projects. This
indicates that both requests from foreign clients and those from local clients have driven BIM adoption.
Moreover, according to NBS (2019), clients have proven to be the key driver in BIM adoption.
Therefore, it can be concluded that client demand can act as a main driver for Sri Lankan QS
organisations to adopt BIM.
7.3.3 BIM Training
BIM training was found to be another key BIM driving factor for Sri Lankan QS organisations.
Generally, it was noted that many organisations have provided training by using foreign BIM
professionals. Besides they have also used their own strategies to provide training, such as tutorial
sessions, workshops, CPD and group discussions. The qualitative case study findings (see section 6.4.2)
endorsed this position, and many respondents find that training provided by organisations have really
helped them to adopt a BIM-based working environment. Besides, they also believed that continuous
training is important, not only for the current employees but also for new staff joining the organisation.
Some organisations have asked their employees to undertake on-going training courses conducted by
educational providers and professional bodies, which indicates that BIM training has a relationship with
organisational pressure, BIM education and professional bodies (Figure 7.2). This view was further
supported by the literature; according to Epasinghe et al. (2018), many BIM training programs have
helped the implementation of BIM in the Sri Lankan construction sector. Hamma-adama (2019)
positively supported the view that trained professionals easily deal with BIM tools within their practice.
Ideally, proper training helps employees to improve their confidence in using BIM. Therefore, BIM
training was found to be another BIM adoption driver for Sri Lankan QS organisations.
7.3.4 Professional Bodies
Results also illustrate that professional bodies are another BIM driver for Sri Lankan QS’s to adopt
BIM. The qualitative case study findings (see section 6.4.5) endorse this position as many respondents
indicated that conferences, workshops, training and seminars organised by professional bodies supports
them to adopt BIM by increasing awareness. Moreover, it also helped many project stakeholders - e.g.
clients - to increase their BIM knowledge. As a result, many clients tend to request BIM for their
projects. Therefore, professional bodies indicate a strong relationship between BIM education,
organisational pressure and client demand, as professional bodies can enhance client demand and
organisational pressure through BIM educational programs and BIM events (Figure 7.2). Besides,
respondents from the quantitative research phase further supported this (section 5.9 Table 5.19), by
strongly agreeing that the involvement of professional bodies drives BIM adoption. Also, professional
bodies were ranked second based on its RII value, by indicating that professional bodies are a strong
BIM driver. However, the results also revealed that current support from professional bodies do not
facilitate successful BIM adoption. Therefore, industry professionals expect greater involvement from
professional bodies towards BIM adoption. According to Gajendran and Gof (2012), the involvement
of professional bodies in the AEC sector have promoted BIM adoption through developing BIM
agendas and professional BIM development activities for members. Consequently, a professional body
would offer a springboard for the construction industry to implement BIM by a larger number of
professionals in different disciplines. Thus, in Sri Lanka, the only acting body for BIM is the University
of Moratuwa (Suranga et al., 2014). However, according to Wedikkara (2018), the Institute of Quantity
Surveyors Sri Lanka (IQSSL) actively promotes BIM among quantity surveyors and other professionals
through BIM symposiums, technical sessions and CPD events. This elaborates the contribution of other
professional bodies towards BIM adoption. Therefore, professional bodies were found to be another
BIM adoption driver for Sri Lankan QS organisations.
7.3.5 BIM-Based Education
BIM-based education was found to be another BIM adoption driver by respondents. Qualitative case
study findings (see section 6.4.4) endorse this position as many respondents find that BIM related
courses conducted in the private sector help them to learn about BIM in depth. Accordingly, it helps to
increase the awareness of BIM benefits for most construction clients, which ultimately increases
demand for BIM use. This illustrates that the education driver has a strong relationship with client
demand driver due to increased awareness of BIM (Figure 7.2). However, results also reveal that many
BIM-based courses are only designed to cover the theoretical aspects, but not the practical aspects of
BIM. Besides, the majority of government universities are not engaged with BIM-based courses and
have limited BIM learning facilities to local students. Nevertheless, respondents believed that the
intervention of professional bodies (see section 7.3.4) to conduct BIM courses, conferences, workshops
and CPD have made the path to BIM adoption easier. This revealed a relationship between the education
driver and the professional bodies driver (Figure 7.2). Moreover, some education providers have started
to provide BIM training as part of their range of courses to fulfil industry needs. This was further
enhanced with requests made by particular organisations due to client demand (see section 7.3.2), which
motivated their employees to obtain external training on BIM use. In the meantime, client requests also
increased the number of BIM events. Therefore, it is clear that client demand and organisational
pressure have increased BIM education, which indicates that the BIM education driver has a strong
relationship with client demand and organisational pressure.
Respondents to the quantitative data collection supported this finding section 5.9 (Table 5.19), by
strongly agreeing that BIM-based education is a strong driver for construction professionals to adopt
BIM. Moreover, according to Table 5.20, this factor was ranked eleventh out of 13 identified factors.
According to Weddikkara (2018), in Sri Lanka the majority of degree programs have now introduced
BIM as a module alongside specific training for 5D BIM enabled software. Moreover, according to
Rathnayake et al. (2018), short BIM courses conducted in the private sector are well-liked among young
QS’s. It was also noticed that the number of BIM-based publications increase day-by-day in Sri Lanka,
which implies that BIM education is there up to some extent. Therefore, BIM-based education was
found to be another BIM driver for Sri Lankan QS’s.
7.3.6 Organisational Pressure
The study results indicate that organisational pressure is another major BIM driver for Sri Lankan QS’s
to adopt BIM. The qualitative case study findings (see section 6.4.6) endorse this finding, as many
respondents find that with increased foreign client demand some organisations have mandated the use
of BIM within their organisation. This indicates that organisational pressure has a strong relationship
with the client demand driver. Moreover, the findings further reveal that increased BIM awareness
about the benefits and intervention of professional bodies (discussed in section 7.3.4) also resulted in
organisational pressure to adopt BIM. Therefore, it can be concluded that the organisational pressure
driver has a significant relationship with the client demand driver, BIM benefit driver, BIM education
driver and professional bodies driver (Figure 7.2). Moreover, decisions taken by top management have
placed extra pressure on employees to learn and adopt BIM. Respondents from the quantitative data
collection further supported this finding (section 5.9, Table 5.19), by strongly agreeing that
organisational pressure accelerates the adoption of BIM. Also, this factor was ranked first according to
the RII value (Table 5.20), which indicates that organisational pressure is the major driver for a QS to
adopt BIM. This view was further supported by the literature; according to Ahamed et al. (2017), formal
organisational pressures, such as mandates and regulations, lead to successful practices among
employees which thus overcome beliefs, norms, and conventions. Therefore, it can be concluded that
organisational pressure is another BIM driver identified by Sri Lankan QS’s.
Figure 7.2: Schematic diagram of the significant relationship between BIM adoption drivers
The above discussion summarises the factors that drive the adoption of BIM within Sri Lankan QS
organisations. Accordingly, Table 7.1 lists the BIM drivers that emerged from the analysis.
Table 7.1 BIM Drivers
Cases Questionnaire Literature

Drivers
Studies survey review
BIM Benefits
Client Demand
BIM Trainings
Professional Bodies
BIM-based education
Organizational Pressure
Figure 7.3 illustrates the updated version of the conceptual framework for objective 3 (BIM drivers)
based on the discussion in section 7.3.
Drivers for BIM adoption
1) BIM Benefits
2) Client Demand
3) BIM Trainings
4) Professional Bodies
Figure 7.3: Updated conceptual framework for objective 3 - BIM drivers
7.4 Barriers to BIM Adoption
The study results indicate that financial, organisational, regulatory, lack of awareness, minimal
resources and a lack of market demand for BIM are key barriers for its adoption.
7.4.1 Financial Barriers
Respondents considered the financial capability of an organisation as a barrier to BIM adoption. As
illustrated in Table 5.27, financial barrier was ranked third (as per the calculated RII value) among the
six major barriers. Most individual practitioners refuse to invest in BIM as it is not affordable for them.
However, so far, only large-scale QS organisations have started to use BIM, which indicates their
financial affordability. The qualitative findings from this study (see section 6.5.1) indicate that the cost
of hardware and software, upgrade costs, training costs and the lack of goals (discussed in section 7.4.2)
are the core issues underpinning the financial barriers. The qualitative case study findings (Qualitative)
(see section 6.5.1.1) endorse this position, as many respondents find that the initial investment for
hardware and software is too high. Software, such as CostX, does not exist in any duplicate versions.
Therefore, it is necessary to get the original version, which is extremely expensive. Due to the lack of
demand for BIM from the industry many organisations lag behind in investing in new software and
hardware. This indicates a lack of market demand for BIM, which has resulted from financial issues.
Therefore, a strong relationship exists between the financial barrier and the lack of market demand
barrier, which is attributed to the initial investment for new hardware and software (Figure 7.4).
However, results also indicate that the cost of hardware and software can be minimised if organisations
can identify appropriate processes to implement. Moreover, defined goals would help to minimise the
initial investment for hardware and software. This indicates that the lack of goals has resulted from
increased of hardware and software costs. Therefore, it can be concluded that the costs of software and
hardware have a strong relationship with the lack of goals.
Furthermore, these are similar results to the participant responses from the quantitative phase (section
5.11.1), in which the majority confirmed that financial barriers affect the adoption of BIM. Accordingly,
as indicated in Table 5.21, the majority of respondents agreed that cost of new software and hardware
have resulted in the financial barrier. Indeed, Epasinghe et al. (2018) also identified that computer
hardware and software are key requirements for the successful adoption of BIM. According to
Siriwardhana et al. (2018), there are some technological companies in Sri Lanka with the capability of
providing BIM hardware and software for a reasonable cost. Jayasena et al. (2018) indicate that FOSS
(Free and Open Source Software) support is available to Sri Lankan QS organisations through many
methods, such as online forums, purchase vendor support from third party companies, support software
by the company itself and project sponsor support. Besides, according to Weddikkara (2018),
organisations should discuss their needs with software service providers to negotiate the software cost,
which would offer a solution to the high costs. Therefore, there are plenty of ways that Sri Lankan QS
organisations can fulfil their hardware and software requirements at a lower cost.
As pointed out in section 6.5.1.2, training costs are another core issue underpinning the financial
barriers. As Sri Lanka does not have any industry BIM experts, many organisations have to hire
international BIM experts to provide training for employees, which is extremely expensive. High
training costs have a strong relationship with the unawareness barrier due to the lack of BIM education
within the country (Figure 7.4). Moreover, the risk of providing training for employees is that once
training is provided, many organisations like to hire BIM trained QS’s. As a result, many organisations
do not want to invest in people's training. Moreover, the lack of organisational intervention has also
resulted in high training costs due to the lack of goals and processes, which indicates a strong
relationship between the financial and organisational barriers (Figure 7.4). Furthermore, it is quite
similar to the participants’ responses from the quantitative data collection (section 5.11.1); they agreed
with the majority that the cost of training existing staff would be an expensive process for BIM adoption.
However, it will be cheaper than hiring additional external staff (BIM specialised). Kumara et al.
(2017), suggested that, to overcome the high cost of training and the associated risks, organisations
should ask software vendors to provide training for their existing staff, rather than hire external
professionals.
As pointed out in section 6.5.1.3, software and hardware upgrade costs also represent another issue for
the financial barrier. Organisations also have to bear the annual maintenance and upgrade costs for BIM
software and hardware, which adds another cost to any BIM adoption. This was further supported by
the quantitative findings (section 5.11.1, Table 5.21) for which the majority agreed that upgrade costs
result in financial issues. Epasinghe et al. (2018) similarly mentioned that hardware and software
require expensive annual upgrades to ensure bug fixing and the installation of new features to meet
project requirements. Although some upgrades can be carried out for free, this depends upon the
vendor. To summarise, in Sri Lanka the transition to BIM is hard and expensive, mainly due to training,
hardware and software, maintenance and upgrade and the recruitment of additional staff. Consequently,
for many construction organisations, cost represents the main internal barrier, which prevents the
adoption of BIM (NBS, 2018, 2019). Unless the aforementioned issues are supported with solutions,
the financial barrier persists for BIM adoption amongst Sri Lankan QS organisations. Nevertheless,
Siriwardhana et al. (2018) noted that collaboration with funding agencies, such as the government, and
private and leading companies, would offer a key solution to overcome the financial barrier for Sri
Lankan QS organisations.
7.4.2 Organisational Barriers
Organisational issues were found to be another barrier to BIM adoption. As noted in Table 5.27
organisational barriers (internal pressure) were ranked fifth out of six main barriers. The qualitative
case studies findings (see section 6.5.2) endorse this position; many respondents find that only a few
organisations have already started using BIM. Thus, the majority are not using, or are not in the process
of adopting, BIM and this is due to several organisational issues. Results indicate that isolated working
culture, people’s mind-sets, the fear of sharing responsibilities, reluctance to change, and a lack of goals
and processes are the main reasons for the organizational barrier. Qualitative findings (section 6.5.2.1)
revealed that the isolated working culture prevents true collaboration which is required for BIM
adoption.
As discussed in section 7.2.5, the isolated working culture arises from an individually driven industry
and an economic crisis. Accordingly, many individuals work alone to earn a good profit, which offers
a solution to the economic crisis. This reveals a relationship between the organisational barrier (isolated
working culture) and the lack of market demand barrier (economic crisis) (Figure 7.4).
Many parties - especially architects - do not maintain proper relationships with other industry
stakeholders due to ego and selfishness. BIM requires all stakeholders to work on the same platform,
which brings a number of benefits, as discussed under section 7.3.1. Nevertheless, existing isolated
working culture does not facilitate true BIM collaboration, unless there is a phycological change in
employees. Therefore, suggestions indicate that positive changes to employees’ phycology and
mentality are required. Moreover, training students and professionals on an ad-hoc basis would offer
another solution to overcome the isolated working culture. Furthermore, this outcome is similar to
participants' responses from the quantitative data collection (section 5.11.4, Table 5.24), the majority
agreed that weak corporation between different disciplines result in isolated working. According to
Hughes and Ferrett (2016), a positive collaborative culture should be implanted within the industry.
Moreover, PAS1192-6:(2018) emphasised the use of structured processes, techniques and advanced
digital technologies to support collaboration issues (BSI, 2018).
Findings in the qualitative analysis (section 6.5.2.2) revealed that a fear of sharing responsibility also
affects true collaboration. BIM demands more teamwork than individual practice. However, due to
people's mind-sets, they are not ready to work as a team and to share responsibilities, which prevents
the sharing of information and effective communication. Nevertheless, suggestions indicate that,
encouraging employees to think they are working as a team could help to reduce fear and promote the
sharing of responsibilities. To achieve this, organisations should encourage the development of a
supportive culture. Furthermore, these findings are similar to the results from the quantitative analysis
(section 5.11.4, Table 5.24) in which they agreed with the majority that the inflexible mind-set of staff
has resulted in employees not sharing any responsibilities.
Besides, results in section 6.5.2.3 indicate that people's mind-sets prevent changes within the
organisation due to on-going traditional practices. However, it is also noted that the young generation
welcomes change, while senior employees do not expect to change their traditional working style.
Moreover, the majority of respondents agreed (section 5.11.4, Table 5.24) that people refuse to learn
new technologies due to traditional mindsets. According to Kumara et al. (2017), for over two decades
Sri Lankan QS’s have used 2D drawings, which are embedded with traditional methods and procedures.
Epasinghe et al. (2018) also mentioned that 76% of Sri Lankan construction companies use MS Office
packages and Autodest AutoCAD, while less than 6% of QS’s using CostX. This indicates that, even if
more advanced and relaxed technologies are available for use, the prevailing mindset of QS’s tends to
close the doors to new methods and processes. Therefore, suggestions indicate that top management is
responsible for changing existing individualistic working culture to teamwork through shifting
employees’ mind-sets.
Reluctance to change (in section 6.5.2.4) was found to be another issue within the organisation, and this
was attributed to language difficulties, traditional practice, the lack of welcome from the government
sector to change, the fear of job loss, the lack of trust, selfishness, and the myth that BIM is hard to
learn. Respondents revealed that unawareness about BIM has resulted in the above consequences, which
reveals a relationship between unawareness (lack of BIM education) and the organisational barrier
(reluctance to change) (Figure 7.4). According to Sardroud et al. (2018), many companies do not intend
to use BIM, as they believe it is complicated to adopt either within their organisations or in projects. As
many organisations do not have any experience of dealing with BIM, they assume that BIM is an
immature technology with limited competences. However, results also indicate that some organisations
have overcome employees’ reluctance to change by maintaining an innovative culture in which anyone
can share anything that motivates them to learn about BIM. Moreover, Monyane and Ramabodu (2017),
indicated that the use of BIM will reduce the need for the traditional QS role by giving such
opportunities to emerging roles, such as advising on procurement measures or suggesting the best
building materials for use, including sustainable options. Instead, BIM can strengthen the role of the
QS by securing their place within the construction industry.
Findings in section 6.5.2.5 revealed that the lack of defined goals and processes is another organisational
issue for BIM adoption. Many organisations fail to identify what they are going to achieve by adopting
BIM. Identifying the end goal, for example improving the accuracy of cost estimates, and reducing the
size of the investment as it helps to determine the exact tools and technologies required. Moreover,
respondents believed that understanding BIM and trying to improvise some of the processes identified
to achieve the end goal would be the best way to adopt BIM. According to Mayo et al. (2012), many
clients want to mandate BIM within their projects and organisations without knowing the end goal.
Nevertheless, results suggest that organisations should start with BIM adoption to figure out the end
goals and processes. Therefore, it is fair to assume that the adoption of BIM among Sri Lankan QS
organisations has been affected by the aforementioned issues; thus, organisational barriers need to be
overcome for the successful adoption of BIM.
7.4.3 Regulatory Barriers
Respondents also recognised that regulatory issues represent another barrier to prevent BIM adoption.
The qualitative case study findings (see section 6.5.3) endorse the same position as many respondents
find that the lack of policies, contractual issues, legal issues and the lack of ethical behaviours are the
main issues underpinning the regulatory barriers. Findings in the qualitative section 6.5.3.1 reveal that
a failure to define the ownership of the model and undefined responsibilities within the model are the
main reasons for legal issues. Therefore, as a solution, it was suggested that the BIM model should be
frozen in lump sum contracts. This was further supported by the results in the quantitative section 5.11.3
(Table 5.23), in which respondents agreed with the majority that, as the ownership of the model is
undeveloped, and it is too risky to use the model, anyone can make changes at any time. Moreover, if
the architect is given the wrong dimensions when designing the model, the QS carries out their work
based on the information given in the model, which is not accurate. Thus, it deters an employee from
developing a teamwork mindset, as there is no one to take the responsibility for the model. Therefore,
Sardroud et al. (2018) identified intellectual property rights as determiner of BIM adoption.
Ghaffarianhoseini et al. (2016) positively supported this view by indicating that model ownership,
copyright, legal and illegal use of the models, and the extent to which trade information should be
disclosed as important provisions in the intellectual property rights of contracts. Moreover, it is
important to establish ground rules for using the model and its data, such as who is permitted to use the
data and the penalties when it is used inversely (Miller, 2019).
Findings in the qualitative analysis section (6.5.3.2) indicate that contractual issues are another reason
for the absence of BIM-based contracts and the failure of existing contracts to facilitate proper BIM-
based practice. Many respondents complained that a lack of support from professional bodies has failed
to develop a suitable BIM-based contract for the Sri Lankan context. This further reveals the
relationship between regulations and the lack of market demand (Figure 7.4). Suggestions indicated the
need for BIM friendly contractual standards that consider the Sri Lankan construction industry context.
Moreover, this was further supported by the findings in the quantitative section (5.11.3, Table 5.23),
which confirmed that incompatibility with current standard measurements prevent the QS from
adopting BIM. Hence, the RICS has introduced International Construction Measurement Standards
(ICMS), which provides the parameters for both BIM software vendors and users (QS) in terms of cost
estimating (ICMS, 2018). Therefore, new standards will eliminate the gap between contractual issues
and BIM adoption. Hence, a recent survey revealed that the majority of the professional BIM users are
not aware of BIM standard forms of contract (Abdirad, 2015), which indicates that the use of BIM
contracts - such as ICMS – are still not popular among QS’s worldwide.
Besides, qualitative results also identified a lack of policies, which is due to the lack of professional and
government involvement (section 6.5.3.4). Although many BIM-adopted countries have their own
policies for its adoption, in the Sri Lankan construction industry there are no policies to drive BIM
adoption. This indicates a strong relationship between the lack of market demand and the regulatory
barrier (Figure 7.4). Therefore, the government and professional bodies are responsible for defining and
executing policies for BIM adoption. However, suggestions indicate that policies should be developed
according to threshold, issues and repercussions. Moreover, enforcement is also essential to ensure the
execution of developed policies.
The findings from the qualitative analysis section (6.5.3.5) also identified that the lack of ethical
behaviour is also another issue for the regulatory barriers. As a result, many organisations have tended
to use trial and duplicate versions of software, such as AutoCAD. Many organisations and individual
practitioners have tended to use trial versions due to the high cost of software. This indicates a
relationship between the regulatory barrier and financial barrier, which is attributed to ethical
behaviours (Figure 7.4). Therefore, respondents indicate the importance of having certain standards and
guidelines to improve ethical behaviours, as many BIM software providers do not offer duplicate or
trial versions. Epasinghe et al. (2018) mentioned that it is essential to have standards for technology
usage in order for each user to equally experience success or failure. Therefore, it is reasonable to
assume from the above issues, that regulations represent a main barrier for the adoption of BIM by Sri
Lankan QS firms. Thus, to encourage successful adoption, it is important to address these issues.
7.4.4 Unawareness
Unawareness was found to be another barrier that hinders BIM adoption within Sri Lankan QS firms.
As pointed out in Table 5.27, unawareness was ranked second out of six main barriers. As a result of
this issue, BIM is at a very immature stage in Sri Lanka, categorised as ‘little to non-existence’. The
results in the qualitative section (6.5.4) noted the following are the main reason for this unawareness:
lack of knowledge sharing, the absence of a BIM initiator, the lack of BIM education, and the gap
between industry and academia. Findings in the qualitative section (6.5.4.1) identified that selfishness,
the lack of communication, isolated working culture and the ego of senior professionals within the
organisation have resulted in a lack of knowledge-sharing among employees. In other words, the
existing organisational culture has a strong impact on knowledge-sharing. Therefore, it can be
concluded that a relationship exists between the organisational barrier (isolated working culture) and
unawareness (lack of knowledge sharing) (Figure 7.4). However, suggestions indicated that teaching
and learning should be part of organisational culture for both senior and junior employees, which
accelerates knowledge sharing. According to Gunaratne et al. (2016), the individualistic organisational
culture in Sri Lanka plays a vital role in terms of creating and sharing knowledge. Moreover,
Pushpamali (2016) indicates that individualistic organisational culture has result in: a lack of
communication and a lack of trust among employees, which impacts on knowledge sharing.
Unfortunately, in many organisations, knowledge sharing is not embedded within the organisation’s
culture.
Findings from the qualitative analysis section (6.5.4.2), indicates that the lack of government and
professional involvement are main reasons for the absence of BIM amongst much of the industry.
Although no government involvement can be seen, professional bodies (such as ICTAD, IQSSL, and
CIDA) have a minimal involvement in increasing BIM awareness, through workshops and conferences,
which indicates they have done something. However, this further indicates a relationship between the
lack of market demand barrier (lack of government intervention and lack of professional bodies
intervention) and unawareness (absence of a BIM initiator) (Figure 7.4). However, suggestions indicate
that universities, professional bodies, and the government should develop standards to initiate BIM and
offer island-wide BIM workshops, CPD and conferences. This was further supported by the majority
of respondents from the quantitative data collection (section 5.11.5, Table 5.25), who confirmed that
the that lack of support from professional bodies and government meant the failure to identify a BIM
initiator. However, results also suggest that architects should be the BIM initiators, although only one
architectural firm is practicing BIM at the moment. Indeed, Kumara et al. (2017) identified that
encouraging architects to use BIM should be the first step towards its adoption in Sri Lanka. Moreover,
Jayasena et al. (2017) suggested that the establishment of training programs, lecture sessions, and
piloting Revit on selected small projects (such as houses) would accelerate the use of BIM among Sri
Lankan architects.
The qualitative analysis in section 6.5.4.3 identified that a lack of BIM education also results in
unawareness. The lack of industry demand for BIM, lack of BIM experts, lack of BIM courses, absence
of BIM within the education curriculum, lack of BIM education providers and lack of BIM seminars,
workshops and conferences were noted as the main reasons for a lack of BIM education. Findings
further indicated that the lack of industry demand (from clients) has resulted in the lack of BIM
seminars, workshops, CPD and conferences, which indicates a strong relationship between the lack of
market demand and unawareness (Figure 7.4). Moreover, due to lack of BIM expertise (as discussed in
section 7.4.5), unawareness has another relationship with the lack of resource (Figure 7.4). These
results were further supported by the majority of respondents within the quantitative analysis section
(5.11.2, Table 5.22), who confirmed that the lack of BIM seminars, workshops and conferences, lack
of BIM related training and lack of BIM courses results in the lack of BIM education. Moreover, due
to the absence of on-going live BIM projects, education providers struggle to provide practical BIM-
based education programs. In agreement, Sardroud et al. (2018), noted that access to run-time BIM-
based projects offered another way of encouraging stakeholders to use BIM.
Moreover, Epasinghe (2018) indicated that the lack of BIM-based projects in Sri Lanka represents a
major problem for BIM adoption, whilst Siriwardena et al. (2018) suggested that the government should
take the initiative for BIM education due to the absence of proper BIM education programs in both the
private sector and the government. Therefore, according to Wijeywickrama et al. (2018), the Sri Lankan
government has to play the role of educator for the BIM adoption strategy. Besides, Rathnayake (2018)
identified that incorporating BIM into the education curriculum is another way of increasing BIM
awareness. Besides, professional institutions (such as IQSSL, SLIA and RICS) should continuously
promote BIM programs with the help of foreign institutions and the University Grant Commission
(UGC) (Wedikkara, 2018). Moreover, Weddikkara (2018) states that Masters and PhD level BIM-based
programs and exchange programs should be introduced to government universities in collaboration with
foreign universities.
Besides, findings from the qualitative analysis section (6.5.4.4) indicate that a lack of communication
and an isolated working culture were the main reasons for the gap between industry and academia,
which also impacted on BIM unawareness. Therefore, this also reveals a relationship between the
organisational barrier (isolated working culture) and unawareness (gap between industry and academia)
(Figure 7.4). Awareness should come not only from academia but also from industry. Hence, according
to Odubiyi et al. (2019), there is an identifiable gap between construction industry academics and
practitioners. Therefore, certain competencies expected by the industry cannot be seen in present-day
QS graduates (Perera, et al., 2011); for example, many QS’s struggle to work with BIM tools. However,
in many countries - including Sri Lanka - the role of the BIM demonstrator within the BIM adoption
strategy is unclear. According to Siriwardene et al. (2018), the absence of an organisation to test and
demonstrate new technologies increases the gap between industry and academia. Suggestions indicated
that the Sri Lankan government should perform this role. Furthermore, the continuous promotion of
BIM practices amongst academics and industry practitioners would help to address this gap
(Weddikkara, 2018), which confirms that connections between academics and industry professionals
are significant. Hence, isolated working culture in the Sri Lankan construction industry has created a
huge gap between industry and academia, which makes BIM adoption more awkward. Accordingly,
unawareness is among the barriers that affect BIM adoption within Sri Lankan QS organisations.
7.4.5 Lack of Resources
Respondents recognised that the lack of resource is a serious barrier to the adoption of BIM. As noted
in Table 5.27, this factor ranked first among the six major barriers. Results from the qualitative analysis
(section 6.5.5) indicated that the following are the main resource issues for BIM adoption in Sri Lanka:
a lack of BIM experts, the absence of a BIM implementation plan, a lack of BIM models, the limited
number of SW licenses, limited internet facilities, and a lack of training. As pointed out in section
6.5.5.1, many respondents find that the lack of BIM education (discussed in section 7.4.4) and few
industrial BIM experts are the main reasons for the lack of BIM experts. Accordingly, the findings
indicated that the lack of BIM courses has a substantial impact on the development of BIM experts.
This further reveals a strong relationship between the unawareness (lack of BIM education) barrier and
the lack of resources (lack of BIM experts) (see Figure 7.4). Besides, respondents believe that BIM
experts are a fundamental requirement for the coordination among project stakeholders. Therefore,
suggestions indicate the need to formulate the role of a BIM manager within the Sri Lankan construction
industry. Besides, experts should not be limited to academia, as industrial BIM experts accelerate its
usage within the industry. Therefore, the interviewees believed that the hiring of international BIM
experts offers a solution for the current lack of local BIM experts. However, as it more expensive to
hire international BIM experts, properly established BIM education should aim to develop local BIM
experts for the Sri Lankan construction industry. Besides, the quantitative analysis in section 5.11.6
supported this point, that the lack of suitable BIM skilled staff and the lack of BIM experts hinder its
adoption. The RICS (2019) identified that the lack of BIM skilled people is a key obstacle to BIM
adoption, which has meant that many organisations have outsourced this role to other countries.
Similarly, Kushwaha (2016) mentioned the lack of BIM-skilled staff makes the AEC industry
vulnerable to adhering to traditional practices. Therefore, Weddikkara (2018) suggested that the
continuous promotion of BIM programs would offer a solution by increasing the number of BIM experts
within the industry.
As pointed out in qualitative analysis section 6.5.5.2, the absence of a BIM implementation
plan/strategy is another resource issue for BIM adoption. The need for its adoption has to be identified
at the management level, which indicates that organisational intervention is required by top
management. Therefore, it can be concluded that there is a relationship between the organisational
barrier (top management intervention) and the lack of resources (absence of BIM implementation plan),
as illustrated in Figure 7.4. Suggestions indicate that management is responsible for identifying goals
and developing their own strategies and processes to implement the goals identified to encourage BIM
adoption. Furthermore, interviewees also believed that a nationally developed BIM framework with the
aid from early BIM adopters would accelerate its uptake among Sri Lankan construction practitioners.
This was further supported by the findings in quantitative section 5.11.6 (Table 5.26), in which the
majority of respondents positively agreed that a BIM implementation plan is one of the fundamental
resources required for BIM adoption. Rathnayake and Hamed (2019) indicate that a nationally
developed BIM framework that reflects the BIM drivers and barriers would be key to the adoption of
BIM. According to Siriwardhana et al. (2018), few Sri Lankan organisations have mandated the use of
BIM within their businesses. Hence, the majority have not used any strategies or frameworks for BIM
adoption; this indicates the lack of involvement by top management to support BIM adoption.
Nevertheless, many early BIM adopters are ready to provide their support to develop a local BIM
implementation strategy (Epasinghe, 2018).
Findings further revealed that the lack of BIM models is another major resource issue for the adoption
of BIM by QS’s. The qualitative case study findings (see section 6.5.5.3) endorse this position, as many
respondents find that architects do not producing BIM models and this has implications for the adoption
of BIM (discussed under section 7.4.6). They state that this is the main reason for the lack of BIM
models within the Sri Lankan construction industry. Respondents indicated that the use of a BIM model
is one of the main differences between traditional cost estimation and BIM-based cost estimation.
Therefore, the QS cannot start a BIM-based cost estimation if the architect has not produced a BIM
model. Thus, requesting that architects produce BIM models for selected projects would offer a
solution. However, the lack of demand has resulted many professionals not using BIM; therefore, the
adoption of BIM among professionals is not steady. This indicates a strong relationship between the
lack of market demand (unbalanced BIM adoption) and the lack of resources (lack of BIM model) (see
Figure 7.4). In agreement, Kushwaha (2016) mentioned that the effective adoption of BIM requires
collaborative adoption by all stakeholders, such as architects, engineers, QS, sub-contractors,
contractors and pre-fabricators; if that does not occur, conflict may arise. Even though, Kumara et al.
(2017) suggested that architects should be the BIM initiators in Sri Lanka, Siriwardhana et al. (2018)
indicated that only 5% use Revit to deliver BIM models, which indicates fewer opportunities to produce
BIM models for QS’s. Therefore, Epasinghe et al. (2018) suggested that the government should issue a
mandate to demand that major construction companies practice BIM throughout the construction stages.
Moreover, according to Kumara et al. (2017), encouragement by clients is also essential for the
execution and integration of BIM by architectural firms within their organisations’ business models.
A lack of BIM was training found to represent another resource issue, which hinders BIM adoption.
Findings in the qualitative analysis section 6.5.5.4, indicates that organisations resist providing BIM
training, whilst the absence of BIM training providers mean a lack of appropriate training. Respondents
also believed that labour turnover and the high cost of training have resulted in organisations not
providing training for their employees. Moreover, no organisation currently offers exclusive BIM
training in Sri Lanka, which indicates a lack of BIM education. Therefore, the lack of resources (lack
of training) has a strong relationship with both unawareness (lack of BIM education providers) and
organisational barriers (high cost of training) (see Figure 7.4). Suggestions indicated that, construction
organisations could organise a place to study and train in BIM, which would be cost-effective and
beneficial for all AEC stakeholders. Besides, it was also suggested that the organisational motivation
encourages employees to engage in self-study on BIM. Suggestions also indicated that, training should
also focus on ideas and conversation. Furthermore, the quantitative findings (section 5.11.2, Table 5.22)
confirmed that the lack of BIM training results in a lack of adoption among QS’s. According to
Kushwaha (2016), considerable funds are required to provide training to existing staff. However, as
mentioned in section 6.4.1, organisations can minimise training costs by requesting that software
vendors fulfil the need for training. Besides, according to Epasinghe et al. (2018), training can also be
gained free of charge via the Internet and through online forums. Nevertheless, Suranga et al. (2018)
indicated that no organisations test, demonstrate and train new technologies in the Sri Lankan context.
Therefore, Siriwardena et al. (2018) suggested that the government must perform this role within an
overall BIM adoption strategy.
Unlike traditional cost estimation, in BIM cost estimation requires a strong internet connection at all
times due to the use of a model. However, findings from the qualitative section (6.5.5.5) indicated that
many organisations provide limited Internet facilities for employees due to the high cost. This indicates
a strong relationship between the lack of resource (lack of internet) and financial barrier (high cost).
Besides, some respondents believed that the lack of government intervention has also increased the cost
of the Internet, which indicates a relationship between the lack of market demand (government
intervention) and lack of resources (lack of Internet) (see Figure 7.4). Moreover, employees face many
difficulties when working as the Internet speed is poor. Interviewees believed that government
involvement is essential to provide high-speed Internet facilities at a lower cost for organisations.
Furthermore, this finding is similar to the quantitative results (section 5.11.6, Table 5.26), where the
majority of respondents agreed that the lack of Internet facilities has resulted in poor BIM adoption
among QS’s. Abanda et al. (2018) identified that high-speed Internet facilities and unlimited data offer
key strategies in the adoption of BIM by enabling the use of interoperable files. Ahmed (2018) further
supported this view by indicating that the majority of BIM tools are Internet based, while effective BIM
adoption requires proper Internet facilitates. However, Epasinghe et al. (2018) mentioned that, due to
government taxes, organisations struggle to provide sufficient network facilities to support BIM-based
software. Thus, the government could help to increase network facilities through reduced taxes.
Therefore, it can be concluded that, due to low speed and high cost, limited Internet facilities represent
another resource issue for BIM adoption.
As noted in section 6.5.5.6, the qualitative findings revealed that the cost of SW and a lack of BIM
demand have resulted in a limited number of SW licences, which means another resource issue. Due to
its high cost, many organisations have only obtained the maximum six licences although they employ
more than 30 employees. This reveals a strong relationship between the lack of resources (number of
SW licences) and the financial barrier (high cost of SW) (Figure 7.4). Nevertheless, pre-defined goals
and processes would minimise the financial difficulties, as discussed in section 7.4.2. Besides, even if
organisations want to increase the number of licences, low demand for BIM hinders any investment in
SW. Therefore, only a few employees are able to work in BIM-based SW, while others have to wait
their turn. This reveals that a limited number of SW licences have been issued due to the lack of client
demand; in other words, there is a strong relationship between the lack of resources and the lack of
market demand (Figure 7.4). Hence, many Sri Lankan software development companies are capable of
developing and providing BIM-based software for local clients at a lower price (Epasingha et al., 2018).
Therefore, this would offer a solution for organisations to increase their number of licences. Moreover,
Wedikkara (2018) suggested that negotiating the monopoly market for software programs by
organisations and institutions would allow business to get more licences. Thus, these resources issues
have resulted in the low adoption of BIM amongst QS organizations.
7.4.6 Lack of Market Demand for BIM
The lack of demand for BIM was found to be another barrier to BIM adoption among Sri Lankan QS
organisations. The demand for BIM within the Sri Lankan construction industry is at a far lower level
than many other countries. As illustrated in Table 5.27, the lack of demand factor (external pressure)
was ranked fourth among the six main barriers. Findings from the case study analysis (section 6.5.6)
endorsed this position, as many respondents find the lack of client demand, lack of government
intervention, unbalanced BIM adoption and scalability represent the main reasons for low BIM market
demand in Sri Lanka. The findings in qualitative section 6.5.6.1 revealed that unawareness, the lack of
government intervention and few professionals using BIM are the main reason for the low adoption of
BIM. BIM is not just a SW; rather, it is a combination of people, process and technology. However, the
majority of Sri Lankan QS organisations who have started to use BIM focus on its function as SW but
have not yet considered the people (trained and BIM specialists) and processes (strategies, policies or
mandates) involved. Although QS organisations have started to use BIM, many professionals - such as
architects - still do not produce BIM drawings due to unawareness, the lack of training and the lack of
client demand. Moreover, respondents indicated that low BIM adoption is also impacted by the lack of
government intervention. Therefore, respondents believe that a nationally developed BIM mandate
would accelerate the use of BIM in the Sri Lankan construction industry. Thus, results also indicated
that the government should issue a mandate that considers capacity, such as the financial status and
resources of local contractors. Hence, they also suggested that, by mandating BIM for all, foreign
contractors would bring greater benefits to the Sri Lankan construction industry.
These findings were further supported by the quantitative analysis (5.11.5, Table 5.25) in which
respondents have confirmed that the perceived lack of industry adoption has resulted in unbalanced
BIM adoption. Moreover, the findings from section 5.11.5 (Table 5.25), also confirmed that the absence
of a BIM mandate is a major barrier to the adoption of BIM, as it increases the unbalanced uptake.
Moreover, the lack of government direction was found to be another issue to hinder BIM adoption by
Sri Lankan QS organisations (Table 5.25).
Epasinghe et al. (2018), further supported this view by indicating that BIM adoption would only be
successful if all stakeholders - namely civil engineers, quantity surveyors, project managers, clients,
and architects - adopt BIM at the same time. BIM adoption by only one profession does not make a big
different and it would be difficult to achieve the expected BIM benefits. It is clear that BIM adoption
among QS’s solely depend upon the architect’s involvement in BIM. BIM adoption among architects
is be a key driver for the adoption by QS’s. Kumara et al. (2017) similarly identified that architects
should be early BIM adopters, prior to any other profession. Weddikkara (2019) also stated that the
adoption of BIM is still impossible since the Sri Lankan government is not ready to support BIM.
Hence, NBS (2019) reported that the decision taken by the UK government to mandate BIM, meant
that both private and public sector construction organisations had to fully embed BIM. This indicates
that government intervention is a key driver for BIM adoption. According to Siriwardene et al. (2018),
some Sri Lankan construction organisations have followed the same scenario by mandating BIM within
their organisations. By initiating BIM in a greater number of projects, the government could motivate
others to use BIM, especially private sector clients (Kushwaha, 2016). Therefore, Epasinghe et al.
(2018) suggested that the Sri Lankan government must mandate the use of BIM models and practice
for large-scale projects, which would help to increase the demand for BIM.
The case study findings (in section 6.5.6.2) revealed that the lack of client demand has also resulted in
low demand for BIM. Many QS organisations started using BIM as a result of demand from foreign
clients. However, the results of this study indicate that the demand for BIM from local clients is almost
zero. The majority of local clients are not aware of BIM or its benefits, which indicated a relationship
between the lack of market demand and unawareness (Figure 7.4). Therefore, respondents believed
that raising clients’ awareness of BIM and its benefits would be one of the most significant steps for its
adoption. As such, knowledge has to be provided through CPD, seminars, conferences, etc., by
encouraging clients to start thinking about BIM. Respondents also believed that increased awareness
would result in high client demand for BIM. This finding is further supported by the respondents whose
data were considered in the quantitative section (5.11.5, Table 5.25) in which they confirmed the lack
of client awareness results in low demand for BIM. Besides, they also believed that clients’ financial
capabilities also affected client demand. According to NBS (2019), the lack of client demand has been
identified as a main barrier to BIM adoption, as they are concerned with capital investment. This
indicates the client’s gap in BIM knowledge and the benefits it offers long term. Nevertheless, the
clients do not always demand BIM; hence, they could also be the reason why an organisation avoids its
adoption (Somani, 2019).
The qualitative results in section 6.5.6.3 indicated that a lack of government intervention also results in
a lack of demand for BIM. Many countries have adopted BIM as a result of BIM mandates, which were
introduced by their governments. However, results indicate that government intervention to encourage
BIM adoption is almost non-existent in the Sri Lankan construction industry. Findings from the
qualitative case study analysis (see section 6.5.6.3) endorse this position, as many respondents find that
political corruption, a lack of professional involvement, and economic crisis result in the lack of
government intervention. In many industries, there is no any transparency due to pollical corruption; as
a result, most government officers refuse to use modern technology for construction, as it means they
cannot cheat (especially during the bidding process). In fact, respondents suggested that, instead of the
government, the involvement of government agencies would offer another way to overcome the lack of
government intervention. Moreover, Weddikkara (2018) indicated that professional bodies should
organise symposiums for the government to draw attention to the importance of BIM and its
applications.
Findings from the case studies (see section 6.5.6.4) indicated that scalability was another reason for the
lack of BIM demand. Many interviewees were unsure whether BIM would fit with the size of the Sri
Lankan construction industry. However, respondents believed that shared adoption would offer a
solution to increase the scale; alternatively, they stated that adoption could be achieved through a
comparative model, by comparing BIM adoption with a similar characteristic of the construction
industry. Therefore, it can be concluded that the lack of demand for BIM is another barrier to BIM
adoption within Sri Lankan QS organisations.
The above discussion summarises the barriers to BIM adoption for Sri Lankan QS firms, while Figure
7.4 indicates the significant relationships among the barriers. Moreover, it was also possible to identify
the mitigating actions to overcome the impact of these barriers through cases studies and literature
publications based in Sri Lanka. Accordingly, Table 7.2 lists barriers and sub barriers identified through
the analysis. Moreover, Table 7.3 lists the mitigating actions identified within the above analysis.
Figure 7.4: Schematic diagram of the significant relationships between the barriers to BIM adoption.
248
Table 7.2: Barriers and sub-barriers to BIM adoption
Cases Questionnaire Literature

