A Primer on C++ and MATLAB

Lecture notes for ENG101

Introduction to Computers and Programming

Alex F. Bielajew
The University of Michigan
Department of Nuclear Engineering and Radiological Sciences
2927 Cooley Building (North Campus)
2355 Bonisteel Boulevard
Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109-2104
U. S. A.
Tel: 734 764 6364
Fax: 734 763 4540
email: bielajew@umich.edu

c 2000, 2001 Alex F Bielajew

Revision: July 31, 2001

2
Preface

This “book” arises out of a course I teach, a four-credit (52 hour) freshman-level course
Introduction to Computers and Programming being taught in the College of Engineering at
the University of Michigan. The book is in very rough shape at this stage, having just been
assembled from my lecture notes.
Several professors and many students who have contributed to the ideas put into this book.
Professor James Holloway and I have had endless discussion on the general problem of
teaching algorithmic thinking to freshman. We still have not come to any conclusions except
that it is highly challenging and rewarding. As for how it actually gets done, well, to be
sure it is a works-in-progress. I spent a very enjoyable term co-teaching this course (the first
time I taught it) with Professor Ken Powell. Thanks, Ken, for nursing me through that first
year! Both James’s and Ken’s diverse computational background is reflected to some degree
in this book.
I owe a debt of gratitude the dozens of Graduate Student Instructors who have taught with
me on this course. One of them, Dan Osborne, deserves special recognition. He is one of the
most gifted and committed teachers I have ever encountered.
To the thousand or so undergraduates, mostly freshmen, who have taken my course: Every
time I teach this course I learn something new—about computing, about teaching, about
the joy of making an early “deflection” in a student’s career.
The support of the Dean for Engineering Undergraduate Education, Professor Gary Herrin,
is warmly acknowledged. Gary removes many of the roadblocks that could otherwise make
large-scale teaching odious. It is remarkable to have on one’s side an administrator who is
more likely to say “Yes!” rather than “No!” to my numerous outrageous requests.
Finally, none of this would be possible without the support of my wife, Karen Vineberg. Your
strong support during the insanely busy term teaching this course is deeply appreciated.
You are right, I do love teaching this course despite the long hours, the insomnia, the lost
weekends and lost vacations.
To all of them I give my thanks. Your efforts will go to help future students.
AFB, July 31, 2001

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ii
Contents

1 Introduction to the course 1

1.1 Course administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 What this course is about . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

2 Data representations 9
2.1 Bits, nibbles, bytes and words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2 4-bit Binary, Hexadecimal and Decimal Digits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.3 Binary arithmetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.4 Converting from binary to decimal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.4.1 Whole numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.4.2 Real numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.5 Binary integer arithmetic on computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.5.1 Two’s complement integer arithmetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.6 32-bit Binary, Hexadecimal, Unsigned and Signed Integers . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.7 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

3 Algorithms and Pseudocodes 23

3.1 What is an algorithm? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.2 Flowchart representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.3 Pseudocode representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.4 A mini-summary before the examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

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3.5 Some examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

3.5.1 The Breakfast algorithm, or, Bielajew’s Sunday Morning Internationally-
famous pancakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.5.2 Solve for x: Ax2 + Bx + C = 0 where A, B, C are arbitrary constants 28
3.5.3 Iteration: A summing loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.5.4 Iteration: A product loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.6 An aside on computer architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.6.1 What does S = S + 1 mean? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.7 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.8 Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

4 Getting started in C++ 49

4.1 Simple input/output (I/O): A first program in C++ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.2 Compiling, linking, loading and running . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
4.3 Declaring and initializing variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
4.4 Integer math in C++ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
4.5 Floating point math in C++ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.6 The if/else if/else construct . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
4.7 Logical expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
4.7.1 Logical expressions with AND or OR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
4.7.2 Mixed arithmetic and logical expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.8 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
4.9 Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

5 Loops 81
5.1 The while loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
5.2 The do/while loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
5.3 The for loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
5.4 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
5.5 Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
CONTENTS v

6 Early Abstraction—Functions 119

6.1 Motivation for functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
6.2 User-defined functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
6.3 Example: A problem tackled with teamwork . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
6.4 Call by value, call by reference, reference parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
6.4.1 The address of a variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
6.4.2 Call-by-value vs. call-by-reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
6.5 The rules of scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
6.6 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
6.7 Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154

7 More Variable Types, Data Abstraction 161

7.1 Representation of floating-point numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
7.1.1 When is one not one? Floating point anomalies. . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
7.2 char: the character variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
7.2.1 Character strings; the string class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
7.3 The vector class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
7.3.1 Introduction to vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
7.3.2 Declaring and using vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
7.3.3 Vector syntax and rules: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
7.3.4 Vectors and functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
7.4 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183

8 More Data Abstraction, Arrays, Structures 191

8.1 Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
8.1.1 Declaring a 2-dimensional array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
8.1.2 Initializing a 2-dimensional array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
8.1.3 Passing a two-dimensional array to a function . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
8.2 Character arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
8.2.1 One dimensional character arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
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8.2.2 Two dimensional character arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203

8.3 Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
8.3.1 The structure definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
8.3.2 Where can structures be defined? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
8.3.3 The members of a structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
8.3.4 Declaring structure variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
8.3.5 Assigning values to structure members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
8.3.6 Re-assigning values of structure members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
8.3.7 Function call-by-value of a structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
8.3.8 Function call-by-reference to a structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
8.3.9 Structure arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
8.3.10 Example using structures and arrays: Ion transport . . . . . . . . . . 210
8.4 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
8.5 Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218

9 Miscellaneous Topics 227

9.1 Generating random numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
9.1.1 Example: Integrating functions by random sampling . . . . . . . . . 234
9.2 Simple Sorting: The bubble or sinking sort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
9.3 Recursion—A function calling itself . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
9.4 Input and Output using files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
9.4.1 File and stream handling in C++ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
9.4.2 Creating sequential access files and writing to them . . . . . . . . . . 243
9.4.3 Reading from sequential access files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
9.5 Command line arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249

10 A Potpourri of Applications 253

10.1 Finding a zero using the “binary chop” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253

11 Programming in MATLAB 257

CONTENTS vii

11.1 A taste of MATLAB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257

11.2 Arrays in Matlab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
11.3 Loops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
11.3.1 The for loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
11.3.2 The while loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
11.4 The if/else construct . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
11.5 Some Matlab terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
11.6 Operators in MATLAB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
11.6.1 Math operators in Matlab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
11.7 Pointwise operators in MATLAB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
11.7.1 Logical Operators in Matlab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
11.8 M-files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
11.8.1 Script M-files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
11.8.2 Function M-files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
11.9 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
11.10Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
11.10.1 Supplementary material: Trajectories without air resistance . . . . . 325
11.10.2 Supplementary material: Trajectories with air resistance . . . . . . . 325
11.10.3 Supplementary material: Stepping algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
11.10.4 Supplementary material: Trajectories of objects in the universe . . . 333
11.10.5 Supplementary material: Stepping algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334

12 Graphics 339
12.1 Two Dimensional Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
12.1.1 A basic plot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
12.1.2 Using different line colors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
12.1.3 Making titles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
12.1.4 Axis labels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
12.1.5 Different line styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
viii CONTENTS

12.1.6 Point plots, plotting with point symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344

12.1.7 Plotting more than one thing at once . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
12.1.8 Subplots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
12.2 Three dimensional graphics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
12.2.1 Plot3 plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
12.2.2 Mesh plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
12.2.3 Axis labelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
12.2.4 meshc and meshz plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
12.2.5 Surface plots using surf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
12.2.6 Surface plots using surfc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
12.2.7 Surface plots using surfl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
12.2.8 Contour plots using contour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
12.2.9 Contour plots using contour3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
12.2.10 Contour plots using pcolor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
12.2.11 Contour plots using contourf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
12.2.12 Contour plots with labels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357

13 Miscellaneous topics 359

13.1 Pitfall review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
13.1.1 Review of for loops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
13.1.2 Review of functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
13.2 The MATLAB way . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
13.3 Selected Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
13.3.1 Free fall with air resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
13.3.2 Diffusion of charged ions in an electric field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
13.3.3 Calculation of Electric fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
13.4 Summary of the Course . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376

14 Programming Style Guide for C++ 377

CONTENTS ix

15 Syntax reference for beginning C++ 385

16 Syntax reference for more advanced C++ 389

17 Syntax reference for MATLAB 393

x CONTENTS
Chapter 1

Introduction to the course

1.1 Course administration

ENG101 Introduction to Computers and Programming

Section 200

Prerequisites None!

Credits 4

Time MWF 10:40–11:30

Lecturer Alex Bielajew (Pronounce it Bee-yell-eye-eff, or B-L-I-F)

Office hours Mondays 1:00–5:00pm Pierpoint Commons B519, near the computer labora-
tory areas.

Bielajew’s Office 2927 (2nd floor) Cooley Building (Bonisteel and Beal). 9am–5pm
“OPEN DOOR POLICY”. If I’m there the door is open. Knock and walk in on and
Monday, Wednesday or Friday. Tuesdays and Thursdays are devoted to my graduate
students. I’m not around much on Tuesdays and Thursdays.

e-mail bielajew@umich.edu—the most reliable form of contact.

Laboratory subsections 2 hrs/week, taught by Laboratory Instructors in the computer

laboratories, in the basement of the Pierpoint Commons building.

1
2 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO THE COURSE

Subsection details

Instructor Section Location/Time e-mail

TBA 201 B505/WF 11:30–12:30 pm
TBA 202 B505/TTh 10:30–11:30 am
TBA 203 B507/TTh 10:30–11:30 am
TBA 204 B507/WF 11:30–10:30 am
TBA 205 B507/WF 12:30– 2:30 pm
TBA 206 B505/TTh 2:30– 2:30 pm
TBA 207 B507/TTh 2:30– 2:30 pm
TBA 208 B505/WF 4:30– 5:30 pm
TBA 209 B507/WF 4:30– 5:30 pm
TBA 210 B507/TTh 8:30– 9:30 pm

Required text
This course pack.
Recommended text

1. Cay Horstman, Mark Austin and David Chancogne Computing Concepts with
C++ ESSENTIALS and MATLAB, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 2000. (ISBN:
0-471-40906-5)

This is a special order made up of:

1. Cay Horstman,Computing Concepts with C++ Essentials, John Wiley & Sons,
New York, 1999. (ISBN: 0-471-31847-7)
2. Mark Austin and David Chancogne, Introduction to Engineering Programming: In
C, Matlab and Java, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 19xx. (ISBN: 0-471-00116-3)

Honor Code See handout and web page

Grading policy See handout and web page for details
Schedule See handout and web page for details
Course objectives See handout and web page for details
Grading policy See handout and web page for details
Number % Each of Final Grade % of Final Grade
Assignments 8 5 40
Quizzes (1 hour in lab) 3 2 6
Exams 3 18 54
1.1. COURSE ADMINISTRATION 3

Web Site http://www-eng101.engin.umich.edu/

• Very important source of required and supplementary material

• Most lecture notes will be posted on the web
• Assignments will be posted on the web
• Solutions to assignments, and mid-terms may be posted on the web
• Lab Instructor information and material will be on the web
• Hints to solving assignments will be on the web, example problems...
• Check out the other sections’ pages as well (100 and 300)

ENG 101 Administrator Wanda Dobberstein wldobber@engin.umich.edu

• Wanda will deal with routine administrative matters.

• She is the first point of contact for non-technical questions. Ask and she will
either answer right away, find the answer if she does not know, or re-direct the
question to another expert.
• If you have a time conflict with the exams, Wanda will fix it.

How do I get help?

• Consult the web site, it is full of hints, suggestions and examples.

• Look at other web resources (other sections’ web sites).
• Use the office hours! (What are office hours?)
• Read the required and suggested reading material.
• Re-read the required and suggested reading material!
• Discuss with your friends. (See Honor Code policy.)
• Speak to or e-mail your Lab Instructor.
• Speak to or e-mail me.

The handouts These are really my personal lecture notes that I teach from. I have typed
them up and put them in book form to save you the trouble of writing it all down and
organizing it. This is a course in thinking and algorithm design using computers. It is
not a course in stenography! A lot more is said in lecture than is written in the notes!
Write down the extra details! Add your own comments in the margins or a separate
piece of paper. One day these notes may go into a published book on computing. Help
me out with suggestions! Suggestions/corrections will be rewarded!
4 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO THE COURSE

My guarantee There will be nothing on any of the 8 Assignments, 3 Quizzes or 3 Exams

that will not be covered in class or the Lecture Notes. You may have to put together
elements and ideas, but all the elements will be given explicitly in the notes. The
collection of lecture notes is the most important study aid. Other texts and resources
supplement this material and provide many relevant examples.
How do I succeed in this course?

• Go to lectures—they cover the course comprehensively

• Don’t jump sections unofficially, the 100 and 300 sections are different with differ-
ent professors, different lab instructors, different assignments and exams. Their
material will be different. Feel free to sit in on other sections to get a different
view of things.
• If you don’t like the way I do things, switch sections officially.
• Read the notes, type in the examples and try them. Do the exercises at the end
of some of the chapters.
• When you tackle a problem, don’t plunge right into it. Think about it first. Think
about it a long time. Ask yourself why I asked this question in the first point?
What am I trying to accomplish by asking you to solve this? What should you
have learned by solving it?
• The very best students ask themselves a question and then go about finding an
answer themselves. They may even solve the same problem a number of different
ways.
• Don’t try to fix a program by trial-and-error, learn how to debug programs sensi-
bly. When a computer complains and gives you a “diagnostic” message, it often
helps to interpret this message.
• Use similar examples as much as possible and make sure you understand the
examples.
• Get help.
• Use the office hours.
• Recognize that computing is a “skill” that requires knowledge of computing lan-
guages, full understanding of the problems you want to solve, the ability to in-
tegrate ideas and considerable lateral thinking. This is course about problem
solving! The only way to get good at it is by practicing. Playing the piano is
a skill. You can’t learn how to play the piano by reading about it or watching
someone else play the piano.

Computers are stupid. They can only give answers and can never ask questions. Computers
are blindly faithful. They only do what you tell them to do! Computers are really dumb.
They only do what you tell them to do and not what you want them to do.
1.2. WHAT THIS COURSE IS ABOUT 5

1.2 What this course is about

ENG101 Introduction to Computers and Programming
From the College of Engineering Bulletin: Introduction to the organization of digital
computers, computing (i.e. programming) as a tool in engineering, and programming
in C++ and MATLAB

Why am I interested in teaching this course? Good question!

What is an engineer? What is engineering?

Laws of nature (How things work)=⇒
Basic sciences (Characterization/understanding)=⇒
Engineering (Making things work/making things work together)=⇒
Manufacture (Putting it together)=⇒
Utilization (Using it)

What is a computer?

American Heritage Dictionary

1. One who computes. Some of the best examples: Richard Feynman’s computers—
teams of people working out calculations during the Manhattan Project, WWII
ballistics tables, calculation of sine/cosine/logarithm tables
2. A device that computes, especially a programmable electronic machine that
performs high-speed mathematical or logical operations or that assembles, stores,
correlates, or otherwise processes information.
Oxford English Dictionary
1. One who computes; a calculator, reckoner; spec. a person employed to make
calculations in an observatory, in surveying, etc. (Earliest reference 1646).
2. A calculating-machine; esp. an automatic electronic device for performing
mathematical or logical operations; freq. with defining word prefixed, as analogue,
digital, electronic computer (see these words). (Earliest reference 1897).
McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology
A device that receives, processes, and presents information. The two basic types
of computers are analog and digital. Although generally not regarded as such,
the most prevalent computer is the simple mechanical analog computer, in which
gears, levers, ratchets, and pawls perform mathematical operations – for example,
the speedometer and the watt-hour meter (used to measure accumulated electrical
usage). The general public has become much more aware of the digital computer
with the rapid proliferation of the hand-held calculator and a large variety of
intelligent devices, ranging from typewriters to washing machines.
Our definition A “device” that
6 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO THE COURSE

1. accepts some form of input (usually disorganized or of some highly specific

nature),
2. processes this information in a “pre-determined” (programmed) way,
3. produces some form of output (usually more organized or coherent than the
input)
Some common examples
• Personal: Wristwatch, electronic car keys, phone, radio, calculator, laptop...
• In the home: Stove, refrigerator, freezer, microwave oven, clocks and timers,
toaster, coffee machines, thermostats, washer and dryer, TV’s, VCR’s, audio
equipment...
• Automotive: fuel delivery, air/fuel mixture, spark advance, brakes (ABS),
traction control, suspension adjustment, climate control, navigation, computer-
controlled driving (coming soon)...
Mechanical analog computers Wind-up clocks, toys, mechanical calculators...
Electrical analog computers Integrators, differentiators, differential equation solvers,
Christmas light flashers (cheap ones!)...

Digital (computers) only understand 0’s and 1’s, manipulate the states “on” or “off”,
switch between “low” and “high” voltage. But, they can switch between these two
states very, VERY quickly. Modern “run-of-the-mill” digital computers can throw
about 10 billion switches per second! That’s enough to write about a million pages of
text in one second.

• The input is rarely a string of 0’s and 1’s, 011110000110... It can be in the
form of text that is converted to 0’s and 1’s or voltage that is “digitized” with an
“analog-to-digital” converter. (Musical recording, for example.)
• The output is similarly rarely a string of 0’s and 1’s. It can be 1D data (words,
numbers), 2D data (functions, charts, pictures, music), 3D data (video, surfaces,
time-evolving functions)...
• The processing or computing or programming part is what the bulk of the
course is concerned with. The programming responds to the input in some pre-
determined way. In some digital computers the programming is fixed, for example,
a digital clock or a digital thermometer. In the most interesting cases, the program
can be changed. In this course we will learn to program programmable digital
computers.

Programming languages Programming languages provide the prescription, the pre-determined

steps that instruct the computer how to respond to the various input it gets. We will
learn two languages in this course...
1.2. WHAT THIS COURSE IS ABOUT 7

C++ is a very popular (one of the most popular and common) language, a general-
purpose language that can be used for all aspects of computing. It is the best
language to use if one wants to teach many of the basic operations that a computer
can perform.
MATLAB is a language that is suited for scientific and engineering applications,
designed for getting answers quickly, with the minimum of effort, with reasonable
guarantee that the answer is correct.

What this course is REALLY about The hidden agenda

This course is all about putting ideas into action. It is about taking understood notions
of how things work and developing a numerical solution for some specific problem.
This is what engineering is all about. The course will try to put your knowledge of
mathematics and physics to practical use. Some of the problems we may solve in this
course...

• How can I program a computer to play a simple game?

• How far can a golf ball fly into a 50 mile/hour wind?
• How find the shortest distance between two points when the landscape is not flat?
• If I take 10,000 steps in random directions, how far, on average, will I be from
where I started?
• How can I do calculus on a computer (integrate, differentiate, find maxima and
minima)?
• Where should I place a radiator in my room so that I am warm and do not have
to pay too much for the heat?
• How can I make a vacuum?

What this course is NOT REALLY about The ugly stuff

• It is not a primarily a course on computer language syntax. It may seem like it

at times, but it really isn’t. Learning syntax is just a mean to the end.
• It is not really a course on operating systems, computer hardware, or the fine
detail of how computers work. We will discuss this but only enough to get the
job done.

Educational Objectives (from the web site) Engineering 101, Introduction to Com-
puters and Programming, is intended to give you an exposure to, and a chance to
practice, algorithmic thinking. It does so by asking you to actually solve problems us-
ing algorithms. This may be different from other courses that you have taken, because
we do not tell you exactly how to solve the assigned problems. Rather, we provide you
8 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO THE COURSE

with tools that will allow you to solve them and some examples of how problems are
solved. But you must creatively assemble the solution yourself.
Note that neither C++ nor MATLAB languages per se are the keys to the course.
We teach you these languages so that you will have a means to express algorithms for
execution on a computer, but a great many other computer languages could have been
selected to support our central purpose of getting you to think about solving problems
through a set of procedural steps. Because programming languages such as C++ and
MATLAB contain many constructs and demand great attention to detail, it is easy
to loose sight of the true intellectual center of the course. But keeping a focus on
algorithmic thinking will make writing programs less difficult and less time consuming.
The educational objectives of Engineering 101 include:

• To introduce students to algorithmic thinking in their approach to problem solv-

ing.
• To teach students to implement algorithms in ANSI C++.
• To teach students to implement algorithms in MATLAB.
• To have students apply their knowledge of elementary physics and calculus.
• To provide students with a foundation on which to base their later applications
of computers in engineering.

Students who successfully complete Engineering 101 (receive a grade of C or better)

should:

• Design algorithms to accomplish clearly specified tasks.

• Display knowledge of ANSI C+ syntax and semantics
• Display knowledge of MATLAB syntax and semantics.
• Successfully implement clearly stated algorithms in C+.
• Successfully implement clearly stated algorithms in MATLAB.
• Be prepared to engage in discipline specific instruction in computing.

A more comprehensive list of objectives can be seen in the handout.

1.3 Problems
1. In the broad definition of “computer” in this chapter, how many computers can you
find: On yourself? In your room? In your home?
Chapter 2

Data representations

2.1 Bits, nibbles, bytes and words

bit The digital computer hardware is really only comprised of two fundamental things, a
transistor in a “state” of “high voltage” and “low voltage”. This state of high/low (or
on/off) is represented abstractly as 1/0 (one/zero). A “bit” is some piece of hardware
(microscopic) that can exist in either of these two states as determined by a programmer
or computer designer. There are billions of bits in a typical computer. A bit may be
simple, but it is so small, typically well below a micrometer across (1 micrometer =
10−6 m) that we can conceive of cramming billions of them into a relatively small
volume of space. Bits can also be made to change states very rapidly, well under one
nanosecond. (1 nanosecond = 10−9 s.) So, we can do a lot of different things with lots
of bits in a very short span of time.

nibble A “nibble” is a collection of 4 bits. A nibble can be in one of 24 = 16 separate

combinations of bits.

byte A “byte” is a collection of 2 nibbles, or 8 bits. A byte can be in one of 28 = 256

separate combinations of bits. This is enough to, for example, associate with each
unique pattern one of the characters of the English alphabet (upper and lower case)
plus all the common special characters we may use, for example, in writing English
prose or a technical document, e.g. ‘!$&(),:;“’ ?. And, there would lots of room left
over to make other interesting associations.

word A “word” is a collection of bytes—typically 4 for 232 = 4, 294, 672, 296 possible com-
binations. We can do a lot with all the different representations of “words”. We will
see, later in the lecture, how whole numbers can be associated with the various word
patterns.

9
10 CHAPTER 2. DATA REPRESENTATIONS

2.2 4-bit Binary, Hexadecimal and Decimal Digits

4-bits of data (a “nibble”) can represent or be represented by several different things. It is
common for computer programmers to use “hexadecimal” notation (0, 1, 2...9, A, B...F) as
a “shorthand” for (0000, 0001, 0010...1001, 1010, 1011...1111). See the following table.
However, collection of a certain number of bits has to be given an “interpretation”—one that
is sensible to humans. One such assignment (which is completely arbitrary and is decided
upon by the computer programmer or designer) is to assign “decimal” numbers to the strings
of bits. Such an assignment could look like:

Binary Hexadecimal Decimal

representation representation assignment
0000 0 0
0001 1 1
0010 2 2
0011 3 3
0100 4 4
0101 5 5
0110 6 6
0111 7 7
1000 8 8
1001 9 9
1010 A 10
1011 B 11
1100 C 12
1101 D 13
1110 E 14
1111 F 15

We will use this particular representation in doing some simple arithmetic in the exercises
and the assignments.

2.3 Binary arithmetic

Let us pretend that we have to do some arithmetic (additions and multiplications) using only
binary numbers. The numbers 2,3,....9 do not exist! Only 0 and 1 exist. We also assume
that the operations of addition and multiplication are commutative (i.e. independent of the
order of the mathematical operation).
The addition of “fictional” binary numbers–base-2 arithmetic looks like:
2.4. CONVERTING FROM BINARY TO DECIMAL 11

0 + ? = ? + 0 = ?
1 + 1 = 10
10 + 1 = 1 + 10 = 11
11 + 1 = 1 + 11 = 100
10 + 10 = 10 + 10 = 100
.
.
1111 + 111 = 111 + 1111 = 10110
.
.
.
The multiplication of “fictional” binary numbers–base-2 arithmetic looks like:
0 × ? = ? × 0 = 0
1 × ? = ? × 1 = ?
10 × 10 = 10 × 10 = 100
10 × 11 = 11 × 10 = 110
11 × 11 = 1001
.
.
.
1111 × 111 = 111 × 1111 = 1101001
.
.
.
The arithmetic procedure is the analogous to the more familiar base-10 system (that arose
simply because of our anatomy—10 fingers). Additions of columns of numbers, subtraction,
multiplication, the procedure of long division, can be accomplished by analogous procedures.
There is no limit to how long a “fictional” base-2 number can be and we may have to carry
along some extra information with each number—its sign.

2.4 Converting from binary to decimal

2.4.1 Whole numbers

Humans are usually quite awful at doing binary arithmetic. If you are doing such a calcula-
tion, you can check by converting the binary numbers into their decimal equivalents.
In general, to convert a whole binary number to a whole decimal number, consider a binary
number of the form:
bn bn−1 bn−2 · · · b2 b1 b0 ,
12 CHAPTER 2. DATA REPRESENTATIONS

where the bi ’s are either 0 or 1. We compute a decimal number using the following formula:
d10 = bn × 2n + bn−1 × 2n−1 + bn−2 × 2n−2 · · · b2 × 22 + b1 × 21 + b0 × 20 .

For example, the result of the two more difficult calculations above can be checked as follows:
101102 = 24 + 22 + 21 = 2210
is the result of one of the additions [11112 (1510 ) + 1112 (710 )] above, while
11010012 = 26 + 25 + 23 + 20 = 10510
is the result of one of the multiplications [11112 (1510 ) × 1112(710 )] above. Note that the
subscript “2” indicates a binary or base-2 number while the subscript “10” indicates a
decimal number.

2.4.2 Real numbers

To convert a real(non-whole) binary number to a real decimal number, consider a binary

number of the form:

bn bn−1 bn−2 · · · b2 b1 b0 . b−1 b−2 · · · b−(m−2) b−(m−1) b−m ,

where the bi ’s are either 0 or 1 and a period, “.” separates the whole part, bi where i ≥ 0 from
the fractional part, bi where i < 0. We compute a real decimal number using the following
formula:

r10 = bn ×2n +bn−1 ×2n−1 · · · b1 ×21 +b0 ×20 +b−1 ×2−1 +b−2 ×2−2 · · ·+b−(m−1) ×2−(m−1) +b−(m) ×2−m .

It is not a whole lot different from the decimal numbers you are used to. However, sometimes
the formulae can look a little messy.

