UNIT-3

1.NOISY CHANNELS:
Noisy Channel is type a channel where there is a chance of frame lost, data
corruption or Duplication.
Contains 4 protocols:
 Stop-and-Wait Automatic Repeat Request
 Sliding Window Protocol
 Go-Back-N Automatic Repeat Request
 Selective Repeat ARQ
 Piggybacking Protocol
2.Stop-and-Wait Automatic Repeat Request:
The sender sends one frame and waits for feedback from the receiver. when the
ACK arrives, the sender sends the next frame. Note that sending two frames in
the protocol involves the sender in four events and the receiver in two events.

Some features list:

 Error correction in stop and wait ARQ is done by keeping a copy of the
sent frame and retransmitting of the frame when the timer expires i.e.,
when the acknowledgement is not received.
 In stop-and-wait ARQ, we use sequence numbers to number the frames.\
 The sequence numbers are 0 and 1.
 In stop-and-wait ARQ, the acknowledgement number is the sequence
number of the next frame.
 Design:

The sending device keeps a copy of the last frame transmitted until it receives
an acknowledgment for that frame. A data frame uses a seqNo(sequence
number);an ACK frame uses an ackNo(acknowledgment number). The control
variables for sender and receiver are Sn (next frame to send), Rn (next frame
expected). If a frame is sent, the value of Sn is incremented to 1 else 0 or vice
versa. And similarly, if a frame is received, the value of Rn is incremented to 1
else 0 and vice versa.
 Sn -> points to the slot that matches the sequence number of the frame
sent.
 Rn -> points to the slot that matches the sequence number of the expected
frame.
Example:

Frame 0 is sent and acknowledged. Frame 1 is lost and resent after the time-out.
The resent frame 1 is acknowledged and the timer stops. Frame 0 is sent and
acknowledged, but the acknowledgment is lost. The sender has no idea if the
frame or the acknowledgment is lost, so after the time-out, it resends frame 0,
which is acknowledged.
Algorithm: receiver site
sender site

Sliding Window Protocol:

In this flow control mechanism, both sender and receiver agree on the number
of data-frames after which the acknowledgement should be sent. As we learnt,
stop and wait flow control mechanism wastes resources, this protocol tries to
make use of underlying resources as much as possible.
Example:
A 4-packet window sliding through outgoing data.
(a) When transmission begins
(b) after two packets has been acknowledged, and
(c) after eight packets have been acknowledged.
2. Go-Back-N Automatic Repeat Request:
Go-Back-N protocol is a sliding window protocol. It is a mechanism to detect
and control the error in datalink layer. In this protocol we can send several
frames before receiving acknowledgments; we keep a copy of these frames until
the acknowledgments arrive
When the sender sends all the frames in window, it checks for which sequence
number it has received positive acknowledgement. If all frames are positively
acknowledged, the sender sends next set of frames. If sender finds that it has
received NACK or has not receive any ACK for a particular frame, it
retransmits all the frames after which it does not receive any positive ACK.
Design:

This idea is similar to stop-and-wait ARQ; the only difference is that the sender
window allow us to have as many frames in transition as there are slots in the
send window. The size of the send window must be less than 2m. As an
example, we choose m =2, which means the size of the window can be 2m- 1,
or 3. Figure 2.15 compares a window size of 3 against a window size of 4. If
the size of the window is 3 (less than 22) and all three acknowledgments are
lost, the frame 0 timer expires and all three frames are resent. The receiver is
now expecting frame 3, not frame 0, so the duplicate frame is correctly
discarded.
Example:
The sender enables to send multiple frames without receiving the
acknowledgement of the previous ones. The receiver receives multiple frames
and acknowledge them. The receiver keeps track of incoming frame’s sequence
number.
Algorithms:
Sender site:

Receiver site:
3.Selective Repeat ARQ:

Selective repeat is also the sliding window protocol which detects or corrects
the error occurred in datalink layer. The selective repeat protocol retransmits
only that frame which is damaged or lost. The sender in this case, sends only
packet for which NACK is received.