Barrier Sub barriers
Studies survey review
Cost of hardware and software
Upgrading costs
Financial
Training costs
Lack of goals
Isolated working culture

People mindset
Organizational Fear of sharing responsibilities
Reluctant to change
Lack of goals and processes
Lack of policies
Contractual issues
Regulatory
Legal issues
Lack of ethical behaviours
Lack of knowledge sharing
Absence of BIM initiator
Unawareness
Lack of BIM education
The gap between industry and the academia
Lack of BIM experts

Absence of BIM implementation plan
Lack of BIM models
Lack of Resources
Limited number of SW licenses
Limited internet facilities
Lack of training
Lack of client demand

Lack of government intervention
LackLack of Market
of demand for BIM
Unbalance BIM adoption
Demand for BIM
Scalability
249
Table 7.3: Mitigating actions to overcome the barriers
Cases Literature
Sub-barriers Mitigating actions
studies Review
1. Define end goal to achieve through BIM adoption, ex: Improve the accuracy of pre-tender cost estimates.
2. Identify appropriate processes to achieve pre-defined goals as a part of BIM adoption organizational wise.
Cost of hardware and 3. Seek support from technological companies in Sri Lanka to minimize the initial investment for fancy hardware
software and software.
4. Get support from FOSS (Free and Open Source software).
5. Collaboration with funding agencies such as government, private and leading construction organizations.
1.Collaboration with funding agencies such as government, private and leading construction organizations.
Upgrading costs
2.Negotiate upgrading costs with software service providers.
Training costs 1.Request software vendor to provide training for existing staff, as a part of their service.
Lack of goals
1.Define expecting end goal\goals (e.g. Improve the accuracy of cost estimates) to achieve through BIM adoption.
2.Identify processes look-alike
1.Implant a positive collaborative culture within the industry philosophy/ organizational philosophy.
Isolated working culture 2.Consider the use of structured processes, techniques and advanced digital technologies aid in collaboration issues.
3.Develop organizational strategies to improve employee’s phycology and mentality.
4.Carry out training programs for professionals in ad-hoc basis.
People mindset 1.Build an organizational culture to make employees think they are working as a team.
Fear of sharing responsibilities 1.Build an organizational culture to make employees think they are working as a team.
1.Introduce and maintain an innovative culture within the organization where anyone can share anything which
Reluctant to change
motivates them to learn about BIM.
1.Define expecting end goal\goals (e.g. Improve the accuracy of cost estimates) to achieve through BIM adoption.
Lack of goals and processes
2.Identify processes look-alike
3.Encourage organizations to understanding of BIM and trying to improvise some of the identified processes to
achieve end goal.
1.Develop policies considering threshold, issues, and repercussions.