2.5 Binary integer arithmetic on computers

Computers, because of their comprehension of data in binary terms naturally do their arith-
metic using the base 2 representation. The circuitry within a computer is most easily set
up this way. However, when it comes to base-2 arithmetic and computers, there is a sub-
tle difference! For practical reasons, computers must deal with integers that are finite in
length. 16 bits, representing 65,536 separate possibilities used to be the norm. Today, 32
bits is common (4294967296 possibilities) today. Soon, 64 bits (about 18×1018 ) will be the
standard. Some computers nowadays permit hardware 64-bit integer arithmetic.
Let us consider 32-bit computers only—the most common type of hardware available today.
In the course of doing an arithmetic calculation, any bits that are set beyond the 32-bit
boundary are lost—they fall into the “bit bucket” and disappear.
2.6. 32-BIT BINARY, HEXADECIMAL, UNSIGNED AND SIGNED INTEGERS 13

2.5.1 Two’s complement integer arithmetic

A string of 32-bits can represent many things but we will focus on hexadecimal, unsigned
and signed integers. These signed integers must also carry information as to the sign of the
number. Historically, there have been several ways to do this. The “industry” has “settled”
on “2’s complement arithmetic” because it simplifies the process of adding positive, negative
or mixed numbers. In this scheme, to negate a signed integer, one takes the complement
(change all the 1’s to 0’s and all the 0’s to 1’s) of the binary representation and adds 1 to
it. This is seen in the table at the end of this lecture.
Let’s give the notation i to the complement of the integer i. So, for any i,
i + i = 11111111111111111111111111111111. That is:
any 32-bit pattern
+ complement of the above
= 11111111111111111111111111111111
and
11111111111111111111111111111111
+ 00000000000000000000000000000001
= 00000000000000000000000000000000
since the 33rd bit can not be set! In 2’s complement arithmetic the expression i − j is
calculated as i + j + 1. So you see, computers can not really add and subtract, they can only
add (and take complements)!
A few examples help illustrate the simplicity of the two’s-complement scheme. Consider a
4-bit representation of the number 310 = 00112 and 410 = 01002.
310 + 410 = 00112 + 01002 = 01112 = 710
310 − 410 = 00112 − 01002 = 00112 + 11002 = 11112 = −00012 = −110
−310 − 410 = −00112 − 01002 = 11012 + 11002 = 10012 = −01112 = −710

See how easily it all worked out! This is why the two-s-complement approach has been
adopted. In order to handle negative integers one can convert them to their two-complement
counterparts and add. Otherwise, special circuitry would have to be developed for handling
negative numbers and that would be less efficient.

2.6 32-bit Binary, Hexadecimal, Unsigned and Signed

Integers
32-bit computers can represent 232 = 4, 294, 672, 296 different things but ONLY 4, 294, 672, 296
different things. Now we consider the conventional assignments to “unsigned” and ”signed”
14 CHAPTER 2. DATA REPRESENTATIONS

integers. There is also the hexadecimal representation that is associated with every 4-bit
sequence, as indicated in the table below.
The unsigned integers associate the decimal number 0 to a string of 32 0 bits. The rest are
formed by the addition by 1 in either binary or decimal. The maximum unsigned integers,
therefore, is 4, 294, 672, 295. Adding a one to this causes all the 32 bits to go back to zero,
exactly as if you had “cycled” the odometer in your car! It’s the same principle. There is
no 33rd bit, so you can imagine it just falls off the end.
The signed integers have the same sequence as the unsigned integers up to 231 − 1 =
2147483647 which is the bit pattern 01111111111111111111111111111111. Adding a one
to this gives a bit pattern of 10000000000000000000000000000000 which is interpreted as
−231 = −2147483648. Note that these two are complements of each other and that they add
up to
11111111111111111111111111111111, which has the interpretation ”-1”, consistent with the
“2’s complement” scheme described above.
2.6. 32-BIT BINARY, HEXADECIMAL, UNSIGNED AND SIGNED INTEGERS 15

Binary Hexadecimal Unsigned Int Signed Int

00000000000000000000000000000000 00000000 0 0
00000000000000000000000000000001 00000001 1 1
00000000000000000000000000000010 00000002 2 2
00000000000000000000000000000011 00000003 3 3
00000000000000000000000000000100 00000004 4 4
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
00000000000000000000000000001111 0000000F 15 15
00000000000000000000000000010000 00000010 16 16
00000000000000000000000000010001 00000011 17 17
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
01111111111111111111111111111110 7FFFFFFE 2147483646 2147483646
01111111111111111111111111111111 7FFFFFFF 2147483647 2147483647
10000000000000000000000000000000 80000000 2147483648 -2147483648
10000000000000000000000000000001 80000001 2147483649 -2147483647
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
11111111111111111111111111111100 FFFFFFFC 4294967292 -4
11111111111111111111111111111101 FFFFFFFD 4294967293 -3
11111111111111111111111111111110 FFFFFFFE 4294967294 -2
11111111111111111111111111111111 FFFFFFFF 4294967295 -1
16 CHAPTER 2. DATA REPRESENTATIONS

2.7 Problems
1. octal + octal = octal
Note: An “octal” is a number represented by only 3 bits.
Consider a fictitious computer, one that can only do 3-bit binary arithmetic. (Anything
past the 3’rd bit can not be represented. See the notes for Lecture 2 for some related
examples.) Complete the following addition table, that is, add the octal in i’th row to
the octal in the j’th column and put the resultant octal in the box located at the i’th
row and j’th column. There are 3 examples worked out for you. For these examples,
show your calculations in long-hand.

000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111

000
001
010
011
100
101 010
110
111 011 110

2. octal × octal = octal

This is a similar exercise to the above except that you are to multiply the octals. Be
sure to show your work for the 3 examples given.

000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111

000
001
010
011
100
101 001
110
111 100 001

3. Bits, nibbles and integers. Is it a hex?

Your imaginary computer represents integers using 4 and only 4 bits! The result of an
arithmetic operation with two integers always results in a 4-bit result. Higher-order
bits are “lost”.
2.7. PROBLEMS 17

The following table shows the binary, hexadecimal, unsigned integer, and unsigned
integer representations for all the possible bit patterns that can be represented by
your computer.

Binary Hexadecimal Unsigned Int Signed Int

0000 0 0 0
0001 1 1 1
0010 2 2 2
0011 3 3 3
0100 4 4 4
0101 5 5 5
0110 6 6 6
0111 7 7 7
1000 8 8 -8
1001 9 9 -7
1010 A 10 -6
1011 B 11 -5
1100 C 12 -4
1101 D 13 -3
1110 E 14 -2
1111 F 15 -1

Do your calculations in binary arithmetic and SHOW YOUR WORK! Quote your
results of your calculations in binary, integer, unsigned and hexadecimal integer repre-
sentations.

(a) What is the sum of the integers 2 and 3?

(b) What is the sum of the integers -2 and -3?
(c) What is the sum of the integers -8 and -8?
(d) What is the product of the integers 2 and 3?
(e) What is the product of the integers -2 and -3?
(f) What is the product of the integers -8 and -8?

4. A bit challenging
In the following table:
1) Convert the first 5 32-bit bit patterns to hex
2) indicate which bit patterns are divisible by 2 (/2)
3) indicate which bit patterns are divisible by 4 (/4)
4) indicate which bit patterns represent positive or negative integers in 2’s complement
representation (+/-?)
18 CHAPTER 2. DATA REPRESENTATIONS

5) indicate which bit pattern represents the largest integer in 2’s complement repre-
sentation (>?)
6) indicate which bit pattern represents the smallest integer in 2’s complement repre-
sentation, negative with the greatest magnitude (<?)

32-bit bit patterns hex /2? /4? -/+? >? <?

1111 0001 0010 0110 1110 0101 0100 0110
1000 0010 0000 1100 1000 0010 1011 1011
1011 0001 1000 1011 0100 1111 0000 0111
0010 0001 1101 1001 0100 1101 0111 1110
0010 1000 1010 0001 0010 1010 0101 0111
1110 1100 1000 1000 0011 0101 1110 1101 X
1111 0111 0000 1100 0011 1010 0010 1101 X
0110 0111 0100 0000 0101 1000 1011 0000 X
0011 1110 0000 0011 1100 0110 0000 1101 X
0000 1110 1101 1001 1111 1011 0101 1000 X
0110 1111 0001 1010 0010 1111 0110 1000 X
1010 1000 0000 1110 1111 1010 0010 0011 X
0000 0010 0011 0010 0100 1100 0001 0101 X
0011 1100 1010 0111 1011 1011 0111 0000 X
1000 1111 1011 1101 1001 1110 0000 1111 X
1100 0011 0100 1011 0110 1011 1111 0011 X
1101 0001 1011 1110 1011 1010 0000 0001 X
1101 0011 1110 1011 0100 0101 0100 1111 X
1111 1100 0011 0001 1001 0111 0010 1100 X
1111 0011 0001 0111 1110 1110 0011 0000 X
0100 1101 1110 1110 0000 0011 1011 1011 X
0111 1011 1010 1111 0100 0010 0010 0101 X
1101 1001 1101 1111 1101 1101 1010 1101 X
1000 1101 1010 0101 0110 1010 1111 0110 X
0100 0100 0110 1111 0001 0010 0111 0001 X
0011 1110 1010 1100 1100 0111 0010 0111 X
1110 1111 0111 1100 1001 0101 0001 1101 X
1001 1000 1010 0101 1000 0010 1011 1010 X
1011 1111 1000 0100 0011 0101 0011 0111 X
1001 1010 0000 0011 1111 1010 0110 1111 9A03FA6F

5. A fistful of (binary) digits

2.7. PROBLEMS 19

Your imaginary computer represents integers using 5 and only 5 bits! Fill in the
blank spots in the following table. The signed integers follow the 2’s complement rule
discussed in class.
Binary Hexadecimal Unsigned Int Signed Int
00000 00 0 0
00001 01 1 1
00010 02 2 2
00011 03 3 3
00100 04 4 4
00101 05 5 5
00110 06 6 6
00111 07 7 7
01000 08 8
01001 09 9
01010 0A 10
01011 0B 11
01100 0C 12
01101 0D 13
01110 0E 14
01111 0F 15
10000 10 16
10001 11 17
10010 12
10011 13
10100
10101
10110
10111
11000
11001
11010
11011
11100
11101 -3
11110 -2
11111 -1

6. These digits will give you the fidgets.

Your imaginary computer still represents integers using 5 and only 5 bits! The result of
an arithmetic operation with two integers always results in a 5-bit result. Higher-order
bits are “lost”.
20 CHAPTER 2. DATA REPRESENTATIONS

Do your calculations in binary arithmetic and SHOW YOUR WORK! Quote your
results of your calculations in binary, integer, unsigned and hexadecimal integer repre-
sentations. You may use the table that you completed in the previous question.

(a) What is the sum of the unsigned integers 3 and 4?

(b) What is the sum of the unsigned integers 16 and 17?
(c) What is the sum of the signed integers -2 and -3?
(d) What is the sum of the signed integers -16 and -16?
(e) What is the product of the unsigned integers 3 and 4?
(f) What is the product of the signed integers -2 and -3?
(g) What is the product of the signed integers -16 and -16?

7. The interbreeding hex: hex + hex = hex

Consider a fictitious computer, one that can only do 4-bit binary arithmetic. (Anything
past the 4’th bit can not be represented. See the notes for Lecture 2 for some related
examples.) Complete the following addition table, that is, add the hex in i’th row to
the hex in the j’th column and put the resultant hex in the box located at the i’th
row and j’th column. Some of the answers are given to you. Fill in the empty boxes.
Remember that addition commutes. Therefore the actual work is halved and you need
not do the boxes that are filled with X’s.

+ 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F
0 0 X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
1 1 2 X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
2 2 3 4 X X X X X X X X X X X X X
3 3 4 6 X X X X X X X X X X X X
4 4 5 8 X X X X X X X X X X X
5 5 6 a X X X X X X X X X X
6 6 7 c X X X X X X X X X
7 7 8 e X X X X X X X X
8 8 9 0 X X X X X X X
9 9 a 2 X X X X X X
A a b 4 X X X X X
B b c 6 X X X X
C c d 8 X X X
D d e a X X
E e f c X
F f 0 e
2.7. PROBLEMS 21

8. Oh, hex, won’t it ever stop: hex × hex = hex

This is a similar exercise to the above except that you are to multiply the hexes.

X 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F
0 0 X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
1 0 1 X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
2 0 2 4 X X X X X X X X X X X X X
3 0 3 9 X X X X X X X X X X X X
4 0 4 0 X X X X X X X X X X X
5 0 5 9 X X X X X X X X X X
6 0 6 4 X X X X X X X X X
7 0 7 1 X X X X X X X X
8 0 8 0 X X X X X X X
9 0 9 1 X X X X X X
A 0 a 4 X X X X X
B 0 b 9 X X X X
C 0 c 0 X X X
D 0 d 9 X X
E 0 e 4 X
F 0 f 1
22 CHAPTER 2. DATA REPRESENTATIONS
Chapter 3

Algorithms and Pseudocodes

3.1 What is an algorithm?

An algorithm is a set of well-defined, unambiguous steps or instructions to be carried out in

sequence to accomplish some task.

• An algorithm has START and STOP points. The START may require some inputs
and the STOP may provide some output.

• Each instruction is well-defined and predictable if the instruction operates on valid

data.

• There is a direction of logic flow or sequencing. Once an instruction is executed, it

passes control to another instruction.

• There can only be a finite set of instructions.

• When executed (with valid data) an algorithm is guaranteed to terminate in a sensible

way.

23
24 CHAPTER 3. ALGORITHMS AND PSEUDOCODES

3.2 Flowchart representation

START

STEP 1

STEP 2

STEP 3

STOP

The above figure is a representation of a simple sequence of 3 steps with a beginning and an
end. The START and STOP are represented by circles. A sequence step is represented by
a rectangle. The logic flow is indicated by lines and arrows. This kind of representation is
called a flowchart or schematic diagram. It looks a lot like a circuit diagram in electronics.

3.3 Pseudocode representation

An algorithm is a well-defined description of actions and their ordering. Pseudocode is an-
other way of expressing the actions and ordering to be taken place on a computer in an
exact way. Yet, pseudocode does it in an informal way, without getting bogged-down in the
details or syntax of a particular computer language like C++, MATLAB or something else.
Two programmers should be able to agree on pseudocode and write functionally equivalent
computer programs—either in the same computer language or in different ones. Pseudocode
can be written in any human language in the form of an ordered (or numbered) list. For
example a “conditional” statement (one in which a decision is made and the logic flow can
follow different paths) could look like:

IF such-and-such THEN DO
this-and-that
3.3. PSEUDOCODE REPRESENTATION 25

OTHERWISE DO
something-else
One could do the same thing with a flowchart, and it would look like:

YES SUCH NO
&
SUCH

THIS SOMETHING
& ELSE
THAT

Note that we have introduced a new shape to handle the case where, depending on the input,
a decision is made and the logic flow can follow two different paths. This is represented by
a “diamond shape” and is known as a branch point. A branch point or a decision point is
characterized by only one path in and always two paths out.
Another example of pseudocode is:
ITEM 3
.
.
a set of other steps
.
.
JUMP TO: ITEM 3

The stuff between STEP 3 and JUMP TO: ITEM 3 inclusive, defines a loop. This is
represented in a flowchart as follows with the direction of logic flow made clear with the lines
and arrows.
26 CHAPTER 3. ALGORITHMS AND PSEUDOCODES

ITEM 3

JUMP TO
ITEM 3

3.4 A mini-summary before the examples

PSEUDOCODE: The language and organization of pseudocode is not firmly established.

Make any convention for yourself that makes your algorithm clear. Note the use of spacing
and indenting, bold and italic fonts, all ways of emphasizing meaning.
FLOWCHARTS: It is also possible to write pseudocode diagrammatically in terms of flow
charts that represent the flow of computer instructions, or “logic flow”. Here there are some
accepted (but not rigorously adopted) standards. These charts look very much like circuit
diagrams. It is considered good practice to describe every variable you use and provide a
well-defined starting point and ending point. Examples will be given in class.
Pseudocode and flow charts are indispensable aids in getting a computer program “up and
running” with a minimum of effort.
SEQUENCING, BRANCHING and LOOPING: It can be shown that the 3 constructs
of sequencing, branching and looping, is all that one needs to construct any computer algo-
rithm! Thus, the “theory” of algorithmic flow boils down to understanding just these three
things. There are many, many ways of expressing these three things in a computer language
like C++ or Matlab. But remember that it all boils down to just sequencing, branching and
looping.
Of course there is a lot of other stuff to be considered to make a computer language useful.
We’ll see a lot of this in the course. However, as far as the flow of logic goes, we have done
it all at this point! You can now go and write an algorithm to do anything you want and
express it in either pseudocode or flowchart form.
3.5. SOME EXAMPLES 27

3.5 Some examples

3.5.1 The Breakfast algorithm, or, Bielajew’s Sunday Morning

Internationally-famous pancakes

1. Start of The Breakfast Algorithm

2. If the day is not Sunday, have your usual boring bowl of Granola. For added excitement,
slice in half a banana. Otherwise,

(a) In a big bowl, whisk together 1 and 1/2 cups white flour and 2 heaping teaspoons
of baking powder.
(b) In a separate bowl, beat two whole eggs (no shells please) together for one minute
or so.
(c) Add 1 cup of milk, preferably skimmed, to the eggs and mix.
(d) Add 1 tablespoon of Canola oil and 3 tablespoons of maple syrup to the milk and
eggs and mix.
(e) Add the wet stuff to the dry stuff.
(f) Take a big spoon and,
(g) mix the stuff in the big bowl one whole turn.
(h) If there are lots of lumps in the mixture , go back to step 2.(g), otherwise go to
step 2.(i). Technical note: Don’t go overboard and make it completely smooth.
Leave it a little lumpy for texture.
(i) Slice in a Granny Smith apple (no peel) and (optionally) a half cup of frozen
cranberries (well rinsed).
(j) Add a little bit of Canola oil to an electric fry pan preheated to 325 ◦ F. Put in
just enough to coat the bottom of the pan.
(k) Put the pancake dough into the pan, approximately 3–4” diameter circles, fry for
exactly 3 minutes with the pan covered, flip and fry for 3 more minutes with the
pan covered.
(l) Take them out of the frying pan and place on a napkin to absorb excess oil.
(m) Eat with maple syrup. I DARE you to eat more than 3!

3. Clean up your dishes.

4. End of The Breakfast Algorithm

28 CHAPTER 3. ALGORITHMS AND PSEUDOCODES

3.5.2 Solve for x: Ax2 + Bx + C = 0 where A, B, C are arbitrary

constants

NO SOLUTION
X

1 SOLUTION
X

2 SOLUTIONS
X

Definitions: x is an unknown “real” number, A, B, C are fixed constants that can take on
any valid real value.
First, we do the math in excruciatingly fine detail. It is essential to understand completely
the mathematics of what you are doing if you are to have a chance at writing a successful
algorithm. Note that y = Ax2 + Bx + C is the equation for a parabola.

Ax2 + Bx + C = 0
 
B C
2
A x + x+ = 0 N.B. A 6= 0
A A
B C
x2 + x + = 0
A A
2 2
B B B C
x2 + x + − + = 0
A 4A2 4A2 A
B B2 B2 C
x2 + x + = −
A 4A2 4A2 A
3.5. SOME EXAMPLES 29

B B2 B 2 − 4AC
x2 + x+ =
A 4A2 4A2
 2
B B − 4AC
2
x+ =
2A (2A)2
√
B B 2 − 4AC
x+ = ± N.B. B 2 − 4AC ≥ 0
2A 2A√
B B 2 − 4AC
x = − ±
2A √ 2A
−B ± B 2 − 4AC
x = A 6= 0, B 2 − 4AC ≥ 0
2A

So, under the some circumstances (A 6= 0, B 2 − 4AC > 0), we have two solutions:
√ √
−B + B 2 − 4AC −B − B 2 − 4AC
x= and x =
2A 2A
corresponding to the last case in the preceding figure.
What if A 6= 0, B 2 − 4AC = 0? We have one solution:
−B
x=
2A
corresponding to the middle case in the preceding figure.
What if B 2 − 4AC < 0? No real solution. This corresponds to the first case in the preceding
figure.
What if A = 0? Re-analyze!
Bx + C = 0 (y = Bx + C Is an equation for a straight line!)
−C
x = N.B. B 6= 0
B

This is the place where a straight line crosses the x-axis.

What if A = 0 and B = 0? No solution for x! A straight line with zero slope does not
intercept the x-axis. The equation is nonsense unless C = 0 as well. If A = B = C = 0 it is
correct but not usually interesting!
Now we give the pseudo-code for this example, the solution to the quadratic equation.

START A, B, C are real constants (fixed) and x is real but unknown

IF (B 2 − 4AC < 0)
PRINT (No solution because B 2 − 4AC < 0)
STOP
30 CHAPTER 3. ALGORITHMS AND PSEUDOCODES

ELSE (i.e. B 2 − 4AC ≥ 0)

IF (A 6= 0)

IF (B 2 − 4AC = 0)
x = −B/(2A)
PRINT (One solution: x, because B 2 − 4AC = 0)
STOP
ELSE (i.e. B 2 −√4AC > 0)
x1 = (−B + √B 2 − 4AC)/(2A)
x2 = (−B − B 2 − 4AC)/(2A)
PRINT (Two solutions are: x1 and x2 )
STOP

ELSE (i.e. A = 0)

IF (B 6= 0)
x = −C/B
PRINT (Only one solution x, because A = 0)
STOP
ELSE (i.e. B = 0)
PRINT(No solution because A = 0 and B = 0)
STOP

END OF ALGORITHM
Note:

• IF’s can be nested

• Use of indenting

• Multiple end-points!

• Can represent in terms of a graphical flow chart

This is the flow chart for the quadratic formula:

3.5. SOME EXAMPLES 31

START

A,B,C ARE FIXED

X IS UNKNOWN

IS N
NO
B2-4AC >- 0 SOLUTION STOP
?

IS N IS N NO
A =/ 0 B =/ 0 SOLUTION STOP
?
?

Y Y

IS X = -C / B
Y
B2-4AC = 0
?

X = -B / (2A) PRINT X
N

X 1 = -B + B2-4AC
2A PRINT X STOP

X 2 = -B - B2-4AC
2A STOP

PRINT ( X 1 , X 2 )

STOP

3.5.3 Iteration: A summing loop

Problem: Sum the positive integers 1, 2, 3 · · · N up to N.

A dumb way that works:
START N is an integer (fixed) and S is an integer (unknown)
S = 1
S = S + 2
S = S + 3
32 CHAPTER 3. ALGORITHMS AND PSEUDOCODES

.
.
.
S = S + i (for the i’th statement)
.
.
.
S = S + N
PRINT(S)
END OF ALGORITHM
This is the flow chart for the dumb way:

START

N FIXED NUMBER
S IS UNKNOWN

S=1

S=S+2

S=S+3

.
.
.
S=S+i

.
.
.
S=S+N

PRINT S

STOP

N statements—lots of repetition, very long if N is large.

3.5. SOME EXAMPLES 33

A better way:

START N is an integer (fixed), S is an integer that will contain the sum . At the start, S is
initialized to 1, that is, its starting value will be 1. Another integer, i, is employed to
contain the value that is to be added to S. It is initialized to 1.

Start of counting loop:

• i = i + 1 (get the new value for i)

• S = S + i (add it to S)

• IF i = N jump to End of counting loop:

• Jump to the first statement in this loop

End of counting loop:

PRINT(S)

END OF ALGORITHM

• Only a few “statements” to express the same idea

• Loops can be nested as well

• Can represent in terms of a graphical flow chart

This is the flow chart for the better way:

34 CHAPTER 3. ALGORITHMS AND PSEUDOCODES

START

N FIXED NUMBER
i = 1; S = 1

i=i+1
S=S+i

NO
i=N?

YES
PRINT S

STOP

There is an even better way! There is a mathematical solution to this that was discovered
by Gauss (Karl Friedrich Gauss (1777–1855 AD)) as a schoolboy!
N(N + 1)
S=
2
If N is even:
S =[1, 2, 3, ..., (N − 2), (N − 1), N]
=[1, 2, 3, ..., (N/2)] + [(N/2 + 1), (N/2 + 2), (N/2 + 2), ..., N]
=[1, 2, 3, ..., (N/2)] + [N, (N − 1), (N − 2), ..., (N/2 + 1)]
=[(N + 1), (N + 1), (N + 1), ..., (N + 1)] (N/2 terms)
N
= (N + 1)
2
quod erat demonstratum

For odd N the proof is left to the reader.

3.5.4 Iteration: A product loop

Problem: Compute P = k N .
3.5. SOME EXAMPLES 35

A very, VERY, dumb way (but one that works):

START k is an integer or a real (fixed), N is an integer (fixed) and P is an integer or a real
number (unknown)
P = k
P = P × k
P = P × k
.
.
.
P = P × k (for the i’th statement)
.
.
.
P = P × k (for the N’th statement)
PRINT(P)
END OF ALGORITHM
Here is the flow chart for the very, VERY, dumb way:
36 CHAPTER 3. ALGORITHMS AND PSEUDOCODES

START

N FIXED NUMBER
k FIXED NUMBER
P IS UNKNOWN

P=k

P=P*k

P=P*k

.
.
.
P=P*k

.
.
.
P=P*k

PRINT P

STOP

N statements—lots of repetition of the same statement

A better (but still dumb) way:

START k is an integer or a real (fixed), N is an integer (fixed), P = 1 is a number that

will contain the product (initialized to 1) and i is an integer (initialized to 0) used as
an “index” or “counter” to indicate how many times we have passed through the loop.

Start of loop:
3.5. SOME EXAMPLES 37

• i = i + 1 (“increment” the counter)

• P = P × k (“accumulate” the sum)
• IF i = N jump to End of loop:
• jump to Start of loop:

End of loop:
PRINT(P)

END OF ALGORITHM
START
Here is the flow chart for the better way:

N FIXED NUMBER
k FIXED NUMBER
i = 0; P = 1

i=i+1
P=P*k

NO
i=N?

YES
PRINT P

STOP

Only a few statements to express the same idea.

A much, MUCH better way: Al-Kashi (1390 - 1450 AD)
• al’Kashi, Ghiyath al’Din Jamshid Mas’ud
• Born in Kashan (Iran), died in Samarkand (now called Uzbekistan)
• “Self-proclaimed” inventor of decimal fractions
• Calculated π to 16 decimal places
• Theory of numbers and computation
• “First” discovered the binomial theorem
• Inventor of a calculating machine to predict lunar orbits
• Discovered the following algorithm in 1414 AD:
38 CHAPTER 3. ALGORITHMS AND PSEUDOCODES

START k is an integer or a real (fixed), N is an integer (fixed), P = 1 is a number that

will contain the product (initialized to 1)
Start of loop:
IF (N is even)
N = N/2
k = k × k
ELSE (i.e. N is odd)
N = N - 1
P = P × k
IF (N < 1) jump to End of loop:
ELSE (i.e. N ≥ 1) jump to Start of loop:
End of loop:
PRINT(P)
END OF ALGORITHM

This is the flow chart for the Al-Kashi Method:

START

N FIXED
k FIXED
P = 1 (PRODUCT)

(N < 1)
NO
N>
- 1? PRINT P STOP

YES
YES NO
N even
?
N=N/2 N=N-1
k=k*k P=P*k

Danger, danger: The algorithm redefines N and k.

3.6. AN ASIDE ON COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE 39

3.6 An aside on computer architecture

3.6.1 What does S = S + 1 mean?

If you’re doing math, it means nonsense! It is the same as saying 0 = 1!

If you’re writing a computer program it means something else and describing what is means
requires a small “aside” on computer architecture, the real “nuts and bolts” of what is going
on inside a computer.
First some definitions. See the figure below.

MEMORY The memory physical place in the computer where bit patterns are stored.
Memory is best thought of as a stack of “words”, 32-bit bit patterns.
VARIABLE A symbol for a certain bit pattern (a 32-bit integer, say) that the programmer
can define and change at will in a program. The “symbol” (S in this case) really refers
to the location in memory where the bit pattern is stored.
CONSTANT A symbol for a certain bit pattern that the programmer can define and use
but not change.
CPU The Central Processing Unit in a computer. The CPU is the “boss”. It follows the
steps in a program and tells all the other parts of a computer what they should be
doing. It is the “controller”.
REGISTER A special place in the CPU where bit patterns are stored.
ADDER A functional unit in a computer (usually located right on the CPU chip) that
performs additions on 32-bit bit patterns.

