1

Math 2005, Lectured by Dr Aye Pyone 2.11. 2021

Text: [3] Smart, W. M. & Greence. R., (1986) Text-Book on Spherical Astronomy,
Cambridge University Press
1. Introduction

 In astronomy, the celestial sphere is an abstract sphere that has an arbitrarily large radius
and is concentric to Earth.
 Spherical astronomy is a branch of observational astronomy used to locate astronomical
objects on the celestial sphere, as seem at a particular date, time and location on Earth.
 Astronomy is a natural science that studies celestial objects and phenomena.
 The foundation of spherical astronomy is the geometry of the sphere.
2. The Spherical Triangle

 Any plane passing through the center of the sphere cuts the surface in a circle which is
called a great circle.
 Any plane intersecting the sphere but not passing through center will cuts the surface in a
circle which is called a small circle.
 Let QOP be the diameter of the sphere perpendicular to the plane the great circle EAB.
 Let R be any point in OP and suppose a plane drawn through R parallel to the plane of EAB
is called a small circle FCD. OP ⊥ FCD
 P and Q are called poles.
 Now let PCAQ be any great circle passing through the poles P and Q and intersecting the
small circle FCD and great circle EAB in C and A respectively.
 Similarly, PDB is part of another great circle passing through P and Q.
 When any two great circles intersect at a point they are said to include a spherical angle.
 A spherical angle is the angle between two intersecting arcs of great circle on a sphere.
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 Consider the two great circles PA and PB intersecting at P. Draw PS and PT, the tangents to
the circumferences of PA and PB respectively.
 PT is parallel to OB. Similarly, PS ∕ ∕ OA
 ^ APB=S P ^ T (spherical angle)
 Thus, ^ APB=S P ^ T=AO ^B
 A spherical triangle is a figure formed on the surface of a sphere by three great circle arcs
intersecting pairwise in three vertices.
 IF the sphere has radius R, so will all its great circles; so the length of an arc is exactly R
times the radian measure of the central angle it interests.[ https://www.math.stonybrook.edu
› archive › spher-trig]
 For example: If AY is one-eighth of the circumference of the complete great circle through
A and Y, then
1 π
AY = × 2 π=
8 4
 By the definition of spherical triangle, no side can be equal or greater than 180 °
 For example, in spherical triangle PAB,
length of arc PA = length of PB = π /2 radian
3. Length of a small circle arc
Consider in Fig. 1, the small circle arc CD. Its length is given by
CD=RC ×C R ^D (1)
Also, the length of the spherical arc AB is given by
AB=OA × A O ^B (2)
Since the plane of FCD is parallel to the plane of EAB,
CR^ D= A O ^ B since RC /¿ OA & RD /¿ OB
Eq .(1) CD RC ×C R ^D
⟹ =
Eq. (2) AB OA × A O ^B
RC
CD= × AB
OA
RC
¿ × AB since OA=OC=¿ radii of sphere
OC
OC cos O C^ R × AB
¿
OC
^R
¿ AB cos O C
^ C since CR/¿ AO
¿ AB cos A O
Since AOC is the angle subtended at the center of the sphere by the great circle arc AC,
CD= AB cos AC
¿ ABcos (90 °−PC )
CD= AB sin PC (3)
Q. Derive the formula for the length of a small circle arc CD.
4. Terrestial latitude and longitude
PQ = Diameter, P = north pole, Q = south pole
 The great circle whose plane is perpendicular to PQ is called the equator.
 Any semi-great circle terminated by P and Q is a meridian.
 PGKQ is Greenwich meridian (principal or standard meridian)
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 PHLQ is a meridian
 ^ L = longitude of PHQ
KO

 KO ^ L=¿ equatorial arc KL = ^ KPL (spherical angle)