Lack of policies
2.Execute developed policies through enforcement.
1.Consider the use of internationally develop BIM standards such as construction measurement standards (ICMS).
Contractual issues
2.Develop BIM friendly contractual standards considering the nature of the Sri Lankan construction industry.
1.Establish ground rules in terms of using models and data.
2.Frozen BIM model in lumpsum contracts.
Legal issues 3.Update construction contracts with a new clause for intellectual property rights (such as model ownership,
copyrights, legal and illegal use of models, and up to what extent trade information should be disclosed) in
contracts.
1. Define certain standards and guidelines to improve the ethical behaviours of the organizations.
Lack of ethical behaviours
2. Define certain standards for technology usage.
Lack of knowledge sharing 1. Integrate teaching and learning mechanisms into the organizational culture.
1. Encourage architects to use BIM.
2. Establish training programs, lecture sessions along with piloting Revit on selected small projects such as houses
Absence of BIM initiator to convince architects to use BIM.
3. Universities, professional bodies, and the government commence island-wide BIM workshops, CPD’s and
conferences.
1. Consider the government to take the role of BIM educator.
2. Incorporate BIM into the existing education curriculum.
3. Professional bodies (IQSSL, SLIA, RICS, etc) to conduct continuous BIM promoting programs with aid from
foreign institutions and the university grant commission (UGC).
Lack of BIM education
4. Introduce master and PhD level BIM-based programs to the government universities in collaboration with
foreign universities.
5. Encourage large scale construction companies to apply BIM for large scale construction projects to provide live
BIM-based experiences for the students and the industry practitioners.
The gap between industry 1. Establish an organization to test and demonstrate new technologies with the aid of government.
and the academia 2. Provide continuous BIM promoting practices for both academics and industry practitioners.
1. Formulate the role of BIM manager within the Sri Lankan construction industry.
2. Provide continuous BIM promoting practices for both academics and industry practitioners.
Lack of BIM experts
3. Establish reliable BIM education programs which fulfil the need of BIM experts.
4. Ensure BIM experts are not limited to academia, but also in the industry.
1. Develop a local framework to adopt BIM, reflected BIM drivers and barriers.
Absence of BIM
implementation plan
2. Get a consultation from early BIM adopters prior to developing a framework.
3. Develop BIM adoption strategies organizational wise by identifying goals and processes.
1. Introduce a BIM mandate for major construction companies to practice BIM during construction stages.
Lack of BIM models 2. Encourage architectural firms to execute and integrate BIM into the organization's business models.
3. Request architects to provide drawings in the BIM version.
1. Encourage local software development companies to develop BIM-based software at a lower price for local
Limited number of SW clients.
licenses 2. Develop an agreement between QS organizations and software developers for software price negotiations to
increase the inhouse number of licenses.
1. Allow government intervention in providing high-speed internet facilities at a lower cost for QS organizations.
Limited internet facilities
2. Encourage the government to reduce taxes for network facilities.
1. Request software vendor to provide training for existing staff, as a part of their service.
2. Establish an organization to test, train and demonstrate new technologies with the aid of government.
3. Establish an industry-recognized place to study and train BIM for all the construction industry stakeholders.
Lack of training
4. Execute training programs with a focus on ideas and conversation.
5. Establish an organizational mechanism to motivate employees to self-study and self-training with the use of
internet and online forums on BIM.
1. Carry out awareness programs to increase client’s awareness of BIM and its benefits.
2. Conduct/ organize CPD, seminars, conferences, and workshops for clients.
1. Professional bodies organize symposiums to the government to bring attention to the importance of BIM and its
Lack of government applications.
intervention
2. Incorporate government agencies on behalf of the government.
1. Define architects as the early BIM adopters prior to any other profession.
2. Professional bodies to organize public symposiums to make the government, the politicians as well as the private
sector the importance of BIM and its applications.
3. Develop a BIM mandate for the Sri Lankan construction industry considering the capacity such as the financial
Unbalance BIM adoption and resources of local contractors.
4. Mandate the use of BIM for all foreign contractors.
5. Initiate BIM in a greater number of local projects
6. Encourage private sector clients to use BIM within their projects.
7. Mandate the use of the BIM model and BIM practice for large scale construction projects.
1. Increase the scale through shared BIM adoption.
Scalability 2. Consider the use of a comparative model managed by comparing BIM adoption with a similar characteristic of
construction industry.
250
Figure 7.5 illustrates the updated version of the conceptual framework for objective 3 (BIM barriers)
based on the discussion in section 7.4.
Barriers for BIM Adoption
1) Financial Barriers
2) Organizational Barriers
3) Regulatory Barriers
4) Unawareness
Figure 7.5 Updated conceptual framework for objective 3 - BIM barriers
251
Figure 7.6 Updated framework
252
8 FRAMEWORK DEVELOPMENT AND VALIDATION
8.1 Framework Development
The previous chapter interpreted the results from both the survey data and the semi-structured
interviews. The chapter illustrates a consecutive data gathering process on the fundamental output of
the framework. The development of a framework is core to this research. Within social science research,
scholars have defined frameworks in many ways. Ngulube et al. (2015) identified a research framework
as an instrument for the researchers to interpret their findings in an understandable way. According to
Patrick (2018), a framework is a logically structured representation of perceptions, variables or
relationships based on the findings of a scientific study. Consequently, the outcome of this study is
logically structured to support the interpretation and understanding of the problem through the
development of a framework.
Predominantly, the findings are arranged under two research gaps shown in the conceptual framework
(see Figure 7.6). The frameworks identify gaps in BIM adoption and provide mitigating actions that
would enhance BIM adoption. F.W was developed based on the data derived from questionnaire survey,
cases studies (semi-structured interviews) and literature review. Systematically, F.W was developed
considering two main aspects. The left-hand column represents the factors for consideration, or the
drivers for BIM adoption. Organisations can conduct a self-assessment prior to adopting BIM to check
whether they have these driving factors within their working environment. The right-hand column
represents the factors to be mitigate, also known as the barriers. These main barriers and root causes for
each barrier prevent the adoption of BIM. Thereby, organisations need to undertake appropriate
mitigating actions to minimise the negative impact of these barriers for a successful BIM adoption.
Mainly, the framework supports Sri Lankan quantity surveying organisations to adopt BIM within their
existing practice in order to improve the accuracy of pre-tender cost estimates. A successful adoption
of BIM eliminates majority of weaknesses discussed in section 7.2. Nevertheless, the framework also
helps in other sectors, such as education, the government etc., by identifying their roles and
responsibilities within the process of BIM adoption. Proposed mitigating actions for each sub-barrier
(root cause) are based on a literature review and data collected through cases studies (semi-structured
interviews). Figure 8.1 illustrates the entire findings derived from the analysis, which thereby generates
the final framework for the research and its validation, which is explained in section 8.2.
253
Figure 8.1: The BIM adoption framework for Sri Lankan quantity surveying organisations
254
Table 8.1: Barrier, sub-barriers and mitigating actions
255
256
257
8.2 Validation and Refinement of the Findings
The researcher was able to develop a BIM adoption framework for Sri Lankan QS organisations based on
the findings obtained from the questionnaires and semi-structured interviews, and by comparing the
findings with the literature. The developed BIM adoption framework consists of factors to consider (driving
factors) and factors to mitigate (barriers). Accordingly, mitigating actions are suggested for each barrier
and its sub-factors to minimise their impact.
The framework has been externally validated by testing the framework findings against their applicability
to the wider context within Sri Lanka. Professionals were selected from the specific firms and invited to
participate in semi-structured telephone interviews. The professionals were invited via an email, and once
they agreed to participate, the framework was sent to them. Six professionals, including previous
participants, were invited to participate in the validation interviews. Four professionals agreed to
participate, and Table 8.2 illustrates their profiles.
Table 8.2: Expert profiles
Expert No. Description
General Manager, XX Pvt Ltd, Charted QS, Member of RICS, and visiting lecturer
E1
for QS and Project Management.
E2 CEO, Charted QS and construction manager YY Pvt Ltd
E3 Senior QS, private QS consultancy Firm in Sri Lanka
E4 Charted QS and senior lecturer in quantity surveying and BIM
All arrangements to conduct the semi-structured interviews were made via email and phone. The interviews
took place at a convenient time for each participant. Notes were taken during the interviews, the
conversations were recorded, and the duration varied from 25 to 30 minutes dependant on the participant.
The following questions were asked during the interviews:
1. What is your opinion about the clarity of the framework (FW); is it clear enough to support BIM
adoption? (Title, general outlook, language)
2. What do you think about the structure of the FW? Why? (Understandable)
3. Do you believe that the FW has addressed all the factors faced during the adoption of BIM?
(Completeness)
4. What do you think about the applicability of the framework components and their suggested
actions? Why? (Applicability)
5. Do you believe the current framework design will help BIM adoption in your firms? Why?
(Adaptability)
6. Based on what we have discussed today, in your opinion, what is the most important issue that you
would like to highlight about the FW? Do you have any suggestions?
258
Using content analysis, the collected data were manually analysed. The following sub-section presents the
responses to each question.
8.2.1 Validation of the BIM Adoption Framework
The first question, ‘What is your opinion about the clarity of the framework; is it clear enough to support
BIM adoption’ was designed to identify the extent to which the framework is clear in terms of the title,
general outlook, and language used. All agreed that the FW is clear and easy to understand as it not
complicated. One participant stated, “it’s very clear to me as you have divided it into different areas, and
those areas have further divided into subsections makes very sensible to me”. Another participant added,
“I will rate it 8 out of 10 in terms of clarity. I think you have done a good job”. In terms of language three
participants agreed it is clear. However, one of them stated, “some of the phrases you’ve used more into
BIM, I understand that there's a specific BIM language, but at the same time you need to consider the users
of this FW, as not many can understand BIM language”. Moreover, another respondent pointed out that the
vertical letters used are not that clear and they suggested the use of non-vertical letters would be clearer to
users. In terms of title, one participant suggested including ‘Sri Lanka’. The researcher considered these
suggestions for the final FW.
The aim of the second question, which was ‘What do you think about the structure of the FW?” Why?’
aimed to identify the responses to the FW design (including the colours used). All four participants agreed
that the FW design was very clear and easy to understand. One of them stated, “it's better to develop an FW
in an expandable way in [the] near future; maybe you can reference in your report how to do it, and at
some point, there should be a link to international standards”. This is a good point; however, this could be
undertaken as further research, and as such, this was added under the further research section. Another
respondent stated “as I'm aware of BIM, [the] FW is clearer to me. But how about people who are not
familiar with BIM will they understand this design?” This FW was mainly developed for QS organisations;
therefore, the first users of this FW would be top management prior to any engagement with the sub-
sections. As this was very clear to them, they could develop the format in a more readable way for their
employees or use their own strategy to implement these actions. In terms of the colours, all were considered
acceptable.
The third question, ‘Do you believe that the FW has addressed all the factors faced during the BIM
adoption?’ intended to examine the extent to which the FW addressed the factors affecting BIM adoption.
All respondents confirmed that, for the time being, the FW has addressed the majority of factors and covered
a wide area concerning Sri Lankan BIM adoption. One respondent stated, “I understand your study focused
on [the] macro-level; therefore, in terms of preliminary adoption yeah it consists of pretty much all the
factors”. However, respondents further added that there would be more factors to consider in the future.
The fourth question, “What do you think about the applicability of framework components and suggested
actions? Why?’, aimed to examine the participants’ thoughts about the suggested actions and their
applicability to real cases or scenarios. All respondents agreed with the drivers and barriers given in the
framework along with mitigating actions given for the barriers. They were fairly confident that the
suggested actions were applicable in real practice. One respondent stated, “you have done a deep analysis
of the factors and its mitigation actions; overall, well-suggested actions”. Another respondent stated, “it’ll
be easy to adopt BIM within organisations with the use of this FW, if relevant parties who have addressed
… this FW can address these actions”. Thus, the interviews were carried out on a factor basis, and
interesting conversations and suggestions emerged for most of the actions.
259
Under the financial barrier, respondents agreed that the cost of hardware and software, upgrade costs,
training costs and the lack of goals result in the financial barrier. Moreover, all respondents accepted the
given mitigating actions for the cost of hardware and software. However, respondent 1 stated “some
countries' governments have agreements with SW companies to provide SW licenses at a concessional rate,
to minimise the use of crack versions. Thereby the government has agreed not to let them use trial versions
or crack versions”. Thus, they suggested considering this point as a mitigating action for the cost of
hardware and SW. A further respondent was keen on the second mitigating action; they suggested that,
along with the defined end goal, there should be a strategy to assess the success or failure of a defined goal.
The above two suggestions are extremely useful points; therefore, the researcher will consider altering the
final FW to reflect the experts’ points of view.
All respondents agreed on the given mitigation actions under upgrading costs. However, the fourth
respondent mentioned changing the term from upgrading costs to upgrading costs for software licenses,
which they felt made more sense. The second respondent stated that, “when you are considering SW & HW
cost, you always have the option to outsource it. Some people take too much stress, because they don’t see
that as an option. As it is very expensive to upgrade, companies better outsource that activity to different
third-party agencies. As there are specific companies that only deal with those activities, so, four or five
companies can have one company to do these upgrades at a lower cost”. Therefore, this point should be
added to the final FW. Moreover, the third respondent suggested adding a yearly plan to the second action,
as they indicated that it would be good to have long-term agreement that benefited both parties. This point
was also altered in the final FW. The mitigating action for training costs was accepted by respondents 2, 3
and 4 without further comment. Although respondent 1 also agreed, they stated: “the use of cost-effective
training sessions within the organisations, such as online training, will be another mitigating action”.
Accordingly, for the final FW, the researcher will consider adding this adding this point. The final sub-
factor under the financial barrier was the lack of goals. All respondents agreed with the first mitigating
action, without any further comment. Respondents 1 and 4 agreed with the second mitigating action without
any comment. Respondents 2 and 3 also agreed, but stated: “processes look-alike isn't clear, and needs
more clarity; instead of processes look-alike I would call it workflow design, you need to define it a little
bit”. Both respondents believe it is important to consider language to ensure understanding by users.
As illustrated in Table 8.3, the suggestions made by the respondents were included for the financial barriers.
Altered suggestions are indicated in bold sentences.
260
Table 8.3: Final BIM adoption framework - financial barriers
The next section of the FW validation considered the organisational barriers. All respondents agreed that
the given sub factors created barriers within the organisation; however mitigating actions for the sub factors
were accepted by all respondents with further comments. In terms of the first action, respondent 2 stated,
“[the] word implant will be an issue; I would put’ create a positive collaborative working culture, within
the existing culture’”. Respondents 1, 3 and 4 accepted the second action without further comment.
However, respondent 2 stated, “its [a] little length;, you can break [it] into two points, for [the] digitization
of workflow”. However, the use of the phrase ‘digitization workflow’ will be confusing for most users.
Therefore, the sentence was divided into two actions, as illustrated in Table 8.3. All respondents without
any further comment accepted the third action. The final action was also accepted by all respondents, hence,
respondent 2 stated: “I agree with you, but rephrase ‘ad-hoc’, I would say strategic professionals”.
However, the researcher used the word ad-hoc to denote carrying out training programs whenever
necessary. Therefore, the word ad-hoc was replaced with ‘whenever necessary’ in the final framework.
261
Apart from above suggestions, respondent 1 stated “I think what should happen is, it's true at some point
of peoples working career they have to start working collaboratively, but can’t we introduce those skills at
university stage, so then it easier for everyone, even to adopt for existing organizational culture. It may be
too late when they join the company to cultivate those skills especially for fresh graduates”. This is a very
helpful point; however, as this FW has a separate section to address BIM education, the researcher will
consider adding this point under BIM education in the final FW.
Respondents 1, 3 and 4 accepted the action for people’s mindsets without any further comment. Respondent
2 accepted it, but also stated: “I would suggest rephrasing it to create a culture for teamwork or promote
teamwork within the organisation”. Therefore, this action will be modified accordingly in the final FW (see
Table 8.3). All respondents accepted the action against ‘fear of sharing responsibilities’, although
respondent 2 suggested creating a culture for teamwork. Thus, the action was modified in the final FW.
All respondents accepted the action against ‘reluctant to change’; however, respondent 1 stated “first we
need to increase awareness of people in terms of BIM and what benefits they can have; we need to convince
them the use of BIM will raise your job at a decision-making level rather being [at the] counting of things.
So, I believe our education syllabus need[s] to realign to train fresh graduates to make decisions, rather
than taking training to take-off. If we could give this understanding, no one will be reluctant to change”.
This is an extremely valid point made by the respondents, namely, to increase BIM awareness and the
benefits they could gain thereof. In considering the reflections from this respondent, the final FW was
altered by adding this point as another mitigating action against reluctant to change (see Table 6.4).
Respondents then validated the actions given to mitigate the lack of goals and processes. All respondents
agreed on the given actions; however, respondent 2 suggested the use of ‘workflow’ instead of processes
against the fourth action. Therefore, the respondent’s suggestion was considered in the final FW. As
illustrated in Table 8.4, suggestions made by respondents were considered when altering the organizational
barriers. Altered suggestions are indicated in bold sentences.
Thereafter, respondents validated the next section of the FW, namely the regulatory barriers. All
respondents accepted the sub factors along with the mitigating actions given. Accordingly, the respondents
accepted the actions against the lack of policies but offered further comments. Respondent 1 stated,
“whatever the policies not only on BIM, everything has to be aligned with countries/organisations vision,
let’s say for 20 years; because usually any country/organisation would have 2, 3 year, 5 year plan. So the
polices have to be aligned with countries’/organszations’ visions as well”. Therefore, he suggested
developing policies concerning the vision of the country/organisation. Respondent 2 added that the words
‘threshold’ and ‘repercussions’ needed to be replaced words with similar meanings to make it more
understandable. Respondent 3 questioned “develop policies either organisation wise or, generally?” This a
valid point, as this FW has been developed for QS organisations, which have their own policies. However,
national policies will also drive BIM adoption. Respondent 4, suggested the consideration of worldwide
policies, which can benefit the development of a new policy. The second action was also accepted by
respondents; however, respondent 2, stated “I agree, hence, there needs to be measurable way of assessing
these policies, whether they are working or not”. All above points made by respondents are valid and useful;
therefore, the researcher will accommodate these within the final FW.
262
Table 8.4: Final BIM adoption framework – organisational barriers
Actions under contractual issues were completely accepted by all the respondents; however, respondent 2
stated “Just by having standards you can’t solve issues; you have to have other sets of documents, ex;
PAS1192, BIM protocol, specification[s] along with contractual standards to … consider… the nature of
SL construction industry as we cannot use international ones straight away”. This is a valid point, as
standards alone cannot mitigate contractual issues; instead, there is a need to developing supporting
documents alongside the standards. Therefore, the final FW was altered to consider this point of view.
Nevertheless, respondent 3 stated “I 100% agree, but before starting the project, can’t we come to a
conclusion for a standard … particular to the project?” However, as this FW aims to support BIM adoption
organisationally, but not on a project basis, there is no any need to change the action.
All respondents accepted the actions under ‘legal issues’. Apart from the actions given in the FW,
respondent 1 stated, “all project participant[s] can sign informed consent in terms of confidentiality and as
we use models, it’s more applicable to current situation”. As it might take a while to establish rules when
using model, this will offer a short-term solution for the people who are using models at the moment.
Respondent 3 also suggested locking the model on a structural basis when it is completed, which would
offer another solution to mitigate legal issues. Therefore, in considering respondents’ points of view, ‘legal
issues’ were altered in the final FW. In terms of lack of ethical behaviours, all respondents accepted the
mitigating actions without further comment. Therefore, the following table illustrates the updated section
of the FW for the regulatory barriers, based on the suggestions made by respondents. Altered suggestions
are indicated in bold sentences.
263
Table 8.5: Final BIM adoption framework – regulatory barriers
The next section of the FW addresses ‘unawareness’, and was also validated by respondents. Respondents
accepted all the sub factors under ‘unawareness’. Respondents 1, 2 and 4 accepted the action under ‘lack
of knowledge sharing’ without any further comment. However, respondent 3 suggested the conduct of
weekly knowledge sharing programs by using PowerPoint presentations. The researcher will consider
adding this point to the final FW as a mitigating action to the lack of knowledge sharing.
Respondent 1 accepted all actions to mitigate the absence of a BIM initiator and did not offer any further
comments. Respondents 2, 3 and 4 accepted action 1, but respondent 3 stated “I agree and but also trade
contractors, this goes hand in hand. As architects only care about visualization, it shouldn’t only be
architects but also trade contractors should take the lead. It shouldn’t stop with architects”. Therefore,
they pointed out that it should not just consider architects, but also other professions in the construction
industry. In terms of this research, the FW was developed for QS organisations and data was also collected
from QS’s. In other words, this FW was developed from a QS perspective. For QS’s, architects are
important, because sequentially in a construction process the QS’s starts their work after the architects have
undertaken theirs. Nevertheless, as BIM involves collaboration, it is important that all professionals work
on the same platform. Therefore, the final FW will be altered based on the respondents’ points of view. The
remaining actions under the absence of BIM initiator was accepted by all respondents; however, respondent
2 commented on second action stating, “you should not directly say Revit, you should say model authoring
tool, because Revit may not the best tool for architects”. Therefore, in considering this valid point, the final
FW will be altered.
264
Table 8.6 Final BIM adoption framework – unawareness
The lack of BIM education and its mitigating actions comprised the next section that respondents validated.
All the respondents fully accepted all mitigating actions. Nevertheless, respondents 2 and 3 commented on
second action, by stating “I agree [with] university level, but I honestly think there has to be [a] BIM
introduction degree level as well, as many students don’t know what the BIM opportunities are”. Therefore,
the final FW was altered by adding this point as another mitigating action to minimise the lack of BIM
education. Moreover, respondent 2 suggested incorporating practice-based BIM courses within the
curriculum. Similarly, respondent 1 commented on the importance of having pilot BIM projects to give real
life examples for graduates. This is a valid point by the respondents; therefore, the researcher will alter the
final FW by addressing these comments.
Respondents then validated the next section under unawareness, namely the gap between industry and
academia and its mitigating actions. All four respondents accepted the given actions. However, respondent
1, believed that the use of pilot projects also helped to reduce this gap. Respondent 3 suggested a “mandate
to get at least 6 months BIM experience for final year graduates as a part [of] degree requirements will be
another mitigating action”. These two points are applicable to mitigating the gap between industry and
academia. Therefore, the researcher will alter the final FW by addressing these comments. Table 8.6
illustrates the updated section of the FW for unawareness based on the suggestions made by the respondents.
Altered suggestions are indicated in bold sentences.
265
Respondents then validated the next section of the FW, namely the lack of resources, its sub-factors and
mitigating actions. All respondents accepted all sub-factors represent the lack of resources for BIM adoption
within the Sri Lankan construction industry. Mitigating actions for the lack of BIM experts were accepted
by all respondents and they were really pleased with the suggested actions. However, respondent 1
suggested the use of pilot projects as a mitigating action. The use of pilot projects will give real life BIM
experience to all practitioners, and as a result, more BIM experts will emerge. Therefore, the final FW will
be altered based on the respondent’s point of view. Respondent 4 stated “hiring foreign BIM specialists,
through Board of Investment (BOI) approved projects, to get free BIM specialists”. This is a valid point, as
BOI approved projects taxes are free; thus, BIM experts could be hired at a lower cost. The researcher will
alter the final FW by adding this point as another mitigating action to address the lack of BIM experts.
The next section addressed the ‘absence of a BIM implementation plan’ and respondents accepted all
actions without any further comments. Respondents also accepted all actions under the lack of BIM models.
However, respondent 3 suggested “outsource [the] BIM model, would be another solution for [he] lack of
BIM models”. As many countries experience, building a BIM model is very expensive; as a result, they
have tended to outsource the BIM model to countries such as India in order to achieve the same result at a
lower cost. This would be also work for Sri Lankan QS’s as well. Therefore, this is a valid point made by
the respondents that will be added to the final FW.
Respondents also accepted the actions to mitigate a limited number of SW licences. However, respondent
1 commented that the cost of hardware and software licences was also valid for this section. Accordingly,
‘government intervention with SW agents to get a concessional rate’ will be added to final FW as another
mitigating action. In terms of the first mitigating action, respondent 2 stated “Sri Lankan SW companies
can build BIM based SW, but if it not interoperable with other SW, we may miss the bus”. Therefore, actions
will be altered in the final FW based on the respondent’s point of view. Respondent 3 added to the second
action, that the agreement should consider a yearly plan, which makes more sense. Respondent 4 mentioned
government taxes, which is another issue that limits the number of inhouse SW licences, as it increases the
price of certain SW. From the researcher’s point of view, taxes could be minimised if the government
implements the suggestion by respondent 1.
All respondents accepted the actions for limited Internet facilities without any further comment. However,
respondent 1 stated “the new government has already implemented [the] second action. Now, actually the
internet cost has come down, so they’ve already considered your suggestion”. The final factor under ‘lack
of resources’ was the lack of training, for which all respondents accepted the mitigating actions. However,
respondent 4, stated that the use of user-friendly demos within training, such as training materials in Sri
Lankan for trainers, would boost the interest in BIM training. This is a valid point, as there are professionals
and trainees who are not comfortable with the use of English. Therefore, the final FW will be altered based
on this respondent’s point of view. Table 8.7 illustrates the updated FW section for the lack of resources
based on the suggestions made by respondents. Altered suggestions are indicated in bold sentences
266
Table 8.7: Final BIM adoption framework – lack of resources
The last section to be validated was the lack of demand for BIM. The lack of client demand, lack of
government intervention, unbalanced BIM adoption and scalability were named as sub-factors to the lack
of demand for BIM. All the respondents accepted these factors and mitigating actions without any further
comment. Respondents also accepted all actions for the lack of government intervention without any further
comment. Respondents then validated ‘unbalanced BIM adoption’. For many respondents, the phrase
“unbalanced BIM adoption” was not clear. Once the researcher explained this to them, they were confident
with it. Respondent 1 stated “Unbalanced BIM adoption among professionals would be more appropriate
instead just unbalance BIM adoption”. Therefore, the term will be altered in the final FW in consideration
of the feedback.
However, respondents accepted all mitigating actions without any further comment. Hence, respondent 3
added a mandate to employ local professionals in foreign BIM based projects, which would also offer a
mitigating action for unbalanced adoption. Therefore, the final FW will be altered based on this comment.
Finally, respondents also accepted all actions to mitigate scalability without any further comment. Table
8.8 illustrates the updated FW section for the lack of demand for BIM based on the suggestions made by
the respondents. Altered suggestions are indicated in bold sentences.
267
Table 8.8: Final BIM adoption framework – lack of demand for BIM
The fifth question, “Do you believe the current framework design will help BIM adoption in your firms?
Why?”, aimed to examine the adaptability of the FW for current QS firms. All respondents appreciated the
development of this FW. Based on respondents’ points of view, they think this FW represents a fundamental
need, which is lacking in Sri Lankan QS organisations, in terms of BIM adoption. Therefore, all respondents
agreed that this FW would help them to adopt BIM within their organisations. Respondent 1 stated,
“because we have international exposure, our company motive is to be dynamic. So, we need to adopt
modern technology as soon as possible. So certainly, this FW help us to do so”. Respondent 2 believes this
FW would not only help in the adoption of BIM for QS firms, but also across most construction related
parties. They stated “since there aren’t any developed FW in Sri Lanka for BIM adoption (QS) I think this
FW will be a preliminary foundation for, not only QS organisations, but also for other construction related
organisations; [they] will also benefit from this”. Another, respondent indicated, as it consists of many
aspects, it will help in the adoption of BIM.
The sixth question was “Based on what we have discussed today, in your opinion, what is the most important
issue that you would like to highlight about the FW?” Have you got any suggestions for them?” This was
designed to examine the respondent’s thoughts about further improvements that could be made to the FW.
Respondents 1, 3 and 4 suggested altering the aforementioned suggestions. However, respondent 2 stated
“the biggest issue for me is sometimes companies struggle to address all the actions at once, because it
seems like lots of work to do, so we need a strategic plan”. This point is true, however, although this FW is
developed for QS organisations, several other responsible parties have also been addressed in the FW (for
example, the government, architects, education department, professional bodies, etc). For the successful
adoption of BIM all parties should implement the suggested actions. Therefore, there is no need for QS
organisations to address all given mitigating actions, as some are out of their control.
268
Figure 8.2: Final BIM Adoption Framework
269
Table 8.9: Barriers, sub-barriers and mitigating actions
270
271
Lack of
Market
Demand
272
8.3 Links Among the Conceptual Framework and the Developed BIM Adoption Framework
The conceptual framework (Figure 3.20) illustrates are barriers that need to be minimised, alongside the
driving factors that need to be considered for the successful adoption BIM by Sri Lankan QS organisations.
This study was conducted to identify these drivers and barriers along with relevant mitigating actions to
overcome the barriers. Accordingly, six drivers and barriers were recognised, and the reasons for these
barriers were expanded along with the mitigating actions. These were logically presented in the final
framework (see Figure 8.2). The framework identifies the main drivers and barriers, while explaining the
mitigating actions for each barrier. The main target audience of this framework is QS organisations;
however, professional construction bodies, the government, the education sector, and architects can also be
identified as target audiences of this framework. The framework answers the research questions, ‘What are
the driving factors for BIM adoption into Sri Lankan quantity surveying firms?’ and ‘Why have many Sri
Lankan quantity surveying firms not yet adopted BIM?’
This chapter summarises the findings of the research, as linked with the research problem and conceptual
framework. The findings were logically structured in the format of a framework that enables BIM adoption
among Sri Lankan quantity surveying organisations. The chapter further explains the validation process
executed to ensure the reliability of the findings. Therefore, the next chapter concludes the study and offers
recommendations for further areas of investigation.
273
9 CONCLUSIONS
9.1 Introduction
The previous three chapters presented the research findings from the analysis of the questionnaire survey
and semi-structured interviews. This chapter attempts to draw conclusions and recommendations based on
the findings and outcomes of the research.
§ Firstly, the research problem and research objectives for the study are revisited;
§ Secondly, a summary of the key findings is given;
§ Thirdly, the contributions of this research to theory and practice are articulated;
§ Finally, the limitations of the research and further research areas emerging from this study are
noted.
9.2 Summary of the Research Problem and Research Objectives
The background of this research considers the weaknesses in conventional pre-tender cost estimate practices
when producing accurate cost estimates in Sri Lanka. It was noted that, with the use of Building Information
Modelling (BIM), many countries have improved the accuracy of pre-tender cost estimates, as BIM has
capability to minimise or eliminate the majority of weaknesses in conventional cost estimate practices.
Therefore, a need to replace the existing practice with BIM-based cost estimate practice was initially
identified in order to improve the accuracy of pre-tender cost estimates. Moreover, it was also discovered
that the absence of a nationally developed BIM framework prevents the adoption of BIM within Sri Lankan
quantity surveying practice; indeed, many other countries have adopted BIM through such a framework.
Therefore, it is necessary to develop a BIM adoption framework for Sri Lankan quantity surveying
organisations to improve the accuracy of pre-tender cost estimates. Accordingly, the researcher established
the following research aim and objectives for the study. The aim of the research was:
To develop a BIM adoption framework for Sri Lankan quantity surveying organisations to increase the
accuracy of pre-tender cost estimates.
Based on the research aim, the following research objectives were developed:
1. To identify the current status of pre-tender cost estimates and the factors affecting the accuracy of
pre-tender cost estimates in Sri Lanka.
2. To evaluate the development of, and the use of, BIM to improve the accuracy of pre-tender cost
estimates.
3. To identify the BIM adoption drivers and barriers along with the mitigating actions to overcome
the impact of the barriers identified.
4. To develop and validate a BIM adoption framework for Sri Lankan Quantity Surveying firms to
improve the accuracy of pre-tender cost estimates.
Based on the research objectives and research problem highlighted above, the next section summarises the
key results of this research.
274
9.3 Summary of the Key Results
9.3.1 Objective 1
Evaluating the current status of cost overruns and identifying the factors affecting the accuracy of pre-
tender cost estimates was the first objective of this study. Using a literature review, questionnaire survey
and case studies (semi-structured interviews) as techniques, this objective was framed to identify the current
status of pre-tender cost estimates and the factors affecting its accuracy. The findings related to this
objective discussed in chapter 2, 5 and 6, are summarised below:
In order to identify the current status of pre-tender cost estimates, the researcher wanted to explore two key
issues, which were the status of cost overruns and the importance of accurate pre-tender cost estimates. The
researcher achieved this through conducting a literature review and found that construction cost overruns
represent a global issue; however, cost overruns are pre-dominant in the Sri Lankan construction industry.
Furthermore, the researcher was able to identify inaccurate initial cost estimates as the main cause of cost
overruns. Therefore, the accuracy of pre-tender cost estimates is important for the client, contractor and the
entire project team the various reasons summarised in Table 2.4. The findings related to the accomplishment
of this objective were stated in section 2.2 and 2.3.
The second purpose of the objective 1 was to identify factors affecting the accuracy of pre-tender cost
estimates. This is one of the key aspects of this study as it is important to evaluate how BIM supports ways
to address these factors under objective 2. Thereby, factors were identified through the literature review,
questionnaire survey and semi-structured interviews, whilst results revealed seven key factors and their
sub-factors, which are summarised below.
9.3.1.1 The Use of 2D drawings
The findings identified the use of 2D drawings as a key reason behind for pre-tender cost estimates. The
use of 2D drawings is problematic due to a lack of visualisation, the inconsistent adjustment of changes,
and revisions to the drawings. Moreover, results also revealed that the lack of visualisation mainly occurs
due to incomplete drawings and project complexity, whereas changes and revisions are consequences of an
architect's last-minute submissions, client alterations, isolated working culture, and insufficient information
(see sections 5.5 and 6.3.1 for detail). Also, the findings from the literature review showed similar factors,
as stated in section 2.4.1.
9.3.1.2 Lack of Information
The lack of information was the next key factor derived from the data. It was further revealed that poor
information flow, unusable data, the absence of a proper database and paper-based information sharing are
the sub-factors behind a lack of information. Findings further revealed the reasons for each subfactor.
Accordingly, restricted access to information, the absence of a proper database and paper-based information
sharing were among the reasons for poor information flow. Moreover, the use of paper-based information
sharing was attributed to isolated working culture and a fear of new technologies. Results also offered
reasons to generate unusable data as paper-based information sharing, a lack of communication and a lack
of coordination. Moreover, it was revealed that there is no common database for the Sri Lankan construction
industry, and among the reasons for this is poor information flow; the private and government sectors use
their own developed databases; thus, none of the relevant authorities have taken action to develop a common
275
database, which has resulted in the absence of a common database (see sections 6.3.2 and 5.5 for detail).
Findings from the literature review also revealed similar factors, as stated in section 2.4.3.
9.3.1.3 Inefficiencies in Existing Software (SW)
The next key factor derived from the findings was inefficiencies in current SW, as it contains inaccurate
mathematical formulas due to wrong assumptions, a lack of SW knowledge amongst QSs, and difficulties
in tracing changes. Moreover, it was also found that inaccurate calculations are another reason for
inefficiencies in current SW due to missing elements or quantities (see sections 6.3.3 and 5.5 for detail).
Besides, findings from the literature review revealed similar factors, as stated in section 2.4.9.
9.3.1.4 Inadequate Knowledge and Skills of an Estimator
According to the findings, inadequate estimator knowledge and skills were also found to be another key
factor affecting the accuracy. This is due to wrong assumptions and a lack of SW operational skills amongst
QS’s. It was also revealed that wrong assumptions occur as a result of the QS’s lack of updates, unawareness
of current rates, and difficulties in reading 2D drawings. Moreover, it was also revealed that an inadequate
understanding of risk allocation and the inability to develop appropriate formulas amongst QS’s have also
resulted in a lack of SW operational skills (see section 6.3.4 and 5.5 for detail). The literature review
findings also revealed similar factors, as stated in section 2.4.5.
9.3.1.5 Isolated Working Culture
The next key factor was isolated working culture, which was derived from both questionnaire survey and
semi-structured interviews. Findings indicated that a lack of coordination, lack of communication and the
economic crisis have resulted in the isolation of people’s work. Findings further elaborate that a lack of
trust, poor links among professionals and a lack of communication have resulted in a lack of coordination.
Besides, the lack of communication results from the lack of response to emails, paper-based information
sharing, poor links among professionals, freelance working consultants, and a lack of coordination.
Moreover, developing countries, political instability, and freelance working consultants were found to be
the reasons for the economic crisis (see sections 6.3.5 and 5.5 for detail). Also, the findings from the
literature review showed similar factors, as stated in section 2.4.2 and 2.4.4.
9.3.1.6 Manual Quantity Take-Off (MQTO)
It was also recognised that MQTO is another key factor that affects the accuracy of cost estimates.
Moreover, time-consuming tasks and inaccurate quantities were identified as the sub-factors behind
MQTO. The lack of information, time constraints, missing elements, double counting, inaccurate
assumptions, manual deductions, project complexity and discrepancies in AutoCAD were among the
reasons for inaccurate quantities. Besides, a lack of information, poor visualisation in 2D drawings, the
need to update information, and the detection of changes seemed to be time-consuming tasks within the
MQTO (see section 6.3.6 and 5.5 for detail). Findings from the literature review also revealed similar
factors, as stated in section 2.4.7.
9.3.1.7 Time Constraints
Time constraints represent the last key factor derived from the findings. It was revealed that pressure on
quantity surveyors and the lack of site visits occur as a result of time constraints. Moreover, it was also
found that the QS is under more pressure due to MQTO, client pressure, and the use of 2D drawings (see
276
sections 6.3.7 and 5.5 for detail). The literature review findings also revealed similar factors, as stated in
sections 2.4.5 and 2.4.8.
9.3.2 Objective 2
The second objective of this study evaluated the development, and use, of BIM to improve the accuracy of
pre-tender cost estimates. The motive was to evaluate how BIM and its use have developed in order to
either eliminate or minimise the impact of the factors (identified in objective 1) affecting the accuracy of
cost estimates. The researcher mainly achieved this objective from the literature review (detailed in section
3.1 to 3.4), and the results are summarised below.
In order to identify the development of BIM, the researcher developed two key issues, namely how BIM
originated and developed throughout time. Through the literature, the researcher found that BIM evolved
as result of the experimental war undertaken by many countries, such as USA, Japan, etc. Moreover, it was
revealed that BIM officially evolved in 1982 through the development of ArchiCAD. Since then, BIM has
been adopted within many countries’ construction industries due to its tremendous benefits. BIM
dimensions 3D, 4D and 5D further illuminate its capacity to improve the accuracy of pre-tender cost
estimates. The findings related to the accomplishment of this objective are stated in sections 3.1, 3.2, 3.3
and 3.4.
The second phase of this objective was to evaluate how BIM helps to address the key factors identified in
objective 1 in order to improve the accuracy of pre-tender cost estimates. This is one of the key aspects of
this study as it confirms that the use of BIM helps to improve the accuracy of pre-tender cost estimates
thereby its worth to develop a BIM adoption framework to support BIM adoption. Accordingly, the
researcher critically evaluated the literature and the findings revealed that the use of BIM 3D models, better
information management, Automate Quantity Take-Off (AQTO), time savings, improved collaboration and
communication were key benefits offered by BIM to improve the accuracy of pre-tender cost estimates.
The following subsections briefly describe how these key benefits are addressed by the key factors
identified in objective 1.
9.3.2.1 The Use of BIM 3D Models
The use of BIM models is considered a key benefit of its use, as they help to overcome the issues
encountered when using 2D drawings; therefore, models eliminate the issues associated with the lack of
visualisation, changes, and revision to the drawings. As the model is capable of automatically identifying
changes, the QS does not need to spend spare time identifying the changes. Moreover, improved
visualisation reduces the manual revisions through early clash detections. In addition, the case studies
(semi-structured interviews) revealed that most respondents find that BIM models are a key driver for the
adoption of BIM (see sections 3.3.1 and 7.3.1 for detail).
9.3.2.2 Better Information Management
It was also revealed that the rich information contained in a BIM model results in the rich flow of
information while also creating a reliable cost database. As the model allows for the upload and download
of any project element information it avoids unusable data and can reduce the number of requests for paper-
based information. Thereby, BIM has the capability to successfully address the issues related to the lack of
information, as identified under objective 1. Moreover, the semi-structured interview findings also revealed
277
better information management is a driving factor for the adoption of BIM by QS’s into their existing
practices (see sections 3.3.2 and 7.3.1 for detail).
9.3.2.3 Automated Quantity Take-Off (AQTO)
Literature reveals that this is one of the key benefits that can help to improve the accuracy of cost estimates.
AQTO addresses more than one affecting factor, namely MQTO, software issues and inadequate estimator
knowledge and skills. AQTO allows for the direct extraction of quantities from the BIM model, the
elimination of time-consuming tasks and the reduction to the inaccurate calculations that regularly occurs
in MQTO. Moreover, as there are unique BIM SW specially designed for AQTO (such as CostX), issues
such as inaccurate mathematical formulas and inaccurate calculations are reduced. Therefore, the impact of
‘inefficiencies in existing software’ could be minimised with the use of BIM, as it eliminates or minimises
such problems. Besides, AQTO also helps to address the issues related to inadequate estimator knowledge
and skills, as it eliminates inaccurate assumptions. Furthermore, as such SW contains the required formulas
to take-off the quantities, the QS is not required to develop formulas and therefore does not require
excessive knowledge of SW operational skills. Apart from the literature findings, the QS’s further identified
that AQTO is a major driving factor for their adoption of BIM during the semi-structured interviews (see
sections 3.3.3 and 7.3.1 for detail).
9.3.2.4 Time Savings
The use of BIM also helps to reduce the time spent by QS’s on time consuming tasks, such as MQTO
(section 9.3.2.3), the use of 2D drawings through AQTO, and the development of BIM models. Thereby,
the QS can save a considerable amount of time which could be used on other tasks, such as conducting site
visits. Moreover, it also helps to reduce the client pressure, as it allows the QS time to prepare accurate cost
estimates over a shorter period (see section 3.3.6).
9.3.2.5 Improved Collaboration and Communication
The literature revealed that the use of a centralised BIM model also helps to overcome the barriers
associated with an isolated working culture. Accordingly, collaboration and communication among project
stakeholders could be improved with the use of a BIM model. It encourages team work rather isolated
working (see section 3.3.4 for detail).
9.3.3 Objective 3
The third objective of this study was to identify the BIM adoption drivers and barriers along with mitigating
actions to overcome the impact of these identified barriers. This objective was formulated to identify, verify
and validate the drivers and barriers faced by quantity surveying organisations during BIM adoption and to
identify the mitigating actions they have taken, or want to take, to overcome the identified barriers. The
drivers and barriers were identified using a questionnaire survey and semi-structured interviews within a
case study approach. Moreover, the mitigating actions were identified through semi-structured interviews
(case studies) and the literature review. Accordingly, the researcher discovered six key drivers with related
sub factors, and six barriers with subfactors and mitigating actions, which were further analysed and
discussed in Chapters 5, 6 and 7. The development of the key factors and mitigating actions was the major
outcome of this objective and are summarised below.
278
9.3.3.1 Drivers
Drivers were identified as the key factors for consideration when adopting BIM; identifying and ensuring
access to these factors would better support BIM adoption within organisations.
9.3.3.1.1 BIM benefits
The findings from questionnaire survey and semi-structured interviews identified the use of a BIM model,
automated quantity take-off, improved visualisation, improved information management, and timesaving
as the leading BIM adoption benefits for quantity surveying organisations. Moreover, it was further
revealed that the use of a BIM model can result in improved visualisation, automated quantity take-off and
improved information management; this indicates a strong relationship between the use of BIM model and
visualisation, automated quantity take-off and information management. Therefore, quantity surveyors
consider these benefits as key BIM drivers for the adoption of BIM (sections 5.9, 6.4.1 and 7.3.1).
9.3.3.1.2 Client Demand
The findings of questionnaire survey and semi-structured interviews identified that client demand is a key
BIM driver. The result demonstrated that many organisations have adopted BIM due to foreign client
requests, by further identifying a strong relationship between client demand and organisational pressure.
Therefore, client demand acts as another driver for Sri Lankan quantity surveying organisations to adopt
BIM (see sections 5.9, 6.4.3 and 7.3.2 for detail).
9.3.3.1.3 Professional Bodies
Professional bodies were the next key driver derived from the findings. This further emphasised that
workshops and conferences organised by professional bodies helped to increase BIM knowledge amongst
construction stakeholders, especially clients. Increased knowledge was found to be beneficial for them in
adopting BIM into their organisations. Therefore, the professional bodies driver revealed a strong
relationship between BIM education, organisational pressure and client demand (see sections 5.9, 6.4.5 and
7.3.4 for detail).
9.3.3.1.4 BIM Related Training
The next key driver derived from the semi-structured interviews was BIM related training. This indicates
that training provided by organisations prior to BIM adoption and post BIM adoption helped both
employees and organisations to make the transition to BIM both easier and more successful. Moreover,
training and workshop organised by professional bodies and some educational providers were identified as
a strong BIM driver for organisations to adopt BIM. Therefore, the driver ‘BIM training’ further indicated
a strong relationship between organisational pressure, BIM education and professional bodies (see sections
6.4.2 and 7.3.3 for details).
9.3.3.1.5 Organisational Pressure
Organisational pressure is another key BIM driver derived from this study. Apart from client demand
(discussed in 9.2.3.1.2), the intervention of professional bodies (discussed in 9.2.3.1.3), BIM education
(discussed in 9.2.3.1.6), top organisational management was also identified as a strong influence on BIM
adoption. Accordingly, top management have developed their own strategies to aid BIM adoption. Besides,
it was further identified that the ‘organisational pressure’ driver has a strong relationship with the client
279
demand driver, BIM benefit driver, BIM education driver and professional bodies driver (see sections 5.9,
6.4.6 and 7.3.6 for detail).
9.3.3.1.6 BIM Education
Findings from both the questionnaire survey and semi-structured interviews identified that BIM-based
education is another key driver for BIM adoption. Accordingly, workshops, seminars, BIM-related courses,
etc have helped to increase the awareness of most organisational employees Moreover, it was further
revealed that BIM education has accelerated due to client and organisational requests for BIM courses, and
through the intervention of professional bodies through annual BIM events. This indicates that the ‘BIM
education’ driver has a strong relationship with the client demand, organisational pressure and professional
bodies drivers (see sections 5.9, 6.4.4 and 7.3.5 for detail).
9.3.3.2 Barriers
Barriers are the obstacles to BIM adoption faced by quantity surveying; these need mitigation to enable
successful BIM adoption.
9.3.3.2.1 Financial Barriers
The findings from both the questionnaire survey and the semi-structured interviews identified financial
barriers as a key deterrent to BIM adoption. The analysis further emphasised that hardware and software
costs, upgrading costs, training costs and the lack of goals are the main reasons for this financial barrier.
Moreover, the findings further revealed that a lack of market demand for BIM has hindered organisational
interest to invest in BIM, by indicating a strong relationship between market demand and the financial
barrier. Besides, the lack of BIM expertise and the lack of BIM education providers have resulted in high
training costs for organisations. This further revealed a relationship between the financial barrier and
unawareness barrier. Moreover, according to the study results, the lack of goals and processes were also
found to represent a major reason for the high training costs, which further revealed a relationship between
the organisational and financial barriers. However, the results also suggested mitigating actions to help
overcome or minimise these costs under the financial barrier (see sections 5.11.1, 6.5.1 and 7.4.1 for detail).
9.3.3.2.2 Organisational Barriers
The next key barrier derived from the findings was organisational. It was revealed that an isolated working
culture, people’s mindsets, a fear of sharing responsibilities, reluctance to change, and a lack of goals and
processes are the main issues that need to be addressed for this barrier. Moreover, the sub-factors related to
these issues were also identified. Accordingly, isolated working culture occurs as a result of the plethora of
freelance working professionals and the economic crisis. Moreover, it was further revealed that the
economic crisis influenced the relationship between the organisational and lack of market demand barriers.
Traditional practices and a fear of sharing responsibilities have resulted in people’s fixed mindsets. The
main explanation for the fear of sharing responsibilities is people’s mind-sets. Moreover, key reasons
behind the factor were found to include: language difficulties, traditional practices, and the existing
government sector mean that change is not welcomed, whilst there is also a fear of losing one’s job, a lack
of trust, selfishness, and the perpetuation of a myth that BIM is hard to learn. Findings further revealed that
‘unawareness’ is a major reason why people fear of losing their job; this also influences the myth that BIM
is hard to learn, the lack of trust, and thereby indicates a strong relationship between the organisational and
unawareness barriers. Moreover, failures to identify an end goal through BIM, have resulted in a lack of
280
end goals. Nevertheless, the findings also indicated some mitigating actions to overcome each sub-factor,
which helps to minimise the overall impact of the organisational barriers towards BIM adoption (see
sections 5.11.4, 6.5.2 and 7.4.2 for detail).
9.3.3.2.3 Regulatory Barriers
Regulatory barriers represent another key barrier derived within this study. Accordingly, it was identified
that the lack of policies, contractual issues, legal issues and a lack of ethical behaviour are the main issues
for the regulatory barriers. Moreover, it was also revealed that a failure to define ownership of the model
and undefined model responsibilities are key reasons for legal issues. The absence of a BIM-based contract
and the failure of existing contracts to facilitate proper BIM-based practice have resulted in contractual
issues. Moreover, it was further revealed that the lack of support by professional bodies has also resulted
in the absence of proper BIM contracts. This further identifies a relationship between the regulatory and
lack of market demand barrier. According to the findings, the lack of professional and government
involvement are the main reasons for this lack of policy. Accordingly, the study identified a relationship
between ‘regulatory’ and a lack of market demand through the lack of government policy. A lack of ethical
behaviour has occurred as a result of this absence alongside the use of trial versions. Moreover, it was
further revealed that the relationship between the financial and regulatory barriers was attributed to the high
cost of hardware and SW. As a result, many organisations have (unethically) tended to use trial versions.
Furthermore, the mitigating actions to overcome these issues are derived from the findings (see sections
5.11.3, 6.5.3 and 7.4.3 for detail).
9.3.3.2.4 Unawareness
The next key barrier was unawareness, as derived from the questionnaire survey and semi-structured
interview findings. The lack of knowledge sharing, the absence of a BIM initiator, a lack of BIM education
and the gap between industry and academia were found prominent issues underpinning the unawareness
barrier. Furthermore, reasons for the lack of knowledge sharing among employees were noted as:
selfishness, a lack of communication, an isolated working culture and the egos of senior professionals. This
revealed a relationship between the unawareness and organisational barriers. Another important issue
derived from this study was absence of a BIM initiator, which was attributed to the lack of government and
professional involvement. This indicates a strong relationship between the lack of market demand and
unawareness. Moreover, the lack of industry demand for BIM, the lack of BIM experts, the lack of BIM
courses, the absence of BIM within the education curriculum, the lack of BIM education providers and the
lack of BIM seminars, workshops and conferences were found to be the main reasons for the lack of BIM
education. The study further indicated that a lack of market demand has resulted in a limited number of
BIM seminars and workshops by revealing a relationship between the lack of market demand and
unawareness as a result of lack of client demand. According to the study results, the gap between industry
and academia result from a lack of communication and isolated working cultures. Moreover, it was further
indicated that the relationship between the organisational barrier and unawareness is influenced by an
isolated working culture that has created a gap between industry and academia. Hence, this study also
derived mitigating actions to overcome or minimise the impact of the aforementioned issues (see sections
5.11.5, 5.11.2, 6.5.4 and 7.4.4 for detail).
281
9.3.3.2.5 Lack of Resources
The lack of resources was found to be another key barrier in terms of BIM adoption for QS organisations.
Accordingly, the lack of BIM experts, the absence of a BIM implementation plan, the lack of BIM models,
the limited number of SW licenses, limited internet facilities and a lack of training are the main resources
issues identified within the study results. Moreover, the findings also revealed the main reasons for each
lack of resource. Subsequently, the lack of BIM education, and limited industrial BIM experts were
identified as the main reasons for the lack of BIM experts. This further reveals a strong relationship between
unawareness and the lack of resources. A lack of involvement by top management was found to influence
the absence of a BIM implementation plan. Therefore, the study identified a relationship between the
organisational barrier and the lack of resources. Architects not producing BIM models and unbalance BIM
adoption among construction industry professionals were found to be the main reason for the lack of BIM
models. Accordingly, this study further identified a relationship between the lack of resources and the lack
of market demand. Moreover, this study also revealed that the cost of SW and a lack of BIM demand have
resulted in a limited number of organisational SW licences. In addition, limited Internet facilities have
occurred as a result of low-speed Internet connections and high cost of Internet access. Therefore, it was
further revealed that the lack of resources has a relationship on both the financial and lack of market demand
barriers. Moreover, the unwillingness to invest in BIM training and the absence of proper BIM training
providers have created a lack of BIM training within the industry. This further reveals a relationship
between unawareness and the organisational barriers. Nevertheless, mitigating actions to overcome these
issues were also derived from the findings (see sections 5.11.6, 5.11.2, 6.5.5 and 7.4.5 for detail).
9.3.3.2.6 Lack of Market Demand for BIM
The next key barrier derived from the findings was the lack of demand for BIM. Moreover, it was revealed
that a lack of client demand, lack of government intervention, unbalanced BIM adoption and scalability
issues were key reasons for its low demand in Sri Lanka. Furthermore, the findings further revealed that
unawareness was also critical as many professionals are still not using BIM and the lack of government
intervention was cited as the main reason for the unbalanced adoption of BIM among industry professionals.
Unawareness of BIM and its benefits, unbalanced BIM adoption among construction industry professionals,
and the client’s limited financial capabilities have resulted low demand for BIM amongst clients.
Furthermore, a relationship between the lack of market demand and unawareness was noted, while political
corruption, a lack of professional involvement and the economic crisis have prevented government
involvement its adoption. Results further revealed that the failure to define a scale for the adoption of BIM
is a key reason for its scalability issues. However, mitigating actions to overcome these issues were also
derived from the findings (see sections 5.11.5, 6.5.6 and 7.4.6 for detail).
9.3.4 Objective 4
The fourth objective of this study was to develop and validate a BIM adoption framework to enhance BIM
adoption among Sri Lankan Quantity Surveying firms and thereby improve the accuracy of pre-tender cost
estimates. This objective was designed to identify the possible driving factors and explore ways to
overcome the barriers to BIM adoption. The objective was achieved by arranging the key findings in
objective 3 in a structured format that is easily usable by quantity surveying organisations, construction
industry practitioners and relevant authorities. The findings related to this objective are discussed in chapter
8 and summarised below.
282
The first phase of this objective was to develop a framework. A framework was developed based on the
established research gaps, drivers, barriers and mitigating actions to overcome or minimise the impact of
the barriers identified. The framework content was based on the well-researched outcomes from industry
and academic experts. The format of the framework consists of two main sections, namely factors to
consider and factors to mitigate. Factors to consider reflect on the driving factors for BIM adoption, while
factors to mitigate reflect on the barriers and mitigating actions for each identified barrier (see section 8.1
for detail).
The second phase of this objective was to validate the developed framework. The main reason for this
validation was to certify that the users are satisfied that the developed framework is a usable product;
furthermore, if the users are not satisfied with the framework it will not be workable in a BIM adoption
context. At the validation stage, the researcher received many positive comments from the interviewees,
and they recommended alterations or changes to specific sections in order to increase the validity and
robustness of the study. Consequently, by critically reviewing the interviewees’ views the researcher
modified some features of the developed framework, which helped to finalise the new BIM adoption
framework, which aimed to improve the accuracy of pre-tender cost estimates. With the accomplishment
of this objective, the overall research aim has also been accomplished (see section 8.2 for detail).
9.4 Contribution of the Research to Theory and Practice
This study contributes to the existing body of knowledge by developing a framework to enhance BIM
adoption in Sri Lankan quantity surveying organisations. The theoretical and practical contributions to the
knowledge of this study are stated as follows.
9.4.1 Contribution to Theory
The adoption of Building Information Modelling (BIM) is beneficial to improve the accuracy of cost
estimates in quantity surveying practices. Hence, BIM adoption can improve the accuracy of cost estimates
but is limited to a limited number of quantity surveying organisations in the Sri Lankan construction
industry. The most frequently cited reason for this limitation is the absence of a BIM framework to support
its adoption. Even though many countries have already adopted BIM through a developed supported
framework, many authors argued that internationally developed BIM frameworks are not readily adaptable
for a Sri Lankan context. In this context, the study provides a new perspective on BIM adoption studies by
exploring the BIM driving factors and barriers in a Sri Lankan context in order to accelerate BIM adoption
among Sri Lankan QS organisations.
Academic research into BIM and its adoption is a relatively recent phenomenon, whilst at this time, many
Sri Lankans consider BIM a buzzword. Therefore, this research contributes to a less researched area of
academic study by identifying the factors to positively or negatively affects BIM adoption with specific
consideration of the Sri Lankan context.
The study presents a framework that identifies the drivers and barriers to BIM adoption. Furthermore, it
also identifies the sub barriers for each main barrier in order to consider what QS’s have to address when
adopting BIM in Sri Lanka. This is a significant contribution to theory as this study is among the first to
identify these BIM barriers and associated sub-factors from a QS perspective within the Sri Lankan context.
Furthermore, the framework identifies mitigating actions either to overcome or minimise the impact of each
barrier with reference to responsible sectors; thus, it is beneficial to identify their role and responsibilities
in order to support BIM adoption.
283
9.4.2 Contribution to Practice
This study identifies the barriers and drivers faced during the adoption of BIM from a quantity surveyor’s
perspective. Based on the empirical findings, the study offers a framework to support BIM adoption. The
proposed framework will benefit quantity surveying organisations, architects, construction related
professional bodies, the government, academics and other construction industry related professionals. It
will also benefit other construction industry stakeholders or organisations in order to determine the best
practice for BIM adoption within their organisations.
This study identifies six main barriers, namely financial, organisational, regulatory, unawareness, lack of
resources and a lack of demand for BIM. The study concludes by identifying the mitigating actions to
minimise or overcome the impact of each barrier. This is a significant contribution to practice, which can
be adapted to ensure the successful adoption of BIM among quantity surveying organisations. Moreover,
as this research prioritised an understanding of BIM adoption, it could offer a valuable contribution to the
practice of BIM adoption.
As the framework is validated by experts, there is opportunity to apply it in support of BIM adoption in the
Sri Lankan construction industry. It may also be adopted by as a guide by other developing countries, which
have similar characteristics to the Sri Lankan construction industry.
9.5 Limitations of the Study
Apart from above highlighted contributions, this study also has some limitations, as follows;
1. The focus of this study was only concerned with quantity surveying practice. The participants of
this study were from quantity surveying backgrounds and no other disciplines related to the
construction industry were consulted. As this research does not claim the viewpoints of all
construction players in Sri Lanka, the results and findings of the study indicate a limited perspective
on the overall adoption of BIM in Sri Lanka. Nevertheless, study results indicate the role of few
other disciplines, such as architects, in the adoption of BIM from a quantity surveyor’s perspective.
Therefore, by using the same research approach this study could offer a benchmark for the appraisal
of BIM adoption towards other construction industry disciplines.
2. Data was collected via a questionnaire survey and semi-structured interviews. Interviews were
conducted in selected large-scale QS organisations located in the capital Colombo. Therefore, the
findings are more applicable to large-scale QS organisations. However, some factors are common
to any sized organisation, such as education. Therefore, medium and small-scale QS organisations
also benefit from this study when considering related areas of BIM adoption. However, the medium
and small-scale organisations also need further study to appraise BIM adoption.
3. The final framework of this study was validated using series of expert interviews; hence, it did not
test its applicability and practicality, which were beyond the scope of this research.
9.6 Further Research
Recommendations for further research are presented below.
284
One of the limitations of this study is that the final framework has not been tested for applicability and
practical allegations, as that is beyond the scope of this study. Consequently, it is recommended that the
final framework is applied in selected quantity surveying organisations to test its validity in practice.
This study focused on quantity surveying organisations, so most of solutions offered in the final framework
enhance the BIM adoption process in QS organisations. Therefore, it is recommended to conduct a similar
study from different perspective, such as architects, to appreciate a wider range of factors related to BIM
adoption.
The main consideration of this study was large-scale QS organisations and it is recommended that a study
is conducted to appreciate the factors related to BIM adoption for medium and small-scale construction
organisations.
The final framework of this study lists the barriers and suggested mitigating actions for each barrier, which
were mostly identified from the literature and case studies, followed by the validation by experts in the
field. Thus, another study could explore how these suggested actions could be implemented.
Although the findings directly address the Sri Lankan construction industry, this framework could be further
developed to consider the standards of other developing countries and supported by empirical evidence to
confirm this. Therefore, another study could be conducted in other developing countries, based on similar
case selection criteria.
9.7 Concluding Note
This chapter highlighted the main conclusion of the study and demonstrated that the aim and objectives
have been fulfilled. The primary outcome of the study is a framework to identify the factors affecting BIM
adoption, such as the drivers, barriers and mitigating actions to minimise or overcome the impact of the
barriers identified. Thus, the outcome of the research contributes to both theory and practice in BIM
adoption. Nevertheless, the researcher has taken steps to manage the consequences of the limitations
inherent to the study. Finally, the outcomes of this study noted further research areas in terms of application,
focus and background.
285
10 References
Ariff Putra Ansaruddin Agus, Muhammad, Noraini Hamzah, and Muhamad Azry Khoiry. 2019. “BIM
Implementation in Asia Towards Functionalities: A Systematic Review.” International Journal of
Engineering & Technology; Vol 8, No 1.2 (2019): Special Issue 2DO - 10.14419/Ijet.V8i1.2.24873
8:60–65.
ABAB. (2020, 01 20). Australasian BIM Advisory Board. Retrieved from abab.net:
http://www.abab.net.au
ABAB. 2018. “BIM Process Consistency: Digital Design , Construction and Operation.”
ABAB. 2019. “Australian BIM Strategic Framework.”
Abanda, F. H., B. Kamsu-Foguem, and J. H. M. Tah. 2017. “BIM – New Rules of Measurement
Ontology for Construction Cost Estimation.” Engineering Science and Technology, an International
Journal 20(2):443–59.
Abanda, F. H., Mzyece, D., Oti, A. H., & Manjia, M. B. (2018). A Study of the Potential of Cloud/Mobile
BIM for the Management of Construction Projects. MDPI.
Abdulfattah, Noor M., Ahmed M. Khalafallah, and Nabil A. Kartam. 2017. “Lack of BIM Training:
Investigating Practical Solutions for the State of Kuwait.” World Academy of Science, Engineering and
Technology, International Journal of Civil, Environmental, Structural, Construction and Architectural
Engineering 11(8):1050–56.
Aboagye, Anthony Q. Q. 2019. “Principal Components of Variables Hypothesised to Cause Project