MEMORY

00000000000000000000000000000000
S: 00000000000010010000100000100000
ADDER 00000000000000000000000000000000
00000000000000000000000000000000
C: 00000000000000000000000000000001
CPU 00000000000000000000000000000000
R1 R2 R3 R4 00000000000000000000000000000000
40 CHAPTER 3. ALGORITHMS AND PSEUDOCODES

In a computer program, the statement: S = S + 1 gets “translated” into the following

operations that the CPU performs or controls.

FETCH S,R1 Copy the bit pattern that is stored at the location referred to by S and put
it in the 1st CPU register R1.

FETCH C,R2 Copy the bit pattern that is stored at the location referred to by C and put
it in the 2nd CPU register R2. Previously in the program, the constant C would have
to have been defined and the bit pattern for C (00000000000000000000000000000001)
would have to have been stored in C.

ADD R1,R2,R3 Copy the constants of the bit patterns stored in R1 and R2 into the
ADDER, do the binary arithmetic and copy the result into the 3rd CPU register R3.

STORE R3,S make a copy of the bit pattern in the 3rd CPU register R3 and place it in
the memory location referred to by S.

So, just the simple increment (add by 1) of a variable results in 4 operations performed by
the CPU. The following steps are exactly what an “assembly language” program would have
to do to interpret the statement S = S + 1. Remember that when we write statements like
S = S + 1 it is really a shorthand for a set of steps that a computer has to carry out. We
will be clear in the future as to what is math and what is computer language. Math script
will be used for math (e.g. S = S +1) while type script will be used for computer instructions
(e.g. S = S + 1).

3.7 Problems
1. The trinity of algorithmic design
What are the three most important capabilities that are needed to construct algo-
rithms?

The ability to declare variables

The ability to assign values to variables
The ability to pass control from one operation to another in a prescribed way
A way of making a “True” or “False” decision
The existence of int’s and float’s
The ability to do mathematical operations (e.g. +, - ×)
The ability to go back to a previous operation
3.7. PROBLEMS 41

A “compiler” that can convert human-readable text into a language (such as

binary) that a computer can understand

2. What is an algorithm?
In 35 words or less, answer the question, “What is an algorithm?”.

3. What is an algorithm?
The three “pillars” of algorithm design are 1) sequencing, 2) branching, and 3) looping.
In 25 words or less for each, describe what they mean.
That is:
What is sequencing? (25 words or less)
What is branching? (25 words or less)
What is looping? (25 words or less)

4. Toss your cookies at this one!

In this Chapter, a recipe for Bielajew’s Sunday Morning Internationally-famous pan-
cakes was given—in the form of pseudocode. Describe another recipe for a dish that
you like—in the form of pseudocode. It has to have a Start, a Stop, more than 5 Steps,
at least one Decision (or branch) point, and at least one Loop.

5. In the 70’s, man, if you were not hip, you were ...
Here is an algorithm in pseudo-code:

START
OUTPUT “Enter a positive integer”
INPUT N
i=1
WHILE (i × i < N)
i=i+1
END WHILE
IF (i × i = N)
OUTPUT “YES”
ELSE
OUTPUT “NO”
END IF
STOP

For which of the following inputs will the algorithm say “YES”?

(a) 28
(b) 36
42 CHAPTER 3. ALGORITHMS AND PSEUDOCODES

(c) 54
(d) 81

What property of the input is the algorithm determining?

6. Summing the squares

Describe an algorithm in either pseudocode or flowchart form, to sum the squares of
the integers up to an including some N, where N is an input to the algorithm. That
is,
S = 12 + 22 + 32 + · · · + N 2
where S is the sum. You must express your algorithm in terms of a loop that is traversed
N times. (There is a closed mathematical expression S = N(N + 1)(2N + 1)/6 that
you must not exploit in your algorithm. Pretend the closed mathematical expression
does not exist.) Make sure to declare and initialize all the variables you use.

7. Don’t you love triangles?

A number N is called “triangular” if you can take N little asterisks and make an
equilateral triangle from them. For example, here are the first few triangular numbers:

* * * * *
* * * * * * * * * *
3 * * * * * * * * * * * *
6 * * * * * * * * * * * *
10 * * * * * * * * * *
15 * * * * * *
21

Here is an algorithm that is attempting to detect triangularity in the input. But it has
a bug. Fix the algorithm.

START
OUTPUT “Enter a positive integer”
INPUT N
i=1
S=0
WHILE (S < N)
i=i+1
S =S+i
END WHILE
IF (S = N)
OUTPUT “Triangular”
3.7. PROBLEMS 43

ELSE
OUTPUT “Not triangular”
END IF
STOP

8. De-Gauss this!
From lecture, you remember Mr. Gauss’s formula for the computation of the Nth
triangular number:

N(N + 1)
1 + 2 + 3 + ... + N =
2

Here is another algorithm attempting to detect triangularity of the input. Do you

think this one is OK? If not, fix it.

START
OUTPUT “Enter a positive integer”
INPUT N
i=1
WHILE [(i × (i + 1))/2 < N]
i=i+1
END WHILE
IF [(i × (i + 1))/2 = N]
OUTPUT “Not triangular”
ELSE
OUTPUT “Triangular”
END IF
STOP

9. The oscillating sign

Write an algorithm in pseudocode that accepts a positive integer N and outputs a 1
(one) if N is even and -1 (minus one) if N is odd. Hint: -1 multiplied by itself an even
number of times is +1, while -1 multiplied by itself an odd number of times is -1.

10. Summing an oscillating series

Describe an algorithm in either pseudocode or flowchart form, to perform the following
sum

S = 1 − x + x2 − x3 + x4 · · · + (−x)N
44 CHAPTER 3. ALGORITHMS AND PSEUDOCODES

where x and N are inputs and S is the sum, an output. You must express your
algorithm in terms of a loop that is traversed N times. Express your algorithm in
terms of pseudocode and a flowchart.

11. Let’s talk about... the factorials of life

The factorial occurs in many places in mathematics and engineering applications and
life in general. The symbol for the factorial is the exclamation (!) mark. So, we would
call 3!, “three factorial”. Factorials are easy to calculate.
1! = 1
2! = 2 × 1
3! = 3 × 2 × 1
4! = 4 × 3 × 2 × 1
and so on.
If N is a whole number,
N! = N × (N − 1) × (N − 2) · · · 2 × 1.
Note that N! = N × (N − 1)!, a neat property of factorials.
You will describe an algorithm to calculate the factorial of N where N is any whole
number greater than 1. You will describe an algorithm as if you were going to program
it on a computer, that is, you will specify a set of instructions that even a machine
can understand. The algorithm should include instructions on how to start and end.
You can assume that the machine on which the algorithm will be implemented can
store variables, loop, do branches, and do simple arithmetic. Express your algorithm
in terms of pseudocode and a flowchart.

12. Decay and dissipation

You will describe an algorithm to calculate an approximation to the exponential func-
tion, e−x . The following sum is a really good approximation to the exponential function,
e−x , as long as the right hand side contains enough terms.

x x2 x3 x4
S =1− + − + +···
1! 2! 3! 4!

Let x and N, the number of terms on the right hand side, be inputs to the algorithm
and S, the sum, be the output. Note the use of the factorials in the above sum. Ex-
press your algorithm in terms of pseudocode and a flowchart. Note that the algorithm
to raise x to a power is given in Chapter 3, Section 5 of “the book”.

Hint: The most efficient way to solve this problem is to rewrite S in the following
fashion:

S = s0 + s1 + s2 + s3 + s4 + · · ·
3.7. PROBLEMS 45

where s0 = 1 and note that

 
−x
sn = sn−1
n

13. What’s YOUR sine?

You will describe an algorithm to calculate the sine function, as if you were going to
program it on a computer, that is, you will specify a set of instructions that even a
machine can understand. The algorithm should include instructions on how to start
and end. You can assume that the machine on which the algorithm will be implemented
can store variables, loop, do branches, and do simple arithmetic.
The following sum is a really good approximation to the sine function, as long as the
right hand side contains more than 4 terms in the sequence shown:

x x3 x5 x7
S= − + − +···
1! 3! 5! 7!

Let x and the number of terms on the right hand side be inputs to the algorithm and
S, the sum, be the output. Note the use of the factorials in the above sum. Express
your algorithm in terms of pseudocode and a flowchart.

14. The rich get richer, the poor get poorer!

The financial investment firm of Getridge-Quigg, Ann Arbor, has a special deal for
students. If you deposit your money with them they will give you 0.5% interest per
month (a large amount these days) but then they will charge you a $5.00 per month
service charge applied against your account. If you have less than $5.00 in your account,
they take the remainder and your account is closed. So, if you deposited $1000.00 and
leave it there, your account will always have the same balance at the end of the month.
If you deposit more than $1000.00 and leave it there you may gain. Deposit less than
$1000.00 and your account may eventually be reduced to zero.
Write an algorithm that starts with an input of how much is to be deposited. You
intend to leave that money in the account and never add or withdraw from it. Your
algorithm will predict how many months it will take for you to double your money
or to reduce your account to zero. If the balance in your account never changes, you
have to state that as well. Note that Getridge-Quigg first applies the interest and then
applies the service charge. After every calculation, Getridge-Quigg rounds the result
to the nearest penny. For example, the monthly interest on a balance of $1001.00 is
$5.01 while the monthly interest on a balance of $1000.99 is $5.00. You have to build
this fact into your algorithm.
Express your algorithm in terms of pseudocode and a flowchart.
46 CHAPTER 3. ALGORITHMS AND PSEUDOCODES

3.8 Projects
1. Follow the bouncing ball
You will describe an algorithm as if you were going to program it on a computer, that
is, you will specify a set of instructions that even a machine can understand. Your
algorithm should specify its purpose, the input data (if any), the output data (if any),
and the set of steps that comprise the algorithm itself. The algorithm should include
instructions on how to start and end. You can assume that the machine on which the
algorithm will be implemented can store variables, loop, and do branches.
The problem is to determine the total distance a ball travels having been dropped from
a height h (and traveling a total distance h on its way to the floor) and rebounding to
a fraction of h which we will call ch (and traveling a total distance h + ch). c is called
the “coefficient of restitution”. The ball will then drop to the floor (total distance =
h + 2ch) and bounce up to a height c2 h (total distance = h + 2ch + c2 h) and so on.
You can assume for simplicity that the ball is a “point”, that is, its diameter is exactly
zero (a mathematical fiction to make our lives easier) and that c falls anywhere in the
region 0 < c < 1. Write an algorithm that determines the distance the ball travels
before coming to a rest. You can make any reasonable assumption you like about what
“at rest” means for the ball. However, the assumption has to be “reasonable” and
justifiable either on the basis of numerics, mathematics or physics. This is a subtle
point that is discussed below and is discussed in class.
This problem has an exact mathematical solution:
1+c
d=h
1−c
that you must not employ in your algorithm to determine the total distance traveled.
You have to obtain the solution by developing an algorithm that sums individually
every bounce of the ball.
Some discussion:
A ball made from putty will have c = 0 and an ideal ball (which does not really exist
in reality) would have c = 1. A fresh “out-of-the-can” tennis ball has c = 0.5 or so, an
old tennis ball has c = 0.25 or so. A ping-pong ball has c = 0.90 or so.
This problem is very much like Xeno’s paradox. The paradox is that mathematically
the total distance traveled by the ball is finite (as long as c is less than 1) but math-
ematically the total number of bounces is infinite! However, after many bounces the
recovery distance becomes so small that accumulating them really does not matter in
any practical sense any more. If digital computers could really represent real numbers
to infinite precision then it would be possible to write an algorithm that accumulates
the distance properly but it would never stop unless we introduced some artificial means
of stopping th execution. Part of the purpose of this exercise is to get you thinking
3.8. PROJECTS 47

about this paradox, to realize that computers can only provide an approximation to
mathematical fiction and physical reality.
48 CHAPTER 3. ALGORITHMS AND PSEUDOCODES
Chapter 4

Getting started in C++

4.1 Simple input/output (I/O): A first program in C++

Here is a first program in C++. You can type it in yourself, or download it from the web
from the lecture note distribution area for Section 200.

//File: goBlue.cpp

#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int main(void)
{ cout << "Go Blue!\n";

// Multiple line statement

cout <<
"\n\n\t\"Go\t\t\\\n\t\t\t\tBlue!\"\a\a\a\r";

return(0);
}

There are several common features of every C++ program

Comments Comments start with /* and end with */. For example,

/* This is a comment */

49
50 CHAPTER 4. GETTING STARTED IN C++

Comments are put there for humans only. They do not affect or modify what the
computer does. The computer does not care if you comment or not. But humans
do, especially your Lab Instructors and other people who hand out grades or
pay your salary. Comments should explain what you are trying to accomplish and
how you are going about doing it. It is appropriate and usually correct to assume
that the person reading your code is a complete idiot and that you have to explain
in detail what you are doing. After you have forgotten how or why you programmed
your own code, you will find your own comments very useful to understand what you
have done. The start of any program or program “segment” should begin with a few
lines of explanation, along with an identification of the programmer and the date it
was created. Put comments through the rest of the code wherever you think that the
reader (aka the idiot) might need some explanation. Less is not more in this case. But,
don’t go overboard too far. When in doubt, comment, comment, comment.
Comments can begin and end anywhere and can span more than one line.

// This is also a comment, from the "//" to the end of the line

which is useful when your comment is only one line or you want a comment to start
somewhere in a line and continue to the end of the line.
Use both kinds of comments and make your code readable.
Preprocessor directives Preprocessor directives instruct the compiler in advance of the
actual compilation of your code. Preprocessor directives are indicated by a “#” be-
ginning a line. In this case the preprocessor directive

#include <iostream>

instructs the preprocessor to include the contents of the ANSI standard library file
iostream. This header file contains other #include statements that call other library
files that define the standards C++ input and output functions.
There are other common header files. We shall soon encounter cmath which is included
via the preprocessor directive

#include <cmath>

which defines a lot of the common math functions. There are other types of prepro-
cessor directives called “symbolic constants” and “macros” which we shall encounter
later.
If you want to have a look at these library files, look in the directory called
/usr/include/g++-2
where they reside. Boredom alert! This is not for the faint-of-heart!
4.1. SIMPLE INPUT/OUTPUT (I/O): A FIRST PROGRAM IN C++ 51

using namespace std; Tells the compiler that we will be using that standard “namespace”
in the file that contains the line
using namespace std;
All this really means is that standard library files and definitions are being used. It is
possible to define your own namespaces if you want to make sure that your variables
and definitions do not conflict with either the standard ones, or someone else’s, someone
working on the same project. For this course, we shall be using the standard namespace
for everything we do. If you go on to work in a professional programming environment,
writing software by teams, you will almost certainly be using your own namespaces.

int main(void){} All C++ programs begin processing at the first executable statement in
main. The “()”’s indicate that main is a block of code called a function. The int in
front of main declares main to be a function that is expected to “return” an integer.
(More on this later.) main is a special function that the operating system recognizes
as the place to begin execution of a C++ program.
The lines of code in between the “{}”’s is called the function body. It is considered good
programming practice to indent the text in the function body by a certain amount of
space. Horstman recommends 3 spaces which is reasonably pleasing to the eye. We
will adopt this convention for this course. In our example, the function body starts
with the statement

cout << "Go Blue!\n";

which instructs the C++ standard library function cout function to print the series
of characters “Go Blue!” (not including the double quotes) to the screen and then
positions the cursor at the beginning of the next line. This positioning is effected by
a special sequence of characters “\n” called an escape sequence. Escape sequences are
necessitated when special characters are required or to “undo” the meaning of special
characters, like the double quote (”) in the cout statement above. Here is a list of
some commonly used escape sequences employed in cout statements.

\n Newline. Move cursor to beginning of next line

\t Horizontal Tab. Move cursor to next tab stop
\r Return. Move cursor to beginning of current line
\a Alert. Sound the bell
\\ Print a backslash (\)
\” Print a double quote (”)

As an extreme example contrived to show all the possibilities,

52 CHAPTER 4. GETTING STARTED IN C++

cout <<
"\n\n\t\"Go\t\t\\\n\t\t\t\tBlue!\"\a\a\a\r";

which throws 2 newlines, goes to the first tab stop, prints a double quote followed
by “Go”, advances two more tab stops writes a backslash, throws a newline, goes to
the third tab stop and prints “Blue!” followed by a double quote, sounds the alarm
3 times (You will probably only hear one beep, depending on your computer.) and
issues a carriage return. Because a new line was not thrown, further keyboard input
could overwrite the “Blue!” text. This just goes to show how far a professor will go to
contrive an example. Here is what the output looks like:

"Go \
red% Blue!"

Note that the statement starting with cout is terminated with a semicolon (;). This
is a special character in C++ called a delimiter that signifies the end of a statement.
There can be more than one statement per line in a C++ code or a single statement
can span several lines. Generally it is considered to be good programming practice
to put at most only one statement per line of code. If a statement is long, put it on
several lines, space things nicely, and indent the carry-over lines 3 spaces relative to
the first line, like in the example above.
return(0); When this line is encountered, processing in the CPU returns to the operating
system. Since main is a function of the int type, an integer value must be “returned”
to the process that called it, in this case the O/S. A return value of 0 usually means
normal execution, by convention. A return other than 0 can be treated as an error
condition by the O/S. For example, if your program had prompted for user input and
the user typed in something that the program was not prepared to process, one could
signify this to the O/S by returning a 1, for example,

return(1);

You can have as many return’s as you need in a C++ code, just as you can have many
stop points in an algorithm.

4.2 Compiling, linking, loading and running

Now that we have created a program, we have to tell the computer what to do with it! After
all, computers only understand binary code and our program is written (coded) in terms of
characters.
To compile the program, which we will call goBlue.cpp, the following statement on a unix
machine attempts a compilation:
4.2. COMPILING, LINKING, LOADING AND RUNNING 53

red% g++ goBlue.cpp

The C++ compiler is another program that converts text instructions into binary code that
a computer understands. Compilers have evolved over a long period of time. The original
computers (dating to the middle and late 40’s) were actually programmed in binary code
that was processed by the computer directly. This was an extremely laborious process. Early
on it was recognized that it would be easier to program in a more human-compatible way,
in a text-based format, and convert this into machine code using a compiler.
The origins of C++ date back to the late 60’s and early 70’s to the C language. The original
intent for C was to develop a language for writing computer operating systems. Operating
system (OS) code is special software for allowing users and programs to interact with data
stored on a computer and instructs the operational units of a computers what to do with
this data. Later, in the 80’s and 90’s, C++ was developed as an evolution of the C language.
(Any C++ compiler will compile C code.) The number of improvements is very great—too
many to mention.
C++ code is designed to be as hardware-independent as possible so that C++ code can
migrate between different computer architectures. C++ code is translated into assembler
or assembly language which represents a text version (i.e. human-readable) version of bi-
nary code. Assembly language is always machine dependent and addresses (speaks to) the
computer hardware and it subcomponents. C++ is a higher-level language that deals with
hardware and data in a more abstract way.
C and C++ have evolved beyond their original intent as OS-builders, although this role is
still very important. C and C++ are powerful general-purpose languages for most aspects
of computing. It is probably true that C and C++ are the most commonly-used computer
languages in the world. C++ is certainly the one that is taught the most. There are other
high-level languages for special purpose applications in business and numerical computa-
tion but probably C++ will supplant these as new business and numerical computation
applications evolve.
After an algorithm is developed through the conceptual, pseudocode and flowchart process, a
C++ program (or other computer language program) is written. During a C++ compilation
and execution, several steps occur:

Edit A human writes a computer program, e.g. goBlue.cpp Any editor will suffice. Com-
mon unix editors are vi, emacs, pico, nedit or kwrite. Use whatever you like. Your
lab instructor will inform you of your options and probably ask you to stick with one
of these.

Preprocess, precompile Preprocessor directives, like #include and #define are handled.
This can be inclusion of files or substitution of text throughout the C++ program.
54 CHAPTER 4. GETTING STARTED IN C++

Compile After the preprocessor the compilation converts the code to object code also known
as binary code. There are actually several stages. The first is the parsing stage where
the compiler checks the syntax of your code. If this stage is passed successfully the next
stage is the production of the assembly code from the C++ code which is syntax-error
free. Then the assembly code is converted to binary code, also called object code.

Link After the object code is created the link stage is entered. At this point, references
to functions that may have been referenced in the C++ program are established.
These missing parts, in the form of object code, are either put in place directly where
referenced (this is called static linking) or their transfer locations are established so
that processing can transfer to these locations and be resumed. This is called dynamic
linking. The file created by the linker is called the load module. By default, the load
module is called a.out by the unix operating system. A user can override this name if
desired.

Load The loader takes the load module (usually located on disk) and puts it into memory in
a place where the operating system expects to see executable code. On a unix system
the leading phase is started when a user types the name of the load module resident
on disk.

Run In the run phase, the binary code in the memory-resident load module is transferred to
the central processing unit (CPU) for execution. The load module contains instructions
for the CPU that directs it to assign tasks to the various operational units of the
computer. The load module also contains data and references to data that are to
be operated on. The run phase is where conceptual errors in a computer program
are exposed. Code that has incorrect syntax, and syntax errors are quickly found by
the compiler’s parser, are usually easy to correct. Code that has correct syntax but
incorrect design are much harder to find. This is where pseudocode and flow charts
can come to the rescue.

This model of editing, preprocessing, parsing, object-code generation, linking, loading

and running is followed by all computer code-development environments, from the most
simple “Go Blue!” C++ program to the most complex, like the telephone management
system, international banking systems and the national security systems—irrespective
of the language it is written in. The following figure includes not only the code compi-
lation process, but also describes the whole process of code development. It is general,
and mostly independent of the computer language being employed.
4.3. DECLARING AND INITIALIZING VARIABLES 55

THINK

PSEUDO CODE BAD DESIGN

FLOWCHART

TYPE IT IN / EDIT
STEAL AS MUCH
AS POSSIBLE

FAILURE
1) PRECOMPILING
2) PARSING
COMPILE
3) CREATES OBJECT

LINK / CREATE
LOAD MODULE FAILURE
RUN

REFINEMENT

SUCCESS!

4.3 Declaring and initializing variables

Consider the following C++ program that does mathematical operations with two integers:

//File: integerMath.cpp

#include <iostream>
56 CHAPTER 4. GETTING STARTED IN C++

using namespace std;

int main(void)
{ int i1 = 5; // Define and initialize
int i2 = 2; // Define and initialize
int iResult; // Define only

iResult = i1 + i2; // sum

cout << "5 + 2 = " << iResult << "\n";

iResult = i1 - i2; // difference

cout << "5 - 2 = " << iResult << "\n";

iResult = i1 * i2; // product

cout << "5 * 2 = " << iResult << "\n";

iResult = i1 / i2; // division

cout << "5 / 2 = " << iResult << "\n";

iResult = i1 % i2; // remainder

cout << "5 mod 2 is " << iResult << "\n";

return(0);
}

There are some new features of this program.

The statement

int i1 = 5;

is a declaration statement. The name i1 is an identifier for the variable i1. This declaration
statement specifies that i1 is an int, a signed integer. It also provides an initialization for
i1, giving it the value of 5.
An identifier is a series of characters you can type at a keyboard that can consist of letters,
digits, and underscores ( ). It is a bad idea to start an identifier with an underscore, even
though it is legal, because most identifiers in libraries accessed by C++ use this. An identifier
can not start with a digit, however. According to the draft ANSI C++ standard, an identifier
may be any length. ANSI [American National Standards Institute] C++ is a built upon
ANSI C, and in ANSI C only the first 31 characters are required to be recognized by C
compilers conforming to the ANSI standard for C. Different C++ compiler writers determine
how many characters in an identifier are significant. I recommend NOT using more than
4.4. INTEGER MATH IN C++ 57

31, for safety. Beyond the limit of 31 or greater, your compiler may treat the characters
beyond it as significant or insignificant (i.e. ignores them). For absolute safety, use 31
characters or less. Identifiers in C++ are case sensitive so that i1 and I1 are recognized
as different variables. Unless your program is very short, you should name your identifiers
in some recognizable way—it cuts down on the amount of commenting you have to do. I
also like “humpback” notation, numberOfStudents, rather than number_of_students. Note
that humpback identifiers start with lowercase letters (usually) and new words within the
identifier start with an uppercase letter. I find underscores in the middle of identifiers ugly,
wasteful and hard to type.
The statement

int i2 = 2;

is another declaration statement that identifies the name i2 an declares it to be a signed

integer initialized to the value 2.
The statement

int iResult;

is another declaration statement that identifies the name iResult an declares it to be a

signed integer. In this case the variable is not initialized.

4.4 Integer math in C++

The statement

iResult = i1 + i2;

contains two mathematical operators, = and +. The operator = is called the assignment
operator . Do not call it the “equal sign”! The assignment operator assigns the result of
the operation(s) to the right of it to the value of the identifier to the left of it, iResult in
this example. = is called a binary operator because it operates on only two quantities, the
variable to the left which gets the assignment and the quantity to the right that provides
the assignment (after the other mathematical operations are completed).
The operator + is called the addition operator . It is also a binary operator and provides the
mathematical sum of the quantities to its left and right.
There are 4 other binary operators to consider now, the subtraction, -, the product, *, the
division, /, and the the modulus, %. Of these the division requires special mention with
58 CHAPTER 4. GETTING STARTED IN C++

regards to its operation with integers. The integer division returns the integer part of the
result. For example, 5/2 = 2, not 2.5. The remainder of a division can be obtained from the
modulus function %. Thus 5 % 2 = 1.
The various mathematical operations, when employed within the same statement, follow
certain ordering rules. These are called the rules of precedence. The *, / and % operations
take precedence over + and -. *, / and % have the same precedence, and + and - have the
same precedence as well. For operators with the same precedence, the order of operation is
left to right. For example,

1 + 10 * 5 - 9 / 3 = 1 + 50 - 3 = 48

If a programmer desires a different interpretation of the above statement or wishes to make

the operation clearer, parentheses may be employed. Parentheses take precedence over *, /,
%, + and -. Inner parentheses are evaluated first. For example,

(1 + (10 * 5) - (9 / 3)) = 1 + 50 - 3 = 48

is operationally equivalent to the above. However,

((1 + 10) * (5 - 9)) / 3 = (11 * (-4))/3 = -44/3 = -14

is quite different.
Summarizing, the order of precedence is

Order Symbol Operation Comments

0 () parentheses inner ones evaluated first
1 (unary) - negation (unary minus) R→L evaluation
2 */% product, division, modulus L→R evaluation
3 +- addition, subtraction L→R evaluation

The statement

cout << "5 + 2 = " << iResult << "\n";

prints the characters “5 + 2 = ” to the screen then the value of iResult and then sends
the newline escape sequence. There are more flexible ways of printing things to the screen
and we shall encounter these shortly. Note how we can “cascade” the << operator for cout.
An equivalent way of accomplishing the same thing would be:

cout << "5 + 2 = ";

cout << iResult;
cout << "\n";
4.5. FLOATING POINT MATH IN C++ 59

which is a little harder to read. Break up your output statement like this only for neatness
and readability.