 Longitude are measured from 0 ° to 180 ° east of the Greenwich meridian and from 0 ° to 180 °
west
 Thus, Fig. 2, the longitude of the meridian PHQ is about 100 ° east (E) and that of the meridian
PMQ is about 60 ° west (W).
 All places on the same meridian have the same longitude
 Consider a place J on the meridian PHQ. The meridian through J cuts the equator in L and L O ^J
, or the great circle arc LJ, is called the latitude of J
 If J is between the equator and the north pole, the latitude is said to be north latitude (N); if R
is between the equator and south pole Q, is said to be south latitude (S)
Let ϕ =¿ latitude of J; then
^ J =LJ
ϕ =L O
Since OP is perpendicular to the plane of the equator, P O ^ L=90 °
spherical arc PJ = P O ^ J = colatitude of J
Colatitude ¿ 90 °−¿ latitude
 All places which have the same latitude lie on a small circle parallel to the equator, called a
parallel of latitude
 Thus all places with the same latitude as Greenwich lie on the same circle MGHX
Q. Draw equator NKY, Greenwich PKQ and small circle MGX.
 If θ denotes the latitude of Greenwich, by Eq.(3)
HX =LY cos θ (4)
 A degree is 1/360 of the arc of a circle
1
1 °= × the length of arc of a circle
360
length of arc of a circle ¿ 360 °
1
1 min¿ ×1 °
60
1 °=60 min
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1
1 s= ×1 min
60
1 min ¿ 60 s
 The great circle distance between two points subtending an angle of one minute of arc at the
center of the earth is known as the nautical mile.

No.4 (pg 23) Two ships X and Y are steaming along the parallels of latitude 48 ° N and 15 ° S
respectively, in such a way that at any given moment the two ships are on the meridian of
longitude. If the speed of X is 15 knots, find the speed of Y.
' '
X X =¿ speed of ship X, Y Y =¿ speed of ship Y

AX=48 ° , AY =15 °

X X ' = AB cos AX , Y Y ' = ABcos AY

Y Y ' AB cos AY
=
XX ' AB cos A X

' cos 15°

Y Y =15 knots
cos 48 °

¿ 21.65 knots

5. The cosine formula

Let ABC be a spherical triangle. Let great circle BC=a, CA =b & AB=c . Then
BO ^ C=a
Draw the tangent AD to the great circle AB at A. Draw the tangent AE to the great circle AC at A.
OA ⊥ AD and AE Draw OB to meet AD at D. Draw OC to meet AE at E. Join D and E.
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^
BAC=D ^ AE
AD
Let D ^
A E= A . In the plane triangle OAD, =tan c.
AO
AD=OA tan c

OA
=cos c
OD
OD=OA sec c (5)

In Plane triangle OAE,

OA
AE = OA tan b, =cos b
OE
In plane triangle DAE, OE = AO sec b (6)
2 2 2
D E = A D + D E −2 AD ⋅ DE cos A
2 2 2 2
¿ O A tan c+O A tan b−2OA tan c ⋅OA tan b cos A (7)
In plane triangle DOE,
2 2 2
D E =DO +O E −2 DO ⋅ OE cos a
¿ O A 2 sec 2 c+O A2 sec 2 b−2OA sec c ⋅ OA sec b cos a (8)
By Eqs. (7) & (8),
2 2 2 2
tan c + tan b−2 tan c ⋅tan b cos A=sec c + sec b−2 sec c ⋅ sec b cos a
2 2
¿ 1+ tan c +1+ tan b−2 sec c ⋅ sec b cos a
−2 tan c ⋅ tan b cos A=¿ 2−2 sec c ⋅ sec b cos a
1
cos a= ¿
sec c ⋅ sec b
cos a=cos b cos c +sin b sin c cos A (A)
This is called cosine formula or formula A. The other two cosine formulae are
cos b=cos c cos a+sin c sin a cos B (9)
cos c=cos a cos b+sin a sin b cos C (10)
Derive the formula

sin
A
2
=
√sin ( s−b ) sin (s−c)
sin b sin c
where a , b, c are length of sides of spherical triangle ABC such that s=a+b+ c .
We have formula A:
cos a=cos b cos c +sin b sin c cos A
cos A=cosec b cos ec c ¿ (11)

( A A
) 2 A
Sincecos A=cos + =cos −sin =1−2sin ,
2 2 2
2 A
2
2 A
2
cos a=cos b cos c +sin b sin c ¿]
2 A
¿ cos ( b−c ) −2sin b sin c sin
2
2 A
cos a−cos ( b−c )=2 sin b sin c sin
2
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( b−c ) +a ( b−c ) −a A
−2 sin sin =2 sin b sin c sin2
2 2 2
a+ ( b−c ) a−( b−c ) A
2 sin sin =2 sin b sin c sin 2
2 2 2
Let 2 s=a+ b+c . Then
a+ b−c=2(s−c) and a−b+ c=2(s−c)
Hence
2 A
sin ( s−c ) sin ( s−b )=sin b sin c sin
2
A
sin
2
=