Design:

This is more complicated than Go-Back-N protocol. the size of the sender and
receiver windows must be at most on half of 2m. For an example, we
choose m = 2, which means the size of the window is 2m/2, or 2. If the size of
the window is 2 and all acknowledgments are lost, the timer for frame 0
expires and frame 0 is resent. However, this time, the window of the receiver
expects to receive frame 0 (0 is part of the window), so it accepts frame 0, not
as a duplicate, but as the first frame in the next cycle. This is clearly an error.
In Selective Repeat ARQ, the size of the sender and receiver window must be
at most one-half of 2m
Example:

In this example, it is clear that the acknowledgement is send for which NACK is
received.no n

Algorithm:
Sender site
receiver site

4.Piggybacking Protocol:
In some protocols data frames flow in only one direction although control
information such as ACK and NAK frames can travel in the other direction. In
real life, data frames are normally flowing in both directions, from node A to
node B and from node B to node A. This means that the control information
also needs to flow in both directions i.e., full – duplex in nature. A technique
called piggybacking is used to improve the efficiency of the bidirectional
protocols
For example, if we consider a frame is carrying data from A to B, it can also
carry control information about arrived (or lost) frames from B; when a frame is
carrying data from B to A, it can also carry control information about the
arrived (or lost) frames from A.
Principles:
1. If station X has both data and acknowledgment to send, it sends a data frame
with the ack field containing the sequence number of the frame to be
acknowledged.
2. If station X has only an acknowledgment to send, it waits for a finite period
of time to see whether a data frame is available to be sent. If a data frame
becomes available, then it piggybacks the acknowledgment with it.
Otherwise, it sends an ACK frame.
3. If station X has only a data frame to send, it adds the last acknowledgment
with it. The station Y discards all duplicate acknowledgments. Alternatively,
station X may send the data frame with the ack field containing a bit
combination denoting no acknowledgment.
Design:
Example:

5.NETWORK LAYER:
This layer helps to uniquely identify hosts beyond the subnets and defines the
path which the packets will follow or be routed to reach the destination. The
network layer is responsible for carrying data from one host to another. It
provides means to allocate logical addresses to hosts, and identify them
uniquely using the same. Network layer takes data units from Transport Layer
and cuts them in to smaller unit called Data Packet.
Network layer defines the data path, the packets should follow to reach the
destination. Routers work on this layer and provides mechanism to route data
to its destination.
6.IPV4 protocol:
Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) is the fourth version in the development of
the Internet Protocol. Internet Protocol version 4 uses 32-bit logical address.
This protocol works at the network layer of the OSI model and at the Internet
layer of the TCP/IP model. IP uses best effort delivery, i.e. it does not guarantee
that packets would be delivered to the destined host, but it will do its best to
reach the destination.

7.Addresses:
The IPv4 Addressing system is divided into five classes of IP Addresses. All the
five classes are identified by the first octet of IP Address.
The first octet referred here is the left most of all. The octets numbered as
follows depicting dotted decimal notation of IP Address −

The number of networks and the number of hosts per class can be derived by
this formula −

8.Classful Addressing:

In the classful addressing, there are 5 classes in which the address space is
divided: A, B, C, D, and E. Each class occupies some fraction of the address
space. We can find the class of an address when given the address in binary
notation or dotted-decimal notation by checking the first few bits or first byte.

Class A:

The first bit of the first octet is always set to 0 (zero). Thus the first octet
ranges from 1 – 127, i.e.
  Class A addresses only include IP starting from 1.x.x.x to 126.x.x.x
only. The IP range 127.x.x.x is reserved for loopback IP addresses.
 Format: 0NNNNNNN. HHHHHHHH. HHHHHHHH. HHHHHHHH
Class B: An IP address which belongs to class B has the first two bits in the
first octet set to 10, i.e.