4.5 Floating point math in C++

Consider the following C++ program that does mathematical operations with two floats:

//File: floatMath.cpp

#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int main(void)
{ cout << "Input the 1st floating point number: ";
float f1; // Declare the 1st float
cin >> f1; //and read it in

cout << "Input the 2nd floating point number: ";

float f2;
cin >> f2;

float fResult = f1 + f2; // sum

cout << f1 << " + " << f2 << " = " << fResult << "\n";

fResult = f1 - f2; // difference

cout << f1 << " - " << f2 << " = " << fResult << "\n";

fResult = f1 * f2; // product

cout << f1 << " * " << f2 << " = " << fResult << "\n";

if (0 == f2)
{ cout << "Division by zero not permitted!\n";
return(1);
}
else
{ fResult = f1 / f2; // division
cout << f1 << " / " << f2 << " = " << fResult << "\n";
return(0);
}
}
60 CHAPTER 4. GETTING STARTED IN C++

There are some new features in the above code.

float f1;

declares the existence of a floating-point number identified as f1. A “float” is a representation

of numbers like 1.0, 2.5, 0.3333... in (usually) 32-bit representation. How a computer does
this we will leave as a mystery for the time being. However, the representation of most
floating point numbers is inexact, about 1 part in 107 for floats and about 2 parts in 1016 for
a “double”, a 64-bit representation of real numbers. Float and doubles also have maximum
and minimum values defined and this is architecture dependent, that is, on the computer
you are using. Common “dynamic ranges” for floats are between about 10 −38 and 1038 and
about 10−308 and 10308 for doubles. We’ll have a lot more to say about floats as we get
deeper into the course. Floats and doubles are pretty much central to the issue of computing
in engineering and we will discuss the concepts as we require them.
Note that in C++ we can declare variables anywhere. Many programmers like to declare
them just before using them for the first time.
The statement:

cin >> f1;

inputs the float f1 from the keyboard.

4.6 The if/else if/else construct

The if/else if/else construct is one of the most important programming features of C++
and common to many computer languages. It has a single-choice form called if, a double-
choice form called if/else and multiple-choice forms if/else if and if/else if/else.
The general form of the if/else if/else is:
if (logical expression 1 )
{
STATEMENT BODY 1
}
else if (logical expression 2 )
{
STATEMENT BODY 2
}
else if (logical expression 3 )
{
STATEMENT BODY 3
4.6. THE IF/ELSE IF/ELSE CONSTRUCT 61

}
.
.
.
else if (logical expression N + 1 )
{
STATEMENT BODY N + 1
}
else
{
STATEMENT BODY N + 2
}
There are many forms of the if/else if/else construct:

• The else if (logical expression) { STATEMENT BODY } is optional

• The else { STATEMENT BODY } is also optional, independent of the above

• If the STATEMENT BODY consists of one and only one statement, then the surrounding
{}’s are optional. (It can help with clarity of programming to keep them, however.
Their use is highly recommended.)

• Note the use of indenting, optional but highly recommended

• At most one and only one of the STATEMENT BODY ’s can execute within an if/else
if/else construct can be executed

• Processing control passes to the statement immediately following the if/else if/else
construct after execution of one of the STATEMENT BODY ’s.

• If the if/else if or if form is used, it may happen that none of the logical condi-
tions is satisfied. In this case processing control passes to the statement following the
construct.

• if/else if/else constructs can be nested within each other

This is the flow chart for the if construct:

62 CHAPTER 4. GETTING STARTED IN C++

T
?

This is the flow chart for the if/else if construct:

F
?
F
?
T
T
4.7. LOGICAL EXPRESSIONS 63

This is the flow chart for the if/else if/else construct:

F
?
F
?
T
T

4.7 Logical expressions

So, what is a logical expression???

A logical expression is something that evaluates to TRUE or FALSE. FALSE has a numeric
value of the integer 0. TRUE has a numeric value of integer non-zero.
For example:

if (1)
cout << "This would always print,\n";
else if (0)
cout << "whereas this would NEVER print\n";

Here are some of the logical operators and their order of precedence
64 CHAPTER 4. GETTING STARTED IN C++

Order Symbol Operation Comments

0 () parentheses inner ones evaluated first
1 (unary) ! negation (unary NOT) R→L evaluation
2 <=,< less than or equal, less than L→R evaluation
2 >,>= greater than, greater than or equal L→R evaluation
3 ==,!= equal to, not equal to L→R evaluation

Let’s return to the example of solving the quadratic equation, Ax2 + Bx + C = 0 that we
studied in flowchart and pseudocode form in Lecture 3. If we look at the pseudocode on
page 7 of Lecture 3 we see that the if’s are nested and we would probably, at first try, write
a code that looked something like the following, using only if’s and else’s:

//File: quadratic.cpp

#include <iostream>
#include <cmath>

using namespace std;

int main(void)
{ float a,b,c; // Declare the constants...

cout << "\n"

"We will solve for x in Ax*x + B*x + C = 0\n"
"=========================================\n"
"\n";
cout << "Input A,B,C: ";
cin >> a >> b >> c; //...and read them in

cout <<
"Calculating roots (x) of the equation\n"
<< a << "*x*x + " << b << "*x + " << c << " = 0...\n";

if (0 > b*b - 4*a*c) //b*b - 4*a*c is less than 0

{ cout << "No solution since b*b-4*a*c < 0\n";
return(0);
}
else // b*b - 4*a*c is >= 0
{ if (0 != a)
{
cout <<
"Sol’n 1 = " << (-b + sqrt(b*b - 4*a*c))/(2*a) << ", "
4.7. LOGICAL EXPRESSIONS 65

"Sol’n 2 = " << (-b - sqrt(b*b - 4*a*c))/(2*a) << "\n";

return(0);
}
else // b*b-4*a*c is >= 0 and a = 0
{ if (0 != b) // b*b - 4*a*c is >= 0, a = 0, b != 0
{ cout << "One sol’n since a = 0. Sol’n = " << -c/b << "\n";
return(0);
}
else // b*b - 4*a*c is >= 0, a = 0, b = 0
{ cout << "No sol’ns since a and b = 0.\n";
return(0);
}
}
}
}

However, by using else if’s we can make the code look less “nested” and complicated. The
nesting is really still there and we have to remember that when we pass into an else if
that the if condition above it is still false! However, else if’s make the coding look neater
and easier to read.

//File: quadratic2.cpp

#include <iostream>
#include <cmath>

using namespace std;

int main(void)
{ float a,b,c; // Declare the constants...

cout << "\n"

"We will solve for x in Ax*x + B*x + C = 0\n"
"=========================================\n"
"\n";
cout << "Input A,B,C: ";
cin >> a >> b >> c; //...and read them in

cout <<
"Calculating roots (x) of the equation\n"
<< a << "*x*x + " << b << "*x + " << c << " = 0...\n";
66 CHAPTER 4. GETTING STARTED IN C++

if (0 > b*b - 4*a*c) //b*b - 4*a*c is less than 0

{ cout << "No solution since b*b-4*a*c < 0\n";
return(0);
}
else if (0 != a) // b*b - 4*a*c is >= 0, a != 0
{ cout <<
"Sol’n 1 = " << (-b + sqrt(b*b - 4*a*c))/(2*a) << ", "
"Sol’n 2 = " << (-b - sqrt(b*b - 4*a*c))/(2*a) << "\n";
return(0);
}
else if (0 != b) // b*b - 4*a*c is >= 0, a = 0, b != 0
{ cout << "One sol’n since a = 0. Sol’n = " << -c/b << "\n";
return(0);
}
else // b*b - 4*a*c is >= 0, a = 0, b = 0
{ cout << "No sol’ns since a and b = 0.\n";
return(0);
}
}

4.7.1 Logical expressions with AND or OR

Here are more of the logical operators and their order of precedence:

Precedence Symbol Operation Comments

0 (first) (,) parentheses, paired L→R evaluation
1 (unary) ! negation (unary NOT) R→L evaluation
2 <=,< less than or equal, less than L→R evaluation
2 >,>= greater than, greater than or equal L→R evaluation
3 ==,!= equal to, not equal to L→R evaluation
4 && logical AND L→R evaluation
5 (last) || logical OR L→R evaluation

The AND and OR operators work as follows. Imagine that two logical expressions evaluates
to either T (TRUE) or F (FALSE). This is the result of the && and ||’s operating on them.
4.7. LOGICAL EXPRESSIONS 67

(T && T) == T
(T && F) == F
(F && T) == F
(F && F) == F
(T || T) == T
(T || F) == T
(F || T) == T
(F || F) == F

Sometimes these tables are difficult to remember, at least as abstract concepts. This is
helped somewhat if we substitute numerical values for T (1) and F (0).

(1 && 1) == 1
(1 && 0) == 0
(0 && 1) == 0
(0 && 0) == 0
(1 || 1) == 1
(1 || 0) == 1
(0 || 1) == 1
(0 || 0) == 0

Once we do this we realize that the result of (A && B) is the lower value of either A or B. The
result of (A || B) is the higher value of either A or B. It is no more complex than that! And
this is, in fact, how the electronic circuitry works in a computer during the interpretation of
logical expressions.
Some examples:

int i = 5;

if (0 < i && 10 > i)

cout << i << " is a positive, single digit integer\n";

if (0 > i || 10 <= i)
cout << i << " is either negative, or has more than one digit\n";

4.7.2 Mixed arithmetic and logical expressions

It is possible to mix arithmetic and logical expressions. Usually it is done where a logical
expression is expected, such as within an if/if else/else construct. It is also possible to
mix these operators elsewhere, where a regular statement is expected. Don’t do it —unless
you really, really have to for some purpose!
68 CHAPTER 4. GETTING STARTED IN C++

When logical operators and arithmetic operators are mixed in a single expression, the order
of precedence is as follows. Above all, the contents of parentheses are evaluated starting with
the innermost. Then the arithmetic operators get interpreted in the order already discussed.
Finally, the logical operators get interpreted in the order already discussed. Here is the table
for precedence for both arithmetic and logical expressions.

Precedence Symbol Operation Comments

0 (first) ( ) parentheses, paired L→R evaluation, innermost first
1 (unary) - ! negation R→L evaluation
2 * / % multiply, divide, modulus/remainder L→R evaluation
3 + - add, subtract L→R evaluation
4 <=,< less than or equal, less than L→R evaluation
4 >,>= greater than, greater than or equal L→R evaluation
4 ==,!= equal to, not equal to L→R evaluation
5 && logical AND L→R evaluation
6 || logical OR L→R evaluation
7 (last) = assignment R→L evaluation

When in doubt, use parentheses. When not in doubt, use parentheses anyway. The
person reading your code may have forgotten all but the first rule of precedence, parentheses
are interpreted first. This will make your code more readable and understandable.
In fact, that is the convention I have adopted in almost all of my programming, put paren-
theses around every logical sub-expression in any logical expression that contains more than
one logical operators. I also put parentheses around any arithmetical sub-expression in a
mixed arithmetic/logical expression.
Here’s an example of a mixed arithmetic and logical expression. Use the rules of precedence
stated above to see how the following statement is evaluated:

if (i*j == i*i + j*j || i - j <= i*i - j*j && i + j <= i*i + j*j) ...;

The ordering of && and || is also quite important. For example, using the rules of precedence
the above could collapse to 1 || 1 && 0 which is 1 or TRUE. However, if you mistakenly
thought that the || is evaluated first, you would guess that the answer should be 0 or FALSE,
and that is the wrong answer in this case.
4.8. PROBLEMS 69

4.8 Problems
1. An essay-type question? In a computer1 class!
Answer the following questions in your own words...

(a) What is an algorithm?

(b) Not counting the ability to START and STOP, what are the 3 functional build-
ing blocks that are used to construct any algorithm.
(c) Give one example each of these 3 functional building blocks
(d) Name 3 ways in which algorithms may be described.
(e) Give one example each of the above 3 ways in which algorithms may be described.

2. Basic Arithmetic
Write down the value that is assigned to the variable on the left-hand side of each of
these expressions. The variables i and j are int’s; x and y are float’s.

i = 1 + 2*3/4+5;
x = 1.0 + 2.0 + 3.0/4.0 + 5.0;
j = (1 + 2)*3/4 + 5;
y = (1.0 + 2.0)*3.0/4.0 + 5;
y = 1 + 2 + 3/4 + 5;
x = 1 - (static_cast<int>(6*5/4.0*3))/2;

3. Basic Logical Operations

Do the following logical expressions evaluate to TRUE (1) or FALSE (0)?
i is an int that can take on any value.

(1 || 1 && 0 || 0)
(0 > i && 10 < i)
(0 > i || -10 < i)

4. Mixed Logical and Mathematical Operations

Do the following mixed mathematical-logical expressions evaluate to TRUE (1) or
FALSE (0)?
i is an int that can take on any value. (Hint: No matter what i is, 2*i + 1 is an odd
number and 2*i is an even number.)
1
Hey! Unless you’ve been on the moon for the last two weeks...This is a course about thinking and
making things work! Writing computer program is just one way (and a good way for Engineers!) to teach
this.
70 CHAPTER 4. GETTING STARTED IN C++

(2*i + 1)
(4*i%2 && 1)
(2*i + 1 || i/2)

5. Mind Your P’s, Q’s and Semi-Colons

Which of the following are valid statements?

int i, j, k = 0;
int i, double j;
int i0 = 4, f = -1, k=0;
int i; float _0j;
int i j k l m;
int The, Wolverines, Are, Rated, Number, 3;
float f, F, _000000, Wolverine;
int i,j ; i == 1 && j || 3%2;
int static_cast<float>(N);
i = -i + -j;
i + j = f;
x = x*x + 3;
y = x^2 + 3;
y = a x + b;
z = x + y123;
z = x + 123y;
for(i = 0,i <= 10,i = i + 1) cout << "OK?\n";
while(thisIsTrue) cout << "OK?\n";
if (((x < 0) && (y > 3) || (z == 2)) cout << "OK?\n";
if (a != b && c > d && e < f && g == h) cout << "OK?\n";

6. Predict the Output

The examples of code given below all compile correctly. Predict the output that the
code would produce if you compiled and ran it.

• int N = 0;
if (N = 0)
{ cout << "The conditional expression was TRUE\n";
}
else
{ cout << "The conditional expression was FALSE\n";
}
• int i = 0;
if (0 != i)
4.8. PROBLEMS 71

cout << "Statement 1\n";

cout << "Statement 2\n";
cout << "Statement 3\n";
• int j = 0;
if (0 < j);
{ j = j + 1;
}
cout << "j = " << j << \n";

7. This question is iffy, REALLY iffy

Dreaming up your own examples, write syntactically correct C++ code for the follow-
ing. I have provided the answer to the first question to give you an idea of what I am
looking for. You do not have to declare or initialize any of the variables you use.

(a) An example of the use of the if. If the condition is TRUE then one and only
one statement is executed.
A correct answer is: if (i < N) f = f*i;
(b) An example of the use of the if. If the condition is TRUE then exactly two
statements are executed.
(c) An example of the use of the if and the else if. If the if condition is TRUE
then exactly two statements are executed. If the else if condition is TRUE
then one and only one statement is executed.
(d) An example of the use of the if and two else if’s.
(e) An example of the use of the if, two else if’s and the else.

8. Location, location, location

Write a program that prompts its user for two int’s, the first representing an x-
coordinate and the second representing a y-coordinate. Then the program prints out
where the (x, y) point is located, based on the following scheme.

x>0 y >0 upper right quadrant (URQ)

x>0 y <0 lower right quadrant (LRQ)
x<0 y >0 upper left quadrant (ULQ)
x<0 y <0 lower left quadrant (LLQ)
x=0 y >0 upper half (UH)
x=0 y <0 lower half (LH)
x>0 y =0 right half (RH)
x<0 y =0 left half (LH)
x=0 y =0 in the center (C)
72 CHAPTER 4. GETTING STARTED IN C++

Feel free to use abbreviations, like URQ, for upper right quadrant.

Here’s an example of how it works:

% a.out
Enter two int’s, representing x and y: 1 1
Upper right quadrant (URQ)
%
4.9. PROJECTS 73

4.9 Projects
1. Your first programming problem
You have to create an entire code that will compile correctly, accept inputs and provide
outputs and stops. As for coding style, follow Appendix A.
Your program will do the following:

(a) Ask the user to input two non-negative integers.

(b) If the user inputs a negative integer, the program issues an error message and
stops.
(c) If the two numbers are equal, output is provided to inform the user. Otherwise
the user is informed which number is larger and which is smaller.
(d) The program outputs the ratio of the larger number to the smaller number unless
the smaller number is zero. If the smaller number is zero, a message to this effect
is output.
(e) The program outputs the quadrature sum of the two numbers, that is,
firstInteger * firstInteger + secondInteger * secondInteger.
(f) If the smaller number is zero, the program stops. Otherwise, the program checks
if the smaller number is a perfect divisor of the larger number. This means there
is no remainder after division. For example, 2 is a perfect divisor of 8, but not 7.
Output is provided to inform the user whether or not a perfect divisor was found.
(g) Program stops.

The above set of instructions is really a coarse pseudocode for your program. Read the
instructions very carefully.
Here are some example uses of the program. Your program should work exactly the
same.

> a.out
Input the 1st integer: -1
Input must be non-negative. Try again!

> a.out
Input the 1st integer: 1
Input the 2nd integer: -1
Input must be non-negative. Try again!

> a.out
Input the 1st integer: 1
Input the 2nd integer: 1
74 CHAPTER 4. GETTING STARTED IN C++

The two numbers are the same!

The ratio is 1, the quadrature sum is 2
1 is a perfect divisor of 1

> a.out
Input the 1st integer: 10
Input the 2nd integer: 0
The bigger number is 10, the smaller number is 0
The smaller number is 0, so no ratio is calculated, the quadrature sum is 100

> a.out
Input the 1st integer: 0
Input the 2nd integer: 10
The bigger number is 10, the smaller number is 0
The smaller number is 0, so no ratio is calculated, the quadrature sum is 100

> a.out
Input the 1st integer: 7
Input the 2nd integer: 4
The bigger number is 7, the smaller number is 4
The ratio is 1, the quadrature sum is 65
4 is not a perfect divisor of 7

> a.out
Input the 1st integer: 4
Input the 2nd integer: 7
The bigger number is 7, the smaller number is 4
The ratio is 1, the quadrature sum is 65
4 is not a perfect divisor of 7

> a.out
Input the 1st integer: 8
Input the 2nd integer: 2
The bigger number is 8, the smaller number is 2
The ratio is 4, the quadrature sum is 68
2 is a perfect divisor of 8

> a.out
Input the 1st integer: 2
Input the 2nd integer: 8
The bigger number is 8, the smaller number is 2
The ratio is 4, the quadrature sum is 68
2 is a perfect divisor of 8
4.9. PROJECTS 75

2. Leap year calculation

The rules to calculate if it is a leap year are:

(a) A year divisible by 4 is a leap year (2004, 2008...), unless

(b) it is also divisible by 100 (2100, 2200...) in which case it is not a leap year.
(c) There is an exception. A year divisible by 400 is a leap year (2000, 2400...).

Write a program that will accept a positive int, the year to be tested, from a user.
If the user inputs a 0 or negative number, the program quits without doing anything.
Otherwise, it will print a message saying whether or not the year is a leap year. Here
is an example of how the program works.

unix-prompt> a.out
Input a number for the year (>= 1): -1
Sorry, your year must be greater than 1.
unix-prompt> a.out
Input a number for the year (>= 1): 2001
The year 2001 is not a leap year
unix-prompt> a.out
Input a number for the year (>= 1): 2004
The year 2004 is a leap year
unix-prompt> a.out
Input a number for the year (>= 1): 2100
The year 2100 is not a leap year
unix-prompt> a.out
Input a number for the year (>= 1): 2400
The year 2400 is a leap year

3. When in Rome...
The following table shows how Roman numerals are formed:

Arabic Roman Arabic Roman Arabic Roman Arabic Roman

1 I 10 X 100 C 1000 M
2 II 20 XX 200 CC 2000 MM
3 III 30 XXX 300 CCC 3000 MMM
4 IV 40 XL 400 CD
5 V 50 L 500 D
6 VI 60 LX 600 DC
7 VII 70 LXX 700 DCC
8 VIII 80 LXXX 800 DCCC
9 IX 90 XC 900 CM
76 CHAPTER 4. GETTING STARTED IN C++

A Roman number is written in decades starting with the largest decade on the left
and then going to the right. For example, the number 1999 would be represented as
MCMXCIX. The largest number that can be represented by Roman numerals is 3999,
or MMMCMXCIX. Write a program that will accept a positive int, between 1 and
3999 inclusive. If the user inputs something outside this range, the program quits
without doing anything. Otherwise, it will print the conversion to Roman numerals.
Here is an example of how the program works.

unix-prompt> a.out
Input an integer between 1 and 3999 inclusive: 0
Sorry, your integer must be between 1 and 3999 inclusive.
unix-prompt> a.out
Input an integer between 1 and 3999 inclusive: 4000
Sorry, your integer must be between 1 and 3999 inclusive.
unix-prompt> a.out
Input an integer between 1 and 3999 inclusive: 1338
MCCCXXXVIII
unix-prompt> a.out
Input an integer between 1 and 3999 inclusive: 3888
MMMDCCCLXXXVIII
unix-prompt> a.out
Input an integer between 1 and 3999 inclusive: 52
LII

4. This is a 5-bit calculation

Write a program that will accept 5 bits (0 or 1) in the following order: b0 , b1 , b2 , b3 , b4
representing a 5-bit bit pattern b4 b3 b2 b1 b0 . (Note the ordering.) Write a program that:

(a) Determines if the 5-bit bit pattern b4 b3 b2 b1 b0 represents an odd or even unsigned
integer.
(b) Determines if the bit pattern represents a negative or positive signed integer in
5-bit two’s complement representation.
(c) Prints the unsigned integer representation.
(d) Prints the bit pattern’s bit complement b̃4 b̃3 b̃2 b̃1 b̃0 (1’s become 0’s and 0’s become
1’s).
(e) Prints the signed integer representation assuming 5-bit two’s complement repre-
sentation.

Here is an example of how the program works.

4.9. PROJECTS 77

unix-prompt> a.out
Bit b0: 0
Bit b1: 1
Bit b2: 0
Bit b3: 1
Bit b4: 0
5-bit bit pattern is: 0 1 0 1 0
Bit pattern represent an even unsigned integer
Bit pattern represent a positive signed integer
Unsigned integer representation is: 10
Complement 5-bit bit pattern is: 1 0 1 0 1
Signed integer representation is: 10

unix-prompt> a.out
Bit b0: 1
Bit b1: 1
Bit b2: 1
Bit b3: 1
Bit b4: 0
5-bit bit pattern is: 0 1 1 1 1
Bit pattern represent an odd unsigned integer
Bit pattern represent a positive signed integer
Unsigned integer representation is: 15
Complement 5-bit bit pattern is: 1 0 0 0 0
Signed integer representation is: 15

unix-prompt> a.out
Bit b0: 1
Bit b1: 1
Bit b2: 1
Bit b3: 0
Bit b4: 1
5-bit bit pattern is: 1 0 1 1 1
Bit pattern represent an odd unsigned integer
Bit pattern represent a negative signed integer
Unsigned integer representation is: 23
Complement 5-bit bit pattern is: 0 1 0 0 0
Signed integer representation is: -9

unix-prompt> a.out
Bit b0: 1
Bit b1: 0
78 CHAPTER 4. GETTING STARTED IN C++

Bit b2: 0
Bit b3: 0
Bit b4: 1
5-bit bit pattern is: 1 0 0 0 1
Bit pattern represent an odd unsigned integer
Bit pattern represent a negative signed integer
Unsigned integer representation is: 17
Complement 5-bit bit pattern is: 0 1 1 1 0
Signed integer representation is: -15

5. Is binary arithmetic iffy

We return to binary arithmetic of 5-bit bit patterns that was considered in one of
the problems in the previous chapter. We imagine a machine that can only represent
integers in 5-bit bit strings. However, this time you will write a program that emulates
5-bit binary arithmetic using actual int’s in C. Remember that there is no 6’th or
higher bit. The result of any calculation that would carry over into the 6’th bit is
thrown away.
The program you will write will do two things, depending on the choice of the person
using your program:

(a) multiply a 5-bit bit pattern by a 2-bit bit pattern, for example, 10101 × 11, or
(b) add two 5-bit bit patterns, for example, 10101 + 10011.

The user of your program will provide the bit patterns that are to be added or multi-
plied. Your code will output the 5-bit bit pattern that is the result of the multiplication
or addition.
Examples of use:
Here is an example of running the code:

> a.out

What do you want to do?

Type a 0 if you want to add two 5-bit strings
Type a 1 if you want to multiply a 5-bit string by a 2-bit string
(0 or 1): 1

Enter the 5-bit binary number to be multiplied: 1 0 1 0 1

Enter the 2-bit multiplier: 1 1

4.9. PROJECTS 79

10101
x 11
------

...is the same as the addition...

10101
+01010
------
11111
>

Here is another example of running the code:

> a.out

What do you want to do?

Type a 0 if you want to add two 5-bit strings
Type a 1 if you want to multiply a 5-bit string by a 2-bit string
(0 or 1): 0

Enter the 1st 5-bit binary number to be added: 1 0 1 0 1

Enter the 2nd 5-bit binary number to be added: 1 0 0 1 1

10101
+10011
------
01000
>
80 CHAPTER 4. GETTING STARTED IN C++
Chapter 5

Loops

Loops are the third and final programming element we need to write any algorithm. The
C++ language provides three “easy” ways to do this, the while, do/while and for loops.

5.1 The while loop

The general form of the while loop is:
while (logical expression)
{
STATEMENT BODY 1
}
Some features of the while loop:
• If the STATEMENT BODY consists of one and only one statement, then the surrounding
{}’s are optional. (It can help with clarity of programming to keep them, however.
Their use is highly recommended.)
• Note the use of indenting, following Horstman’s recommendations.
• Processing control passes to the statement immediately following the while construct
after the condition tested by the logical expression fails.
• while loops (in fact, any repetition loop) can be nested within each other
• The logical expression can mix arithmetic and logical operators to make for compact
coding. (This is not really recommended for novice programmers and often makes code
hard to read.)
• If the logical expression is false (even the first time), the STATEMENT BODY within the
while loop is never executed.
• If the condition which is tested is TRUE and neither the STATEMENT BODY nor the
logical expression modifies it so that it would become false, then it will run forever.
This is called a “forever” loop, while(1){}. Forever loops are bad, anti-social things.

81
82 CHAPTER 5. LOOPS

It puts your computer in a state known formally as “hung”, as in, “Jeepers, I think
my computer is hung.” It is NOT a compliment! Hung computers are put out of their
misery by a variety of desperate measures, increasing in severity. At the very worst,
the power has to be shut down, a really nasty, last resort for a hung computer.