This is called half-angle formula. Similarly,

√
sin ( s−b ) sin(s−c)
sin b sin c
(12)

B
sin
2
=
√
sin ( s−a ) sin (s−c)
sin a sin c

A sin s sin ⁡(s−a)

C
sin =
2 √
sin ( s−a ) sin(s−b)
sin a sin b
Derive formula cos = where a , b, c are length of sides of spherical triangle ABC
2 sin b sin c
such that s=a+b+ c . [ Homework]

[ ][ ]
1/ 2 1/ 2
A sin ( s−b ) sin ( s−c ) sin b sin c
tan =
2 sin b sin c sin s sin( s−a)

[ ]
1/ 2
sin ( s−b ) sin ( s−c )
¿
sin s sin(s−a)
(13)
Any one of Eqs. (11)-(13) can be used to calculate A, the three sides being known.
6. The sine-formula (formula B)
Derive the sine-formula.
We have formula A:
cos a=cos b cos c +sin b sin c cos A
sin b sin c cos A=cos a−cos b cos c
2 2 2 2 2 2
sin b sin c cos A=cos a+cos b cos c−2cos a cos b cos c
2 2 2 2 2
cos a+ cos b cos c−2 cos a cos b cos c=sin b sin c ¿
2 2 2 2 2
¿ sin b sin c−sin b sin c sin A
2 2 2 2 2
¿ sin b sin c−sin b sin c sin A
¿¿¿
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
¿ 1−cos b−cos c+ cos b cos c−sin b sin c sin A
2 2 2 2 2 2
sin b sin c sin A=1−cos a−cos b−cos c+2 cos acos b cos c
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
sin b sin c sin A=X sin b sin c sin c
where a positive quantity X is defined by
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
X sin b sin c sin c=1−cos a−cos b−cos c +2 cos a cos b cos c
Then
sin A
X =±
sin a
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In spherical triangle, the sides are each less than 180 °,

sin A
X=
sin a
Similarly, for the other two formulae A,
sin B sinC
X= , X= .
sin b sin c
Hence
sin A sin B sin C
= = (B)
sin a sin b sin c
This is called sine-formula or formula B.
(7) The analogue formula (formula C)
We have formula A:
cos b=cos c cos a+sin c sin a cos B
sin c sin a cos B=cos b−cos c (cos b cos c+ sin b sin c cos A)
¿ cos b ¿
2
¿ cos b sin c−cos c sin b sin c cos A
sin a cos B=cos b sin c−cos c sin b cos A
sin a cos B=cos b sin c−sinb cos c cos A (14)
(8) The Four-part formula
We have
cos b=cos c cos a+sin c sin a cos B
¿ cos a(cos a cos b+sin a sin b cos C )+ sin c sin a cos B
cos b ¿
2
cos b sin a=cos a sin a sin b cos C+ sin c sin a cos B
sin c
cot b sin a=cos a cos C+ cos B
sin b
sin C
cos a cos C=sin a cot b−¿ cos B ¿
sin B
cos a cos C=sin a cot b−sin C cot B (D)
This is called four-part formula or formula D.
cos (inner side) cos(inner angle) = sin (inner side) cot (other side)- sin(inner angle) cot (other angle)

cos c cos B=sin c cot a−sin B A cot C cos a cos B=sin a cot c−sin B cot C

Numerical Example (Pg. 16)

Let A and B represent two places, in the north latitude, on the surface of the earth; their latitudes
are respectively 24 ° 18 ' N abd 36 ° 47 ' N and their longitudes 133 °39 ' E and 125 ° 24 ' W
respectively. Find (i) the length of great circle arc AB (ii) the angle PAB, P being the north pole
(iii) the most northerly point on the great circle AB.
PAHQ is the meridian through A cutting the equator in H.
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latitude of A = HA = 24 ° 18 ' N,
PA =90 °−¿ 24 ° 18 ' N ¿ 65 ° 42'
latitude of B = KB =36 ° 47 ' N
PB = 90 °−36 ° 47 ' =53 ° 13 '
Let the Greenwich meridian intersect the equator in G.
GH = long. of A = 133 ° 39 ' E
HK = long. of B =125 ° 24 ' W
HK = 360 °−( 133 ° 39' +125 ° 24' )=360°−259° 3' =100 ° 57'
Thus, A ^PB=100 ° 57 =¿ Length of great circle arc ^
'
AB