Delays and Cost Overruns in Ghana.” 2(1).
Abubakar, M., Y. Ibrahim, D. Kado, and K. Bala. 2014. “Contractors Perception of the Factors Affecting
Building Information Modelling (BIM).” Computing in Civil and Building Engineering 167–78.
Adhikari, Aravinda, and Chung Wai Keung. 2018. “The Impact of BIM on Quantity Surveyor’s Role- the
Contractor Perspective.” ICEC-PAQS Conference 2018 (November):1–17.
Ahady, S., Gupta, S., & Malik, R. K. (2017). A critical review of the causes of cost overrun in
construction industries in developing countries. International Research Journal of Engineering and
Technology.
Ahady, Shambalid, Sakshi Gupta, and R. K. Malik. 2017. “A Critical Review of the Causes of Cost
Overrun in Construction Industries in Developing Countries.” International Research Journal of
Engineering and Technology (IRJET) 04(03):2550–58.
286
Ahmad, N. A. 2019. “Cost Overruns on Federal Capital Territory Authority Road Construction Projects.”
Cost Overruns on Federal Capital Territory Authority Road Construction Projects 13(1):1–14.
Ahmed, Ayman, Hisham Gabr, Tamer Abdel Aziz, and Mahmoud Ahmed Hussien. 2018. “Causes and
Impacts of Poor Communication.” 2nd International Conference on Sustainable Construction and Project
Management (February 2019):0–11.
Ahmed, Shakil. 2018. “Analysis of the Causes of Accident in Construction Project.” (November).
Ahuja, R., Sawhney, A., Jain, M., Arif, M., & Rakshit, S. (2018). Factors influencing BIM adoption in
emerging markets—the case of India. International Journal of Construction Management.
Aibinu , A. A., & Pasco , T. (2008). The accuracy of pre-tender building cost estimates in Australia.
Construction Management and Economics, (pp. 1257-1269).
Aibinu, A. A. 2012. “The Rocky Road to BIM Adoption: Quantity Surveyors Perspectives.” CIB Joint
International Symposium on Management of Construction: Research to Practice 539–54.
Aibinu, Ajibade, and Sudha Venkatesh. 2014. “Status of BIM Adoption and the BIM Experience of Cost
Consultants in Australia.” Journal of Professional Issues in Engineering Education and Practice
140(3):1–10.
AIQS, and NZIQS. 2018. “Australia and New Zealand BIM Best Practice Guidelines.” (September).
Akram, Muhammad, Tauha Hussain Ali, Nafees Ahmed Memon, and Shabir Hussain Khahro. 2017.
“Causal Attributes of Cost Overrun in Construction Projects of Pakistan.” International Journal of Civil
Engineering and Technology 8(6):477–83.
Alaloul, Wesam Salah, Mohd Shahir Liew, and Noor Amila Wan Abdullah Zawawi. 2016. “Identification
of Coordination Factors Affecting Building Projects Performance.” Alexandria Engineering Journal
55(3):2689–98.
Alhasan, Soleen, Bimal Kumar, and Joseph V. Thanikal. 2017. “Effectiveness of Implementing 5D
Functions of Building Information Modeling on Professions of Quantity Surveying - A Review.”
International Journal of Civil Engineering and Technology 8(5):783–800.
Alhumayn, Saud, Ezekiel Chinyio, and Issaka Ndekugri. 2017. “The Barriers and Strategies of
Implementing BIM in Saudi Arabia.” WIT Transactions on the Built Environment 169:55–67.
Ali Bhatti, Imtiaz, Abd Halid Abdullah, Sasitharan Nagapan, Nabi Bux Bhatti, Samiullah Sohu, and
Ashfaque Ahmed Jhatial. 2018. “Implementation of Building Information Modeling (BIM) in Pakistan
Construction Industry.” Technology & Applied Science Research 8(4):3199–3202.
287
Ali, Babar, Hafiz Zahoor, Khwaja M. Mazher, and Ahsen Maqsoom. 2018. “BIM Implementation in
Public Sector of Pakistan Construction Industry.” ICCREM 2018: Innovative Technology and Intelligent
Construction - Proceedings of the International Conference on Construction and Real Estate
Management 2018 (August):42–51.
Ali, M. T. (2019). Study on the Development of BIM/DPD Around the World and Relevant Application
in Western Canada. Canada: Edmonton Construction Association.
Ali, Mohammed Tareq. 2019. “Study on the Development of BIM / DPD Around the World and Relevant
Application in Western.”
Aljohani, Abdulelah. 2017. “Construction Projects Cost Overrun: What Does the Literature Tell Us?”
International Journal of Innovation, Management and Technology 8(2):137–43.
Allahaim, Fahad Saud A., and Li Liu. n.d. “An Empirical Classification of Cost Overrun in Infrastructure
Projects by Using Cluster Analysis.”
Allahaim, Fahad, and Li Liu. 2012. “Understanding Major Causes Cost Overrun for Infratsrtucture
Projects; a Typology Approach.” 37th Annual Conference of the Australasian Universities Building
Educators Association (AUBEA) (July):424–37.
Alomari, Kasim, John Gambatese, and Jason Anderson. 2017. “Opportunities for Using Building
Information Modeling to Improve Worker Safety Performance.” Safety 3(1):1–11.
AlTabbaa, Omar, and Samuel Ankrah. 2016. University of Huddersfield Repository. Vol. 104.
Ameh, Oko John, Aliu Adebayo Soyingbe, and Koleola Tunwase Odusami. 2010. “Significant Factors
Causing Cost Overruns in Telecommunication Projects in Nigeria.” Journal of Construction in
Developing Countries 15(2):49–67.
Amoateng, Augustine, and Kwaku Osei. 2017. “External Market Conditions That Affect Cost of
Tendering in Public Institutions: Evidence from Ghana.” British Journal of Economics, Management &
Trade 17(3):1–12.
Anant Narayan Shete, and Vaibhav Durwas Kothawade. 2016. “An Analysis of Cost Overruns and Time
Overruns of Construction Projects in India.” International Journal of Engineering Trends and Technology
41(1):33–36.
Andrić, Jelena M., Abdul Majeed Mahamadu, Jiayuan Wang, Patrick X. W. Zou, and Ruoyu Zhong.
2019. “The Cost Performance and Causes of Overruns in Infrastructure Development Projects in Asia.”
Journal of Civil Engineering and Management 25(3):203–14.
288
Andrić, Jelena M., Abdul Majeed Mahamadu, Jiayuan Wang, Patrick X. W. Zou, and Ruoyu Zhong.
2019. “The Cost Performance and Causes of Overruns in Infrastructure Development Projects in Asia.”
Journal of Civil Engineering and Management 25(3):203–14.
Anigbogu, N. A., Ahmad , Z. B., & Molwus, J. J. (2019). Cost Overruns on Federal Capital Territory
Authority Road Construction Projects. ournal of the Environment V.
Anigbogu, Natalia. 2019. “Cost Overruns on Federal Capital Territory Authority Road Construction
Projects.” Cost Overruns on Federal Capital Territory Authority Road Construction Projects 13(1):1–14.
Anon. 2007. “Comments Comments 1 Comments on technical measures centered on the role of public
research institutes Comments 2 From the standpoint of product developers of branded foods
Comments 3 Comments on four reports from the viewpoint of agricultural economics.” Journal of Food
System Research 14(2):70–75.
Anon. 2013. “Causes and Effects of Delays in Capital Construction Projects at the State Universities in
Sri Lanka Causes and Effects of Delays in Capital Construction Projects at the State Universities in Sri
Lanka.” 4(02).
Anon. 2017. “Thimphu Bhutan Report on Report Hydropower Project Cost Overrun.” (December).
Anon. n.d
“ExploringAccuracyFactorsinCostEstimatingPracticetowardsImplementingBuildingInformationModellin
gBIM.Pdf.”
Anon. n.d. “Implementation of BIM in India I Engineers&Architects Blog.”
Anon. n.d. “Redefining the Dimensions of BIM.”
Anon. n.d. “What_are_the_facilitating_factors_to_the.”
Arayici, Yusuf, John Counsell, Lamine Mahdjoubi, Gehan Nagy, Soheir Hawas, and Khaled Dewidar.
2017. Heritage Building Information Modelling.
Arditi, David, Guzin Tarim Akan, and San Gurdamar. 1985. “Cost Overruns in Public Projects.”
International Journal of Project Management 3(4):218–24.
Aryani, Ahmad Latiffi, Juliana Brahim, and Mohamad Syazli Fathi. 2014. “The Development of Building
Information Modeling (BIM) Definition.” Applied Mechanics and Materials 567(June):625–30.
Ashworth , A., & Hogg , K. (2007). Willis Practices and Procedure for Quantity Surveyor. Oxford;
Malden, Mass: Blackwell publishing.
289
Ashworth, A., Hogg, K., Higgs, C., & Willis, C. J. (2013). Willis’s practice and procedure for the
quantity surveyor. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.
Asiedu, Richard O., and Hans W. Alfen. 2014. “Factors Engendering Cost Misrepresentation of Public
Sector Projects in Ghana.” International Journal of Sustainable Construction Engineering & Technology
5(2):2180–3242.
Associates, New, and Liquidated Damages. 2017. “KALANA ’ 16 Get-Together - College of Quantity
Surveying.” (275).
Attanayake, Chulanee. 2018. “Mattala : Attracting Business into a Lonely Airport.” (December 2018).
Äüôú, Ö. 2003. “No Title.” (1):6–8.
Autodesk. (2007). BIM and Cost Estimating . Autodesk.
Avsatthi, B. (2016). cost estimation in cosntruction using BIM. Ahmedabad: Hi-Tech CADD services.
Azhar, Salman, Malik Khalfan, and Tayyab Maqsood. 2012. “Building Information Modeling (BIM):
Now and Beyond.” Australasian Journal of Construction Economics and Building 12(4):15–28.
Babatunde, S., Ekundayo, D., Adekunle, A., & Bello, W. (2020). Comparative analysis of drivers to BIM
adoption among AEC firms in developing countries : a case of Nigeria. Journal of Engineering, Design
and Technology, 29.
Babič, Nenad Čuš, and Danijel Rebolj. 2016. “Culture Change in Construction Industry: From 2d toward
Bim Based Construction.” Journal of Information Technology in Construction 21(March):86–99.
Balachandra, H. K. (2014). Sri Lanka Country report. Colombo: nstitute for Construction Training and
Development (ICTAD).
Bank, Inter-american Development. 2018. Better Spending for Better Lives: How Latin America and the
Caribbean Can Do More with Less.
Barzandeh, Mohammad, and Unitec New Zealand. n.d. “Accuracy of Estimating Techniques for
Predicting Residential Construction Costs – a Case Study of an Auckland Residential Construction
Company.”
Bečvarovská, Radka, and Petr Matějka. 2014. “Comparative Analysis of Creating Traditional Quantity
Takeoff Method and Using a BIM Tool.” Construction Maeconomics Conference 2014.
Bettemir, Ö. H. 2018. “Development of Spreadsheet Based Quantity Take-off and Cost Estimation
Application.” Journal of Construction Engineering, Management & Innovation 1(3):108–17.
290
Bjornen, K. H., and J. R. Stacy. 2009. “Developing a 2 Year Oil and Gas Education Program.” SPE
Production and Operations Symposium, Proceedings 295–304.
Board, Editorial. 2014. “IQSSL ’ s Annual General Meeting - 2014 ( Cont ’ d ).” 03(275).
Board, Editorial. 2016. “The Institute of Quantity Surveyors , Sri Lanka IQSSL ’ s Annual General
Meeting - 2016 ( Cont ’ d ).” 05(275).
Board, Editorial. 2016. “The Institute of Quantity Surveyors , Sri Lanka IQSSL Annual Forum 2015
IQSSL Annual Forum 2015 ( Cont ).” 05(275).
Boon, J. (2009). Preparing for the BIM revolution. In Pacific Association of Quantity Surveyors
Conference. PAQS.
Boon, J., & Prigg, C. (2012). Evolution of quantity surveying practice in the use of BIM–the New
Zealand experience. In Joint CIB International Symposium of W055, W065, W089, W118. Montreal:
CIB International Symposium.
Bosch-Sijtsema, Petra, Anders Isaksson, Martin Lennartsson, and Henrik C. J. Linderoth. 2017. “Barriers
and Facilitators for BIM Use among Swedish Medium-Sized Contractors - ‘We Wait until Someone Tells
Us to Use It.’” Visualization in Engineering 5(1).
Britto, A. .., B. .. Perera, and I. .. Illankoon. 2013. “Factors Affecting the Accuracy of Pre-Tender
Estimation of Road Construction in Sri Lanka.” (December):243–54.
Bui, N. (2019). Implementation of Building Information modelingin Vietnamese infrastructure