This is the flow chart for the while loop:

?
F
T

STATEMENT BODY

Here’s an example that tests Gauss’s summation formula:

//File: gauss.cpp
#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int main(void)
{ cout << "Input N: ";
int N;
cin >> N;

int i = 0, Sum = 0;
while (i < N)
{ i = i + 1;
5.1. THE WHILE LOOP 83

Sum = Sum + i;
}

cout <<
"Sum of " << N << " digits is " << Sum
<< "...according to Gauss: " << N*(N+1)/2 << "\n";

return(0);
}

Here’s a more compact (but dangerous way) to do it:

//File: gaussAgain.cpp
#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int main(void)
{ cout << "Input N: ";
int N;
cin >> N;

int i = 0, Sum = 0;
while (i = i + 1 <= N) Sum = Sum + i; //NO, NO, NO!

cout <<
"Sum of " << N << " digits is " << Sum
<< "...according to Gauss: " << N*(N+1)/2 << "\n";

return(0);
}

This is dangerous because if you forgot the parentheses around the i = i + 1 part of the
conditional, you would generate an infinite loop! Don’t believe me? Try it! Um, wait, this
is a forever loop! OK, try it, but <CNTL>-C out of it after a few seconds.
The point is—try to make your coding as easy to interpret as possible. Don’t be too clever.
Don’t save space just for the purpose of saving space at the expense of clarity. In the old days
of computing, memory and disk space were very expensive and precious. Programmers prided
themselves at making things very compact. Those days are, happily, long gone. However,
there still are people who do this. Maybe they think that an electron is as expensive as a
Higgs’ boson1 .
1
Electrons are essentially free. There are countless numbers of them in everyday things, like water. The
84 CHAPTER 5. LOOPS

5.2 The do/while loop

The general form of the do/while loop is:

do
{
STATEMENT BODY 1
}while (logical expression);

Some features of the do/while loop:

• Do not forget the “;” after the condition!

• If the STATEMENT BODY consists of one and only one statement, then the surrounding
{}’s are optional. (It can help with clarity of programming to keep them, however.
Their use is highly recommended.)
• Note the use of indenting, following Horstman’s convention.
• Processing control passes to the statement immediately following the do/while con-
struct after condition tested by the logical expression fails.
• do/while loops (in fact, any repetition loop) can be nested within each other.
• The logical expression can mix arithmetic and logical operators to make for compact
coding. (This is not really recommended for novice programmers and often makes code
hard to read.)
• The STATEMENT BODY is executed at least once even if the logical expression is false
initially.
• If the condition which is tested is true and neither the STATEMENT BODY nor the logical
expression modifies it so that it would become false, then it will run forever. This is
called a “forever” loop, do{}while(1);.

This is the flow chart for the do/while loop:

Higgs’ boson is very expensive. Physicists are spending billions to find it. It has not been found yet, but
almost! The first person to find it will win the Nobel Prize for physics.
5.2. THE DO/WHILE LOOP 85

STATEMENT BODY

?
T
F

The only thing that really distinguishes a do/while loop from a while loop is that the
do/while loop evaluates the conditional at the end of the STATEMENT BODY and the while
loop evaluates it at the beginning. while loops are often used when incrementing a counter
and using (and usually updating) the counter within the statement body. do/while loops
are useful if you always want to process the STATEMENT BODY at least once. Because of this,
loops that accept input from the keyboard (or a file) make good use of the do/while loop
especially when the input is terminated using a “sentinel”.
Here is an example of sentinel controlled output for calculating the average of student grades.
The sentinel for stopping is when the input for a grade is less than zero. Even the cruelest
professor does not hand out a negative grades (even though it is legal)! So, this is a good
sentinel to use for this application.

//File: grades.cpp
#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

86 CHAPTER 5. LOOPS

int main(void)
{ int nStudents = 0, grade, sumGrades = 0;

do
{ cout << "Input a grade: ";
cin >> grade;

if (0 > grade) cout << "Grade < 0, end of input.\n";

else
{ nStudents = nStudents + 1;
sumGrades = sumGrades + grade;
}
}while (0 <= grade);

if (0 < nStudents)
cout << nStudents
<< " grades were read in. "
<< "The class average is: "
<< sumGrades/nStudents
<< "\n";

return(0);
}

Note that the above calculates the average as sumGrades/nStudents, the result of an integer
division. This may not be completely fair as an average of, say, 79.9 should not really be
reported as 79.
The way to “fix” this is to make the following changes:

1. Add the following #include in the pre-processor area of the code:

#include <iomanip>

2. Modify the cout statement as follows:

cout << nStudents

<< " grades were read in. "
<< "The class average is: "
<< setw(5) //Set field width to 5
<< setprecision(3) //3 digits of precision
<< static_cast<float>(sumGrades)/nStudents
<< "\n";
5.3. THE FOR LOOP 87

The code in its entirety can be found in the lectures area on the web. It is called grades1.cpp.
There are two new features in the cout statement. One is the introduction to the unary
“cast” operator static_cast<float>(expression) which converts sumGrades temporarily
(and internally) to a float and the resulting calculation takes place as if it were a divide using
floats alone. It is not necessary to make the same conversion for nStudents. The division
of a float by an integer or an integer by a float always results in a floating point calculation
as the integer participating is “promoted” to a float.
The general form of the cast operator is

static_cast<type_name>(expression) //Don’t forget the parentheses!

to change expression to the type type_name. So, float’s can be changed to int’s and vice-
versa. It is possible to change among other types of variables that we will encounter later.
The other new feature is the use of a “field width” and “precision” to modify the output of
the float. The function setw(m) sets aside m spaces to print. The function setprecision(n)
prints n significant digits. These functions are defined in the iomanip (I/O stream manipula-
tor) library file. Hence, we had to include this file, else the compiler would have complained.
Note how these functions are employed. setprecision() only has to be set once. The
stream handlers remember it. However, setw() has to be set for every item!
There is another commonly used stream manipulator called fixed. We will not use it much.
It is described in Chapter 2 of Horstman.

5.3 The for loop

The for loop is similar to the while loop except that the syntax makes explicit the ini-
tialization, the looping condition and the loop counter modification. This form is generally
preferred if the loop is to be performed in a systematic fashion, to a well-defined termination
criterion with a regularly-spaced or easy-to-calculate loop counter indexing.
The general form of a for loop is:
for (expression 1; logical expression; expression 2)
{
STATEMENT BODY
}

Some features of the for loop:

• If the STATEMENT BODY consists of one and only one statement, then the surrounding
{}’s are optional. (It can help with clarity of programming to keep them, however.
Their use is highly recommended.)
88 CHAPTER 5. LOOPS

• Note the use of indenting, consistent with Horstman’s convention.

• Processing control passes to the statement immediately following the for construct
after condition tested by the logical expression fails.

• for loops (in fact, any repetition loop) can be nested within each other.

• The logical expression is intended to provide the condition for which the execution
of the for loop terminates. This logical expression can mix arithmetic and logical
operators to make for compact coding. (This is not really recommended for novice
programmers and often makes code hard to read.)

• The STATEMENT BODY will not be executed if the logical expression is false initially.

• expression 1 is intended to initialize the loop counter (or index). It’s use is optional.
However, in this case the initialization of any counters (should they be used) should
be done beforehand.

• The use of the logical expression is also optional. If not provided, the STATEMENT
BODY is always entered. Another way of exiting the loop has to be provided otherwise
the loop is infinite.

• expression 2 is intended to increment the counter. The statement (or statements)

are executed within the loop after the STATEMENT BODY. It’s use is also optional. If not
specified, the increments (or decrements) of any counters should be done within the
STATEMENT BODY.

• The two “;”’s in the definition of the for loop are NOT optional. Leaving one or both
out will result in a compilation error.

This is the flow chart for the for loop:

5.3. THE FOR LOOP 89

EXPRESSION 1

?
F
T

STATEMENT BODY

EXPRESSION 2

Here is an example that executes a count down and a “blast off”.

//File: blastOff.cpp

#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int main(void)
{ cout << "Estimate number of counter loops/second: ";
int loopsPerSecond;
cin >> loopsPerSecond;

cout << "How many characters wide is your screen? ";

int screenWidth;
cin >> screenWidth;

cout << "How many characters high is your screen? ";

90 CHAPTER 5. LOOPS

int screenHeight;
cin >> screenHeight;

for (int i = 10; i >= 0 ; i = i - 1)

{ // Next line should waste about 1 second
for (int j = 0; j <= loopsPerSecond; j = j + 1) ;
cout << i << "\n";
}

cout << "\a.\n.\n.\n.\nWe Have ignition!\a\n.\n.\n.\n";

"Draw" a rocket
cout << " /\\\n"
<< " ||\n"
<< " ||\n"
<< " ||\n"
<< " ||\n"
<< "/||\\\n";

//Start of the vapor trail

cout << " **\n";
for (int j = 0; j <= loopsPerSecond/2; j = j + 1) ;
cout << "*****\n";
for (int j = 0; j <= loopsPerSecond/5; j = j + 1) ;

//Vapor trail expands

for (int i = 6; i <= screenWidth; i = i + 1)
{ for (int j = 1; j <= i; j = j + 1) cout << "*";
for (int j = 0; j <= loopsPerSecond/i; j = j + 1) ;
cout << "\n";
}

//Vapor trail at maximum

for (int i = 1; i <= screenHeight; i = i + 1)
{ for (int j = 1; j <= screenWidth; j = j + 1) cout << "*";
for (int j = 0; j <= loopsPerSecond/screenWidth; j = j + 1) ;
cout << "\n";
}

//Vapor trail contracts

for (int i = screenWidth; i > 0; i = i - 1)
{ for (int j = 1; j <= i; j = j + 1) cout << "*";
5.3. THE FOR LOOP 91

for (int j = 0; j <= loopsPerSecond/screenWidth; j = j + 1) ;

cout << "\n";
}

//Clear the screen

for (int i = 1; i <= screenHeight; i = i + 1)
{ for (int j = 0; j <= loopsPerSecond/screenWidth; j = j + 1) ;
cout << "\n";
}

return(0);
}
92 CHAPTER 5. LOOPS

5.4 Problems
1. Flowcharts revisited
Draw the flowchart representation (using lines, arrows, rectangles, diamond-shapes,
and words) for the following looping constructs:

(a) the for-loop:

for (i = 10; i > 0; i = i - 1){Sum = Sum + i;}
(b) the do/while loop:
do{cin >> oddNumber; odd = oddNumber%2}while(!odd);
(c) the while loop:
while (different){z = x; y = x; x = temp; different = x - y;}

2. Loop tests

(a) How many times is the following loop body executed?

int i = 0;
do
{ i = i + 1;
} while (i < 0);
(b) How many times is the following loop body executed?
int i = 0;
while(i < 0)
{ i = i + 1;
}
(c) How many times is the following loop executed?
int i = 3;
while(i)
{ i = i - 1;
}
(d) How many times is the following loop body executed?
int i = 0;
while(i <= 0)
{ i = i - 1;
}
(e) How many times is the following loop executed?
5.4. PROBLEMS 93

int j = 1;
do
{ j = -2*j + 1;
}while(j != 0);
(f) How many times is the following loop body executed?
for(int i = 0; i < 10; i = i + 2)
{ cout << "i = " << i << "\n";
}

3. Predict the output

The examples of code given below all compile correctly. Predict the output that the
code would produce if you compiled and ran it.

(a) int N = 0;
if (N = 0)
cout << "The conditional expression was TRUE\n";
else
cout << "The conditional expression was FALSE\n";
(b) int f;
for(f = 0; f <= 10; f = f + 2)
cout << f%10;
cout << "\n";
(c) int i = 0, Sum = 0, N = 3;
do
{ i = i + 1;
Sum = Sum + i;
}while(i <= N);
cout << "Sum = " << Sum << "\n";
(d) int i = 0;
if (0 != i)
cout << "Statement 1\n";
cout << "Statement 2\n";
cout << "Statement 3\n";
(e) int j = 0;
if (0 < j);
{ j = j + 1;
}
cout << "j = " << j << "\n";
(f) int i = 2, j = -2;
while (j <= i)
94 CHAPTER 5. LOOPS

{ if (j < 0)
cout << "i is " << i << ".";
cout << " j is " << j << ".\n";
i = i - 1;

j = j + 1;
}

4. Loop drills

(a) Convert the following code containing a do/while loop to a code containing a
while loop in such a way that the execution of the code is identical.
int j = 0;
do
{ j = j + 1;
cout << j << "\n";

}while (j <= 10);

cout << j << "\n";
(b) Convert the following code containing a while loop to a code containing a do/while
loop in such a way that the execution of the code is identical.
int j = 10;
while (j > 0)
{ j = j - 2;
cout << j << "\n";
}
cout << j << "\n";
(c) Consider the following code:
#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int main(void)
{ int x = 1;
for (int i = 1; i <= 10 ; i = i + 1)
{ x = x*2;
cout << x << " ";
}
cout << endl;
return 0;
}
5.4. PROBLEMS 95

What does the above code print to the screen when you run it?
Draw the flow chart for the for loop in the above program.
(d) Consider the following code:
#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int main(void)
{ int i = 5;
do
{ i = i - 1;
cout << i << " ";
}while(i);
cout << endl;
return 0;
}
What does the above code print to the screen when you run it?
Draw the flow chart for the do{}while(); loop in the above program.
(e) Consider the following code:
#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int main(void)
{ int i = 13;
while(i%2)
{ i = i/3;
cout << i << " ";
}
cout << endl;
return 0;
}
What does the above code print to the screen when you run it?
Draw the flow chart for the while(){}; loop in the above program.
(f) Consider the following code:
#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

96 CHAPTER 5. LOOPS

int main(void)
{ for (int i = 1; i <= 2; i = i + 1)
for (int j = 1; j <= 3; j = j + 1)
cout << i << "," << j << endl;
return 0;
}
What does the above code print to the screen when you run it?
Draw the flow chart for the nested for loops in the above program.

5. Think Like a Computer

Consider the following C++ code.

#include <iostream>
#include <cmath>
using namespace std;

int main(void)
{ float x;
cout << "Input x (must be positive): ";
cin >> x;

int i = 0;
const int NMax = 1000;
const float SMALL = 0.0001;
float xPower = 1.0, lastTerm, Sum = 0.0;
do
{ i = i + 1;
xPower = x*xPower;
lastTerm = xPower/i;
Sum = Sum + lastTerm;
}while (i < NMax && lastTerm > SMALL);

if (i == NMax)
cout << "Series did not converge\n";
else
{
cout << "i = " << i << "\n"
<< "x = " << x << "\n"
<< "lastTerm = " << lastTerm << "\n"
<< "Sum = " << Sum << "\n";
}
5.4. PROBLEMS 97

return 0;
}

(a) What series is being summed by this code? Sum = x + (you provide the rest)
(b) If the user inputs -1.0 for x, what will be printed out by this code?
(c) If the user inputs 0.0 for x, what will be printed out by this code?
(d) If the user inputs 1.0 for x, what will be printed out by this code?
(e) If the user inputs 0.0001 for x, what will be printed out by this code?
(f) If the user inputs 0.001 for x, what will be printed out by this code?
(g) If the user inputs 0.01 for x, what will be printed out by this code?
(h) If the user inputs 0.1 for x, what will be value of i that is printed out by this
code? (A hand calculator may help.)

6. Think Like a Computer Again

Consider the following C++ code.

#include <iostream>
#include <cmath>
using namespace std;

int main(void)
{ float x;
cout << "Enter x: ";
cin >> x;

int n = 0;
float lastTerm;
const float EPSILON = 0.001;
float sign = 1;
float denominator = 1;
float total = 1;
while(n <= 1 || lastTerm > EPSILON)
{ n = n + 1;
if (n/2*2 == n)
{ denominator = denominator*n*(n - 1);
lastTerm = pow(x,n)/denominator;
sign = -sign;
total = total + sign*lastTerm;
cout << "Term " << n << " is " << lastTerm << "\n";
98 CHAPTER 5. LOOPS

}
}

cout << "The total is " << total << "\n";

return 0;
}

(a) If you input 0.01 for x, what will be printed out?

(b) If you input 1.0 for x, what will be printed out? (A hand calculator may help.)
(c) What is another condition for the if statement that gives the same result?
(d) What is the formula this program is implementing?

7. Predict and convert

(a) Prediction part: If you compiled and ran this program, exactly what would the
output look like?

#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int main(void)
{ const int maxTerms = 8;
const int x = 2;

int sign = 1;
int term = 1;
for (int i = 1; i <= maxTerms; i = i + 1)
{ sign = -sign;
term = term*x;
if (0 == i%2 || 2 <= i && 4 >= i)
{ cout << i << ":";
if (0 > sign) cout << " - ";
else cout << " + ";
cout << term << endl;
}
}

return 0;
}
5.4. PROBLEMS 99

(b) Conversion part: Convert the program in the first part of this question to use
a do-while loop rather than a for loop. Write your solution in the space below.

8. Predict and convert again

(a) Prediction part: If you compiled and ran this program, exactly what would the
output look like?
#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int main(void)
{ const int maxTerms = 8;
const int x = 2;

int term = 1;
int sum = 1;
cout << "Sum = 1";
for (int i = 1; i <= maxTerms; i = i + 1)
{ term = -term*x;
if (0 != i%3 && 0 != i%4 )
{ if (0 > term) cout << " - " << -term;
else cout << " + " << term;
sum = sum + term;
}
}
cout << " = " << sum << "\n";

return 0;
}
(b) Conversion part: Convert the program in the first part of this question to use
a while loop rather than a for loop. Write your solution in the space below.

9. Fix the bugs

Consider the following C++ code. It is an attempt to do the sum:

S = 1 − x2 + x4 − x6 + x8 − x10

The code has errors that the compiler detects as indicated in the comment lines. Fix
them. The code also has “conceptual” errors in some lines, also indicated by comments.
Conceptual errors are those that compile without error but do not provide correct
answers upon execution. Fix these as well.
100 CHAPTER 5. LOOPS

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

int main(void)
{ float x;
cout << "Input x: ";
cin >> x;

float Sum, p; // Conceptual errors on this line

int N = 10;
do
{ i = i + 2; // Compiler detects error on this line
p = p*x; // Conceptual errors on this line
Sum = Sum + p;
}while(i <= N); // Compiler detects error on this line
cout << "Sum = " << Sum << "\n";

return 0;
}

10. More bugs to fix

Consider the following C++ code. It is an attempt to do the sum:
x4 x6 x8 x10
S = 1−x + 2
− + −
2! 3! 4! 5!
The code has errors that the compiler detects as indicated in the comment lines. Fix
them. The code also has “design” flaws in some lines, also indicated by comments.
Design flaws are those that compile without error but do not provide correct answers
upon execution. Fix these as well. The corrected code should be able to compile and
calculate the above sum.

using namespace std;

int main(void)
{ cout >> "Input x:"; //Compiler detects error(s) on this line
cin << x; //Compiler error(s) on this line
double xPower = x; //Design flaw(s)
double sum; //Design flaw(s)
for(int term = 0; term <= 12; term = term + 1); //Design flaw(s)
xPower = xPower + x*term; //Design flaw(s)
5.4. PROBLEMS 101

sum = sum * xPower; //Design flaw(s)

cout << "Sum = " << Sum << "\n"; //Compiler error(s) on this line
return Sum; //Compiler detects error(s) on this line
}

11. Dealing cards

Complete the C++ code started below. The outer for loop deals 5 cards. The
statement:int rank = rand()%13 + 1; chooses a random number between 1 and 13
inclusive. So, a 1 is an ace, a 2 is a deuce, and so on up to 10, 11 is a jack, 12 is a
queen and 13 is a king. Then you must randomly pick the suit from one of 4: spades,
clubs, diamonds and hearts. Your code must print out the results as in the example.
Do not worry about having two cards the same as the deck your are dealing from is a
6-deck superdeck, six full decks of 52 cards each, so dealing identical cards is possible,
but not very likely.

Here is an example hand that was dealt by the program.:

Card 1 is a queen of spades.

Card 2 is a 3 of spades.
Card 3 is an ace of diamonds.
Card 4 is a king of diamonds.
Card 5 is a 7 of clubs.

#include <iostream>
#include <cstdlib>
#include <ctime>
using namespace std;

int main(void)
{ srand(time(NULL));
for(int nCards = 1; nCards <= 5; nCards = nCards + 1)
{ int rank = rand()%13 + 1;
// You fill in the rest
.
.
.
.
} // End of the for loop over the 5 cards
return 0;
} // End of the main routine
102 CHAPTER 5. LOOPS

12. Sentinel controlled input loops

Write a complete, standalone (if typed in, it would compile and run) C++ code that
prompts a user for an integer but only accepts it if it is a positive, odd integer less than
100. If the user provides an integer that does not satisfy this, an explicit explanation
is given and the user is prompted again. Your code has to provide output exactly as
follows. Computer output is in typefont, user input is in italics.
User! Type in an integer: 0
The integer must be > 0. Try again.
User! Type in an integer: 100
The integer must be < 100. Try again.
User! Type in an integer: 42
The integer must be odd. Try again.
User! Type in an integer: 41
Successful input!

13. Count the factors of 2

Write a C++ code that inputs a positive integer and prints out the number of factors
of two in it. For example, an odd number has no factors of two, 2 has one factor of
2, 4 = 2 × 2 has 2 factors of 2, 6 = 3 × 2 has 1 factor of two, 8 = 2 × 2 × 2 has 3,
10 = 5 × 2 has 1 factor of 2, 12 = 3 × 2 × 2 has 2 factors of 2 and so on.

14. List the common factors

Write a C++ code that counts all the least common multipliers of a positive integer
including 1 and the number itself. For example 8 = 1 × 2 × 2 × 2, 17 = 1 × 17,
123456789 = 1 × 3 × 3 × 3607 × 3803. Here are sample uses of the program:

Input any positive int : 8

8 = 1 x 2 x 2 x 2

Input any positive int : 17

17 = 1 x 17

Input any positive int : 123456789

123456789 = 1 x 3 x 3 x 3607 x 3803

15. Compound interest

What happens if you deposit $1000.00 in a bank account that accumulates interest at
5% per year, compounded annually? After the first year you have $1000.00 × 1.05 =
$1050.00 After the second year you will have $1050.00 × 1.05 = $1102.50. Write a
5.4. PROBLEMS 103

program that will accept a positive float for the starting balance and output how much
money you will have at the end of each year. The program stops when your money
has at least doubled.
Here’s an example of how it works:

% a.out
Input the starting balance: 1000

After year 1, balance = 1050

After year 2, balance = 1102.5
After year 3, balance = 1157.62
After year 4, balance = 1215.51
After year 5, balance = 1276.28
After year 6, balance = 1340.1
After year 7, balance = 1407.1
After year 8, balance = 1477.46
After year 9, balance = 1551.33
After year 10, balance = 1628.89
After year 11, balance = 1710.34
After year 12, balance = 1795.86
After year 13, balance = 1885.65
After year 14, balance = 1979.93
After year 15, balance = 2078.93
%

16. Oyster-Shucker’s Savings and Loan

Oyster-Shucker’s Savings and Loan has a great deal for you! This banks pays 1%
interest per month, but only in months that do not have the letter “r” in its name (a
rather strange but lucrative deal). Thus, for each month with an “r”, the total amount
of money is multiplied by 1.01. For months without an “r”, the total is unchanged.
Write a program that:

• Reads in an int representing the first month the money is put in the bank,
• Reads in an int representing the number of months the money is in the bank,
• Reads in a float for the amount of money deposited,
• Loops over the number of months that the money is in the bank, and,
– If the current month has an “r”, multiplies the total by 1.01,
• And finally, prints out the final amount of money.

You may find the following useful: The statement

104 CHAPTER 5. LOOPS

currentMonth = (startMonth + i) % 12;

calculates the month, given a starting month and a number of months elapsed. For
example, if you start in January (Month 1), 13 months later it is February (Month 2).

17. There’s Gold in Them Thar Ratios

In the Fibonacci series
1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, . . .
each number (after the first two) is equal to the sum of the two before it. So, for
example, the next number after 8 is 8 + 5 = 13. One of the properties of the series is
that the ratio of a number in the series to the one immediately preceding it converges
(when the Fibonacci get very large) to the so-called Golden Ratio.
Write a program to approximate the Golden Ratio. Your program should compute
terms in the Fibonacci series, taking the ratio of the most recent term to the one
before it. Once the ratio is not appreciably different from the last time it was computed,
terminate the loop and print out the result.

18. The Mersenne primes

A “prime number” is a positive whole number that can only be divided by itself and 1
to produce another positive whole number. The first few primes are 1,2,3,5,7,11... In
C++ language the test:
if (0 == N%i)
would never be true for a candidate prime N if i were greater than 1 and less than N.
A Mersenne prime is a prime number that also has the form 2p − 1 where p is a positive
number greater than 1.
Write a C++ code that calculates candidate Mersenne primes 2p − 1 for 2 ≤ p ≤ 31.
(This step is coded for you below.) Then test the number to see if it is prime. (You’ll
need a loop to do this.) If you detect that the number is prime, print out the number
and the value of p.

19. Nest your for’s, inside and out

Write a C++ program that will:

(a) Prompt the user for a positive odd integer within a do-while construct. If the
integer is 0, negative or even, prompt the user again. The algorithm goes to the
next step when an odd positive integer is received. Call this odd integer N.
(b) Output an inverted triangle of asterisks that looks like the following example.
The first row has N *’s. Each following row has two *’s less than the one above it
and is centered with respect to the row above.

Here’s an example of how the program should work:

5.4. PROBLEMS 105

red% a.out
Input an odd positive int: -1
Input an odd positive int: 0
Input an odd positive int: 2
Input an odd positive int: 11
***********
*********
*******
*****
***
*
red%

You must use a do{}while(); loop to obtain N.

You must use for-loops to make the drawing.
You may not use arrays.
You must only use cout statements that have only single character strings, for ex-
ample, cout << "*";. Something like cout << "**"; or cout << " *"; is not
permitted. Spaces are counted as a character.
Your program must work for arbitrary odd, positive N.

20. Nest your for’s, left to right

Write a C++ program that will output the following:

****************************************
*********** *
* ********** *
* ********** *
* ********** *
* ********** *
* ********** *
* ********** *
* ********** *
* ********** *
* ********** *
* ********** *
* ********** *
* ********** *
* ********** *
* ********** *
* ********** *
106 CHAPTER 5. LOOPS

* ********** *
* ********** *
* ********** *
* ********** *
* ********** *
* ********** *
* ********** *
* ********** *
* ********** *
* ********** *
* ********** *
* ********** *
* ***********
* **********
* *********
* ********
* *******
* ******
* *****
* ****
* ***
* **
****************************************

You ...

must use for-loops, some nested, some not.

may not use arrays. (Ignore this statement of you do not know what an array is.)
must only use cout statements that have only single character strings, for example,
cout << "*";. Something like cout << "**"; or cout << " *"; is not permit-
ted. Spaces are counted as a character. For example, the top line would made
correctly as follows:

const int width = 4;

for (int i = 1; i <= width; i = i + 1) cout << "*";
cout << endl;

rather than the following which is not allowed,

cout << "**************************************************";

The width and length of the drawing are exactly 40 characters.

5.4. PROBLEMS 107

21. Base Pythagorean Triples

A base Pythagorean triple is defined as three integers, i, j, k such that i2 + j 2 = k 2 and
i, j, k have no common divisors other than 1. For example 3, 4, 5 is a base Pythagorean
triple. However, 6, 8, 10, although 62 + 82 = 102 , is not a base Pythagorean triple since
6, 8, 10 are all divisible by 2. Write a program that finds all the base Pythagorean
triples such that i, j, k ≤ 1000.