 Class B IP Addresses range from 128.0.x.x to 191.255.x.x. The default

subnet mask for Class B is 255.255.x.x.
 Format: 10NNNNNN.NNNNNNNN.HHHHHHHH.HHHHHHHH
Class C:
The first octet of Class C IP address has its first 3 bits set to 110, that is −

 Class C IP addresses range from 192.0.0.x to 223.255.255.x. The default

subnet mask for Class C is 255.255.255.x.
 Format: 110NNNNN.NNNNNNNN.NNNNNNNN.HHHHHHHH
Class D:
Very first four bits of the first octet in Class D IP addresses are set to 1110,
giving a range of −

 Class D has IP address range from 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255. Class

D is reserved for Multicasting. In multicasting data is not destined for a
particular host, that is why there is no need to extract host address from
the IP address, and Class D does not have any subnet mask
Class E:
This IP Class is reserved for experimental purposes only for R&D or Study. IP
addresses in this class ranges from 240.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.254. Like Class D,
this class too is not equipped with any subnet mask.
9.Classless Addressing:
Classless Addressing was designed and implemented to overcome address
depletion and give more organizations to access the internet. Here in classless
addressing there are no classes, but addresses are still granted in blocks.

 A block of 16 address combinations (consider last 4 bits) granted to a

small organisation.
 In IPv4 addressing, a block of addresses can be defined as x. y. z. w / n
defines the mask.
 The first addresses in the block can be found by setting the rightmost 32
– n bits to 0s.
 The last addresses in the block can be found by setting the rightmost 32
– n bits to 1s.
 So , the number of possible addresses = 232-n
10.Internetworking:
networks under same administration are generally scattered geographically.
There may exist requirement of connecting two different networks of same
kind as well as of different kinds. Routing between two networks is called
internetworking.
Networks can be considered different based on various parameters such as,
Protocol, topology, Layer-2 network and addressing scheme.
In internetworking, routers have knowledge of each other’s address and
addresses beyond them. They can be statically configured go on different
network or they can learn by using internetworking routing protocol.

Routing protocols which are used within an organization or administration are

called Interior Gateway Protocols or IGP. RIP, OSPF are examples of IGP.
Routing between different organizations or administrations may have Exterior
Gateway Protocol, and there is only one EGP i.e. Border Gateway Protocol.

11.IPV4 Datagram:
IP packet encapsulates data unit received from above layer and add to its own
header information.
The encapsulated data is referred to as IP Payload. IP header contains all the
necessary information to deliver the packet at the other end.

IP header includes many relevant information including Version Number,

which, in this context, is 4. Other details are as follows −
 Version − Version no. of Internet Protocol used (e.g. IPv4).
 IHL − Internet Header Length; Length of entire IP header.
 DSCP − Differentiated Services Code Point; this is Type of Service.
 ECN − Explicit Congestion Notification; It carries information about the
congestion seen in the route.
 Total Length − Length of entire IP Packet (including IP header and IP
Payload).
 Identification − If IP packet is fragmented during the transmission, all
the fragments contain same identification number. to identify original IP
packet they belong to.
 Flags − As required by the network resources, if IP Packet is too large to
handle, these ‘flags’ tells if they can be fragmented or not. In this 3-bit
flag, the MSB is always set to ‘0’.
 Fragment Offset − This offset tells the exact position of the fragment in
the original IP Packet.
 Time to Live − To avoid looping in the network, every packet is sent
with some TTL value set, which tells the network how many routers
(hops) this packet can cross. At each hop, its value is decremented by
one and when the value reaches zero, the packet is discarded.
  Protocol − Tells the Network layer at the destination host, to which
Protocol this packet belongs to, i.e. the next level Protocol. For example
protocol number of ICMP is 1, TCP is 6 and UDP is 17.
 Header Checksum − This field is used to keep checksum value of entire
header which is then used to check if the packet is received error-free.
 Source Address − 32-bit address of the Sender (or source) of the packet.
 Destination Address − 32-bit address of the Receiver (or destination) of
the packet.
 Options − This is optional field, which is used if the value of IHL is
greater than 5. These options may contain values for options such as
Security, Record Route, Time Stamp, etc.