construction: A case studyof institution al influences on a bridge project. Wiley.
Bui, Nam. 2020. “Implementation of Building Information Modeling in Vietnamese Infrastructure

Construction: A Case Study of Institutional Influences on a Bridge Project.” Electronic Journal of
Information Systems in Developing Countries 86(4):1–13.
Buiab, N., Merschbrockb, C., & Mun, E. (2016). A review of Building Information Modelling for
construction in developing countries. Creative Construction Conference 2016 (pp. 487 – 494).
ScienceDirect.
Building, Green, and Awards Ceremony. 2017. “S y m p o s i u m 30.” (July).
Building, The, Information Foundation, and Senate Properties. 2018. “Observatory Finland.”
Burgess, Gemma, Michael Jones, and Kathryn Muir. 2018. “BIM in the UK House Building Industry:
Opportunities and Barriers to Adoption.” Cambridge: University of Cambridge (March).
291
Burrell, G., & Morgan, G. (1979). Sociological paradigms and organisational analysis. London:
Heinemann.
Byland, C., & Magnusson, A. (2011). Model Based Cost Estimations- an international comparison.
Retrieved from Thesis [online],
available:http://www.bekon.lth.se/fileadmin/byggnadsekonomi/CarlBylund_A
Magnusson_Model_Based_Cost_Estimations_- _An_International_Comparison__2_.pdf
Calabresi, Stephen. 1973. “H Ow To R Everse G Overnment I Mposition of I Mmorality : A S Trategy

For.” Harvard Journal of Law & Public Policy 113(July):1–6.
Cantarelli, Chantal C. 2011. “Cost Overruns in Large-Scale Transport Infrastructure Projects.”

(November):1–19.
Cartlidge, D. P. (2009). Quantity Surveyor's Pocket Book. Oxford: Butterworth- Heinemann.
CCI. (2007). Chamber of Construction Industry Sri Lanka . Colombo: CCI Publication.
Central Bank of Sri Lanka. (2015). Annual Report. Colombo: Central Bank;Sri Lanka.
Central-Bank. (2019). Annual Report. Colombo: Central Bank of Sri Lanka.
Cheng, Min Yuan, Hsing Chih Tsai, and Wen Shan Hsieh. 2009. “Web-Based Conceptual Cost Estimates
for Construction Projects Using Evolutionary Fuzzy Neural Inference Model.” Automation in
Construction 18(2):164–72.
Choi, Jungsik, Hansaem Kim, and Inhan Kim. 2015. “Open BIM-Based Quantity Take-off System for
Schematic Estimation of Building Frame in Early Design Stage.” Journal of Computational Design and
Engineering 2(1):16–25.
CIC. (2019). BIM Adoption Survey 2019. Hong Kong: Construction Indsutry Council. Retrieved from
https://www.bim.cic.hk/en/resources/publications_detail/73
Cicco, R. D. (2018, 02 28). BIM, the Chinese way. Retrieved from AEC Magazine:
https://www.aecmag.com/comment-mainmenu-36/1577-bim-the-chinese-way-bim-aec
CIDB Malaysia. 2017. “Annual Report CIDB 2017.” 125.
CIDB. 2015. BIM Execution Plan (BEP).
CIDB. 2016. “BIM Guide 1 : Awareness.” Construction Industry Development Board Malaysia 1–20.
CIDB. 2016. “BIM Guide 3: Adoption.” Construction Industry Development Board Malaysia.
292
Clarizen. (2017, September 22). Why is Cost Estimation So Important (& How Can I Get Better at It?).
Retrieved from https://www.clarizen.com/cost-estimation-important-can-get-better-2/
constrack360. (2019). Sri Lanka Building Construction Industry Databook Series: Market Size &
Forecast 2019 - 2023. Retrieved from Constrack360: https://www.constrack360.com
Cooray, N. H. K., H. M. D. N. Somathilake, Mihiri Wickramasinghe, T. D. S. H. Dissanayke, and D. M.

M. I. Dissanayake. 2019. “Analysis of Cost Control Techniques Used on Building Construction Projects
in Sri Lanka.” SSRN Electronic Journal 05(23):909–23.
Creswell, J., and V. Pioano Clark. 2007. “Introducing a Mixed Method Design.” Designing and
Conducting Mixed Methods Research 58–89.
Crowley, Claire. 2013. “Identifying Opportunities for Quantity Surveyors to Enhance and Expand the
Traditional Quantity Modelling.” CITA BIM Gathering 1–7.
Cunningham, Tony. 2017. “What Causes Cost Overruns on Building Projects? -An Overview.” Review 0–
29.
Dalkey, N. C., & Helmer, O. (1963). An experimantal application of the Delphi method to use of experts.
Management science, 458-467.
Dandan, Tala Hassan, Ghaleb Sweis, Lilana Salem Sukkari, and Rateb J. Sweis. 2019. “Factors Affecting
the Accuracy of Cost Estimate during Various Design Stages.” Journal of Engineering, Design and
Technology 18(4):787–819.
Davies, Kathryn, Suzanne Wilkinson, and Dermott McMeel. 2017. “A Review of Specialist Role
Definitions in Bim Guides and Standards.” Journal of Information Technology in Construction
22(June):185–203.
Debons, A. 1961. “The Current and Future Position of Psychology in Antarctica.” Acta Psychologica
19(C):887.
Diana, Licia, and Pietrosemoli De Dikdan. 2018. “Sustainable Construction As a Mean for
Competitiveness . the Venezuelan Opportunities 1.” (March).
Dietz, D. M. (2018, 06 28). What is the difference between pre-construction and post-construction?
Retrieved from quora.com: http://www.quora.com
Dixon, Torn. 1988. “Realizing the Benefits of SMT.” The Electronics Assembly Handbook 129–37.
293
Documents, Boq, and Quantity Takeoff. 2017. “BIM 내역서
Improvement of BoQ Documents for the BIM Based Quantity Takeoff.” 7(2):16–24.
Dolage, D. A. R., and D. L. G. Rathnamali. 2013. “Causes of Time Overrun in Construction Phase of
Building Projects : A Case Study on Department of Engineering Services of Sabaragamuwa Provincial
Council.” Engineer: Journal of the Institution of Engineers, Sri Lanka 46(3):9.
Dubas, Sebastian, and Jerzy Pasławski. 2017. “The Concept of Improving Communication in BIM during
Transfer to Operation Phase on the Polish Market.” Procedia Engineering 208:14–19.
Durdyev, Serdar, Maksat Omarov, Syuhaida Ismail, and Mengheng Lim. 2017. “Significant Contributors
to Cost Overruns in Construction Projects of Cambodia.” Cogent Engineering 4(1).
Eadie, Robert, Henry Odeyinka, Mike Browne, Clare McKeown, and Michael Yohanis. 2013. “An
Analysis of the Drivers for Adopting Building Information Modelling.” Journal of Information
Technology in Construction 18(April 2015):338–52.
Eastman, C., Eastman, C. M., Teicholz, P., & Sacks, R. (2011). BIM handbook: A guide to building
information modeling for owners, managers, designers, engineers and contractors. John Wiley & Sons.
EDB. (2015). Construction services sector of Sri Lanka. Sri Lanka export development board.
Elbeltagi, Emad, Ossama Hosny, Mahmoud Dawood, and Ahmed Elhakeem. 2014. “BIM-Based Cost
Construction Estimation / Monitoring For Building.” Emad Elbeltagi Int. Journal of Engineering
Research and Applications 4(7):56–66.
EOS Group. n.d. “Building Information Modeling : A Cost Estimating Perspective.” EOS Group.
Epasinghe, E. A. K., H. S. Jayasena, L. M. B. N. Kolugala, and M. K. C. S. Wijewickrama. 2018. “Open

BIM Adoption in Sri Lankan Construction Industry.” (December):1–13.
Epasinghe, E. A., Jayasena , H. S., Kolugala, L. M., & Wijewickrama, M. K. (2018). Open BIM Adoption
in Sri Lankan Construction Industry. FOSS4G Asia 2018 Conference. Colombo: University of Moratuwa.
EUBIM Task Group. 2016. “Handbook for the Introduction of Building Information Modelling by the
European Public Sector.” EUBIM Task Group 84.
Executive, Acting, The Airport, and Authority Hong. n.d. “BIM Initiatives by Construction Industry
Council.”
294
Fernando, P. D. (2018). BUILDING INFORMATION MODELING ADAPTATION FOR
CONSTRUCTION PROFESSIONALS IN SRI LANKA. Birmingham: Birmingham School of the Built
Environment.
FERREIRA, Rita Cristina. 2008. “CIB W78 2008 International Conference on Information Technology in
Construction Santiago, Chile.” Construction (Itgi 2006):1–16.
Finco Enginnering. (2017, Aug 21). THE SRI LANKAN CONSTRUCTION SECTOR’S INCREASED
INVESTMENT AND DEVELOPMENT. Colombo, Sri La.
Forgues, Daniel, Ivanka Iordanova, Fernando Valdivesio, and Sheryl Staub-French. 2012. “Rethinking
the Cost Estimating Process through 5D BIM: A Case Study.” Construction Research Congress 2012:
Construction Challenges in a Flat World, Proceedings of the 2012 Construction Research Congress
(May 2015):778–86.
França, Alda, and Assed Haddad. 2018. “Causes of Construction Projects Cost Overrun in Brazil.”
International Journal of Sustainable Construction Engineering and Technology 9(1):69–83.
Franco, Juan, Faiza Mahdi, and Hussein Abaza. 2015. “Using Building Information Modeling (BIM) for
Estimating and Scheduling, Adoption Barriers.” Universal Journal of Management 3(9):376–84.
Froehlich, James B. 2014. “Message from the President.” Vascular Medicine (United Kingdom)
19(6):518.
Gaidytė, Rita. 2010. “2D and 3D Modeling Comparison.” 1–38.
Galagoda, A. (2017). Construction industry’s challenges and the future. Colombo: Ceylon Today.
Gamil, Yaser, and Ismail Abdul Rahman. 2017. “Identification of Causes and Effects of Poor
Communication in Construction Industry: A Theoretical Review.” Emerging Science Journal 1(4):239–
47.
Gb, Paul Terna, and Oluseye Samuel Ajuwon. 2017. “Effects of Project Cost Overruns and Schedule
Delays in Sub-Saharan Africa.” European Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies 7(2):46.
Gebrehiwet, Tsegay, and Hanbin Luo. 2019. “Risk Level Evaluation on Construction Project Lifecycle
Using Fuzzy Comprehensive Evaluation and TOPSIS.” Symmetry 11(1).
Gerges, M., Austin, S., Mayouf, M., Ahiakwo , O., Jaeger, M., Saad, A., & Gohary, T. (2017).
Aninvestigation into the implementation of building information modelling in the Middle East. Journal of
Information Technology in Construction, 1-15.
295
Ghorbani, S. (2019). projectcontrolacademy.com. Retrieved from projectcontrolacademy.com:
https://www.projectcontrolacademy.com/cost-overrun/
Gill, J., & Johnson, P. (2010). Research Methods for Managers. Sheffield: SAGE Publications Ltd.
Girginkaya Akdag, Suzan, and Uzair Maqsood. 2019. “A Roadmap for BIM Adoption and
Implementation in Developing Countries: The Pakistan Case.” Archnet-IJAR 14(1):112–32.
Goh, K. C., H. H. Goh, S. H. Toh, and S. E. Peniel Ang. 2014. “Enhancing Communication in
Construction Industry through BIM.” 11th International Cnnference on Innovation & Management 313–
24.
Gołaszewska, Małgorzata, and Marek Salamak. 2017. “Wyzwania w Przedmiarowaniu i