Here is an example of running the code:

Maximum integer to test = 1000

Triple # 1: 3*3 + 4*4 = 5*5 = 25
Triple # 2: 5*5 + 12*12 = 13*13 = 169
Triple # 3: 8*8 + 15*15 = 17*17 = 289
Triple # 4: 7*7 + 24*24 = 25*25 = 625
Triple # 5: 20*20 + 21*21 = 29*29 = 841
Triple # 6: 12*12 + 35*35 = 37*37 = 1369
Triple # 7: 9*9 + 40*40 = 41*41 = 1681
Triple # 8: 28*28 + 45*45 = 53*53 = 2809
Triple # 9: 11*11 + 60*60 = 61*61 = 3721
Triple # 10: 16*16 + 63*63 = 65*65 = 4225
Triple # 11: 33*33 + 56*56 = 65*65 = 4225
Triple # 12: 48*48 + 55*55 = 73*73 = 5329
Triple # 13: 13*13 + 84*84 = 85*85 = 7225
Triple # 14: 36*36 + 77*77 = 85*85 = 7225
Triple # 15: 39*39 + 80*80 = 89*89 = 7921
Triple # 16: 65*65 + 72*72 = 97*97 = 9409
Triple # 17: 20*20 + 99*99 = 101*101 = 10201
.
.
.
108 CHAPTER 5. LOOPS

5.5 Projects
1. Going nowhere fast
In this problem the program starts up assuming that it is following an object on a
2-dimensional plane as it takes many steps to perform a sort-of “random walk”. The
object starts off at the “origin” (x = 0 and y = 0). You will input two real numbers
that will represent the next coordinates of the object. The computer will calculate
the straight-line distance that it has to travel to get there and position the object at
that point. Then you will input two more real numbers representing a move from that
location, then another position (another pair of points) and another position (pair of
points) and so on. To stop the program you have to input the identical new coordinates
as the previous step—that is, there is no distance to be traveled for that final step.
This is a “sentinel” indicating that the loop should terminate. This last zero-step
should not be counted in the number of steps. When the program exits the loop at
this point make the program print out the total distance traveled, the total number of
moves and the average distance per move.
Here is some pseudocode for this problem:

(a) START: Declare N = 0 (Counter for the number of steps), xi , yi (New coordi-
nates), x0 = 0, y0 = 0 (Current coordinates), s (Distance of a single step) and
t = 0 (Total distance).
(b) Start of the “input/stepping loop”.
i. Read in the the new coordinates: xi and yi.
ii. Test to see if xi and yi are valid input. If they are not, go back to (b-i.),
otherwise continue on to the next step (b-iii.).
iii. Test to see if xi and yi are identical to x0 and y0 . If they are not you will
continue with step (b-iv.) Otherwise you will want to transfer control to the
the first statement following the “input/stepping loop”, step (c).
iv. Increment the step counter N. q
v. Calculate the distance of the step s = (xi − x0 )2 + (yi − y0 )2 .
vi. Accumulate s in t, the total distance.
vii. Important! Update the current position x0 = xi , y0 = yi .
viii. Try to take another step, that is return control to the top of the “input/stepping
loop”, step (b-i.).
(c) Report the total distance traveled.
(d) Report the total number of steps.
(e) Report the average distance traveled per step. Important: make sure that the
case of zero steps and zero distance traveled does not cause problems.
(f) END:
5.5. PROJECTS 109

2. The exponential function

(a) Computation of the factorial

Consider the following C++ program:
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

int main(void)
{ cout << "Input N: "; int N; cin >> N;

if (0 > N)
cout << "N < 0. Stopping.\n";
else if (0 == N)
cout << "0! = 1\n";
else
{ int factorial = 1;
for (int i = 1 ; i <= N; i = i +1)
factorial = factorial*i;
cout << N << "! = " << factorial << "\n";
}

return 0;
}
This program computes the “factorial” of the integer N, input by the user. The
factorial of N, represented by the mathematical symbol N!, is calculated by:

N! = N × (N − 1) × (N − 2) × (N − 3) · · · 3 × 2 × 1

By definition, 0! = 1. Other factorials are 1! = 1, 2! = 2, 3! = 6, 4! = 24, 5! = 120

and so on. Factorials are used a lot in many branches of mathematics.
Your problem is to find out for what values of N input by the user, does the
program above not give correct answers. (Here’s a hint: The maximum signed
integer has a value 231 − 1 or 2147483647.) The way you determine this I leave
up to you. You can do it mathematically, or you can run the above program
for different values of N until you detect that something is wrong. Turn in a
description of how you found the answer.
(b) An improved computation of the factorial
Convert the above program so that the variable called factorial is a float.
(Turn in your code.) Now, try again to find out for what values of N input by
the user, does the program above not give correct answers. (Here’s another hint:
The maximum float has a value 3.40282347 × 1038 .) You may determine this
110 CHAPTER 5. LOOPS

mathematically, or you can run your program for different values of N until you
detect that something is wrong. How do you know that something has gone
wrong? Turn in a description of how you found the answer.
(c) Calculating the exponential of a number
The exponential function, called ex is one of the most common functions in all of
mathematics. One way of calculating it is to use the following:

1 x x2 x3 x4 x5 xn
x
e = + + + + + ···+ ···
0! 1! 2! 3! 4! 5! n!
an infinite series, one that never stops. Mathematically, the above expression for
ex is exact for any x from minus infinity to plus infinity. However, to get an
accurate calculation from a computer requires some work. Here is what you have
to do:
i. Write a C++ program to compute ex . Your program should try to compute
it by summing the finite series

1 x x2 x3 x4 x5 xN
ex = + + + + + ···+
0! 1! 2! 3! 4! 5! N!
where N is some integer that you, the programmer, will set. Be careful
that you do not set N too high, otherwise, as indicated in the previous two
problems, your answer may not make sense. N should also be great enough
so that your answer is as accurate as it can be. Turn in your code.
ii. Discuss over what range of x you expect your program to provide a reasonably
accurate answer. Turn in your discussion in such a way that pleases your Lab
Instructor.
You can check your results with a calculator. Else, if you read ahead, you can
check your program using the C++ math function exp(x).
5.5. PROJECTS 111

3. Primal loop therapy

This question is all about loops. A solution for this may involve all of the loops we
have encountered: the do{}while() loop, the for(){} loop, and the while(){} loop.
A solution also facilitated with the use of the modulus operator (%).
A prime number is a positive whole number that can be divided perfectly only by itself
and one. The first 26 prime numbers are 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37,
41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, and 97. You will write a C++ code that
will accept two integers from its user. You will restrict the range of inputs to between
4 and 1,000,000 (one million). The user does not know this, he or she only knows to
input integers and so you will keep prompting the user until he or she gives you proper
input. (Sentinel-controlled do{}while() loops are best for this job.) The two integers
can be accepted in any order, bigger one first or smaller one first. You can assume that
the user is not “hostile”. The user will only input integers, not floats nor characters
nor anything else that cin might find disturbing when asking for an int.
Once you have two integers you can work with, you will find all the prime numbers
between those two numbers, including the starting and ending numbers themselves.
You will output the prime numbers as you find them to the screen, and as a last step,
print out how many of them you found.
Hint 1: Make sure that the primes your program gives agree with the ones in the list
above.
Hint 2: There are 78,496 prime numbers between 4 and one million.

Hint 3: If you are using Hint 2 as a way of checking your program (please do!) and
you find that it takes a very, very long time to get your program to complete its task,
stop a moment and think! Think about how many potential divisors you have to test
to see if a number is prime or not. It should not take more than about a minute or
so to find all the primes between 4 and one million, depending on what machine you
are using. On a 700 MHz PIII machine a solution takes about 70 seconds if it outputs
every number it finds to the screen and only about 10 seconds if it outputs only the
number of primes found. To be sure, there are even faster ways of doing it!
Finding prime numbers is an exercise that has intrigued mathematicians for centuries.
As soon as computers were invented, this was one of the early problems that mathemati-
cians programmed them for. We know that integers have only 32-bit representations.
This is just food for thought, not part of the question: How you would find out if a
number bigger than 232 is prime? Now that’s a tough computer problem. Here is an
example of output from correct solution:

> g++ primes.cpp

> a.out
Input the first integer: 1000001
112 CHAPTER 5. LOOPS

Input must be > 4 or < 1000000

Keep trying!
Input the first integer: 1000000
Input the second integer: 1
Input must be > 4 or < 1000000
Keep trying!
Input the second integer: 4

Looking for all the prime numbers between 4 and 1000000 inclusive

5 is prime
7 is prime
11 is prime
13 is prime
17 is prime
19 is prime
23 is prime
29 is prime
31 is prime
37 is prime
41 is prime
43 is prime
47 is prime
53 is prime
59 is prime
61 is prime
67 is prime
71 is prime
73 is prime
79 is prime
83 is prime
89 is prime
97 is prime
.
.
.
999953 is prime
999959 is prime
999961 is prime
999979 is prime
999983 is prime
There were 78496 prime numbers between 4 and 1000000 inclusive
5.5. PROJECTS 113

4. Where’s Waldo?
It is a little known fact that Waldo Schtinklebaum, the character of the infamous
“Where’s Waldo?” game was a student here at the University Michigan. He started
off his career in Civil Engineering. He was notorious for 1) being a lousy dresser, 2)
having no sense of direction (why he was always getting lost), 3) and being indecisive.
In fact, after partying all night at the Frats, Waldo would often lose his way back
to his dorm. He’d leave the party, forget which way his dorm was, take a step in a
random direction, change his mind and his direction and take another step. This is not
a bad approach to getting where you want to go, except that it can take a very long
time to reach your destination. Waldo sometimes ended up walking around randomly
until the morning when someone would take pity on him and lead him back home. In
fact, Waldo’s meanderings led to his second career. Shortly after graduation, Waldo
participated in the infamous Spring running event that takes place in the late evening
on the last day of Winter term. On this day, Waldo changed his manner of dress—
permanently. Despite his motivation to run in the correct direction, Waldo ended up
in the Kresge Eye Center were his vision was corrected and he donned the hospital
greens of a medical doctor. Waldo is now an optometrist working in Livonia under an
assumed name. His specialty is treating children who have gone cross-eyed staring at
the puzzles that bears his former name.
Your project is to write a program that imitates Waldo’s after-party mission to get
home. A pseudocode description of the solution is given below.
Pseudocode for Waldo’s mission

• Waldo starts his journey at location (x, y) = (0, 0), the front door of the Frat
house, the center of the universe that Waldo is in. Waldo’s universe is a 2-
dimensional plane that measures 20×20, that is −10 ≤ x ≤ 10 and −10 ≤ y ≤ 10.
Waldo’s home is a 2 × 2 square in the upper right hand corner, 8 ≤ x ≤ 10 and
8 ≤ y ≤ 10.
• Declare a variable called stillWalking and give it an initial value of 1 (true),
which means that Waldo is still trying to find his way home on foot.
• Declare another variable called atHome and give it an initial value of 0 (false)
which means that Waldo has not yet found his way home.
• Declare another variable called stepsToTry and give it an initial fixed value of
1000. Waldo hopes to get home before 1000 steps. If he doesn’t, you will either
tell him to keep going and try another 1000 steps, or to give up and sleep on the
nearest park bench.
• WHILE (stillWalking)
– FOR-LOOP until 1000 steps are taken and while Waldo has not yet reached
home.
∗ DO (Loop for choosing the direction of the step)
114 CHAPTER 5. LOOPS

· Take a proposed step of unit length in a random direction. (See note

on the next page.)
WHILE (endpoint of the step is outside of Waldo’s universe)
∗ Take the step.
∗ If Waldo’s new location is within the square defined as his home, set
atHome to true.
END FOR-LOOP
– IF (atHome), print out the total number of steps that Waldo has taken and
stop the program.
– ELSE, read in a new value for stillWalking. If the user inputs a non-zero
value for stillWalking, Waldo will try to take another 1000 steps, otherwise,
if the user inputs a zero value for stillWalking the logical condition of the
outer WHILE loop will be false.
END WHILE
• End the program.

Note 1: Taking a step in a random direction

To use random numbers, you must

#include <cstdlib>

in the preprocessor area for the code. Then, an expression of the form:

rand()

will produce a random int between 0 and RAND MAX inclusive, where RAND MAX is a big
positive number defined in cstdlib. This random int must be converted to a random
double that lies between 0 and 2π. This can be done via the following statement:

double angle = 2*PI*rand()/RAND_MAX;

where PI can be declared and initialized (earlier in the program) by

const double PI = 4*atan(1.0);

Using the above atan() function requires the use of

#include <cmath>

in the preprocessor area. Finally, x and y displacements can be generated by the

statements:
5.5. PROJECTS 115

dx = cos(angle);
dy = sin(angle);

where dx and dy are double’s. This is one of Waldo’s steps. You should use exactly
this order of displacement statements in your solution.
Example use of the program

red% a.out
Will Waldo make it home? Press <RETURN> to continue.

Waldo is still lost after taking 1000 steps

Continue playing? (Input "0" to stop): 1

Waldo is still lost after taking 2000 steps

Continue playing? (Input "0" to stop): 1

Waldo made it home after taking 2552 steps!

Note 2: Making it really sort of random (optional topic)

If you have followed the above instructions carefully, you will notice that every exe-
cution of the program is exactly the same. Moreover, the solution of your colleagues,
at least those who followed the instructions carefully, will also get Waldo home in the
same number of steps (assuming you all are using the same type of computer). In this
case, it is a desirable thing because, it allows your GSI’s to grade your assignment
quickly. This makes your GSI’s happy because most GSI’s would volunteer to undergo
a frontal lobotomy rather than grade. (I used to be a GSI and I know that I would.)
Happy GSI’s give out better grades, it’s a fact of life. I’m digressing again...
If you want to make each play of the game different, do the following. In the prepro-
cessor area of your code,

#include <ctime>

Then, in your code before your first use of rand(), put in the following expression:

srand(time(NULL));

That’s how I generated the different solutions that are shown in graphical form on the
next page. The expression time(NULL) gives the number of seconds since the start of
the epoch, January 1, 1970, 12:00am GMT. This is considered to be the start of the
modern computer age.
Note that you can also “seed” the random number generator rand() using the following
statement:
116 CHAPTER 5. LOOPS

srand(someInt);

where someInt is an int that you can choose. If you choose the same someInt every
time, the game will be the same. Different someInt’s result in different games. Try it!
Some things to think about (optional)
These are some things to think about. Don’t hand answers to these to your GSI’s.
However, feel free to speak to them or me (the Prof) about it.

• Why did I confine Waldo to a 20 × 20 universe?

• Is Waldo always guaranteed to make it home if he tried long enough?
• If I took away the walls of the universe, on average how far away would Waldo be
from his starting point after a certain number of steps.
• If you took away the walls, would Waldo always guaranteed to make it home if
he tried long enough?

Graphical output of Waldo’s meanderings on next page

Waldo is there. Can you see him?
5.5. PROJECTS 117

Wandering Waldo
First example

Waldo Home
gets
inspired!

Waldo starts here

Waldo’s tortuous path

Wandering Waldo
Second example
118 CHAPTER 5. LOOPS
Chapter 6

Early Abstraction—Functions

6.1 Motivation for functions

Let us consider an implementation of the Al-Kashi algorithm. This algorithm computes the
X N where N is any integer, positive, negative or non-zero. Here is what the C++-code
looks like (This code is called alKashi.cpp on the lecture distribution area on the course
website):

//File: alKashi.cpp
#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int main(void)
{ cout << "A calculation of X (float) to the power of N (int) \n";

float X; // The float to be raised to a power

int N; // Power to be raised to
cout << "Input X (float) and N (int): ";
cin >> X >> N;

float result; // The result of the calculation

{ //Open a new "scope" or "code" block

//An implementation of the al-Kashi algorithm

int n = N; //An int used internally in this code block
float x = X; //A float used internally in this code block

119
120 CHAPTER 6. EARLY ABSTRACTION—FUNCTIONS

if (0 > N)
{ //This "trick" allows us to calculate for negative powers!
n = -N;
x = 1/X;
}

result = 1; // Initial value

while(1 <= n)
{ if (0 == n % 2)
{ n = n/2;
x = x*x;
}
else
{ n = n - 1;
result = result*x;
}
}
} // End of the scope block

cout << X << " to the power " << N << " = " << result << "\n";

return(0);
}

The above example introduces a new concept in C++-programming, that of a “block”, or

“code block”. A “block” is any set of statements enclosed by a set of curly brackets {...}’s.
In the above example,

{ //Open a new "scope" or "code" block

.
.
.
} // End of the scope block

delimit a code block—this one associated with the Al-Kashi algorithm. Variables can be
defined within a code block. Those that are defined within them (in this example, float x
and int n) are not known (or defined) outside of the the block. If you tried to do something
with x or n outside of their block, you would get a compilation error, complaining that these
variables were not defined. At least, that will be our understanding of code blocks until we
get to the section called “scope rules” a little later in the course. We have actually seen
code blocks before. The main routine has one, as well as the if/else if/else construct,
the while and do/while constructs as well as the for loop.
6.1. MOTIVATION FOR FUNCTIONS 121

Now, suppose that we did not know about the al-Kashi algorithm and coded the algorithm in
a more straightforward way (This code is called dumbPower.cpp on the lecture distribution
area on the course website.):

//File: dumbPower.cpp
#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int main(void)
{ cout << "A calculation of X (float) to the power of N (int) \n";

float X; // The float to be raised to a power

int N; // Power to be raised to
cout << "Input X (float) and N (int): ";
cin >> X >> N;

float result; // The result of the calculation

{ //Open a new "scope" or "code" block

//An implementation of the dumbPower algorithm

int n = N;
float x = X;

if (0 > N)
{ n = -N;
x = 1/X;
}
result = 1; // Initial value

for (int i = 1 ; i <= n ; i = i + 1)

{ result = result*x;
}
} // End of the scope block

cout << X << " to the power " << N << " = " << result << "\n";

return(0);
}

In these two examples, we note that there is a lot of repetition in the code outside of the
scope block. Repetitious coding is BAD! It means that someone has wasted a lot of time!
122 CHAPTER 6. EARLY ABSTRACTION—FUNCTIONS

Indeed, as far as the main routine is concerned, it does not really care about the contents of
the code block! All it really wants is the answer. It can think of the algorithm to compute
the power in a very abstract way. All main really needs to do is to give the scope block the
variables X and N.
What we really, REALLY want is a routine that is independent of the specific calculational
technique that is used to obtain X N . In fact there is. There is a “function” in the C++
standard math library that does this. It is called pow. If we use this information we can
write a much more compact code (This code is called power0.cpp on the lecture distribution
area on the course website.):

//File: power0.cpp
#include <iostream>
#include <cmath>

using namespace std;

int main(void)
{ cout << "A calculation of X (float) to the power of N (int) \n";

float X; // The float to be raised to a power

int N; // Power to be raised to
cout << "Input X (float) and N (int): ";
cin >> X >> N;

float result; // The result of the calculation

result = pow(X,N);

cout << X << " to the power " << N << " = " << result << "\n";

return(0);
}

Note the use of

#include <cmath>

that helps with the interpretation of the statement:

result = pow(X,N);
6.1. MOTIVATION FOR FUNCTIONS 123

This is a much more abstract and powerful implementation of the previous two examples.
It allows the main routine to be concerned with only the input and output of the various
parameters, X, N, and the answer. The main routine in this case is much more general.
Let us pretend that we are now in the infancy of the C++-language, and that the pow function
does not exist. However, we require this functionality repeatedly in our applications. But,
we do know about al-Kashi’s algorithm. Wanting to be efficient, we would code the al-Kashi
algorithm into a C++-function and employ it as follows (This code is called power1.cpp on
the classcodes distribution area):

//File: power1.cpp

#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

float pow(float x, int n)

{ float result; // The result of the calculation

//An implementation of the al-Kashi algorithm

if (0 > n)
{ n = -n;
x = 1/x;
}

result = 1;
while(1 <= n)
{ if (0 == n % 2)
{ n = n/2;
x = x*x;
}
else
{ n = n - 1;
result = result*x;
}
}
return result;
}

int main(void)
{ cout << "A calculation of X (float) to the power of N (int) \n";
124 CHAPTER 6. EARLY ABSTRACTION—FUNCTIONS

float X; // The float to be raised to a power

int N; // Power to be raised to
cout << "Input X (float) and N (int): ";
cin >> X >> N;

float result; // The result of the calculation

result = pow(X,N);

cout << X << " to the power " << N << " = " << result << "\n";

return(0);
}

Now we note a few important things. There are a lot of things to remember about functions
and we are only going to scratch the surface.

• In our use of functions, the function definitions and the main routine go in one file.
(They can be put into different files but it becomes more complicated.)

• The function definitions go at the top of the file, after the pre-processor directives but
before the definition of the main routine. (They can be put after the main routine but
it becomes more complicated.)

• The functions definitions should go before they are used in any other function, including
main. (Again, we can use another ordering, but it becomes more complicated.)

• Functions, the way we have used them so far, can return only one thing via the state-
ment

return expression.

• The expression in the return line must evaluate to a data type that is specified in
the definition of the function, in this example, float pow()...

• The parameters in the function definition, in this example, (float x, int n), must
be declared.

• The variables in the function call, in this example, X,N from main’s function call
result = pow(X,N);
are not changed by the function. (There is another way to call functions where the
parameters can change. This will be taught later.)
6.2. USER-DEFINED FUNCTIONS 125

• Once the function returns to its calling routine, main in this case, the variables in
the function’s parameter list and any other variables that it declares, are lost. The
only thing that main has is the return value. (To be absolutely truthful, there are
ways that the calling routine can look at the memory where the function stored things
temporarily, but...it’s complicated! Moreover, it is almost never done.)
• Functions can call other functions.
• main is just another function.
• If a function does not return anything, it’s type is void. Example,

void returnNothingFunction(void){}

• If a function has no parameters, put void where the parameter list goes, as in the
above example.
• Finally, functions are really, really, REALLY important. So it is important to un-
derstand them and use them well. We will spend a lot of effort in this course with
functions.

6.2 User-defined functions

In this section, we examine the syntax associated with functions.
There are three things that are associated with the definition of a function in ANSI C++:

• The function prototype: For small applications, where all the source code is found in
one file, the function prototype is usually written in the pre-processor area, the area
before any function definition (see below). In small applications, where all the source
code is found in one file, the function prototype can be omitted if the function defini-
tion is located in the file before any function call (see below) is made to it. For large
applications, or applications that have more than one source file, function prototypes
are usually gathered into an “include file”, named, for example, myIncludes.h and ac-
cessed via an include statement #include <myIncludes.h> placed in the preprocessor
area.
• The function definition: For small applications, where all the source code is found in
one file, the function definition is written after the function prototype and outside
of the main routine. For large applications, or applications that have more than one
source file, it is conventional to have one function definition per source file.
126 CHAPTER 6. EARLY ABSTRACTION—FUNCTIONS

• The function call: The call to the function can be inside of main or another function.
In fact, a function can even call itself. This is called “recursion” and is discussed in a
later chapter.

Understanding the syntax of these three things is crucial to the successful use of functions.
The general use of a user-defined function is as follows:

/* Opening comments */
.
.
.
// Start of pre-processor directives
.
.
.
// function prototype (if required)
(type) myFunction(variable type list separated by ,’s);
.
.
.
// end of pre-processor directives
.
.
.
/* function definition */
(type) myFunction(variable type list and variables separated by ,’s)
{
.
.
.
/* Function body with declarations and
executable statements
*/
.
.
.
}
.
.
.
int main (void)
{ // Start of main routine
6.2. USER-DEFINED FUNCTIONS 127

.
.
.
// function usage
...myFunction(list of values separated by ,’s)...;
.
.
.
} // End of main routine

General comments on functions:

• The function prototype is the declaration of a function. It specifies what the function
is expected to provide (return value, see below), what is in the parameter list (inside
the parentheses) and its identifier (name). You do not need a function prototype if
all your source code is located in one file and if the first time the compiler encounters
your function within a source code file is the function definition itself. The compiler
will form its own prototype from the definition! This is why we can get away with
not using prototypes in most cases when everything is in the same file, the function
definitions are in the proper order and main comes last. There are exceptions to this
rule but we will probably not encounter them in this course. If the compiler encounters
the function for the first time in the function call, it will form its own prototype and
assume that the return type is an int and can potentially mess up on the argument
list as well. Avoid this situation at all costs!

• The (type) in the “function prototype” and “function definition” inform the compiler
that the function called myFunction will return a variable of a certain type. (type)
could be float, e.g.

float myFunction();

which means that myFunction is expected to return a float.

• Other possibilities for (type) could be int or any other variable type in C++ (that
have not been discussed yet in this course).

• If (type) is not defined, then the compiler assumes that it is an int.

• The other possibility for (type) is void. void means that the function will not return
a value. (It will perform a function on some data but not return any kind of value.)

• (type) in the “function prototype” and “function definition” must agree, else there
will be a syntax error.
128 CHAPTER 6. EARLY ABSTRACTION—FUNCTIONS

• Forgetting to return a value when (type) indicates that one should be returned results
in unpredictable behavior.

• Returning a value when (type) is void causes a syntax error.

• Note that

int main (void)

{
.
.
.
}

is a function definition! Its (type) is int. We could have said

main ()
{ .
.
.
}

because functions are assumed to be (type) int unless we state otherwise. main is a
special function in C++ that the operating system knows is the place where to start
processing. Only main has this special status. I always (type) every function that I
define and you should do the same.

• The rules for naming a function, e.g. myFunction, are the same rules as for variables,
i.e. the normal identifier naming rules (≤ 31 alphanumeric characters and the under-
score character “ ” and NOT starting with a number.)

• The argument list in the function prototype is a comma separated list of variable types,
e.g.

void myFunction(float, int, float);

which indicates myFunction will be called and defined with a float, an int, and a
float in that order. Here’s another example:

void realQuadraticRoots(float, float, float);

A variable type is required for any non-int. Therefore, declaring a variable position as
an int is optional. However, it is recommended that you declare the variable type for
all members in the parameter list.
6.2. USER-DEFINED FUNCTIONS 129

• The parameter list can also be void.

• The parameter list in the function definition follows the same rules except that the
variables must be named. e.g.

void realQuadraticRoots(float a, float b, float c){/* Function definition */}

• The function call (within the body of the main routine or within the body of another
function) as shown here:

int main (void)

{
.
.
.
realQuadraticRoots(a, b, c);
.
.
.
}

transmits the values of the variables in the parameter list to the function. This is
termed “call by value”. There is another way of doing this termed “call by reference”
which we will discuss later.

• The variables defined in the function definition (as well as any other variables that the
function defines) are internal to that function, even if the name (identifier) is identical
to a name elsewhere in the program.

• Functions must all be defined in a separate code segment. You can not define a function
within another function.

• Function prototypes outside of the body of any function apply to all function calls in
that source file.

• Function prototypes inside the body of any function apply only to the associated calls
within that function.

• A function can return in 3 ways:

1. by running into its closing brace } (this will work only for void functions)
2. running into the following statement anywhere in the function body
return;
130 CHAPTER 6. EARLY ABSTRACTION—FUNCTIONS

This will work only for void functions.

3. running into the following statement anywhere in the function body
return (an expression);
This is the way non-void functions must return. The parentheses around “an
expression” are optional. The expression should evaluate to the same variable
type that the function is expected to return.

• Functions can be created independently by different programmers. The only infor-

mation that has to be agreed upon is the return type, the function names and the
parameter lists. Otherwise, each programmer can do his or her job however he or she
pleases. In a team setting, prototypes are usually decided upon at the design stage.
An example follows.

6.3 Example: A problem tackled with teamwork

(Completed version posted on the ENG101 web site in the lectures area called quadraticRoots.cpp)
A team of 4 people, Prof (the boss) and his graduate 3 students, Bill, Jane and Eugene (the
math expert) are writing a program together.

• Prof to Team: Team: We will write a code to solve the quadratic equation! We’ll patent
it and I’ll get rich!
• Team to Prof: Yeah, right!
• Prof to Bill: Bill, I want you to write a bool function called realQuadraticRoots that
will return an integer, and accept the three floats a, b and c in that order. If there are
no real roots your function has to return the value false. If there are, it has to return
the value true.
• Bill to Prof: Um, Prof, what’s a bool??
• Prof to Bill: It’s a variable type that can only have two values, true or false. It is
declared and assigned value as follows:

bool truthOrDare = false;

• Bill to Prof: Gotcha, I’m on it. By the way, what’s my cut?
• Prof to Jane: Jane, I want you to write a function called numberQuadraticRoots that
will return an integer, and accept the three floats a, b and c in that order. I will only
call your routine if Bill’s routine tells me that there are real roots. The integer you
return should contain the number of real roots, either “1” or “2”.
6.3. EXAMPLE: A PROBLEM TACKLED WITH TEAMWORK 131

• Jane to Prof: OK, it’s clear what I have to do.