(i) By formula A,
cos c=cos b cos a+sin b sin a cos P
¿ cos 65 ° 42 ' cos 53 °13' +sin 65 ° 42 ' sin 53° 13' cos 100° 57 '
¿ 0.1077556596
−1
c=cos 0.1077556596
¿ 83.81404472
c=83° 48 ' 50.56 ' ' or c=5028.8 nautical miles (1 °=60nautical miles)
(ii) By formula B,
sin A sin 100° 57 '
=
sin 53° 13 ' sin 83 ° 50.56 '
sin 100 °57 ' × sin 53° 13 '
sin A=
sin 83 °50.56 '
¿ 0.7909290134
−1
A=sin 0.7909290134
¿ 52.27241419
'
¿ 52° 16 20.69 ' '
Homework use formula A and half-angle formula.
(iii) Let C be the most northerly point on AB.
Thus ^PCA=90°
By formula B,
sin PC sin 65 ° 42 '
=
sin A sin 90 °
'
sin PC =sin 65° 42 ' ×sin 52 ° 16 20. 69' '
¿ 0.7208552916
−1
PC =sin 0.7208552916
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¿ 46.12514011
¿ 46 ° 730.5 ' '
No. 1. In the spherical triangle ABC, C=90 ° , a=119 ° 46 ' 36 ' ' and B=52 ° 2 5' 3 8 ' ' . Calculate the
values of b, c and A.

By four-part formula,

sin c sin 48 ° 26 ' 49 ' ' sin 90 °

= sin A=sin 119° 46 ' 36 ' ×
sin 90 ° sin 52° 25 ' 38' ' sin 70 ° 46 '
sin 48 ° 26 ' 49 ' ' sin A=0.9192773427
sin c=
sin 52° 25' 38' '
A=sin−1 0.9192773427
c=0.9441852456
−1
¿ 66.820661199
c=sin 0.9441852456
¿ 66 ° 49' 38 ' '
¿ 70.76672964
No 2,3 HW ¿ 70 ° 46 '
Pb 1. In the diagram, the meridian through NGPS is the Greenwich meridian. Poins G and Q are on
the 40 ° N parallel of latitude. Points P abd A are on the equator. Write down the positions of points
G, Q, A and P.

G(40° N , 0° E ( ¿ W ) )

Q( 40° N 50° E)
A( 0° N ( ¿ S ) ,50 ° E)
P(0 ° ( N∨S ) , 0 ° E)
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2 πr =360 °

l=θ

l θ
=
2 πr 360°

Pb 2. Paris(France) is at 48.67 ° N and 2.33 ° E. How far is it from Paris to the North Pole and the
Equator travelling along the meridian, correc to the nearest km?
Each meridian is a great circle, with a radius of 6400 km. The latitude of Paris =48.67 ° N
colatitude of Paris = 90 °−48.67 ° N ¿ 41.33 °
From Paris to the Equator
6400 π
l= × 48.67 °
180 °
¿ 5436.491
≈ 5436 km
From Paris to the North Pole
6400 π
l= × 41.33°
180 °
¿ 4616.605
≈ 4617 km