Kosztorysowaniu w Technologii Bim Na Przykładzie Modelu Wiaduktu Drogowego.” Czasopismo
Techniczne 4/2017:71–80.
Government Contracts Committee for Construction (GCCC). 2017. “BIM-Adoption-Strategy-Statement-

of-Intent.” A Public Sector BIM Adoption Strategy 10.
Grant, Maria J., and Andrew Booth. 2009. “A Typology of Reviews: An Analysis of 14 Review Types
and Associated Methodologies.” Health Information and Libraries Journal 26(2):91–108.
Gu, Ning, and Kerry London. 2010. “Understanding and Facilitating BIM Adoption in the AEC
Industry.” Automation in Construction 19(8):988–99.
Gulati, P. (2009). Research Management: Fundamental and Applied Research. India: Global India
Publications.
Gunasekara, K., & Jayasena, H. S. (2013). Identification of a Technological framework for Implementing
Building Information Modelling in Sri Lanka. The Second World Construction Symposium (pp. 244-
252). Colombo: Socio-Economic Sustainability in Construction.
Haider, Usman, Usama Khan, Asif Nazir, and Muhammad Humayon. 2020. “Cost Comparison of a
Building Project by Manual and BIM.” Civil Engineering Journal 6(1):34–49.
Haider, Usman, Usama Khan, Asif Nazir, and Muhammad Humayon. 2020. “Cost Comparison of a
Building Project by Manual and BIM.” Civil Engineering Journal 6(1):34–49.
Halwatura, R. U., and N. P. N. P. Ranasinghe. 2013. “Causes of Variation Orders in Road Construction
Projects in Sri Lanka.” ISRN Construction Engineering 2013(January 2013):1–7.
296
Hamada, Hussein M., Ahmad Haron, Zahrizan Zakiria, and Ali M. Humada. 2016. “Benefits and Barriers
of BIM Adoption in the Iraqi Construction Firms.” International Journal of Innovative Research in
Advanced Engineering (IJIRAE) 3(08):76–84.
Hamma-adama , & Kouider, T. (2019). omparative Analysis of BIM Adoption Efforts by Developed
Countries as Precedent for New Adopter Countries. Current Journal of Applied Science and Technology ,
1-15.
Hamma-adama, Mansur, and Tahar Kouider. 2019. “Comparative Analysis of BIM Adoption Efforts by
Developed Countries as Precedent for New Adopter Countries.” Current Journal of Applied Science and
Technology (June):1–15.
Hamma-adama, Mansur, and Tahar Kouider. 2019. “What Are the Barriers and Drivers Toward BIM
Adoption in Nigeria?” (July):529–38.
Hamma-Adama, Mansur, Tahar Kouider, and Huda Salman. 2018. “State of Building Information
Modelling (Bim) Adoption in Nigeria.” Association of Researchers in Construction Management
(ARCOM) 34(September):334–43.
Hamsah, Syahril Ali Ibrahim. 2016. “No Title 23(45):5–24.
Hannon, J. J. (2007). Estimators' Functional Role Change with BIM. AACE International Transactions.
Harrison, Curtis, and Derek Thurnell. 2015. “BIM Implementation in a New Zealand Consulting Quantity
Surveying Practice.” International Journal of Construction Supply Chain Management 5(1):1–15.
Harun, Aizul Nahar, Suzana Abd Samad, Mohd Nasrun Mohd Nawi, and Nuzul Azam Haron. 2016.
“Existing Practices of Building Information Modeling (BIM) Implementation in the Public Sector.”
International Journal of Supply Chain Management 5(4):166–77.
Hassan, S. (2017, 2 22). Estimation and the Tendering process in Construction Industry. Retrieved from
www.linkedin.com: https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/estimation-tendering-process-construction-industry-
ul-hassan-1?trk=portfolio_article-card_title
Hatem, Wadhah A., Abbas M. Abd, and Nagham N. Abbas. 2018. “Barriers of Adoption Building
Information Modeling (BIM) in Construction Projects of Iraq.” Engineering Journal 22(2):59–81.
Hatmoko, J. U., Fundra, Y., Wibowo , M. A., & Zhabrinna. (2019). Investigating Building Information
Modelling (BIM) Adoption in Indonesia Construction Industry. MATEC Web of Conferences.
Researchgate.
Hendrickson, C. (2000). Project Management for Construction. Pittsburgh: Carnegie Mellon University.
297
Herr, Christiane M., and Thomas Fischer. 2019. “BIM Adoption across the Chinese AEC Industries: An
Extended BIM Adoption Model.” Journal of Computational Design and Engineering 6(2):173–78.
Hitchcock, Marion. 2020. “Take-Off.” (December 2017):1–2.
Honda, Masataka. 2016. ？.” Kazoku Syakaigaku Kenkyu 28(2):250–250.
HOOK, J. (2019, 11 7). buildsoft.com. Retrieved from buildsoft.com:

https://www.buildsoft.com.au/blog/10-statistics-defining-the-australian-construction-industry-in-2019
Hosseini, M. R., M. O. Namzadi, R. Rameezdeen, S. Banihashemi, and N. Chileshe. 2016. “Barriers To

Bim Adoption: Perceptions From Australian Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises (Smes).” (July).
Hosseini, M. Reza, Saeed Banihashemi, Nicholas Chileshe, Mehran Oraee Namzadi, Chika Udaeja,
Raufdeen Rameezdeen, and Tammy McCuen. 2016. “BIM Adoption within Australian Small and
Medium-Sized Enterprises (SMEs): An Innovation Diffusion Model.” Construction Economics and
Building 16(3):71–86.
Hutton, J. (2019). Cost overruns in major government projects. London: Taxpayersalliance.
ICE. (2020, 02 18). Pre-tender estimate for contracts. Retrieved from designingbuildings:
https://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Pre-tender_estimate_for_contracts
IMF. (2012). World economic outlook. . washington, DC:: International menetary fund.
Initiative, Infrastructure Transparency. n.d. “The CoST Afghanistan - Infrastructure Transparency

Initiative.”
Institute of Civil Engineers. 2019. “Reducing the Gap between Cost Estimates and Outturns for Major
Infrastructure Projects and Programmes.” Ice (210252):1–16.
IQSSL. (2017). BIM Symposium 2017. Colombo: Focus.
Islam, Muhammad Saiful, and Bambang Trigunarsyah. 2017. “Construction Delays in Developing
Countries: A Review.” Journal of Construction Engineering and Project Management 7(1):1–12.
Ismail, N. A., Adnan, H., & Bakhary, N. A. (2019). Building Information Modelling (BIM) Adoption by
Quantity Surveyors: A Preliminary Survey from Malaysia. Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental
Science. Malaysia: IOP Publishing.
Ismail, Noor Akmal Adillah, Maria Chiozzi, and Robin Drogemuller. 2017. “An Overview of BIM
Uptake in Asian Developing Countries.” AIP Conference Proceedings 1903.
298
Ismail, Noor Akmal Adillah, Robin Drogemuller, Scott Beazley, and Robert Owen. 2016. “A Review of
BIM Capabilities for Quantity Surveying Practice.” MATEC Web of Conferences 66:1–7.
Jagadeesh, G. M., Final Year, and B. Arch Student. 2019. “Investigation of BIM Adoption in India.”
International Journal of Engineering Research and Technology (IJERT) 8(11):252–58.
Jasanth, R. (2016). Future Impediments in Implementation of Building Information Modeling (BIM) and
Quantity Surveyor’s strategies in Northern Province, Sri Lanka. Colombo: Sheffield Hallam University.
Jayadi, Almadani, and Leni Sagita Riantini. 2016. “The Development of 4D Bim Based Infrastructure
Construction Time Planning Standard Operating Procedure To Enhance Communication Quality From
Infrastructure.” 1–10.
Jayalath, Ayesha, and Terans Gunawardhana. 2017. “Towards Sustainable Constructions: Trends in Sri
Lankan Construction Industry.” International Conference on Real Estate Management and Valuation
2017 (October):137–43.
JAYASENA , H. S., NAGALINGAM, & RANADEWA. (2013). Building Information Modelling and
future Quantity Surveyor‟s Practice in Sri Lankan Construction Industry. . The Second World
Construction Symposium (pp. 81- 92). Colombo: Socio-Economic Sustainability in Construction.
Jayasena, H. S., & Weddikkara, C. (2013). Assessing the BIM Maturity in a BIM Infant Industry. The
Second World Construction Symposium 2013: Socio-Economic Sustainability in Construction (pp. 62-
69). Colombo: Ceylon Institute of Builders.
Jiang, Xinan (Northeaster University). 2011. “Developments in Cost Estimating and Scheduling in BIM
Technology Author:” 88.
John, D. D. (2016). Building Information Modeling (BIM) technology Adoption and Implementation in
the Sri Lankan Construction Industry. Georgia: Georgia Southern University.
Jongo, Jaffari S., Dennis N. G. A. K. Tesha, Raymond Kasonga, Justine J. Teyanga, and Kenan S. Lyimo.
2019. “Mitigation Measures in Dealing with Delays and Cost Overrun in Public Building Projects in Dar-
Es-Salaam, Tanzania.” International Journal of Construction Engineering and Management 8(3):81–96.
Jung, Wooyoung, and Ghang Lee. 2015. “The Status of BIM Adoption on Six Continents.” International
Journal of Civil, Structural, Construction and Architectural Engineering 9(5):406–10.
K. A. D. S. M. Chandraratne, K. A. K. Devapriya, and T. P. W. S. I. Pandithawatta. 2019. “Development

of a Computer Model for Cost Estimation in Educational Buildings.” (November):266–75.
299
Kalinichuk, Sergey. 2015. “Building Information Modeling Comprehensive Overview.” Journal of
Systems Integration (2009):25–34.
Karunakaran, P., A. H. Abdullah, S. Nagapan, S. Sohu, and K. K. Kasvar. 2018. “Categorization of

Potential Project Cost Overrun Factors in Construction Industry.” IOP Conference Series: Earth and
Environmental Science 140(1).
Kassem, M.; Succar, B.; Dawood, N. 2013. “TeesRep - Teesside ’ s Research Repository A Proposed
Approach To Comparing the BIM Maturity of Countries.” Proceedings of the CIB W78 2013: 30th
International Conference (October):9–12.
Kassem, Mohamad, Trevor Brogden, and Nashwan Dawood. 2012. “BIM and 4D Planning: A Holistic
Study of the Barriers and Drivers to Widespread Adoption.” Journal of Construction Engineering and
Project Management 2(4):1–10.
Kavuma, Andrew, Jongho Ock, and Hyounseung Jang. 2019. “Factors Influencing Time and Cost
Overruns on Freeform Construction Projects.” KSCE Journal of Civil Engineering 23(4):1442–50.
Kehily, Dermot, and Jason Underwood. 2017. “Embedding Life Cycle Costing in 5D BIM.” Journal of
Information Technology in Construction 22:145–67.
Khabisi, Lisebo Jereminah. 2012. “Causes and Effects of Cost Overruns in Public Sector Construction
Projects In.” 1–169.
Khosakitchalert, Chavanont, Nobuyoshi Yabuki, and Tomohiro Fukuda. 2019. “Improving the Accuracy
of BIM-Based Quantity Takeoff for Compound Elements.” Automation in Construction 106(November
2018):102891.
Khosakitchalert, Chavanont, Nobuyoshi Yabuki, and Tomohiro Fukuda. 2020. “Automated Modification
of Compound Elements for Accurate BIM-Based Quantity Takeoff.” Automation in Construction
113(January):103142.
Koria, Mikko. 2009. “Managing for Innovation in Large and Complex Recovery Programmes: Tsunami
Lessons from Sri Lanka.” International Journal of Project Management 27(2):123–30.
Kostka, Genia, and Jobst Fiedler. 2016. Large Infrastructure Projects in Germany: Between Ambition and
Realities.
Kotb , M. H., Aly, A. S., & Muhammad, K. M. (2019). Risk Assessment of Time and Cost Overrun
Factors throughout Construction Project Lifecycle. Life science, 78-91.
300
Krzysztof Zima, and Agnieszka Leśniak. 2013. “Limitations of Cost Estimation Using Building
Information Modeling in Poland.” Journal of Civil Engineering and Architecture 7(5):545–54.
Kulasekara, G., Jayasena, H. S., & Ranadewa, K. T. (2013). Comparative effectiveness of quantity
surveying in a building information modelling implementation. The Second World Construction
Symposium (pp. 101-107). Colombo: Ceylon Institute of Builders.
KUMAR , G. R. (n.d). ESTIMATION AND QUANTITY SURVEYING. NPR COLLEGE OF

ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY.
Kumara, E. K., Jayasena , H. S., & Ariyachandra, M. R. (2017). SOFTWARE CAPABILITIES OF SRI
LANKAN ARCHITECTURAL PROFESSIONALS FOR BIM ADOPTION. What's New and What's
Next in the Built Environment Sustainability Agenda? Colombo: The 6th World Construction
Symposium 2017.
Lam, K. C., Qaung, T., Long, N. D., & Ogunlana, S. (2004). Large construction projects in developing
countires. International journal of project management, 553-561.
Langford , D., Rowlinson , S., & Sawacha, E. (2008, 06 28). Safety behaviour and safety management: its
influence on the attitudes of workers in the UK construction industry. Retrieved from wiley.com:
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1046/j.1365-232x.2000.00137.x
Lanka, Sri. 2019. “Quarterly E-Journal Of.” 09(02).
Lara Nieto, Carmen. 1990. “The Problem of Communication in Merleau-Ponty.” Man’s Self-
Interpretation-in-Existence (August 2014):263–74.
Larasati, Dewi, Furry Andini Willis, Yulita Hanifah, Fauzan Alfi Agirachman, and Suhendri Suhendri.
2018. “Factors That Affects Maturity Level of BIM Implementation in Indonesia; Case Studies of 5
Construction Key Actors.” Engaging Architectural Science: Meeting the Challenges of Higher Density:
52nd International Conference of the Architectural Science Association, RMIT University, Australia 673–
81.
Laures Solutions . (2010, September 24). Importance of cost estimation. Retrieved from
https://lauressolutions.wordpress.com/2010/09/24/importance-of-cost-estimation/
Lee, Dong Gun, Ji Young Park, and Sang Hoon Song. 2018. “BIM-Based Construction Information
Management Framework for Site Information Management.” Advances in Civil Engineering 2018.
Lee, s., Trench, W., & Wills, A. (2011). Willie's Elements of Quantity Surveying. Oxford: Wiley-
Blackwell.
301
Lee, Xia Sheng, Cheah Wei Tsong, and Mohd Faris Khamidi. 2016. “5D Building Information
Modelling-A Practicability Review.” MATEC Web of Conferences 66.
Lester, Eur Ing Albert. 2017. “Building Information Modelling (BIM).” Project Management, Planning
and Control (May):509–27.
Level, B. I. M., and Capability Statement. n.d. “BIM Level 2 Capability Statement.”
Li, Jinmin. 2016. “Integrating Building Information Modelling ( BIM ), Cost Estimating and Scheduling
for Buildings Construction at the Conceptual Design Stage.” 158.
Liao, Longhui, and Evelyn Ai Lin Teo. 2017. “Critical Success Factors for Enhancing the Building
Information Modelling Implementation in Building Projects in Singapore.” Journal of Civil Engineering
and Management 23(8):1029–44.
Lim, Yaik Wah. 2016. “Building Information Modelling for Building Energy Efficiency Evaluation.” 6th
Annual International Conference on Architecture and Civil Engineering (ACE 2018) (Ace):423–26.
Lindblad, Hannes, and Jacob Rudolphsson Guerrero. 2020. “Client’s Role in Promoting BIM
Implementation and Innovation in Construction.” Construction Management and Economics 38(5):468–
82.
Lindblad, Hannes, and Susanna Vass. 2015. “BIM Implementation and Organisational Change: A Case
Study of a Large Swedish Public Client.” Procedia Economics and Finance 21(15):178–84.
Lindner, U. K. 1991. “Khk - Moderne Konzepte Der 90Er Jahre.” Internist 32(8):500–501.
Liu, Bingsheng, Min Wang, Yutao Zhang, Rui Liu, and Anmin Wang. 2017. “Review and Prospect of
BIM Policy in China.” IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering 245(2).
Liu, Hexu, Ming Lu, and Mohamed Al-Hussein. 2014. “BIM-Based Integrated Framework for Detailed
Cost Estimation and Schedule Planning of Construction Projects.” 31st International Symposium on
Automation and Robotics in Construction and Mining, ISARC 2014 - Proceedings (Isarc):286–94.
Liu, Shijing, Benzheng Xie, Linda Tivendal, and Chunlu Liu. 2015. “The Driving Force of Government
in Promoting BIM Implementation.” Journal of Management and Sustainability 5(4):157.
Liu, Shijing, Benzheng Xie, Linda Tivendal, and Chunlu Liu. 2015. “Critical Barriers to BIM
Implementation in the AEC Industry.” International Journal of Marketing Studies 7(6):162.
Liu, Ziwen, Yujie Lu, and Lu Chang Peh. 2019. “A Review and Scientometric Analysis of Global
Building Information Modeling (BIM) Research in the Architecture, Engineering and Construction (AEC)
Industry.” Buildings 9(10).
302
Long, N. D., Ogunlana, S., Quang, T., & Lam, K. C. (2004). Large construction projects in developing
countries: a case study from Vietnam. International Journal of project management, 553-561.
Lu, Weisheng. 2018. BIM and Big Data for Construction Cost Management.
M. M. G. D. Abeykoon, N. Zainudeen, C. S. R. Perera, and H. A. S. Madhuwanthi. 2019. “Client’s

Impact to the Schedule Delays in Road Projects: Contractor’s Perspective.” (November):179–88.
Mahamid, Ibrahim, and Nabil Dmaidi. 2013. “Risks Leading to Cost Overrun in Building Construction
from Consultants’ Perspective.” Organization, Technology & Management in Construction: An
International Journal 5(2):860–73.
Mahamid, Ibrahim. 2018. “Critical Determinants of Public Construction Tendering Costs.” International
Journal of Architecture, Engineering and Construction 7(1).
Malkanthi, S. N., A. G. D. Premalal, and R. K. P. C. B. Mudalige. 2017. “Impact of Cost Control

Techniques on Cost Overruns in Construction Projects.” Engineer: Journal of the Institution of
Engineers, Sri Lanka 50(4):53.
Malleson, A. (2018). The National BIM Report 2018. NBS.
Mamphey, S. (2016, September 5). BIM Rise of Machines. Retrieved from Faithful Gould:
https://www.fgould.com/uk-europe/articles/bim-rise-machines
Management, Development. 2018. “Determinants of Infrastructure Project Delays and Cost Escalations .
The Case of Road and Rail Construction Projects in Ethiopia Determinants of Infrastructure Project
Delays and Cost Escalations : The Cases of Road and Railway Construction Projects in Et.” 102–36.
Management, Financial. 2019. “Of i Na Nc Ial Em En t o f P Pe Ro Rty d an Co Tr Ns u l o f F

MANAGING FINANCIAL AND ECONOMIC n t o f P a Rty Pe Nd Ns Co Tru.”
Manfredonia, B. (2016). COST ESTIMATING . WBDG.
Mansfield, NR, OO Ugwu, and T. Doran. 1994. “Causes of Delay and Cost Overruns in Nigerian
Construction Projects.” International Journal of Project Management 12(4):254–60.
Matarneh, Rana T., and Sadeq A. Hamed. 2017. “Exploring the Adoption of Building Information
Modeling (BIM) in the Jordanian Construction Industry.” Journal of Architectural Engineering
Matejka, Petr, and Stanislav Vitasek. 2018. “Comparison of Different Cost Estimation Methods with Use
of Building Information Modelling (BIM).” Engineering for Rural Development 17:843–49.
303
Matin, Danial Mirzai. 2016. “Identifying The Effective Factors for Cost Overrun and Time Delay in
Water Construction Projects.” Technology & Applied Science Research 6(4):1062–66.
Matipa, W. M., Kelliher, D., & Keane, M. (2008). How a Quantity Surveyor Can Ease Cost Management
at the Design Stage Using A Building Product Model. Construction Innovation, (pp. 164-181).
Mattsson, Martin, and Mathias Rodny. 2013. “BIM in Infrastructure. Using BIM to Increase Efficiency
through the Elimination of Wasteful Activities.” 102.
Mayouf, Mohammad, Michael Gerges, and Sharon Cox. 2019. “5D BIM: An Investigation into the
Integration of Quantity Surveyors within the BIM Process.” Journal of Engineering, Design and
McAuley, B., A. Hore, and R. West. 2016. “BICP Global BIM Study.” BICP BIM Global Study 61–65.
McGinnis , A. (2016). How far will traditional cost estimating take us? Linkedin. Retrieved from
Linkedin:
file:///Users/anushkarathnayake/Dropbox/Estimation/How%20far%20will%20traditional%20cost%20esti
mating%20take%20us%3F%20%7C%20Anthony%20McGinnis%20%7C%20Pulse%20%7C%20Linked
In.webarchive
Mehran, Donya. 2016. “Exploring the Adoption of BIM in the UAE Construction Industry for AEC
Firms.” Procedia Engineering 145:1110–18.
Memon, Aftab Hameed, Ismail Abdul Rahman, and Nur Melly Edora Harman. 2014. “Implementation of
Building Information Modeling in Malaysian Construction Industry.” 1621(4):343–49.
Mertens, D. (2008). Mixed method and the politics of human research. Los Angeles: Sage.
MHC. 2014. The Business Value of BIM for Construction in Major Global Markets.
Mitchell, D. (2012). 5D BIM: Creating cost certainty and better buildings. RICS Cobra Conference. Las
Vegas: RICS.
Mollasalehi, S., A. A. Aboumoemen, A. Rathnayake, A. Fleming, and J. Underwood. 2018.

“Development of an Integrated BIM and Lean Maturity Model.” in IGLC 2018 - Proceedings of the 26th
Annual Conference of the International Group for Lean Construction: Evolving Lean Construction
Towards Mature Production Management Across Cultures and Frontiers. Vol. 2.
Mollasalehi, S., A. Rathnayake, A. A. Aboumoemen, J. Underwood, A. Heming, U. Kulatunga, and P.

Coates. 2017. “How BIM-Lean Integration Enhances the Information Management Process in the
304
Construction Design.” in IGLC 2017 - Proceedings of the 25th Annual Conference of the International
Group for Lean Construction.
Moreno, Cristina, Svetlana Olbina, and Raja R. Issa. 2019. “BIM Use by Architecture, Engineering, and
Construction (AEC) Industry in Educational Facility Projects.” Advances in Civil Engineering 2019.
Mu, Ari. 2019. “ No Title No Title.” Journal of Chemical Information and Modeling 53(9):1689–99.
Muhwezi, L., J. Acai, and G. Otim. 2014. “An Assessment of the Factors Causing Delays on Building
Construction Projects in Uganda.” Construction Engineering and Management 3(1):13–23.
Mukuka, Mulenga, Clinton Aigbavboa, and Wellington Thwala. 2015. “Effects of Construction Projects
Schedule Overruns: A Case of the Gauteng Province, South Africa.” Procedia Manufacturing
3(Ahfe):1690–95.
Murali, Surabattuni, and Sanjeet Kumar. 2019. “Factors Affecting Overruns Construction Time and Cost:
A Case Study.” International Journal of Recent Technology and Engineering 7(6C2):284–88.
Musa, Suria, Amanda Marshall-Ponting, Faizatul Akmar Abdul Nifa, and Syairah Aimi Shahron. 2018.
“Building Information Modeling (BIM) in Malaysian Construction Industry: Benefits and Future
Challenges.” AIP Conference Proceedings
Namlı, Ersin, Ümit Işıkdağ, and Mustafa Nabi Kocakaya. 2019. “Building Information Management
(BIM), A New Approach to Project Management.” Journal of Sustainable Construction Materials and
Technologies 4(1):323–32.
National Building Specification. 2011. “Building Information Modelling Report 2011.” National BIM
Report 2011 (March):1–21.
NATSPEC. 2016. “National BIM Guide v1.0 Sep 2011.Doc.” (September 2011).
Navarro, Carlos. 2017. “Construction Delays , Cost Overruns Could Postpone Opening of New Airport in
Mexico City.”
NBS. (2019). National BIM Report. National BIM Report.
NBS. 2019. “National BIM Report 2019.” National BIM Report 2019 :The Definitive Industry Update 1–
28.
Newton, Sidney, Martin Skitmore, and Peter E. D. Love. 2014. “Managing Uncertainty to Improve the
Cost Performance of Complex Infrastructure Projects.” International Conference on Construction in a
305
Changing World, CIB - International Council for Research and Innovation in Building and Construction
660–71.
Nichols, M. R. (2019, 11 15). What is the difference between pre-construction and post-construction?
Retrieved from quora.com: https://www.quora.com
Nigam, Manish, Abhishek Dixit, and Kshitij Kumar Sachan. 2016. “BIM Vs Traditional Quantity
Surveying And Its Future Mapping.” International Journal of Engineering Development and Research
4(2):1261–65.
Nigussie, Tariku, and M. K. Chandrasekar. 2020. “Influence of Rebar Practice in the Total Cost of
Building Construction Projects : The Case of Hawassa City , Ethiopia.” 12(1):54–65.
Nkado,, R., & Meyer, T. (2001). Competencies of professional quantity surveyors: South African
perspective. Construction Management and Economics, 481-491.
Nutter, Christopher L., and Leed Ap. n.d. “Common Challenges Associated With Design and
Construction Delivery Using Building Information Modeling ( Bim ).”
Nyoni, T. (2019). Cost overrun factors in construction industry: a case of Zimbabwe. Harare: epartment
of Economics, Faculty of Social Studies, University of Zimbabwe.
OBG. (2016). Sri Lanka's construction sector sees increased investment and development. Colombo:
Oxford Business group.
Odeyinka, Henry, & Doherty. (2008). An evaluation of quantity surveying software using in nothern
ireland. London: COBRA.
Odinot, Geralda, Gezinus Wolters, and Anne van Giezen. 2013. “Accuracy, Confidence and Consistency
in Repeated Recall of Events.” Psychology, Crime and Law 19(7):629–42.
Odusami, K. T., & Onukwube, H. N. (2008). Factors Affecting The Accuracy of Pre-Tender Cost
Estimate in Nigeria. RICS Construction and Building Research Conference. Dublin: RICS.
Oladokun, Michael G., Adeyinka A. Oladokun, and Isaac A. Odesola. 2013. “Accuracy of Pre-Tender
Cost Estimates of Consultant Quantity Surveyors in Nigeria.” A Compendium of International Real Estate
and Construction Issues 1(May):39–52.
Olanrewaju, Abdullateef, Seong Yeow Tan, and Lee Foo Kwan. 2017. “Roles of Communication on
Performance of the Construction Sector.” Procedia Engineering 196(June):763–70.
306
Olatunji, O. A., Sher, W. D., Gu, N., & Ogunsemi, D. (2010). Building information modelling processes:
benefits for construction industry. In W078- Special Track 18th CIB World Building Congress (p. 137).
Salford: CIB.
Olawumi, T. O., & Chan, D. W. (2019). Development of benchmarking model for BIM implementation
in developing countries. Benchmarking An International Journal.
Olsen, Darren, and J. Mark Taylor. 2017. “Quantity Take-Off Using Building Information Modeling
(BIM), and Its Limiting Factors.” Procedia Engineering 196(June):1098–1105.
Oluyemi-Ayibiowu, B. D*., Aiyewalehinmi, O. E., and Omolayo, O. J. 2019. “Most Critical Factors
Responsible For Cost Overruns In Nigeria Building Construction Industry.” 5(2):2500–2508.
Ongprasert, Saratchai, and Rapee Parichatrkanont. n.d. “BIM / CIM Implementation in the Thailand
Private Sector : Extension to 6D Analysis – Safety Simulation of A Railway Station.” 43–54.
Onungwa, N., & Uduma-Olugu. (2017). Building Information Modelling and Collaboration in the
Nigerian Construction Industry. Journal of Construction Business and Management, 10.
Oo, Bee Lan. 2017. “Release of Construction Clients’ Pre-Tender Cost Estimates: An Experimental
Study.” Construction Economics and Building 17(4):37–47.
Ouellet, Jennifer A., and Lisa M. Walke. 2019. “History and Trends.” Geriatric Practice: A Competency
Based Approach to Caring for Older Adults 3–11.
Page, News. 2015. “The Institute of Quantity Surveyors , Sri Lanka Extra-Ordinary General Meeting
IQSSL ’ s Board Gathering.” 04(02).
Pales, E. (2013). An analysis of BIM adoption holdback, assuming a sharp change in process and culture.
Horsens: VIA University College.
Pall, Goutom K., Adrian J. Bridge, Jason Gray, and Martin Skitmore. 2019. “Causes of Delay in Power
Transmission Projects: An Empirical Study.” Energies 13(1).
Papadonikolaki, Eleni. 2017. “Alignin g BIM Adoption Drivers with B IM Implementation i n Loosel y
Couple d Constructi On.”
Paper, Conference. 2009. “The Accuracy of Pre-Tender Cost Estimates . of Consultant Quantity.”
(January).
Patuti, Indriati Martha, Ahmad Rifa’i, Kabul Basah Suryolelono, and Suprapto Siswosukarto. 2018.
“Model of Timber Crib Walls Using Counterweight in Bone Bolango Regency Gorontalo Province
Indonesia.” International Review of Civil Engineering 9(3):98–104.
307
Paul, S. (2018, December 15). BIM adoption around the world: how good are we? Retrieved from
geospatialworld: https://www.geospatialworld.net/article/bim-adoption-around-the-world-how-good-are-
we/
Perera, B. A. K. S., M. K. C. S. Wijewickrama, W. R. S. C. Ranaweera, and I. S. W. Gamage. 2019.