• Prof to Eugene: Eugene, you do the math! I want you to...

• Eugene to Prof: You probably want me to write a function called something like
twoQuadraticRoots that will return no value, and accept the three floats a, b and
c in that order and print a statement telling you what the two roots are. You will only
call your routine if Jane’s routine tells you that there are two real roots. Right?

• Prof to Eugene: Eugene, stop interrupting! I want you to write a function called
twoQuadraticRoots that will return no value, and accept the three floats a, b and c
in that order and print a statement telling me what the two roots are. I will only call
your routine if Jane’s routine tells me that there are two real roots.

• Prof to Team: Get to work!

• Team to Prof: What’s in it for us?

• Prof to Team: Stop kvetching already! Here’s the main routine with function stubs.
You guys fill in the blanks. My code compiles so it’s absolutely perfect.

Here’s the Prof’s main routine with “stub” functions:

//File: quadraticRootsStubs.cpp

#include <iostream>
//Do I need anything else, fellow programmers?

using namespace std;

//Function stubs
bool realQuadraticRoots(float a, float b, float c)
{
}
int numberQuadraticRoots(float a,float b,float c)
{
}
void twoQuadraticRoots(float A, float B, float C)
{
}

int main(void)
{ cout << "a, b, c: ";
float a, b, c;
132 CHAPTER 6. EARLY ABSTRACTION—FUNCTIONS

cin >> a >> b >> c;

if (realQuadraticRoots(a,b,c) && 2 == numberQuadraticRoots(a,b,c))

twoQuadraticRoots(a, b, c);

return 0;
}

Here is what the team produced.

Here’s Bill’s code. Note that the Prof did not fully specify his task and so he let him have
it. He had to find a way to terminate the program from a subroutine and so he had to go to
the library and do some research. (The Prof never answers e-mail from graduate students!)
Bill learned how to do this with the exit function and other definitions given in cstdlib.

bool realQuadraticRoots(float a, float b, float c)

/*********************************************************************
Purpose: See if there are real roots
Receives: Quadratic constants a,b,c in a*x*x + b*c + c = 0
Returns: true if real roots, false if none
Programmer: Bill Boole (with attitude)
Start Date: 09/17/00

Remark1: Needs <iostream>, <cstdlib>

Remark2: Prof needs to rethink this thing
*********************************************************************/
{ if (0 > (b*b - 4*a*c)) return false;
else if (0 == a && 0 == b)
{ cout << "Prof, you numbskull!\n"
<< "You didn’t tell me what to do if a and b are both 0!\n"
<< "Go back and redesign the code!\n";
exit(EXIT_FAILURE);
}
else return true;
}

Here’s Jane’s code. Her job was made easier by Bill’s code letting her know that there is at
least one solution.

int numberQuadraticRoots(float a,float b,float c)

/*********************************************************************
Purpose: See if there are real roots
6.3. EXAMPLE: A PROBLEM TACKLED WITH TEAMWORK 133

Receives: Quadratic constants a,b,c in a*x*x + b*c + c = 0

Returns: 1 if one real root, 2 if two real roots
Programmer: Jane Justintime
Start Date: 09/17/00

Remarks: Enters this routine knowing that there are roots

*********************************************************************/
{ if (0 == a || (0 == (b*b - 4*a*c))) return 1;
else return 2;
}

Eugene, who thinks he’s a genius and a super-geek, likes to do things his own way. He
likes to store all the values his function receives in uppercase variables. Eugene has his own
coding style. Eugene also thinks he is smarter than the compiler and so he played with the
quadratic equation to put it into a form that he thinks will execute faster. (You can verify
for yourselves that what Eugene did was correct mathematically.)

void twoQuadraticRoots(float A, float B, float C)

/*********************************************************************
Purpose: See if there are real roots
Receives: Quadratic constants a,b,c in a*x*x + b*c + c = 0
Returns: The 2 two real roots of the quadratic equation
Programmer: Eugene Dweebowski (the genius)
Start Date: 09/17/00

Remark1: Needs <cmath>

Remark2: Enters knowing that there are two real roots
Remark3: I dare ya to find something faster and better!
*********************************************************************/
{ float twoA = 2*A, twoC = 2*C, radical = sqrt(B*B - twoA*twoC) - B;
cout << "Solution 1: " << radical/twoA << "\n";
cout << "Solution 2: " << twoC/radical << "\n";
}

Some comments are in order for the Prof’s code. It is incomplete. It does not do anything
when there is only one solution. His code needs a little refinement before it can be considered
complete. And, he has to decide what to do if all the constants are zero.
As a postscript to this story, function stubs are a good alternative to function prototypes
for small projects. Note that the Prof’s stub code will compile so that he can at least check
his programming. However, for larger projects, prototypes are the way to go.
134 CHAPTER 6. EARLY ABSTRACTION—FUNCTIONS

6.4 Call by value, call by reference, reference parame-

ters
In our present usage of function calls, the parameter lists have contained only values that
are transmitted to the function and stored in internal variables known only to that function.
This is given the name call by value. A function that is called “by value” operates on the
data it is given (plus whatever else can be transmitted to it by virtue of the rules scope) and
can return to its calling routine at most one value, the return value, in a return statement
of the form:

return returnValue;
This is unsatisfactory and restrictive if we need to return more than one value. An alternate
way of calling functions, a way that can return more than one thing is called call by reference.
This discussion must start, however, with a discussion of the addresses of variables, that is,
where they are stored in a computer’s (virtual) memory.

6.4.1 The address of a variable

We introduce the unary operator called the address operator, &. To see its usage, consider
the following program :

//File: addressLocal.cpp
#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int main(void)
{ float x = 1.0f; // Declare and initialize a float
double y = 3.0; // Declare and initialize a double
int z = 2; // Declare and initialize an int
cout <<
"x’s value: " << x << " x’s address: " << &x << "\n"
"y’s value: " << y << " y’s address: " << &y << "\n"
"z’s value: " << z << " z’s address: " << &z << "\n";
return 0;
}

New stuff:

• The address operator & applied to a variable, for example, &y should be read as “the
address of the double y”.
6.4. CALL BY VALUE, CALL BY REFERENCE, REFERENCE PARAMETERS 135

Compiling and running it results in the following output:

x’s value: 1 x’s address: 0xbffff734

y’s value: 3 y’s address: 0xbffff72c
z’s value: 2 z’s address: 0xbffff728

• When cout prints an address, it prints it out as 0x... which is the hexadecimal (hex)
representation. The leading 0x is there just to tell you that what follows is in hex.

• Note the the address “stack” grows from a large address towards smaller addresses.

Note the the operating system (a Linux installation in this case) puts the first variable it
encounters (in this case a 32-bit float) at address 0xbffff734. (This address, once con-
verted to an integer number, is something in excess of 3 billion.) This is the address in bytes,
one byte being 8 bits. A 32-bit machine has a virtual address space of 232 , or 4,294,967,296
bytes, often abbreviated as 4GB. Above this address, starting at 0xbffff738 in this case
(This boundary is machine and O/S dependent) is where the “program environment” re-
sides (we’ll discuss that later) and above that still is where the operating system resides (the
kernel) occupying the upper reaches of address space up to the 4GB limit.
The next variable, a double is 64-bits or 8 bytes in length. Note that its address is smaller
(by 8 bytes). The address space that is provided for local variables is called the “stack frame”
and it grows downwards. Note where the next variable is located.
Each function creates its own stack frame for putting its local variables into memory, releasing
it when the function terminates. This is what is meant by the stack getting “destroyed” when
a function terminates. The next function call will use this space for its own stack frame.
The executable program, the “load module” is at the bottom of the address space, starting at
byte 0. This area is called the “text segment”. Above the text segment are stored initialized
and uninitialized global variables. Above this is the “heap space”, the address space where
dynamic memory (memory allocated by the program) is located. It grows upwards. If your
programs and data are so big that your stack frames and heap run into each other, you
either have to redesign your program to use less space or purchase a more expensive 64-bit
computer, one with 264 bytes of array space. (In a few years, most computers will be 64-bit
computers.)
Here another example program that demonstrates that global variables are located at a
different place in memory:

//File: addressGlobal.cpp
#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

136 CHAPTER 6. EARLY ABSTRACTION—FUNCTIONS

double y = 3.0; // Declare and initialize a global double

int z = 2; // Declare and initialize a global int

int main(void)
{ float x = 1.0f; // Declare and initialize a float
cout <<
"x’s value: " << x << " x’s address: " << &x << "\n"
"y’s value: " << y << " y’s address: " << &y << "\n"
"z’s value: " << z << " z’s address: " << &z << "\n";
return 0;
}

Compiling and running it results in the following output:

x’s value: 1 x’s address: 0xbffff734

y’s value: 3 y’s address: 0x8049a70
z’s value: 2 z’s address: 0x8049a78

Note how the global variables, y and z in this case, are located starting at a lower address
0x8049a70 (something like 1 billion). Note how the global stack grows up. Note also how
the double, y, occupies 8 bytes.

6.4.2 Call-by-value vs. call-by-reference

Imagine for a moment that the pow() does not exist and we wish to write a program that
computes the square and cube of an integer. Moreover, we wish to write a single function
that returns both the square and cube. Using what we have learned so far, we are frustrated
to discover that we can not do it! Instead we have to separate the task into two functions.
Our code would look something like:

//File: returnTwice.cpp
#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int square(int j)
{ cout << "In function square(), j is located at " << &j << "\n";
return j * j;
}
6.4. CALL BY VALUE, CALL BY REFERENCE, REFERENCE PARAMETERS 137

int cube(int k)
{ cout << "In function cube(), k is located at " << &k << "\n";
return k * k * k;
}

int main(void)
{ int i = 3, iSquared, iCubed;
cout
<< "\n\nIn main():\n"
<< " i is located at " << &i << "\n"
<< "iSquared is located at " << &iSquared << "\n"
<< " iCubed is located at " << &iCubed << "\n\n"
<< "Before the call to square and cube:\n"
<< " i = " << i << "\n"
<< "iSquared = " << iSquared << "\n"
<< " iCubed = " << iCubed << "\n\n";

iSquared = square(i);
iCubed = cube(i);

cout
<< "\n After the call to square and cube:\n"
<< " i = " << i << "\n"
<< "iSquared = " << iSquared << "\n"
<< " iCubed = " << iCubed << "\n\n";
return 0;
}

where I have put in a lot of cout statements to let me know where the variables are stored.
Compiling and running it results in the following output:

In main():
i is located at 0xbffff734
iSquared is located at 0xbffff730
iCubed is located at 0xbffff72c

Before the call to square and cube:

i = 3
iSquared = 134520020
iCubed = 134514715

In function square(), j is located at 0xbffff728

138 CHAPTER 6. EARLY ABSTRACTION—FUNCTIONS

In function cube(), k is located at 0xbffff728

After the call to square and cube:

i = 3
iSquared = 9
iCubed = 27

Note that main()’s local variables i, iSquared, iCubed reside in main()’s stack frame.
Also note that iSquared and iCubed are not initialized by main() and so the memory
locations of these variables contain nonsense bits, junk left over from the previous use of
those memory locations, whatever process that happened to be. The first function called
is square(). It has one local variable called j which it locates in its own stack frame,
starting at address 0xbffff728. square() does its work happily and returns the result of
its computation to main() which then called the function cube(). cube() has one local
variable called k which it locates in its own stack frame, starting at address 0xbffff728,
the same address used by square()! Once square() returned to main(), its stack frame
was destroyed and cube() did the most efficient thing, locating its stack frame at the next
available location, the location just vacated by square().
We now introduce the method of call-by-reference. This is best done by example, so, here
is the above program converted to a single function call that has both the usual value
parameters and also something new—reference parameters in the function’s parameter list.

//File: returnTwoThings.cpp
#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

void squareCube(int j, int& j2, int& j3)

{ cout << "In function squareCube():\n"
<< "j is located at " << &j << "\n"
<< "j2 is located at " << &j2 << "\n"
<< "j3 is located at " << &j3 << "\n";
j2 = j * j;
j3 = j2 * j;
return;
}

int main(void)
{ int i = 3, iSquared, iCubed;
cout
<< "\n\nIn main():\n"
<< " i is located at " << &i << "\n"
6.4. CALL BY VALUE, CALL BY REFERENCE, REFERENCE PARAMETERS 139

<< "iSquared is located at " << &iSquared << "\n"

<< " iCubed is located at " << &iCubed << "\n\n"
<< "Before the call to squareCube:\n"
<< " i = " << i << "\n"
<< "iSquared = " << iSquared << "\n"
<< " iCubed = " << iCubed << "\n\n";

squareCube(i, iSquared, iCubed);

cout
<< "\nAfter the call to squareCube:\n"
<< " i = " << i << "\n"
<< "iSquared = " << iSquared << "\n"
<< " iCubed = " << iCubed << "\n\n";
return 0;
}

In the above example, in the parameter definition list (int j, int& j2, int& j3), the
variable j is a value parameter receiving the value of the first parameter in the call statement,
the i in squareCube(i, iSquared, iCubed). In squareCube(), the variable j will be
placed in squareCube()’s stack frame. The other two parameters in the parameter definition
list, int& j2 and int& j3, are reference parameters. What this means is that the int
variables called j2 and j3 within the function squareCube() refer to the variables located
at the addresses of the variables given to it in the function call. When the compiler calls
the function squareCube() and sees that the parameter list in the function definition is
expecting addresses, it says, ”Aha, squareCube() is expecting addresses for iSquared and
iCubed” and so the addresses are transferred to squareCube(). squareCube() puts these
addresses in its stack frame. When the code inside squareCube() refers to the variables j2
and j3, all it is really doing is renaming temporarily the memory locations referred to in
main() as iSquared and iCubed.
Compiling and running the example results in the following output:

In main():
i is located at 0xbffff734
iSquared is located at 0xbffff730
iCubed is located at 0xbffff72c

Before the call to squareCube:

i = 3
iSquared = 134519980
iCubed = 134514715
140 CHAPTER 6. EARLY ABSTRACTION—FUNCTIONS

In function squareCube():
j is located at 0xbffff720
j2 is located at 0xbffff730
j3 is located at 0xbffff72c

After the call to squareCube:

i = 3
iSquared = 9
iCubed = 27

Note the memory locations of the variables local to main() and the fact that squareCube()
thinks that j2 and j3 live in the same place. Note also that in squareCube(), the local
variable j is located at 0xbffff720, 12 bytes below the end of main()’s stack frame. Yet,
j, an integer is only 4 bytes long. Can you guess what use squareCube() is making of those
8 bytes of memory?
Finally, note that value parameters and reference parameters can be mixed in any order in the
parameter list. Just make sure, in the function definition, that all the reference parameters
names are preceded by the ampersand, & symbol.
About the only real-life example that I can come up with that relates to this is my relationship
with my stockbroker. I am the main() routine and he, the incompetent bum, is a function
called stockBroker(). Here is his function definition. I’ll let you figure out how I’m doing
on the stock market.

//File: stockBrokerFunction.cpp

void stockBroker(double myFee, double& alexMoney)

{ double transactionCost = 200.;
while (0 < alexMoney && 0 < myFee)
{ myFee = myFee - transactionCost; //Deduct usual transaction charge
alexMoney = alexMoney * 0.95; //Make a stupid investment
}
return;
}

However, I do want you to notice that I provide him with a fee, myFee which is his to keep.
However, he is playing with my money, alexMoney, a reference parameter, the value of which,
I am unhappy to report, is diminishing rapidly. It is still MY money, but I have given the
stockbroker the ability to change it.
6.5. THE RULES OF SCOPE 141

6.5 The rules of scope

One of the most powerful features of C++ is its implementation of the rules of scope. The
philosophy is that information (data) should be hidden from operational code unless it really
needs to know about the data. This avoids the danger of a program unit changing data that
it is not supposed to—even if it calls the variables by the same name! This is how different
people can develop different parts of a program and as long as each programmer stays within
his or her assigned duties, data does not get corrupted. C++ has also introduced the concept
of namespace to keep things separate. For this course we will always use: using namespace
std; although it is possible to use a different namespace. We will only use the standard
namespace in this course.
There are several hierarchies of scope:

file scope An identifier declared outside of any function definition has file scope. That
is, “global” variables, function definitions and function prototypes (if you use them!)
placed outside of any function apply for the entire file. It is perfectly fine to define
an int, say, outside of any function or main. This variable can then be used by all
functions and main. If separate files are linked together to form a program, the other
files will not know about file scope identifiers outside of their own files.

function scope The only identifier that is defined for the entire function is a label (an
identifier followed by a colon “:”), e.g.
ThisIsALabel:
A transfer to a label can be done with the dreaded goto or within the switch statement,
neither of which will be taught in this course.
Labels are defined for the whole function and undefined outside of it.

block scope A “block” is anything within braces, {...}. For example:

{ // This is a block
}

{ // This is another separate block

}

{ // This is a "yet another block"

{ // This is still another block nested
// within "yet another" block
}
}

Note the use of optional spacing to delineate the separate blocks in the above.
142 CHAPTER 6. EARLY ABSTRACTION—FUNCTIONS

We have seen many examples of “block”’s—function blocks, if/else if/else blocks,

while/do while/for blocks. We can also define our own blocks by surrounding state-
ments with braces, {...} to define a segment of code that has its own scope.
Nested scope is treated in a very special way. Variables defined outside a scope block
will carry into a nested scope block unless the nested scope block declares a variable
with the identical identifier. In this case the variable from the outer block is “hidden”
until the inner block terminates. We will see examples of this.

function-prototype-scope One way of defining a function prototype is to include variable

identifiers. For example:

int myFunction(float a, float b, float c);

is a function prototype that names three identifiers a, b, and c. These identifiers are
only known within the function prototype. Often programmers name the variables they
are expecting in a function prototype to remember which variables go in which order.
These variable names are ignored by the compiler outside of the function prototype
statement.

This is all very confusing unless we do some examples. So...let’s do some examples!
Consider the following code called scope0.cpp:

//File: scope0.cpp
#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

void myFn(float x, float y) // MyFn declares floats x and y

{ float z; // Internal to myFn
cout << "myFn: pre-op x = " << x << ", y = " << y << "\n";
z = x; x = y; y = z; // Variable switch
cout << "myFn: post-op x = " << x << ", y = " << y << "\n";
}

int main(void)
{ float x = 1.0, y = 2.0; // Internal to main
cout << "main: pre-call x = " << x << ", y = " << y << "\n";
myFn(x, y); // Main gives values to myFn
cout << "main: post-call x = " << x << ", y = " << y << "\n";
return 0;
}
6.5. THE RULES OF SCOPE 143

Compiling and running scope0.cpp results in the following output:

main: pre-call x = 1, y = 2
myFn: pre-op x = 1, y = 2
myFn: post-op x = 2, y = 1
main: post-call x = 1, y = 2

main declares two floats, x and y and gives myFn their values. myFn happens to call these
variables by the same name (they could have been different). myFn’s job is to switch the
values of these two variables. Within its own scope this has been accomplished but the
switch has not been effected in main. This is because the x and y in main and the x and y
in myFn are different.
Consider the following code called scope1.cpp:

//File: scope1.cpp
#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

float x = 1.0, y = 2.0; // Global variables

void myFn(void) // No declarations

{ float z; // Internal to myFn
cout << "myFn: pre-op x = " << x << ", y = " << y << "\n";
z = x; x = y; y = z; // Variable switch
cout << "myFn: post-op x = " << x << ", y = " << y << "\n";
}
int main(void)
{ cout << "main: pre-call x = " << x << ", y = " << y << "\n";
myFn(); // Main just calls myFn
cout << "main: post-call x = " << x << ", y = " << y << "\n";
return 0;
}

Compiling and running scope1.cpp results in the following output:

main: pre-call x = 1, y = 2
myFn: pre-op x = 1, y = 2
myFn: post-op x = 2, y = 1
main: post-call x = 2, y = 1
144 CHAPTER 6. EARLY ABSTRACTION—FUNCTIONS

In this example x and y are defined globally (outside of any function). Both main and myFn
can access them and change them. myFn’s job is to switch the values of these two variables.
Within its own scope this has been accomplished and the switch has been effected in main
as well. This is because the x and y in main and the x and y in myFn are identical.
Consider the following code called scope2.cpp:

//File: scope2.cpp
#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

float x = 1.0, y = 2.0; // Global variables

void myFn(float x, float y) // myFn declares x,y

{ float z; // Internal to myFn
cout << "myFn: pre-op x = " << x << ", y = " << y << "\n";
z = x; x = y; y = z; // Variable switch
cout << "myFn: post-op x = " << x << ", y = " << y << "\n";
}

int main(void)
{ cout << "main: pre-call x = " << x << ", y = " << y << "\n";
myFn(x,y); // Main transfers x and y values
cout << "main: post-call x = " << x << ", y = " << y << "\n";
return 0;
}

Compiling and running scope2.cpp results in the following output:

main: pre-call x = 1, y = 2
myFn: pre-op x = 1, y = 2
myFn: post-op x = 2, y = 1
main: post-call x = 1, y = 2

In this example x and y are defined globally (outside of any function). main can access them
and change them. However, myFn defines its own x and y and hence the global ones are
hidden and myFn cannot access them and change them.
Consider the following code called scope3.cpp:

//File: scope3.cpp
#include <iostream>
6.5. THE RULES OF SCOPE 145

using namespace std;

int main(void)
{ float x = 1.0, y = 2.0, z = 0.0; // Local to main
cout << " main: pre-call x, y, z = "
<< x << ", " << y << ", " << z << "\n";
{ // Start of block
float z = 42.0; // Local to {} block
cout << "block: pre-call x, y, z = "
<< x << ", " << y << ", " << z << "\n";
z = x; x = y; y = z; // Variable switch
cout << "block: post-call x, y, z = "
<< x << ", " << y << ", " << z << "\n";
} // End of block
cout << " main: post-call x, y, z = "
<< x << ", " << y << ", " << z << "\n";
return 0;
}

Compiling and running scope3.cpp results in the following output:

main: pre-call x, y, z = 1, 2, 0
block: pre-call x, y, z = 1, 2, 42
block: post-call x, y, z = 2, 1, 1
main: post-call x, y, z = 2, 1, 0

In this example x, y, and z are defined local to main. Within main there is a nested block
that defines its own scope. Since this block does not define x and y, these variables pass
into the block. However, z is defined within the nested block and the external one is hidden.
However, the nested block has changed the values of x and y when control is passed back to
main.
Consider the following code called scope4.cpp:

//File: scope4.cpp
#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

void myFn(void)
{ float z = 0; // Internal to myFn
cout << "myFn: pre-op z = " << z << "\n";
146 CHAPTER 6. EARLY ABSTRACTION—FUNCTIONS

z = 1; // Reset z
cout << "myFn: post-op z = " << z << "\n";
}

int main(void)
{ cout << "First call to myFn\n";
myFn(); // Main calls myFn
cout << "Second call to myFn\n";
myFn(); // Main calls myFn again
return 0;
}

Compiling and running scope4.cpp results in the following output:

First call to myFn

myFn: pre-op z = 0
myFn: post-op z = 1
Second call to myFn
myFn: pre-op z = 0
myFn: post-op z = 1

In this example z is defined locally local to myFn which also initialized it to zero. Every time
myFn is called, z is reset to zero and the executable statements are processed.
Consider the following code called scope5.cpp:

//File: scope5.cpp
#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

void myFn(void)
{ static float z = 0; // Internal to myFn
cout << "myFn: pre-op z = " << z << "\n";
z = z + 1; // Add to z
cout << "myFn: post-op z = " << z << "\n";
}

int main(void)
{ cout << "First call to myFn\n";
myFn(); // Main calls myFn
cout << "Second call to myFn\n";
myFn(); // Main calls myFn again
6.5. THE RULES OF SCOPE 147

return 0;
}

Compiling and running scope5.cpp results in the following output:

First call to myFn

myFn: pre-op z = 0
myFn: post-op z = 1
Second call to myFn
myFn: pre-op z = 1
myFn: post-op z = 2

In this example z is defined locally local to myFn which also initializes it to zero but holds it
static. The specifier static indicates that this variable is to retain its value when it leaves
a routine, preserving its value for the next entry into the routine. The initialization to zero
is only effective the first time the routine is entered.
static is called a storage class and is a qualifier on the variable type that means that its
value is to be saved, not destroyed when the function ends execution.
Consider the following code called scope6.cpp

//File: scope6.cpp
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

float max(float u, float v) // function max declares u,v

{ float temp = u;
u = v;
v = temp;
cout << "max: u = " << u << " v = " << v << "\n";
if (u > v)
{ return u;
}
else
{ return v;
}
}

int main(void){
float x = 1.0, y = 2.0, maxxy; // Internal to main
cout << "main: x = " << x << " y = " << y << "\n";
maxxy = max(x, y);
148 CHAPTER 6. EARLY ABSTRACTION—FUNCTIONS

cout << "main: max of x and y = " << maxxy << "\n";
return 0;
}

Compiling and running scope6.cpp results in the following output:

main: x = 1 y = 2
max: u = 2 v = 1
main: max of x and y = 2

main declares two floats, x and y and gives myFn their values. myFn happens to call these
variables by different names (they could have been the same as in some of the previous
examples). myFn’s job is to switch the values of these two variables and determine which
is greater. Within its own scope this has been accomplished but the switch has not been
effected in main. This is because the x and y in main and the u and v in myFn are different.
6.6. PROBLEMS 149

6.6 Problems
1. Another essay question

(a) In your own words numbering 50 or less, describe when you would want to make
a function “call-by-reference”, rather than “call-by-value”.
(b) Then give an example of a function call-by-reference that accomplishes something
that you could not do using call-by-value.
(c) Give an example of
i. the function prototype,
ii. the function call, and
iii. the function definition (with an empty statement block) that you would write
for your example.

2. Simple functions
Type in the following main routine exactly as shown and add the definitions of two
functions, cubeit0 and cubeit1, each that provides the cube of the argument x. You
may not use the pow() math library function.

#include <iostream>

//Function cubeit0 goes here

//Function cubeit1 goes here

int main(void)
{ cout << "Input a number to be cubed: ";
double x;
cin >> x;

cout << cubeit0(x) << endl;

double result;
cubeit1(x,result);
cout << result << endl;

return 0;
}

Here is an example of how the program is intended to work:

150 CHAPTER 6. EARLY ABSTRACTION—FUNCTIONS

% a.out
Input a number to be cubed: 3
27
27
%

3. Fix the bug(s)

(a) Why won’t the following code compile and/or work as intended? Fix the bug(s).
#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

void sumInts(int a, int b)

{ int i;
i = a + b;
return i;
}

int main() {
int i = 1, j = 2;
cout << "The sum of ints i = " << i << " and j = " << j << " is: "
<< sumInts(i,j) << "\n";
return 0;
}
(b) Why won’t the following code compile and/or work as intended? Fix the bug(s).
#include <iostream>
#include <cmath>

using namespace std;

float trigs(float y, &f1, &f2)

{ f1 = sin(y); f2 = cos(y);
return 0;
}

int main(void)
{ float x = 0.0, cosx, sinx;
int returnValue = trigs(x, sinx, cosx);
cout << "sin(" << x << ") = " << sinx << ", "
<< "cos(" << x << ") = " << cosx << "\n";
6.6. PROBLEMS 151

return 0;
}

4. Predict the output

What does this code print?