Pb 3. Melbourne (Victoria) is at 37.82 ° S and 144.97 ° E . How far is it from Melbourne to the
South Pole, the Equator and the North Pole travelling along the meridian, correct to the nearest km?
Each meridian is a great circle, with a radius of 6400 km
From Melbourne to the Equator
The angle between the latitude of Melbourne and that of the Equator is 37.82 °
6400 π
l= ×37.82 °
180 °
¿ 4224.53
≈ 4224 km
From the Melbourne to the South Pole;
colatitude ¿ 90 °−37.82 °=52.18 °
6400 π
l= ×52.18 °
180 °
¿ 5828.56
≈ 5829 km
From Melbourne to the North Pole
angle ¿ 90 ° +37.82° =127.82°
6400 π
l= ×127.82 °
180 °
¿ 14277.63
≈ 14278 km
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Pb 4. Both Torrens Creek (Queensland) and Kyabram (Victoria) are on the 145 ° E meridian of
longitude, but Torrens creek is at 20.77 ° S whereas Kyabram is at 36.32 ° S. How far is it from
Torrens Creek to Kyabram travelling along the 145 ° E meridian, correct to the nearest km?
Each meridian is a great circle, with a radius of 6400 km. The angle between the latitude of
Torrens Creek and that of Kyabram is 36.32 °−20.77 °=15.55 °
Frp, Torrens Creek to Kyabram
6400 π
l= ×15.55 °
180 °
¿ 1736.95
≈ 1737 km

Pb 5. Both Broken Hill (NSW) and Morioka (Japan) are on the 141 °E meridian of longitude, but
Broken Hill is at 31.95 °S whereas Morioka is at 39.70 ° N . How far is it from Broken Hill to
Morioka travelling along the 141° E meridian, correct to the nearest km?
Each meridian is a great circle, with a radius of 6400 km. The angle between the latitude of Broken
Hill and that of Morioka is 31.95 °+ 39.70°=71.65°
From Broken Hill to Morioka

6400 π
l= ×71.65 °
180 °
¿ 8003.31
≈ 8003 km

Pb 6. Both Libreville 9Gabon) and Kismanyo (Somalia) are on the Equtor on opposite sides of the
African continent. Libreville is at 9.27 ° E and Kismanyo is at 42.32 ° E . How far is it from
Libreville to Kismanyo travelling along the Equator, correct to the nearest km?
The Equator is a great circle, with a radius of 6400 km. The angel between the longitude of
Libreville and that of Kismanyo is 42.32 °−9.27° =33.05 °
From Libreville to Kismanyo
6400 π
l= ×33.05 °
180 °
¿ 3691.720
≈ 3692 km

Pb 7. Both Sydney (New South Wales) and Margaret River (Western Australia) are on the 33.5 ° S
parallel of latitude, but Sydney is at 151.13 ° E whereas Margaret River is at 115.04 ° E. How far is
it from Sydney to Margaret River travelling along the 33.5 ° S parallel, correct to the nearest km?

For the small circle, r =6400× cos 33.5 °=5336.869 ≈ 5337km

Longitude angle difference for Sydney and Margaret River is 151.13 °−115.04 °=36.09 °
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From Sydney to Margaret River

6400 π
l= ×3 6 .0 9 °
180 °
¿ 336 1.71 9
≈ 336 2 k m

Pb 8. Both Sydney (Australia) and Cape Town (South Africa) are on the 33.5 °S parallel of latitude,
but Sydney is at 151.13 ° E whereas Cape Town is at 18.22° E. How far is it from Sydney to Cape
Town travelling along the 33.5 ° S parallel , correct to the nearest km?
For the small circle, r =6400× cos 33.5 °=5336.869 ≈ 5337km
Longitude angle difference for Sydney and Margaret River is 151.13 °−18.22° =132.91°
From Sydney to Cape Town
6400 π
l= ×132.91 °
180 °
¿ 12380.330
≈ 12380 k m

Pb 9. Both Sydney (Australia) and Cape Town (South Africa) are on the 33.5 °S parallel of latitude,
but Sydney is at 151.13 ° E whereas Cape Town is at 18.22° E. How far is it from Sydney to Cape
Town travelling along the great circle route, correct to the nearest km?

For the small circle, r =6400× cos 33.5 °=5336.869 ≈ 5337km

Longitude angle difference for Sydney and Margaret River is 151.13 °−18.22° =132.91°
Straight line distance from Sydney to Cape Town
1
d={5337 +5337 −2×5337 × 5337 ×cos 132.91 °}2 ≈ 9785 km
2 2

Angle between earth radii

( )
2 2 2
6400 +6400 −9785
−1
θ=cos =99.72°
2 ×6400 × 6400
From Sydney to Cape Town via great circle route

6400 π
l= ×99.72 °
180 °
¿ 11138.831
≈ 11139 k m