“Significant Factors Influencing the Bid Mark-up Decision of Infrastructure Projects in Sri Lanka.”
International Journal of Construction Management 0(0):1–15.
Perera, Kanchana K. S., and Navoda Ranasighe. 2018. “Proceedings of Annual Technical Sessions 2018
Institute of Quantity Surveyors Sri Lanka.” (January).
Perera, Kanchana K. S., and Thilini Jayawickrama. 2018. “Adaptability of Shared Work Space Concept in
Office Buildings in Sri Lanka.” (June).
Perera, Srinath, Sadhana De Sliva, Robert Osei-Kyei, Yilin Yin, Lei Zhou, Xiaohua Jin, Nirodha
Fernando, Solomon Babatunde, and Yingbin Feng. 2019. “BIM Execution Framework for Early-Stage
Estimating in PPP Projects.” (June).
Personal, Munich, and Repec Archive. 2019. “Cost Overrun Factors in Construction Industry : A Case of
Zimbabwe.” Munich Personal RePEc Archive (96788).
Polycarp Olaku Alumbugu, Wasiu Adeniran Ola-awo, SAIDU, Ibrahim, ABDULLAHI, Mustapha
Muhammed, and Abdulmumin Abdulazeez. 2014. “Assessment of the Factors Affecting Accuracy of Pre-
Tender Cost Estimate in Kaduna State, Nigeria.” IOSR Journal of Environmental Science, Toxicology and
Food Technology 8(5):19–27.
Popov, V., Migilinskas, D., Juocevičius, V., & Mikalauska, S. (2008). Application of building
information modelling and construction process simulation ensuring virtual project development concept
in 5D environment. Retrieved from http://dspace.vgtu.lt/handle/1/440
Price, D., and K. Andy. 2010. “Causes Leading to Poor Site Coordination in Building Projects.”
Organization, Technology & Management in Construction : An International Journal 2(2):167–72.
Priyantha, THS, Gayani Karunasena, and VAK Rodrigo. 2011. “Causes, Nature and Effects of Variations
in Highways.” Built-Environment Sri Lanka 9(1–2):14.
Proverbs, D., Gd Holt, and H. Cheok. 2000. “Construction Industry Problems: The Views of UK
Construction Directors.” Proceedings of the 16th Annual … 1(September):73–81.
Rahman, I. A., Ismail, I. B., & Jaber, M. M. (2018). Risk Assessment of Time and Cost Overrun Factors
throughout Construction Project Lifecycle: Pilot Study. International Journal of Engineering &
Technology, 717-723.
308
Rahman, W. (2019, 10 20). What is the difference between pre-construction and post-construction?
Retrieved from quora.com: https://www.quora.com
Raisbeck, P., & Aibinu, A. A. (2010). Early Stage Cost Estimation and The Relationship of Architects to
Quantity Surveyors. 26th Annual ARCOM Conference. Leeds: ARCOM.
Rajakumar, AC. 2016. “Analysis of Cost Overrun in Road Construction Activities – A Critical Review.”
International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology 06(04):1433–39.
Ramabhadran, Muralidaran. 2018. “An Investigation into Cost Overrun in Construction Projects in United
Arab Emirates.” International Journal of Construction Engineering and Management 7(1):1–21.
Rathnasiri, Pavithra, and Suranga Jayasena. 2019. “Green Building Information Modelling Technology
Adoption for Existing Buildings in Sri Lanka. Facilities Management Perspective.” Intelligent Buildings
International (July):1–22.
Rathnayake, A., & Samir, H. (2019). Current Status of Awareness and Readiness Towards Building
Information Modelling (BIM) Among Sri Lankan Quantity Surveyors. CITC. London: Sprigfield.
Rathnayake, A., Mollasalehi,, S., Aboumoemen , A., Kulatunga, U., & Samir , H. H. (2019). Building
Information Modelling Adoption for better cost estimation: Sri Lankan perspective. The Tenth
International Conference on Construction in the 21st Century (CITC-10) . Colombo: CITC.
Reinholdt, E. (2014, June 17). Design Practice: How to Pick the Right Drawing Software. Retrieved from
houzz: https://www.houzz.com
Revit. 2006. “Building Information Modeling and Cost Estimating.” Autodesk 8.
RICS, Dawn Smith, Simon Lovegrove, Alan Muse, Donald Duo Zhong Pan, Anil Sawhney, Paul
Watkins, Gareth Whisson, and Townsend Seah Kwee Yong. 2015. “RICS Professional Guidance, Global:
BIM for Cost Managers: Requirements from the BIM Model.” RICS Guidance Note (August):16.
RICS. (2014). International BIM implemetation guide. RICS.
RICS. (2014). Tendering strategies. London: RICS.
RICS. 2014. “RICS Guidance, UK: Tendering Strategies.” 24.
RICS. 2017. “Building Information Modelling for Project Managers.” Bim-Pm (May):42.
Ridenour, C. S., & Newman, I. (2008). A1ixed Inethods research: Exploring. Carbondale: Southern
Illinois University press.
309
Robinson, H., Symonds, B., Gilbertson, B., & Ilozor, B. (2015). Design Economics for the Built
Environment: Impact of Sustainability on project evaluation. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell.
Rogers, J., Chong,, H., Christopher , P., Lim, C. C., & Jayasena, H. S. (2015). BIM Development and
Trends in Developing Countries : Case Studies. UAE: Bentham Science Publishers.
Roslan, Ahmad Farhan, Zuhairi Abd Hamid, Maria Zura Mohd Zain, Nurulhuda Mat Kilau, Natasha
Dzulkalnine, and Afifuddin Husairi Hussain. 2019. “Building Information Modelling (BIM) Stage 2
Implementation Strategy for the Construction Industry in Malaysia.” Malaysian Construction Research
Journal 6(Special issue 1):153–61.
Rowe, G., & Wright, G. (1999). The delphi technique as a forcasting tool: issues and analysis.
International journal of forecasting, 353-375.
Rowe, G., & Wright, G. (2001). Esperts opinois in forecasting: The role of the delphi technique.
International Series in Operations Research & Management Science , 125-144.
S. K. G. U. K. Jayawardhana, C. Hadiwattage, and M. M. M. P. Mahinkanda. 2019. “Significance of

Construction Technology Knowledge for Quantity Surveyors in Expressway Construction Projects.” 524–
34.
Sabol, Louise. 2008. “Challenges in Cost Estimating with Building Information Modeling.” BIM-Cost
Estimating 1–16.
Safapour, Elnaz, Sharareh Kermanshachi, Jennifer Shane, and Stuart Anderson. 2017. “Exploring and
Assessing the Utilization of Best Practices for Achieving Excellence in Construction Projects.” 6th
CSCE-CRC International Construction Specialty Conference 2017 - Held as Part of the Canadian Society
for Civil Engineering Annual Conference and General Meeting 2017 1:670–79.
Sahil, A. .. 2016. “Adoption of Building Information Modeling in Developing Countries :” Degree Of

Master Thesis, Colorado State University.
Saidu, Ibrahim, and Winston Shakantu. 2016. “The Contributions of Construction Material Waste to
Project Cost Overruns in Abuja, Nigeria.” Acta Structilia 23(1).
Saidu, Ibrahim, and Winston Shakantu. 2017. “An Investigation into Cost Overruns for Ongoing Building
Projects in Abuja, Nigeria.” Acta Structilia 24(1):53–72.
Saka, Abdullahi B., and Daniel W. M. Chan. 2019. “A Scientometric Review and Metasynthesis of
Building Information Modelling (BIM) Research in Africa.” Buildings 9(4).
310
Samiullah Sohu, Abd Halid Abdullah, Sasitharan Nagapan, Nafees Ahmed Memon, Riduan Yunus, and
Muhammad Fikri Hasmori. 2018. “Causative Factors of Cost Overrun in Building Projects of Pakistan.”
International Journal of Integrated Engineering 10(9):5–10.
Sarda, Chandan, and N. K. Gupta. 2018. “Avoiding Cost Overruns of Residential Construction Projects in
Western Part of Pune City , India.” Avoiding Cost Overruns of Residential Construction Projects in
Western Part of Pune City, India 05(July):1357–61.
Sattineni, Anoop, and R. Harrison Bradford. 2011. “Estimating with BIM: A Survey of US Construction
Companies.” Proceedings of the 28th International Symposium on Automation and Robotics in
Construction, ISARC 2011 564–69.
Saunders, M., Lewis, P., & Thornhill, A. (2016). Research methods for business students. Essex: Persons
education limited.
Scott, Lloyd. 2018. “ARCOM Doctoral Workshop Research Methodology.”
Seed, Lawrence S. 2015. “The Dynamics of BIM Adoption : A Mixed Methods Study of BIM as an
Innovation within the United Kingdom Construction Industry.” Thesis 1(May).
Seeley, I. H. (1996). Building Economics. London: Macmillan.
Senouci, Ahmed, Alaa Ismail, and Neil Eldin. 2016. “Time Delay and Cost Overrun in Qatari Public
Construction Projects.” Procedia Engineering 164(June):368–75.
Shabani, Ms Neema, Justine Mselle, Samwel Alananga Sanga, and Arbogasti Isidori Kanuti. 2018.
“Stability of Construction Cost-Variability Factor Rankings from Professionals ’ Perspective : Evidence
from Dar Es Salaam – Tanzania.” 8(2):17–33.
Shah, Raj Kapur. 2016. “An Exploration of Causes for Delay and Cost Overruns In Construction Projects:
Case Study of Australia, Malaysia & Ghana.” Journal of Advanced College of Engineering and
Management 2:41.
Shanmugam, M., N. Zainudeen, and R. D. G. Amaratunga. 2006. “Simulation Modelling of Cost

Overruns in Building Projects.” 6th International Postgraduate Research Conference in the Built and
Human Environment 103–15.
Shashi Kumar Yadav, Dr. Anjay Kumar Mishra. 2019. “Scholars Journal of Engineering and Technology
Status of Time and Cost Overrun of Health Building Construction Projects in Nepal.” (October).
311
Shen, Z., & Issa, R. R. (2010). Quantitative evaluation of the BIM-assisted construction detailed cost
estimates. DigitalCommons University of Nebraska. Retrieved from
http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/constructionmgmt
Shibani, Dr Abdussalam. 2015. “Time and Cost Overrun in Construction Projects in Egypt Time and Cost
Overrun in Construction Projects in Egypt.” (September):22–29.
Shrestha, Pramen P., Leslie A. Burns, and David R. Shields. 2013. “Magnitude of Construction Cost and
Schedule Overruns in Public Work Projects.” Journal of Construction Engineering 2013(2):1–9.
Siemiatycki, Matti. 2015. “On Infrastructure Projects :” (11).
Siemiatycki, Matti. 2018. “The Making and Impacts of a Classic Text in Megaproject Management: The
Case of Cost Overrun Research.” International Journal of Project Management 36(2):362–71.
Silva, D., Rajakaruna, N., & Bandara, K. T. (2014). Challenges faced by the construction industry in Sri
Lanka. Colombo: University of Moratuwa.
Siriwardhana, M. S., Jayasena, H. S., Wijewickrama, M. K., & Kolugala, L. M. (2018). SUITABLE
GOVERNMENT INITIATIVE STRATEGY FOR BIM IMPLEMENTATION IN SRI LANKA. The 7th
World Construction Symposium 2018. Colombo: Built Asset Sustainability: Rethinking Design,
Construction and Operations.
Smith, Peter. 2014. “BIM Implementation - Global Strategies.” Procedia Engineering 85:482–92.
Smith, Peter. 2014. “Sustainable Development & BIM – The Role of the 5D Quantity Surveyor.”
Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 1–11.
Smithwick, Jake, Joshua Jason Mischung, and Kenneth Timothy Sullivan. 2014. “Impact of Quantity
Takeoff Software on Student Performance in a University Construction Estimating Course: A Case
Study.” ASEE Annual Conference and Exposition, Conference Proceedings.
Society, American, and International Law. 2009. “Akinci, B., and Fischer, M„ 1998. Factors Affecting
Contractors’ Risk of Cost Overburden.” (August).
Sohu, Samiullah, Abd Halid Abdullah, Sasitharan Nagapan, Nafees Ahmed Memon, Riduan Yunus, and
Muhammad Fikri Hasmori. 2018. “Causative Factors of Cost Overrun in Building Projects of Pakistan.”
International Journal of Integrated Engineering 10(9):122–26.
Song, J., Wang, G., Liu, Z., & Wang, H. (2018). Key Factors Affecting BIM Adoption in China Based on
TOE&RC. International Conference on Mechanics, Materials and Structural Engineering. China:
nternational Conference on Mechanics, Materials and Structural Engineering.
312
Southbay Construction. (2015, December 4). COST ESTIMATION: THE CORNERSTONE OF EVERY
CONSTRUCTION PROJECT. California, Campbell, USA.
Stanley, R., & Thurnell, D. (2013). Current and anticipated future impacts of BIM on cost modelling in
Auckland. 38th AUBEA International Conference. Auckland: AUBEA International Conference.
Stanley, Sarah E., and Aaron S. Benjamin. 2016. “That’s Not What You Said the First Time: A
Theoretical Account of the Relationship between Consistency and Accuracy of Recall.” Cognitive
Research: Principles and Implications 1(1):1–11.
Suddaby, R. (2006). What grounded theory is not. Academy of management journal, 633-43.
Sun, Chengshuang, Shaohua Jiang, Miroslaw J. Skibniewski, Qingpeng Man, and Liyin Shen. 2017. “A
Literature Review of the Factors Limiting the Application of BIM in the Construction Industry.”
Technological and Economic Development of Economy 23(5):764–79.
Sunil, K., Pathirage, C. P., & Underwood, J. (2015). The Importance of Integrating Cost Management
with Building Information Modeling (BIM). University of Salford, School of the Built Environment.
Salford: University of Salford.
Svalestuen, Fredrik, Vegard Knotten, Ola Lædre, Frode Drevland, and Jardar Lohne. 2017. “Using
Building Information Model (Bim) Devices To Improve Information Flow and Collaboration on
Construction Sites.” Journal of Information Technology in Construction 22(February):204–19.
Taboada, José Antonio, and Alessandra Garrido-Lecca. 2014. “Case Study on the Use of Bim at the
Bidding Stage of a Building Project.” 22nd Annual Conference of the International Group for Lean
Construction: Understanding and Improving Project Based Production, IGLC 2014 1473–82.
Tadewos, Shambel Gebrehiwot, and Dixit Patel. 2018. “Factors Influencing Time and Cost Overruns in
Road Construction Projects : Addis Ababa , Ethiopian Scenario : Review Paper.” International Research
Journal of Engineering and Technology 05(2014):177–80.
Tagg, Morgan Christian. 2017. “The State of BIM-Based Quantity Take-Off Implementation Among
Commercial General Contractors.” 124.
Tahir, M. M., Haron, N. A., Alias, A. H., Harun, A. N., Muhammad, I. B., & Baba, D. L. (2018).
Improving Cost and Time Control in Construction Using Building Information Model (BIM): A Review.
SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY , 21 - 36.
Tahir, Muhammad Muhammad, Nuzul Azam Haron, Aidi Hizami Alias, and Ikechukwu A. Diugwu.
2019. “Causes of Delay and Cost Overrun in Malaysian Construction Industry.” Lecture Notes in Civil
Engineering 9(November):47–57.
313
Taylor, R., & Judd, L. (1989). Delphi method applied to tourism. New York: Prentice Hall.
Telaga, Abdi Suryadinata. 2018. “A Review of BIM (Building Information Modeling) Implementation in
Indonesia Construction Industry.” IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering 352(1).
The World Bank. 2017. “Zambia: Improved Rural Connectivity Project-SUF (P159330); Combined
Project Information Documents/ Integrated Safeguards.” 1:1–8.
Thurairajah, N., & Goucher, D. (2013). Advantages and challenges of using BIM: A cost consultant’s
perspective. 49th ASC Annual International Conference. ASC.
Tokla, Suon. 2020. “Bim-Based Simplified Approach To Automatically Estimate Building Costs for
Projects in Thailand.” International Journal of GEOMATE 18(68):101–7.
Torp, Olav, and Ole Klakegg. 2016. “Challenges in Cost Estimation under Uncertainty—A Case Study of
the Decommissioning of Barsebäck Nuclear Power Plant.” Administrative Sciences 6(4):14.
Trading Economics. (2017). Trading Economics. Retrieved from Trading Economics web site:
https://tradingeconomics.com/sri-lanka/gdp-from-construction
Tulenheimo, Risto. 2015. “Challenges of Implementing New Technologies in the World of BIM – Case
Study from Construction Engineering Industry in Finland.” Procedia Economics and Finance
21(Henttinen 2012):469–77.
Turk, Song Wu, Gerard Wood, Kanchana Ginige, and Siaw Wee Jong. 2014. “A Technical Review of
Bim Based Cost Estimating in UK Quantity Surveying Practice, Standards and Tools.” Journal of
Information Technology in Construction 19(March):535–63.
Ullah, K., A. H. Abdullah, S. Nagapan, S. Suhoo, and M. S. Khan. 2017. “Theoretical Framework of the
Causes of Construction Time and Cost Overruns.” IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and
Engineering 271(1).
Ullah, K., Lill, I., & Witt, E. (2019). An Overview of BIM Adoption in the Construction Industry:
Benefits and Barriers. In 10th Nordic Conference on Construction Economics and Organization. Tallinn:
EmaraldInsight.
Underwood , J., & sikdag, U. (2010). Handbook of Research on Building Information Modelling and
Construction Informatics: Concepts and Technologies . Information Science Reference, IGI Publishing.
Vineeth Raphael, Jenifer Priyanka. 2014. “Of Engineering © Iaeme Role of Building Information
Modelling ( Bim ) in Quantity Surveying Practice.” International Journal of Civil Engineering and
Technology(Ijciet) 5(12):194–200.
314
Vitasek, S., & Zak, J. (2018). Cost estimating and building information modelling (BIM) in road
construction. Proceedings of the Creative Construction Conference. Slovenia : Creative Construction
Conference .
Walasek, Dariusz, and Arkadiusz Barszcz. 2017. “Analysis of the Adoption Rate of Building Information
Modeling [BIM] and Its Return on Investment [ROI].” Procedia Engineering 172:1227–34.
Wan Mohammad, W. N. S., M. R. Abdullah, S. Ismail, and R. Takim. 2018. “Overview of Building
Information Modelling (BIM) Adoption Factors for Construction Organisations.” IOP Conference Series:
Earth and Environmental Science 140(1).
Wang, Guangbin, Zhenwei Liu, and Hanchao Wang. 2016. “Key Factors Affecting BIM Adoption Is
China Based on TOEaRC.” (Icmmse):103–8.
Wang, T. (2020). U.S. construction sector's BIM usage 2019. Retrieved from statista.com:
https://www.statista.com/statistics/1020765/uses-bim-construction-sector-us/
Wang, Xiangyu, Peter E. D. Love, and Peter Rex Davis. 2012. “Construction Research Congress 2012 ©
ASCE 2012 778.” Construction Research Congress (Mathiassen 1993):778–86.
Welman, Kruger, & Mitchell. (2005). Research Methodology. Cape town: Oxford university press.
Whang, Seoung Wook, Park, and Sang Min. 2016. “Building Information Modeling (BIM) for Project
Value: Quantity Take-off of Building Frame Approach.” International Journal of Applied Engineering
Research 11(12):7749–57.
Wheeller, B., Hart, T., & Whysall, P. (1990). Application of the delphi technique. Tourism Management,
121-122.
Wickramasinghe, S. (2018). Emerging construction trends in the Sri Lankan construction industry.
Retrieved from blog.framecad.com: https://blog.framecad.com/blog/framecad-technology-meet-the-
demands-of-the-sri-lankan-construction-market
Wijekoon, K. A., Manewa , A., & Ross, A. (2017). BIM FOR FACILITIES INFORMATION
MANAGEMENT. What's New and What's Next in the Built Environment Sustainability Agenda?
Colombo: The 6th World Construction Symposium 2017.
Wijekoon, S. B., and A. M. C. T. K. Attanayake. 2012. “Study on the Cost Overruns in Road
Construction Projects in Sri Lanka.” International Conference on Sustainable Built Environment 2012.
Willis, C. J., Ashworth, A., & Willis, J. A. (1994). Practice and procedure for quantity surveyor . Oxford:
Blackwell science.
315
Witicovski, Lilian Cristine, and Sergio Scheer. 2011. “Some Improvements for BIM Based Cost
Estimation.” (August 2012).
Wong, M. (2019, 12 11). esub.com. Retrieved from esub.com: https://esub.com/top-8-causes-cost-

overruns-construction/
Wong, P. F., H. Salleh, and F. A. M. Rahim. 2015. “A Relationship Framework for Building Information
Modeling (BIM) Capability in Quantity Surveying Practice and Project Performance.” Informes de La
Construccion 67(540):971–76.
World Bank. (2015, September 6). World Bank, 2015. How does the World Bank classify countries?
Retrieved from https://datahelpdesk.worldbank.org/knowledgebase/articles/ 378834-how-does-the-world-
bank-classify-countries.
World Bank. (2015). World Bank, 2015. Country and Lending Groups. Retrieved from
http://data.worldbank.org/about/country-and-lending-groups.
Wu, Chengke, Bo Xu, Chao Mao, and Xiao Li. 2017. “Overview of Bim Maturity Measurement Tools.”
Journal of Information Technology in Construction 22(June):34–62.
Wu, Chun Liang, Kun Chi Wang, and Wei Chih Wang. 2018. “A BIM-Based Conceptual Cost Estimation
Model Considering Structural Analysis and Design.” ISARC 2018 - 35th International Symposium on
Automation and Robotics in Construction and International AEC/FM Hackathon: The Future of Building
Things (Isarc).
Wu, S., Ginige, K., Wood, G., & Jong, S. W. (2014). How can Building Information (BIM) support the
New Rules of Measurement (NRM1)? London: RICS.
Wu, Zezhou, Changhong Chen, Yuzhu Cai, Chen Lu, Hao Wang, and Tao Yu. 2019. “BIM-Based
Visualization Research in the Construction Industry: A Network Analysis.” International Journal of
Environmental Research and Public Health 16(18).
Xu, Shen, and Llewellyn C. M. Tang. 2011. “BIM Environment : Quantity Surveyor ’ s Information
Lifecycle.” The Innovation and the Built Environment Academy (September 2011).
Xu, Shen, Kecheng Liu, and Llewellyn C. M. Tang. 2013. “Cost Estimation in Building Information
Models.” ICCREM 2013: Construction and Operation in the Context of Sustainability - Proceedings of
the 2013 International Conference on Construction and Real Estate Management (October):555–66.
Yahya Al-Ashmori, Yasser, Idris Bin Othman, Hisham Bin Mohamad, Yani Rahmawati, and Madzlan
Napiah. 2019. “Establishing the Level of BIM Implementation - A Case Study in Melaka, Malaysia.” IOP
Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering 601(1).
316
Zainon , N., Mohd-Rahim, F. A., & Salleh, H. (2016). The Rise Of BIM in Malaysia And Its Impact
Towards Quantity Surveying Practices. MATEC Web of Conferences (pp. 1-8). IBCC 2016.
Zainon, Nurshuhada, Faizul Azli Mohd-Rahim, Nur Mardhiyah Aziz, Syahrul Nizam Kamaruzzaman,
and Sapturinah Puidin. 2018. “Catching Up With Building Information Modeling: Challenges and
Opportunities for Quantity Surveyors.” Journal of Surveying, Construction & Property 9(1):19–31.
Z. Zahrizan. 2013. “Exploring the Adoption of Building Information Modelling (Bim) in the Malaysian
Construction Industry: A Qualitative Approach.” International Journal of Research in Engineering and
317
11 Appendices
Appendix A Ethical Approval
Appendix B Questionnaire A
Appendix C Questionnaire B
Appendix D Research Participant Information
Appendix E Interview Guidelines
Appendix F Published Papers

Appendix A – Ethical approval
Appendix B – Questionnaire A
Reference number
QUESTIONNAIRE A
Research Title: A FRAMEWORK TO ENHANCE THE ADOPTION OF BUILDING

INFORMATION MODELLING AMONGST SRI LANKAN QUANTITY SURVEYING
ORGANISATIONS TO INCREASE THE ACCURACY OF PRE-TENDER COST
ESTIMATES
This questionnaire is based on an ongoing PhD, and the aim of this research is to develop a
BIM adoption framework for the Sri Lankan quantity surveying organizations that will
support better pre-tender cost estimation. The questionnaire intends to capture the required
elements to develop a framework. As such this questionnaire is divided into 2 major sections
based on the objectives of the research.
Section 1: General information and/or Respondents profile.
Section 2: To identify weaknesses in the conventional pre-tender cost estimate process.
PARTICIPANTS’ RIGHTS:
You may decide to stop being a part of the research study at any time without explanation.
You have the right to ask that any data you have supplied to that point be
withdrawn/destroyed.
You have the right to omit or refuse to answer or respond to any question that is asked of
you. You have the right to have your questions about the procedures answered (unless
answering these questions would interfere with the study’s outcome).
If you have any questions as a result of reading this information sheet, you can query the
researcher before the study begins.
CONFIDENTIALITY:
The information collected will be used for the sole purpose of this study and for academic
publications. The findings of the study will not be attributed to any specific personnel.
PhD Researcher Supervisor
Anushka Rathnayake Dr Kaushal Keraminiyage
School of the Built Environment, Email: k.p.keraminiyage@salford.ac.uk
University of Salford,
Salford M5 4WT, UK
Email: A.P.Rathnayake@edu.salford.ac.uk
SECTION 1: Respondent’s Profile
Name:
Please underline your answer from given options.
1.1 What is your position within your company?