2.Fragmentation:
A data packet can have more or less packet length depending upon the
application. If the data packet size is less than or equal to the size of packet the
transit network can handle, it is processed neutrally. If the packet is larger, it is
broken into smaller pieces and then forwarded. This is called packet
fragmentation. Each fragment contains the same destination and source address
and routed through transit path easily. At the receiving end it is assembled
again.
If a packet with DF (don’t fragment) bit set to 1 comes to a router which cannot
handle the packet because of its length, the packet is dropped.
When a packet is received by a router has its MF (more fragments) bit set to 1,
the router then knows that it is a fragmented packet and parts of the original
packet is on the way.
If packet is fragmented too small, the overhead is increases. If the packet is
fragmented too large, intermediate router may not be able to process it and it
might get dropped.
13.Checksums:
The IPv4 header checksum is a checksum used in version 4 of the Internet
Protocol (IPv4) to detect corruption in the header of IPv4 packets. It is carried
in the IP packet header, and represents the 16-bit result of summation of the
header words.
The checksum field is the 16-bit one's complement of the one's complement
sum of all 16-bit words in the header. For purposes of computing the checksum,
the value of the checksum field is zero.
The result of summing the entire IP header, including checksum, should be zero
if there is no corruption. At each hop, the checksum is recalculated and the
packet will be discarded upon checksum mismatch. The router must adjust the
checksum if it changes part of the IP header
Calculating the IPv4 header checksum:
Consider 4500 0073 0000 4000 4011 b861 c0a8 0001
To calculate the checksum, we can first calculate the sum of each 16 bit value
within the header, skipping only the checksum field itself. Note that these
values are in hexadecimal notation.
4500 + 0073 + 0000 + 4000 + 4011 + c0a8 + 0001 + c0a8 + 00c7 = 2479C
The first digit is the carry count and is added to the sum:
2 + 479C = 479E (if another carry is generated by this addition, another 1 must
be added to the sum)
To obtain the checksum we take the one's complement of this result: B861
Verifying the IPv4 header checksum:
When verifying a checksum, the same procedure is used as above, except that
the original header checksum is not omitted.
4500 + 0073 + 0000 + 4000 + 4011 + b861 + c0a8 + 0001 + c0a8 + 00c7 =
2fffd
Add the carry bits: f f f d + 2 = f f f f
Taking the ones' complement (flipping every bit) yields 0000, which indicates
that no error is detected.

14.Options:
 This is optional field, which is used if the value of IHL is greater than 5.
These options may contain values for options such as Security, Record
Route, Time Stamp, etc.

15.IPV6:
The successor of IPv4 is not designed to be backward compatible. Trying to
keep the basic functionalities of IP addressing, IPv6 is redesigned entirely.
An IPv6 address is made of 128 bits divided into eight 16-bits blocks. Each
block is then converted into 4-digit Hexadecimal numbers separated by colon
symbols.
For example, given below is a 128 bit IPv6 address represented in binary
format and divided into eight 16-bits blocks:
0010000000000001 0000000000000000 0011001000111000
1101111111100001 0000000001100011 0000000000000000
0000000000000000 1111111011111011
Each block is then converted into Hexadecimal and separated by ‘:’ symbol:
2001 : 0000:3238:DFE1:0063:0000:0000:FEFB
Even after converting into Hexadecimal format, IPv6 address remains long.
IPv6 provides some rules to shorten the address. The rules are as follows:
Rule.1: Discard leading Zero(es):
In Block 5, 0063, the leading two 0s can be omitted, such as (5th block):
2001: 0000 : 3238 :DFE1:63:0000:0000:FEFB
Rule.2: If two of more blocks contain consecutive zeroes, omit them all and
replace with double colon sign ::, such as (6th and 7th block):
2001 : 0000:3238:DFE1:63::FEFB
Consecutive blocks of zeroes can be replaced only once by :: so if there are still
blocks of zeroes in the address, they can be shrunk down to a single zero, such
as (2nd block):
2001 :0:3238:DFE1:63::FEFB