Trainee QS (Quantity Surveyor) Assistant QS Quantity Surveyor
Senior QS Chartered QS Other (please specify
1.2 What is the highest academic qualification you have attained?
§ Diploma in Quantity Surveying

§ Higher National Diploma in Quantity Surveying
§ Bachelor's degree in Quantity Surveying
§ Master's degree in Quantity Surveying
§ Other (please specify)
1.3 Who do you work for?
§ Client
§ Contractor
§ Consultant
§ Other (please specify):
1.4 In which geographical locations does your company carry out work?
Sri Lanka Only UK only Other (please specify):
1.5 How long have you been working as a QS?
1.6 How long you are working for the current organisation?
1.7 How long you being working in your current position?
1.8 What types of estimates or costing works you engaged within your company?
Pre-Contract work Post contract Work Both pre and post

Other (please specify):
1.9 What are the main areas you involve within your job?
§ Estimation
§ Taking-off measurements and quantification
§ Tendering
§ Cost planning
§ Procurement advice
§ Document preparation, especially bills of quantities
§ Cost control during construction
§ Interim valuations and payments
1.10 What types of estimates are you preparing within your job role?
§ Oder of cost estimates

§ Cost plan 1
§ Cost plan 2
§ Approximate quantities
§ BOQ
§ Interim Valuations
1.11 What methods are you using to prepare estimates?
Unit Method Cube Method Composite Rates

Superficial area method Elemental method Other (please specify):
1.12 What types of drawings are you dealing with?
§ 2D Auto CAD drawings

§ 3D Auto CAD drawings
§ BIM models
1.13 Which tools (software) do you mostly use to take off quantities and to prepare
estimates?
§ Microsoft Excel
§ Interactive Cost Estimating (BIM tool)
§ AutoCAD
§ IFC Take-off for Microsoft Excel (BIM tool)
§ Autodesk Quantity Take-off (BIM tool)
§ CostX Take-off (BIM tool)
1.14 How would you describe your current knowledge about Building Information
Modelling (BIM)?
Novice Intermediate Advanced

Other (please specify)
1.15 Has/is your current organisation …
§ Already adopted BIM

§ In the process of adopting BIM
§ Not yet adopted and not in a process of adopting in near future
SECTION 2: Factors Affecting the Accuracy of Pre-Tender Cost

Estimation
Please tick (√) to indicate your answer to each question in the following table, where
necessary.
Factors affecting
the accuracy of
Root Causes
Disagree
Disagree
Strongly
Strongly
Neutral
pre-tender
Agree
Agree
estimate
2D drawings have individual views and change

in one view will not automatically reflect in
other views.
Editing of plans, sections or elevations in 2D
drawings required that all other sections be
checked and updated manually.
Manual revisions in Drawings are time-
consuming and delays entire estimation process.
Wrong assumptions and decisions made by QS
based on drawings would directly affect the
The use of 2D accuracy of cost estimates.
drawings
Errors and omissions in drawings significantly
affects the accuracy of cost estimates.
Identify and reflect on design changes and
incorporate them within the estimate or
measurements is the most time-consuming task.
If changes do not update in all drawings,
tendency to miss out some elements will affect
the accuracy of cost estimates.
As 2D drawings does not allow any relationship
between the components of the drawings (Ex:
wall and window) it is difficult to map the costs
to each element in the drawings.
2D drawings provide limited visualization and
make it more complex for Quantity Surveyor to
interpret.
Lack of visualization in 2D drawings could
mislead the QS to make wrong assumptions
during QTO.
Accuracy of cost estimates positively correlated
with the level of given or available information.
Insufficient information increases the
inaccuracy of cost estimates and lead to
inaccurate decisions / assumptions made by the
QS.
Level of Quality and appropriateness of
Lack of
information is impact on the accuracy of
Information
estimates.
Paper based manual information exchange
practices increase the inaccuracies of cost
estimates.
Poor information flow during the estimation
process, which increases the inaccuracy of cost
estimates.
Generic systems such as Microsoft Excel used
for estimation, is a major reason for reducing
accuracy of estimates.
Current computer programs tend to
overestimate unrealistically. E.g. Excel impose
higher risk allowances compared to estimates
with human interactions.
Generic software, such as Excel, needs to be
Software’s and programmed manually by the QS before can be
tools used effectively in estimation.
Excel is compromised with lots of mathematical

commands and formulas where QS’s has to do
assumptions.
Human errors in defining repetitive functions
and summations in excel could lead to
miscalculations measurements, which increases
the inaccuracy of cost estimates.
Unit method brings inaccuracy and uncertainty
to the cost estimates.
Cube method brings inaccuracy and uncertainty
to the cost estimates.
Cost estimating Composite rates brings inaccuracy and
methods uncertainty to the cost estimates.
Superficial area method brings inaccuracy and
uncertainty to the cost estimates.
Elemental method brings inaccuracy and
uncertainty to the cost estimates.
Communication and data sharing challenged
due to intense competition ultimately result in
less accurate cost estimates.
due to lack of trust ultimately result in less
accurate cost estimates.
due to selfishness ultimately result in less
accurate cost estimates.
due to short-term relationship ultimately result
in less accurate cost estimates.
Miscommunication due to Paper-based manual
Communication information sharing will affect the accuracy of
cost estimates.
Formal feedback from project participants such
as design team and estimating team is essential
where changes to be made during the estimation
process
Isolated working culture is a major reason for
poor communication.
Most people do not prefer online meetings or
emails for communication, which will lead to
less accurate cost estimates.
Most people require traditional face to face
meeting which will which will lead to less
accurate cost estimates
The lack of coordination between cost
management, design and construction cause
difficult in cost estimating.
Lack of coordination resulting delays and
disruption in the process or plan, inaccurate
measurement of works, variations in work or
material will create less accurate cost estimates.
Low level of coordination amongst project
Coordination
participants result in low level of
communication and information sharing.
Poor documentation among project members
leads to repetitive work during the preparation
of cost estimates.
Lack of interactivity among project members
leads to repetitive work during the preparation
of cost estimates.
Limited time given for the preparation of cost
estimate reduces the accuracy of cost estimates.
QS’s tempt to take shortcuts such as guess
estimation, when under pressure because of
Time constraints time limits in which to complete the cost
estimate.
Limited time availability to the estimator to
verify assumptions increases the inaccuracy of
cost estimates.
Accuracy of an estimate highly depends on the
level of estimator experience.
Even though different tools are available for
Knowledge, skills estimation, professional experience and
and experience of knowledge is essential to operate them
an estimator appropriately to achieve accuracy of estimates.
Lack of construction technology knowledge will
lead to inaccurate cost estimates, due to wrong
assumptions made by QS.
Manual quantity take-off and calculations are
more time-consuming tasks in the estimation
process.
QS need to track and accounts for design
changes in drawings and update quantities and
costing during the MQTO.
Quantity Take-Off Design changes will demand re-measurement,
(QTO) which is a tedious task which can lead to
produce inaccurate estimates.
Risk of double counting’s are more likely to
happen during the manual take-off.
Conventional QTO does not allow to prepare
various cost estimates for different design
alternatives, without the need to go through a
substantial rework.
Failure to visit project site may also lead to take
incorrect measurements and to prepare
inaccurate cost estimates.
Site Visits
Estimator must have prior knowledge of site
conditions such as ground condition, site access,
etc to produce an accurate cost estimate.
If there are any other weaknesses, which you are facing during the estimation process
please specify here:
Appendix C – Questionnaire B
Reference number
QUESTIONNAIRE B
Research Title:
A FRAMEWORK TO ENHANCE THE ADOPTION OF BUILDING INFORMATION

MODELLING AMONGST SRI LANKAN QUANTITY SURVEYING
ESTIMATES.
This questionnaire is based on an ongoing PhD, and the aim of this research is to develop a
BIM adoption framework for Sri Lankan quantity surveying organisations that will support
better pre-tender cost estimation. The questionnaire intends to capture the required elements
to develop a framework. As such this questionnaire is divided into 2 major sections based on
the objectives of the research and it will not take more than 15 minutes.
Section 1: Respondent profile and Organisation profile.
Section 2: To identify the drivers for BIM adoption.
Section 3: To identify the barriers for the BIM adoption.
PARTICIPANTS’ RIGHTS
You have the right to:
Stop being a part of the research study at any time without explanation.
Ask that any data you have supplied to be withdrawn/destroyed.
Omit or refuse to answer or respond to any question that is asked of you.
Have your questions about the procedures answered (unless answering these questions would
interfere with the study’s outcome).
Query the researcher before the study begins if you have any questions as a result of reading
this information sheet.
CONFIDENTIALITY:
The information collected will be used for the sole purpose of this study and for academic
publications. The findings of the study will not be attributed to any specific person.
PhD Researcher Supervisor
Anushka Rathnayake Dr. Kaushal Keraminiyage
School of the Built Environment, Email: k.p.keraminiyage@salford.ac.uk

The University of Salford,
Salford M5 4WT, UK
Email: A.P.Rathnayake@edu.salford.ac.uk
SECTION 01: Respondent’s and Organisation Profile
Please underline your answer from given options.
1. What is your current role in your company?
Trainee QS (Quantity Surveyor) Assistant QS Quantity

SurveyorSenior QS Chartered Assistant QS Chartered QS
Chartered Senior QS Other (please specify)
2. What is the size of your company?
CS2 CS1 C1 C2 C3 C4
C5 Other (please specify)
3. In which geographical locations does your company carry out work?
Sri Lanka Only UK only Other (please specify):
4. What is your level of BIM use?
• Have used BIM

• Using BIM
• Intending to use BIM in near future
• Not using BIM or Not in a process of using BIM in near future
(Please go to question 11)
• Other (please specify):
5. If you have or currently using BIM, how long have you been using it?
• Less than 1 year

• Up to 1 year
• 1-2 years
• 3-4 years
• 5+ years
• Not applicable
• Other (please specify):
6.What best describes your current level of BIM working practice? You can select more than
one answer.
a. Learning BIM software

b. Using BIM software
c. Using BIM software solo on a live project
d. Using BIM model with one or more other disciplines i.e. Structural Engineer /
M&E / Contractor. Please specify here:
e. Using a BIM model within a fully collaborative process with integrated data
i.e. design team, specialists, contractor, supply chain. Please specify here:
f. Other (please specify):
7. What type of software was used on your past BIM projects as a BIM platform? (You
can choose more than one option)
a. Revit
b. Bentley Systems
c. ArchiCAD
d. Digital Project
e. Vectorworks
f. Tekla Structures
g. CostX
h. Other (please specify)
8. What type of software was used on your past BIM projects for quantity take-off?
(You can choose more than one option)
a. Autodesk's QTO
b. Exactal CostX
c. Innovaya
d. Vico Take-off Manager
e. None
f. Other (please specify)
9. What type of software was used on your past BIM projects for cost estimating? (You
can choose more than one option)
a. WinQS via DimensionX

b. Nomitech
c. Vico Estimator
d. None
e. Other (please specify)
10a. With the implementation of BIM, did your company experience, or do you anticipate
it experiencing, a loss of productivity/ gain of productivity?
Yes No
10b. In your opinion what are, or would be, the main reasons for loss or gain of
productivity?
11. Have you ever heard about BIM?
Yes No
12. How did you get to know about BIM? (You can choose more than one option)
a. Professionals in the Industry

b. Workshops
c. Seminars
d. Conferences
e. Websites
f. None
g. Other (please specify):
13. What does BIM stand for?
a. Building information modelling

b. Building Information Model § Building Information Management § Other
(please specify):
14. How would you describe BIM? (You can choose more than one option)
a. BIM is a software
b. BIM is a technology
c. BIM is a process
d. BIM provides a smooth flow of information
e. BIM is both software and technology
f. BIM is both technology and process
g. BIM gets people and information working together effectively and efficiently
through defined processes and technology.
h. Other (please specify):
15. Are you aware of BIM benefits and drawbacks?

a. Yes
b. No
c. Other (please specify):
16. In your opinion, how will the implementation of BIM affect the role of the Quantity
Surveyor?
§ Application of BIM will not affect the role of quantity surveyor

§ Application of BIM will redefine the role of quantity surveyor
§ Application of BIM will Extinct the role of quantity surveyor
17. The role of the quantity surveyor changed during projects when BIM was used.
§ Strongly disagree
§ Disagree
§ Neutral
§ Agree
§ Strongly agree
18. In what way do you think the implementation of BIM will affect the following key
tasks performed by the Quantity Surveyor? (You can choose more than one option).
§ Preparation of cost estimates

§ Cost analysis and lifecycle costing
§ Establishing client requirement and feasibility studies
§ Identifying, analysing and developing responses to risks
§ Analysing proposed outcomes
§ Valuing completed work and arranging payments
19. The traditional responsibilities of a quantity surveyor will become less as the use of
BIM increases.
Strongly disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly agree
20. The use of BIM generally improves the ability of the quantity surveyor to provide
good cost advice during early design development.
21. The use of BIM generally improves the accuracy of cost estimates.
22. Quantity Surveying companies will be left behind and/or struggle to survive if they do
not adopt BIM quickly enough.

23. Clients will increasingly insist on BIM adoption?
24. BIM is the “future of project information management”
25. Will you be willing to participate in a BIM-based interview?
Yes No
If yes, please provide the following details:
Name:
Email address:
Phone number:
SECTION 2: DRIVERS FOR BIM ADOPTION
Please tick (√) to indicate your answer to each question in the following table, where necessary.
Please note: SA – Strongly Agree, AG – Agree, Nu – Neutral, DA – Disagree, SD – Strongly
Disagree.
Question: Did any of the following factors encourage you to adopt BIM or will any of the
following factors enhance you to adopt BIM?
BIM
Root Causes SA AG Nu DA SD
DRIVERS
Improve design quality
Reduce re-design issues
Provisions of clear workable model for end
users
The use of BIM
model Design changes reflected consistently in all
drawing views.
Improving rich three-dimensional (3D) context
by aiding QS to identify significant cost-
sensitive design features.
Any changes made to the model such as editing
of plans, sections or 3D view within the model
automatically made to all other documentation,
drawings, and outputs by saving time for the
manual revisions.
If other state
here
Earlier and more accurate design visualisation
Improve clash detection
Improved
visualisation QS can carry out a 3D virtual walk-through and
make sure everything in the model is factored in
the QTO.
If other state
here
QS can to extract and distinguish information
Easy Access to from the 3D model
Information Quantity surveyors can upload or download any
information at any stage of the project from
these models.
Information can be filtered
If other state
here
Improved Efficiencies from reuse of data
Information Improved documents management
Management Intelligent information management allows data
to be stored in a centrally coordinated model.
If other state
here
Improved Improved communication between project
communication parties
If other state
here
Improved Better coordination between stakeholders
Coordination
If other state
here
Cost implications of design changes can be
generated easily without manually re-
Automate measurement.
Quantity Take- Easily generate accurate cost estimates for
off various design alternatives.
Preliminary cost plan can be prepared by
extracting quantities from the model.
If other state
here
Client Demand
Government
Intervention
Professional
bodies
Industry
Demand
BIM-based
education
Organizational
pressure
If any other,
please specify
here:
SECTION 3: BARRIERS TO BIM ADOPTION
Please tick (√) to indicate your answer to each question in the following table, where necessary.
Please note: SA – Strongly Agree, AG – Agree, Nu – Neutral, DA – Disagree, SD – Strongly
Disagree.
Question: Did any of the following factors hinder the adoption of BIM or will any of the
following factors hinder the acceptance of BIM in your organisation?
BIM
Root Causes SA AG NU DA SD
BARRIERS
Client Client limitations due to high cost.
Lack of client awareness
Lack of government direction
Absence of BIM mandate
Government
Insufficient BIM standards and protocols
Absence of BIM Implementation plan
Perceived lack of industry adoption
Market Demand All the practitioners are not on BIM
platform
Professional Lack of Professionals involvement
Bodies Lack of professional bodies involvement
Data ownership is still being developing
and therefore too risky.
Design responsibility is still being
developing and therefore too risky.
The legalities in terms of contracts are
Legal Issues
still being developing and therefore too
risky.
Liabilities are still being developed and
therefore too risky.
Lack of interoperability
Lack of BIM related Continuous
professional development (CPD),
seminars and conferences
Lack of BIM what it will actually
Unawareness
achieve
Lack of understanding of BIM benefits
Lack of BIM related trainings
Lack of education programmes on BIM
Cost for new hardware and software
Financial Cost of training existing staff
Cost of software updates
Lack of details regarding implementation
Lack of support from senior management
Fear of extinction of the QS role
Lack of internal People refusal/reluctance to learn
pressure Inflexible mind-set of staff
Weak cooperation between different
disciplines
The strong resistance to change
Lack of resources within the organisation
Lack of BIM
Lack of suitably BIM skilled staff
Resources
Shortage of experts in BIM field
Lack of internet facilities
Absence of Common database in
construction industry.
If any other,
please specify
here:
Appendix D – Research Participant Information
Research Participant Information
Building Information Modelling (BIM): A framework to promote BIM adoption to improve

the accuracy of pre-tender cost estimates in Sri Lanka
CONFIDENTIALITY STATEMENT
All responses given as a part of interviews and questionnaire survey will be treated with utmost
confidentiality and will be available only to the researcher and supervisor of the project.
Excerpts from the interviews and questionnaire will be used for research publications, but
under no circumstances will your name or any identifying characteristics be disclosed in such
publications.
This confidentiality statement will be signed by both the participant and the researcher in order
to ensure that data obtained will only be used for the above research, and will not be disclosed
to any other person, or be used for other purposes.
Name of participant:
Name of researcher: Anushka Rathnayake
Signature: Signature:
Date: Date:
Thank you for your cooperation
RESEARCH PARTICIPANT CONSENT FORM
Building Information Modelling (BIM): a framework to promote BIM adoption to improve

the accuracy of pre-tender cost estimates in Sri Lanka
Research Team Contacts
Anushka Rathnayake Dr. Kaushal Keraminiyage
A.P.Rathnayake@edu.salford.ac.uk K.P.Keraminiyage@salford.ac.uk
STATEMENT OF CONSENT
By signing below, you are indicating that you:
§ Have read and understood the information sheet for the above study and what my
contribution will be.
§ Have been given the opportunity to ask questions (face to face, via telephone, e-mail and
WhatsApp).
§ Have agreed to take part in the interview/questionnaire survey
§ Have agreed to the interview discussion being tape recorded
§ Have understood that your participation is voluntary
§ Have understood that you can withdraw from the research at any time without giving any
reason
§ Have understood that if you withdraw from the research, responses given will not be used
for the study.
Name: ………………………………………………………………………….
Signature: ………………………………………………………………………
Date: ……………………………………………………………………………
Please return this sheet to the investigator.

Appendix E - Interview Guidelines
Research Title: A FRAMEWORK TO ENHANCE THE ADOPTION OF BUILDING

INFORMATION MODELLING AMONGST SRI LANKAN QUANTITY SURVEYING
ESTIMATES
This interview is based on an ongoing PhD, and the aim of this research is to develop a BIM
adoption framework for the Sri Lankan quantity surveying organizations that will support
better pre-tender cost estimation. The questions intend to capture the required elements to
develop a framework. As such following questions will be ask during the interview.
Interview questions:
1. Is there any drivers within your organizations to adopt BIM? if so, what are they?
2. Are they are any barriers for you to adopt BIM within your organization?
3. Why do you identified it as a barrier?
4. What did you do to overcome the identified barriers?
PARTICIPANTS’ RIGHTS
You have the right to:
Stop being a part of the research study at any time without explanation.
Ask that any data you have supplied to be withdrawn/destroyed.
Omit or refuse to answer or respond to any question that is asked of you.
Have your questions about the procedures answered (unless answering these questions would
interfere with the study’s outcome).
Query the researcher before the study begins if you have any questions as a result of reading
this information sheet.
Appendix F – Published Papers
Published papers
Rathnayake, A; Kulatunga, U and Coates, P (2017), Building information modelling (bim)

educational framework for the quantity surveying students: Sri Lankan perspective, In
Proceedings for the CIB 2014 International Postgraduate Research Conference, 14th-15th
September 2017, University of Salford, Salford.
Mollasalehi S., Rathnayake A., Aboumoemen A., Underwood J., Fleming A., Kulatunga U.,
and Coates P. (2017). “How BIM-LEan integration enhances the information management
process in the construction design.” In: Proc. Lean & Computing in Construction Congress
(LC3), Vol. 1 (CIB W78), Heraklion, Greece.
Rathnayake, A., & Samir, H. (2019). Current Status of Awareness and Readiness Towards
Building Information Modelling (BIM) Among Sri Lankan Quantity Surveyors. CITC.
London: Sprigfield.
Rathnayake, A., Mollasalehi,, S., Aboumoemen , A., Kulatunga, U., & Samir , H. H. (2019).
Building Information Modelling Adoption for better cost estimation: Sri Lankan perspective.
The Tenth International Conference on Construction in the 21st Century (CITC-10).
Colombo: CITC.
Mollasalehi, S., A. A. Aboumoemen, A. Rathnayake, A. Fleming, and J. Underwood. 2018.

“Development of an Integrated BIM and Lean Maturity Model.” in IGLC 2018 - Proceedings
of the 26th Annual Conference of the International Group for Lean Construction: Evolving
Lean Construction Towards Mature Production Management Across Cultures and Frontiers.
Vol. 2.

Full Thesis Final Version 2021 Anushka

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Full Thesis Final Version 2021 Anushka

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Full Thesis Final Version 2021 Anushka

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

A FRAMEWORK TO ENHANCE THE ADOPTION OF

BUILDING INFORMATION MODELLING AMONGST SRI

ANUSHKA PRASADINI RATHNAYAKE

School of the Science, Engineering and Environment

Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements of the Degree of

AEC – Architectural Engineering and Construction

AQTO- Automate Quantity Take-off

2.3 CONSTRUCTION COST OVERRUNS ................................................................................................. 30

5.7 SUMMARY AND LINK: QUESTIONNAIRE A FINDINGS ................................................................... 162

Figure 2.3: Cost overruns in Nepal construction projects (Kathmandu, 2020)…………………………...34

1.2 Research Background

1.3 Problem Statement

1.4.3 Research Questions

1.5 Scope of the Research

1.6 Structure of the Thesis

1.7 Summary and Link

2.2 Pre-Tender Estimates (PTE)

1. Whether the client can afford the proposed project

According to Seeley (1996):

The primary role of estimated or pre-tender estimating is to produce a forecast of the

In comparison, Serpell (2005) defined pre-tender estimates as:

2.2.1 Importance of the Accurate Pre-tender Cost Estimates

2.3.1 Construction Costs Overruns in A Global Context

Figure 2.2: Over-budget construction projects worldwide (Forbes, 2020)

2.3.2 Construction Cost Overruns in The Sri Lankan Context

Figure 2.5: Colombo Lotus Tower (Daily News, 2019)

2.3.3 The Causes of Construction Cost Overruns Globally

2.4 Factors Affecting the Accuracy of Pre-Tender Cost Estimates

Market condition Fluctuations in the cost of building materials Idiosyncratic Factor

Communication Poor communication with other parties Control Factor

Use of technology Un-use advanced technologies

Time constraints Insufficient time Control Factor

Project characteristics Project complexity Idiosyncratic Factor

2.4.1 The Use Of 2D Design Drawings

2.4.2 Poor Communication

Figure 2.1 Lack of coordination

2.4.5 Lack of Proper Site Investigations

2.4.6 Lack of Experience and Knowledge of Quantity Surveyor

2.4.8 Time Constraints

2.4.9 Inefficiencies in Existing Cost Estimating Software

2.5 Summary and Link

3.2 Evolution of Building Information Modelling (BIM) in the Construction Industry

3.3 BIM Definitions

3.4 The Use Of BIM to Enable Accurate Pre-Tender Cost Estimating

3.4.1 The Use of BIM 3D Models

Figure 3.3: BIM Clash Detection (Silicon Consultants, 2018)

3.4.2 Improved Information Management

3.4.3 Automated Quantity Take-Off (AQTO)

3.4.4 Improved Coordination and Communication

3.4.5 Improved Site Investigations

3.4.6 Time Savings

3.5.1 BIM Maturity Models

Figure 3.6: BIM Maturity Index (BIMMI) (Succer, 2009)

Figure 3.7: Malaysian BIM maturity model (CIDB, 2016)

Figure 3.10: NBC Roadmap to 2021 (NBC, 2018)

Figure 3.12 German Road Map (MagiCad, 2018)

Figure 3.13: Finnish Roadmap 2030 (MagiCAD, 2019)

Figure 3.16: Malaysian BIM adoption rate (CIDB, 2017)

Figure 3.19: Indonesian BIM Roadmap (BIMPUPR, 2017)

3.7 The Drivers And Barriers to BIM Adoption