16.Advantages: The IPv6 is the successor of IPv4 and has several advantages
over IPv4 and is being widely used nowadays.
 Larger Address Space: As IPv6 is 128 bit, The scalability of this is huge.
We can have up to 340 trillion addresses. Thus, we feel these IP addresses
will never get consumed.
 Simple Header for Router Efficiency: The encapsulation is simpler than
that of IPv4. As IPv6 does not have any checksum thus reduces the burden
of processing for other endpoint devices.
 No Broadcasts: IPv6 does not have concept of broadcast which reduces
utilization of devices in the same subnet.
 Stateful and Stateless Auto configuration: This means that using IPv6,
host configuration is simplified and can be used in both case where a
DHCPv6 server is present (Stateful) and in situations where DHCPv6 server
is not available (Stateless).
 Support for Built-in Mobile IP: This is a major feature taking into
consideration the use of mobile devices. This helps a device to roam into
different wireless networks without the connection breaking.
 Builtin IP Sec Security: In IPv4, IP Sec was added later as an add-on but
with IPv6 IP Security is built-in. Devices can negotiate the security
 parameters dynamically to build a tunnel for secure communication and we
get this without any user intervention.
 Possess Transition features: As there are already millions of devices
using IPv4 addresses and it is not easy to switch to IPv6 immediately, thus
there are some transition mechanisms that help devices between different IP
versions i.e. IPv4 and IPv6 to communicate with each other.
 Dual Stack: Allows both protocols to be running simultaneously
 Tunneling: is used to tunnel the IPv4 under a IPv6 and vice versa
 NAT-PT: Translate the IPv4 address to IPv6 address. It stands for Network
Address Translation – Protocol Translation or Proxy Translation.
 No more need of NAT: As sufficient IPv6 addresses are available, no need
to do NAT.
 Neighbour Discovery: The usage of Neighbor Discovery Protocol in IPv6
is used in place of ARP used with IPv4.

17.Fixed Header
IPv6 headers have one Fixed Header and zero or more Optional (Extension)
Headers. All the necessary information that is essential for a router is kept in
the Fixed Header. The Extension Header contains optional information that
helps routers to understand how to handle a packet/flow.

[Image: IPv6 Fixed Header]

IPv6 fixed header is 40 bytes long and contains the following information.

S.N. Field & Description

1 Version (4-bits): It represents the version of Internet Protocol, i.e. 0110.

2 Traffic Class (8-bits): These 8 bits are divided into two parts. The most
significant 6 bits are used for Type of Service to let the Router Known what
services should be provided to this packet. The least significant 2 bits are used
for Explicit Congestion Notification (ECN).

3 Flow Label (20-bits): This label is used to maintain the sequential flow of the
packets belonging to a communication. The source labels the sequence to help
the router identify that a particular packet belongs to a specific flow of
information. This field helps avoid re-ordering of data packets. It is designed
for streaming/real-time media.

4 Payload Length (16-bits): This field is used to tell the routers how much
information a particular packet contains in its payload. Payload is composed
of Extension Headers and Upper Layer data. With 16 bits, up to 65535 bytes
can be indicated; but if the Extension Headers contain Hop-by-Hop Extension
Header, then the payload may exceed 65535 bytes and this field is set to 0.

5 Next Header (8-bits): This field is used to indicate either the type of
Extension Header, or if the Extension Header is not present then it indicates
the Upper Layer PDU. The values for the type of Upper Layer PDU are same
as IPv4’s.

6 Hop Limit (8-bits): This field is used to stop packet to loop in the network
infinitely. This is same as TTL in IPv4. The value of Hop Limit field is
decremented by 1 as it passes a link (router/hop). When the field reaches 0 the
packet is discarded.

7 Source Address (128-bits): This field indicates the address of originator of

the packet.

8 Destination Address (128-bits): This field provides the address of intended

recipient of the packet.
18.Extension Headers
In IPv6, the Fixed Header contains only that much information which is
necessary, avoiding those information which is either not required or is rarely
used. All such information is put between the Fixed Header and the Upper
layer header in the form of Extension Headers. Each Extension Header is
identified by a distinct value.
When Extension Headers are used, IPv6 Fixed Header’s Next Header field
points to the first Extension Header. If there is one more Extension Header,
then the first Extension Header’s ‘Next-Header’ field points to the second one,
and so on. The last Extension Header’s ‘Next-Header’ field points to the Upper
Layer Header. Thus, all the headers points to the next one in a linked list
manner.
If the Next Header field contains the value 59, it indicates that there are no
headers after this header, not even Upper Layer Header.
The following Extension Headers must be supported as per RFC 2460:

The sequence of Extension Headers should be:

These headers:
 1. should be processed by First and subsequent destinations.
 2. should be processed by Final Destination.
Extension Headers are arranged one after another in a linked list manner, as
depicted in the following diagram:

[Image: Extension Headers Connected Format]