#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

void cyclic(int i, int& j, int k, int& l)

{ int m;
m = i;
i = j;
j = k;
k = l;
l = m;
}

int main(void)
{ int i = 1, j = 2, k = 3, l = 4;
cyclic(i, j, k, l);
cout << "i,j,k,l : " << i << j << k << l << "\n";
return 0;
}

5. Fix the design error(s)

(a) This code attempts to define a function that returns the maximum of two floats
and orders the two floats in descending order (bigger first, smaller second). This
code only works some of the time. There is one design mistake that occasionally
leads to incorrect results. Assume that the scanf statement is always executed
correctly. You may not fix this using a library function that determines maximum.

#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

float fMax(float f1, float f2)

{ if (f2 > f1)
{ float temp = f2; // f2 is maximum
f2 = f1; f1 = temp; // switch them
return f1;
152 CHAPTER 6. EARLY ABSTRACTION—FUNCTIONS

}
else return f1; // f1 must be maximum, no need to switch
}

int main(void)
{ cout << "Input 2 float’s: ";
float a, b;
cin >> a >> b;
cout << "Maximum is: " << fMax(a,b) << "\n";
cout << "Descending order is: " << a << ", " << b << "\n";
return 0;
}

(b) The following code compiles error free. Why won’t it work as intended?
#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

void sort3(int i, int j, int k)

{ int t;
if (i > j) {t = i; i = j; j = t;}
if (j > k) {t = j; j = k; k = t;}
if (i > j) {t = i; i = j; j = t;}
}

int main(void)
{ int i = 5, j = 3, k = 1;
sort3(i,j,k);
cout << "In ascending order (smallest->largest) "
<< "the three int’s are "
<< i << ", " << j << ", " << k << "\n";
return 0;
}
(c) The following code compiles error free. Why won’t it work as intended?
#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

float squareCube(float x, float xx)

{ xx = x*x;
return xx*x;
6.6. PROBLEMS 153

int main(void)
{ float x = 2.0, xx, xxx;
xxx = squareCube(x,xx);
cout << "Square of x: " << xx << ", Cube of x is " << xxx << "\n";
return 0;
}

6. Roots of the quadratic equation

Write a function that is compatible with the following function call:

bool twoRealRoots = twoRoots(a,b,c,root1,root2);

The function returns true if b2 − 4ac > 0 and a 6= 0. Otherwise, it returns false. If
the function returns true, then root1 and root2 contain the roots of the quadratic
equation ax2 + bx + c = 0, which are
√
−b ± b2 − 4ac
x1,2 =
2a
q
7. Write your own function
√
The following algorithm may be used to calculate x = a:

(a) Start with an initial guess: x = a

(b) Refine the guess: x0 = (x + a/x)/2
√
(c) If x0 and x are the same, x = a, otherwise, let x = x0 and go to step 2.
√
Write a function that calculates x = a by the above method.
154 CHAPTER 6. EARLY ABSTRACTION—FUNCTIONS

6.7 Projects
1. Math library functions
The following table lists some of the commonly used functions in C++’s math library
which can be accessed by employing #include <cmath> in the preprocessor area of a
C++ file:

Math function Purpose Example usage

log(x), log e (x), ln(x) natural logarithm (base e) double x = 1.; double y = log(x);
exp(x), ex exponential double x = 1.; double y = exp(x);
log10 (x) logarithm (base 10) double x = 1.; double y = log10(x);
sin(x) sine of x double x = 1.; double y = sin(x);
cos(x) cosine of x double x = 1.; double y = cos(x);
√
x square root of x double x = 1.; double y = sqrt(x);
|x| absolute value of x double x = 1.; double y = fabs(x);

Note that the argument to the trigonometric functions above must be in terms of
radians.
360◦ (degrees) = 2π (radians).
Write a main program that generates the table on the following page similar to that
shown. In other words, you will have to have a for-loop that somehow generates
the double’s -1.0, -0.9, ..., 1.0, calculate and output x, log(x), exp(x), log10(x),
sin(PI*x), cos(PI*x), sqrt(x), and fabs(x).

Some notes:

• Note the argument of the sin() and cos(). You were given the method to
generate a good value for π in the “Where’s Waldo?” project in the previous
chapter.
• You will have to use the setw() and setprecision() functions as described in
Chapter 5.
• You need one other thing to allow the printing of the redundant trailing zero’s.
Put in the statement
cout.setf(ios::fixed);
before your first use of cout.
• Note that the outputs -Infinity and NaN are provided automatically by cout
when the argument to the math library functions is out of range of its definition.
6.7. PROJECTS 155

x log(x) exp(x) log10(x) sin(PI*x) cos(PI*x) sqrt(x) fabs(x)

---- --------- -------- --------- --------- --------- -------- -------
-1.0 -Infinity 0.367879 -Infinity -0.000000 -1.000000 NaN 1.0
-0.9 -Infinity 0.406570 -Infinity -0.309017 -0.951057 NaN 0.9
-0.8 -Infinity 0.449329 -Infinity -0.587785 -0.809017 NaN 0.8
-0.7 -Infinity 0.496585 -Infinity -0.809017 -0.587785 NaN 0.7
-0.6 -Infinity 0.548812 -Infinity -0.951057 -0.309017 NaN 0.6
-0.5 -Infinity 0.606531 -Infinity -1.000000 0.000000 NaN 0.5
-0.4 -Infinity 0.670320 -Infinity -0.951057 0.309017 NaN 0.4
-0.3 -Infinity 0.740818 -Infinity -0.809017 0.587785 NaN 0.3
-0.2 -Infinity 0.818731 -Infinity -0.587785 0.809017 NaN 0.2
-0.1 -Infinity 0.904837 -Infinity -0.309017 0.951057 NaN 0.1
0.0 -Infinity 1.000000 -Infinity 0.000000 1.000000 0.000000 0.0
0.1 -2.302585 1.105171 -1.000000 0.309017 0.951057 0.316228 0.1
0.2 -1.609438 1.221403 -0.698970 0.587785 0.809017 0.447214 0.2
0.3 -1.203973 1.349859 -0.522879 0.809017 0.587785 0.547723 0.3
0.4 -0.916291 1.491825 -0.397940 0.951057 0.309017 0.632456 0.4
0.5 -0.693147 1.648721 -0.301030 1.000000 0.000000 0.707107 0.5
0.6 -0.510826 1.822119 -0.221849 0.951057 -0.309017 0.774597 0.6
0.7 -0.356675 2.013753 -0.154902 0.809017 -0.587785 0.836660 0.7
0.8 -0.223144 2.225541 -0.096910 0.587785 -0.809017 0.894427 0.8
0.9 -0.105361 2.459603 -0.045757 0.309017 -0.951057 0.948683 0.9
1.0 0.000000 2.718282 0.000000 0.000000 -1.000000 1.000000 1.0
156 CHAPTER 6. EARLY ABSTRACTION—FUNCTIONS

2. Strive for Perfection

A “perfect” number is a positive whole number that is the sum of its “proper divisors”.
The set of proper divisors of number N does not include N itself, but does include
1. For example, the proper divisors of 6 are 1,2,3 and 1 + 2 + 3 = 6. So, 6 is a
perfect number. In fact, it is the first perfect number. The second perfect number
is 28 = 1 + 2 + 4 + 7 + 14. The first 4 perfect numbers were known to the ancient
Greek mathematicians. In fact, only 37 of them are known today! A lot is known
about perfect numbers but much more remains a mystery. For example, the following
is known.

(a) The biggest known perfect number, the last discovered, can be written
23021376 × (23021377 − 1), a number that contains 1,819,050 decimal digits.
(b) All known perfect numbers are even.
(c) All known perfect numbers are given by Euclid’s formula: N = 2k−1(2k −1) where
k is some positive integer and 2k − 1 also happens to be a prime number. This is
a special kind of prime number known as a Mersenne prime. It is a really good
idea to make use of this fact in designing your computer program, described
below.

A lot is not known about perfect numbers. It is not known whether or not

(a) there is an infinite number of perfect numbers.

(b) all perfect numbers are even.
(c) all perfect numbers are given by Euclid’s formula.

Your job is to write a program that will:

(a) find the first 5 perfect numbers and print out their proper divisors.
(b) be composed of at least 2 functions additional to main, one that returns true if
its integer argument is a perfect number and a second function that prints out
the proper divisors of a perfect number. You may define more than 2 additional
functions if you wish.
(c) complete execution in less than one minute of CPU time on a run-of-the-mill,
modern computer.
(d) have output that looks similar to the following:

% a.out

6 is a perfect number
6 = 1 + 2 + 3
6.7. PROJECTS 157

28 is a perfect number
28 = 1 + 2 + 4 + 7 + 14
.
.
.
158 CHAPTER 6. EARLY ABSTRACTION—FUNCTIONS

3. Random integration

(a) You’ll need this later!

Write a function that accepts 3 double’s (x, x0 and x1 below) and returns the
double (f (x, x0 , x1 ) below) for the function:

x sin(x)
f (x, x0 , x1 ) = ∀ x0 ≤ x ≤ x1
1+x

If x is outside of the range of definition, a Nan must be returned.

Hint 0: A NaN is IEEE’s way of saying ”Not a Number”. NaN’s can be produced
when the result of calculation using one of the floating-point representations is
undefined. For example, the coding:
double zero = 0; cout << zero/zero;
produces a NaN. Try it!
Hint 1: Here’s a main routine you can use to test your function:
#include <iostream>
#include <cmath>

// The function should go here...

int main(void)
{ cout << "Input x, x0, x1: ";
double x, x0, x1;
cin >> x >> x0 >> x1;
cout << "Evaluating the function at x = " << x
<< " between the limits x0 = " << x0
<< " and " << x1 << "\n";
cout << "f(" << x << ") = " << myFunction(x, x0, x1) << "\n";
return 0;
}
(b) A random way to find an area
i. Write a function that will find the position, xmax , which is the position where
the maximum of a function f (x) occurs. This maximum lies between two
limits x0 and x1 where x1 > x0 . Your value for xmax has to be within a
tolerance of 10−12 /|x1 − x0 |. You can assume that the function has only one
local maximum between x0 and x1 , that the function f (x) ≥ 0 between x0
and x1 and that the function is not a constant.
6.7. PROJECTS 159

Hint 0: Use double’s, not float’s to work on your solution.

Hint 1: Life is made easy because there is only one local maximum between
x0 and x1 . That means that you can start with any x such that x0 ≤ x ≤ x1
and move a little in one direction, say, x − δ, where δ is some small positive
number. If the function is smaller there, that is, f (x − δ) < f (x), you are
testing for the maximum in the wrong direction, so try x + δ.
Hint 2: Life is made difficult because the tolerance is so small. It is not
feasible to set your initial delta to 10 −12 /|x1 − x0 |. You will have to start
with something much larger, say, 10−1 /|x1 − x0 |. Once you have found the
position of the maximum within this tolerance, lower it to 10 −2 /|x1 − x0 | and
so on. This incremental refinement technique is reasonably efficient. This is
only a suggestion. You can probably think of a much more efficient way to
do it.
ii. Write another function that determines the area under f (x) between the two
limits x0 and x1 using a technique called random sampling. Random sampling
will be discussed in class. You will need to know the position of the function
maximum before you can determine the area under the function.
iii. Complete the problem by using the following function:

x sin(x)
f (x) =
1+x
for 0 ≤ x ≤ π, most of which was coded in the last problem. Use 100,000
samples to estimate the area.
HOW TO WORK ON THIS PROBLEM:
i. Try a few different examples for f (x) for which you know the answer (without
knowing calculus!). Good candidates would be:
A. f (x) = x, for 0 ≤ x ≤ 1.
B. f (x) = 1 − x, for 0 ≤ x ≤ 1.
C. f (x) = x, for 0 ≤ x ≤ 1/2, f (x) = 1 − x, for 1/2 ≤ x ≤ 1.
ii. Once you are confident that your algorithm works, then try the assigned
function:
x sin(x)
f (x) =
1+x
for 0 ≤ x ≤ π
iii. Write out a pseudocode to help you design your program.
160 CHAPTER 6. EARLY ABSTRACTION—FUNCTIONS
Chapter 7

More Variable Types, Data

Abstraction

7.1 Representation of floating-point numbers

We have seen that int’s are represented by 32 bit “words” and that they can only represent
a finite range of integral numbers. A signed integer covers the range −231 ≤ i ≤ (231 − 1).
Floating numbers have their own restrictions. One bit is used for the sign of the number, 23
bits represent the mantissa1 (the precision or granularity of the number) and 8 bits are used
to define the exponent. Consequently, float’s have a range of about 10−45 to about 10+38
and a resolution of about 1 part in 107 . (The particular floating-point representation can be
different on different operating systems.)
double’s are represented by 64 bits. 52 for the mantissa, one for the sign and 11 for the
exponent. The granularity is about 2 parts in 1016 and ranges from about 10−324 to about
10+308 . (The particular floating-point representation can be different on different operating
systems.)
Some CPU manufacturers, for example Intel (which provides the CPU’s for your laboratory
computers and, if you own them, your home computer or laptop), have adopted an IEEE
standard that represents floating point numbers with 80 bits, doing all the internal calcu-
lations at precisions higher than both float’s and double’s. This variable type is called
the long double. 64 bits are used for the mantissa, one for the sign and 15 for the ex-
ponent. The granularity is about 1 part in 10 19 and ranges from about 10−4965 to about
10+4932 . Other manufacturers have larger representations. For example, the Sun machines
maintained by CAEN have 128-bit long double’s.

1
Actually, it is assumed that the leading bit is always 1, so the representation uses 23 physical bits and
one “hidden” or “virtual” bit. All the floating-point numbers have a hidden bit.

161
162 CHAPTER 7. MORE VARIABLE TYPES, DATA ABSTRACTION

This is a representation of the difference between float and double:

FLOAT 32-BITS
EXPO-
NENT MATISSA 23 BITS
8 BITS

1 BIT
SIGN

DOUBLE 64-BITS
EXPONENT
11 BITS MATISSA 52 BITS

1 BIT
SIGN

Consider the following code called precisionFloat.cpp:

//File: precisionFloat.cpp
#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

float precision(void)
{ float one = 1.0f, e = 1.0f, onePlus;
int counter = 0;
do
{ counter = counter + 1;
e = e/2.0f;
onePlus = one + e;
}while(onePlus != one);
cout << "Converged after " << counter << " iterations\n";
return e;
}

int main(void)
{ cout << "Float resolution = " << precision() << "\n";
return 0;
}
7.1. REPRESENTATION OF FLOATING-POINT NUMBERS 163

New stuff:

1. The statement: float one = 1.0f contains the qualifier "f". This means that 1.0 is
a float, typically a 32 bit constant. If the "f" were omitted, the constant would be a
double, typically a 64 bit constant.

Compiling and running precisionFloat.cpp results in the following output:

Converged after 24 iterations

Float resolution = 5.96046e-08

Consider the following code called precisionDouble.cpp:

//File: precisionDouble.cpp
#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

double precision(void)
{ double one = 1.0, e = 1.0, onePlus;
int counter = 0;
do
{ counter = counter + 1;
e = e/2.0;
onePlus = one + e;
}while(onePlus != one);
cout << "Converged after " << counter << " iterations\n";
return e;
}

int main(void)
{ cout << "Double resolution = " << precision() << "\n";
return 0;
}

New stuff:

1. The statement

double one = 1.0, e = 1.0;

declares and initializes two double’s.

164 CHAPTER 7. MORE VARIABLE TYPES, DATA ABSTRACTION

Compiling and running precisionDouble.cpp results in the following output:

Converged after 53 iterations

Double resolution = 1.11022e-16

Consider the following code called precisionLongDouble.cpp:

//File: precisionLongDouble.cpp
#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

long double precision(void)

{ long double one = 1.0L, e = 1.0L, onePlus;
int counter = 0;
do
{ counter = counter + 1;
e = e/2.0L;
onePlus = one + e;
}while(onePlus != one);
cout << "Converged after " << counter << " iterations\n";
return e;
}

int main(void)
{ cout << "Long double resolution = " << precision() << "\n";
return 0;
}

New stuff:

1. The statement

long double one = 1.0L, e = 1.0L;

declares and initializes two long double’s. The qualifiers "L" specify that the constant
1.0 is to be considered a long double constant, an 80-bit number on my computer.

Compiling and running precisionLongDouble.cpp results in the following output:

Converged after 64 iterations

Long double resolution = 5.42101e-20
7.1. REPRESENTATION OF FLOATING-POINT NUMBERS 165

Note that what is called Float resolution, Double resolution, or Long double resolution
in the above example outputs from the programs is the number that can NOT be resolved
with respect to 1.
To test the range of a float consider the following code called rangeFloat.cpp:

//File: rangeFloat.cpp
#include <iostream>
#include <iomanip>

using namespace std;

int main(void)
{ float x = 1.0f, x0;
float y = 1.0f, y0;
int counter = 0;
do
{ counter = counter + 1;
x0 = x; x = x*2.0f; // Multiply by 2
y0 = y; y = y/2.0f; // Divide by 2
cout << setw(4) << counter << ": "
<< setw(12) << x << " :: "
<< setw(12) << y << "\n";
}while(x0 != x || y0 != y);
return 0;
}

Compiling and running rangeFloat.cpp results in the following output:

1: 2 :: 0.5
2: 4 :: 0.25
3: 8 :: 0.125
4: 16 :: 0.0625
5: 32 :: 0.03125
.
.
.
125: 4.25353e+37 :: 2.35099e-38
126: 8.50706e+37 :: 1.17549e-38
127: 1.70141e+38 :: 5.87747e-39
128: Inf :: 2.93874e-39
129: Inf :: 1.46937e-39
130: Inf :: 7.34684e-40
166 CHAPTER 7. MORE VARIABLE TYPES, DATA ABSTRACTION

.
.
.
147: Inf :: 5.60519e-45
148: Inf :: 2.8026e-45
149: Inf :: 1.4013e-45
150: Inf :: 0

New stuff:

1. The output Inf is the IEEE’s way of representing a number that is too large to be
represented. Inf has its own distinctive bit pattern.

2. Note that the float’s appear to have more “range” for small numbers than large
numbers. IEEE allows for a gradual decrease to zero. These numbers below about
6e-39 are called “sub-normal”, with fewer bits of precision. The leading bits of the
mantissa are padded with zeros for sub-normal numbers.

To test the range of a double consider the following code called rangeDouble.cpp:

//File: rangeDouble.cpp
#include <iostream>
#include <iomanip>

using namespace std;

int main(void)
{ double x = 1.0, x0;
double y = 1.0, y0;
int counter = 0;
do
{ counter = counter + 1;
x0 = x; x = x*2.0; // Multiply by 2
y0 = y; y = y/2.0; // Divide by 2
cout << setw(4) << counter << ": "
<< setw(12) << x << " :: "
<< setw(12) << y << "\n";
}while(x0 != x || y0 != y);
return 0;
}

Compiling and running rangeDouble.cpp results in the following output:

7.1. REPRESENTATION OF FLOATING-POINT NUMBERS 167

1: 2 :: 0.5
2: 4 :: 0.25
3: 8 :: 0.125
4: 16 :: 0.0625
5: 32 :: 0.03125
.
.
.
1021: 2.24712e+307 :: 4.45015e-308
1022: 4.49423e+307 :: 2.22507e-308
1023: 8.98847e+307 :: 1.11254e-308
1024: Inf :: 5.56268e-309
1025: Inf :: 2.78134e-309
.
.
.
1073: Inf :: 9.88131e-324
1074: Inf :: 4.94066e-324
1075: Inf :: 0

To test the range of a long double (at least an IEEE 80-bit one as implemented on my
machine) consider the following code called rangeLongDouble.cpp:

//File: rangeLongDouble.cpp
#include <iostream>
#include <iomanip>

using namespace std;

int main(void)
{ long double x = 1.0L, x0;
long double y = 1.0L, y0;
int counter = 0;
do
{ counter = counter + 1;
x0 = x; x = x*2.0L; // Multiply by 2
y0 = y; y = y/2.0L; // Divide by 2
cout << setw(4) << counter << ": "
<< setw(12) << x << " :: "
<< setw(12) << y << "\n";
}while(x0 != x || y0 != y);
return 0;
168 CHAPTER 7. MORE VARIABLE TYPES, DATA ABSTRACTION

Compiling and running rangeLongDouble.cpp results in the following output:

1: 2 :: 0.5
2: 4 :: 0.25
3: 8 :: 0.125
4: 16 :: 0.0625
5: 32 :: 0.03125
.
.
.
16382: 2.97433e+4931 :: 3.3621e-4932
16383: 5.94866e+4931 :: 1.68105e-4932
16384: Inf :: 8.40526e-4933
16385: Inf :: 4.20263e-4933
.
.
.
16443: Inf :: 1.45808e-4950
16444: Inf :: 7.2904e-4951
16445: Inf :: 3.6452e-4951
16446: Inf :: 0

Now that’s a lot of numbers. Try these example codes on your own machine. If you get
output that is different, particularly for the long double’s, I’d like to know about it!

7.1.1 When is one not one? Floating point anomalies.

According to mathematics, a very strange way of writing one would be

X
N
1
1 N

Is his true for computers? No!

The following code demonstrates the effect.

//File: oneNotOne.cpp
#include <iostream>
#include <iomanip>
7.2. CHAR: THE CHARACTER VARIABLE 169

using namespace std;

int main(void)
{ cout << "N? ";
double N;
cin >> N;
float fraction = 1.0/N;
cout << "Will compute " << fraction << " * " << N << " = ";

float sum = 0;
for (int i = 1; i <= N; i = i + 1) sum = sum + fraction;
cout << setprecision(19) << sum << "\n";

return 0;
}

Try running this code for small values of N and big values of N, say N = 107 or 108 . You
will get answers near 1 for small N, but something entirely different for big N! Why? How
could you fix this?
Recall that the representation of floating-point numbers is inexact in computers. If you are
using float’s with a precision of about 1 part in 107 , you will start to notice anomalies if
you try to add two things together that differ in size by 6 or 7 orders of magnitude. These
anomalies can be readily observed with float’s. Converting to double’s or long double’s
treats the symptom but does not cure the disease! It is always there but often not noticeable
with higher precision numbers. So why not use double’s or long double’s all the time?
Higher precision costs in terms of storage. Sometimes memory requirements dictate the
use of lower precision. There are speed/performance issues to consider as well. This is yet
another one of the compromises one has to make in designing computer programs.

7.2 char: the character variable

• A single character can be defined as the character type: char

• char is a data type used to encode single characters

• The following line declares a character called ch

char ch;

• The following assigns the character ’a’ to the char variable. A literal character is a
character between single ’ quotes.
170 CHAPTER 7. MORE VARIABLE TYPES, DATA ABSTRACTION

ch = ’a’;

• The following line declares a character called ch and assigns it the character ’a’

char ch = ’a’;

• The following statement contains an error. What is the error?

ch = "a";

• Some special characters:

– ’\n’ is a “newline”
– ’\t’ is a “horizontal tab”
– ’\0’ is a “null”. It means nothing! We have to make a special character that
means nothing!
– There are lots of others.

• The inner secret of char’s? They are really integers!

But, they are really integers but only one byte (8-bits) long.
Thus there can be at most 28 = 256 of them.

• The following are all valid statements:

char c;
int i;
i = 65;
c = i;
c = 99;

• Consider the program :

//File: chars.cpp
#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int main(void)
{ for(int i = 0; i < 256 ; i = i + 1)
{ char c = i;
if (i <= 127)
7.2. CHAR: THE CHARACTER VARIABLE 171

cout << "Int " << i << "-->" << c << " in ASCII\n";
else
cout << "Int " << i << "-->" << c << " beyond ASCII\n";
}
return 0;
}

Try running this program and see what it gives you!

• The characters corresponding to integers 0—127 are the ASCII standard character
set. (ASCII = American Standard Code for Information Exchange) which is univer-
sally adopted in English-speaking nations. The printing characters are represented by
ASCII codes 32–126. Some of the ASCII codes do special things or represent “special”
characters. For example, 7 is the “alert” or “bell”, 8 is the “backspace”, 9 is the “hor-
izontal tab”, 10 is a “new line”, 11 is a “vertical tab”, 13 is a “carriage return”, 127 is
the “delete”. Note the effect of some of these when running chars.cpp.

• The extended ASCII character set corresponding to integers 0—255 is internation-

ally adopted and permits many of the characters from some foreign languages to be
represented.

• Movement is afoot to accept the UNICODE standard which codes characters in 2

bytes (16 bits) with 216 = 65536 possibilities. This is enough to code not only every
language that exists, but even every language that has ever existed. Even Egyptian
hieroglyphics has a UNICODE representation. There is probably no need to extend
beyond 16-bit representation until we start making contact with extra-terrestrial life
forms, well, at least ones that want to communicate with us for whatever reason.

7.2.1 Character strings; the string class

• The string class requires the use of #include <string>

• You have seen them already!

cout << "This is a string!\n";

• Declaring a string called str and assigning it a value:

string str = "This is a string!\n";

• A character string is really kind of a vector in disguise.

str[0] is "T"
str[1] is "h"
etc.
172 CHAPTER 7. MORE VARIABLE TYPES, DATA ABSTRACTION

• Strings can be read in with cin and printed with cout. The cin operation continues
on the string until it sees a space or a new-line character (hitting the Return key).
Here is an example that will be discussed in class:

//File: string1.cpp
#include <iostream>
#include <string>

using namespace std;

int main(void)
{ string response;
do
{ cin >> response;
cout << response + "\n";
}while (’.’ != response[0]); //Note vector notation
return 0;
}

It is important to understand that the space character is considered by the cin function
to signal the end of a string.

• The fact that a space character is considered by the cin operation to signal the end
of a string can sometimes be a nuisance if you want to input spaces. For example, you
might want an entire sentence to be considered a single string. The getline() string
class member function (as declared by <string>) can be used for this purpose. Here
is an example that will be discussed in class:

//File: string2.cpp
#include <iostream>
#include <string>

using namespace std;

int main(void)
{ string sentence;
do
{ getline(cin,sentence);
cout << sentence + "\n";
}while (’.’ != sentence[0]);
return 0;
7.3. THE VECTOR CLASS 173

• The length() member function returns the length of a string, the number of characters
that it contains. The substr() member function extracts a sub-strings from a string.
Note that strings can be concatenated with the addition operator, although at least
one of the operands must be a string variable. Here is an example that demonstrates
these three new things.

//File: string3.cpp
#include <iostream>
#include <string>

using namespace std;

int main(void)
{ cout << "Type in a string: ";
string r1;
cin >> r1;
cout << "Your response was " << r1.length() << " chars long\n";

cout << "Type in another string: ";

string r2;
cin >> r2;
cout << "Your response was " << r1.length() << " chars long\n";

cout << "Putting them together: " << r1 + " " + r2 << "\n";

cout << "Slicing and splicing them up: "

<< r1.substr(0,2) + r2.substr(4,7) << "\n";

return 0;
}

7.3 The vector class

7.3.1 Introduction to vectors

So far we have been dealing with individual float’s and int’s, declaring them individually,
naming them individually, manipulating them one at a time, individually. Individuality is
nice, but sometimes it is more efficient to refer to a group of similar individuals in a collective
manner. In many applications we wish to use data, many of the same type, in some sort of
systematic or regular way.
174 CHAPTER 7. MORE VARIABLE TYPES, DATA ABSTRACTION

For example, a function of x is called f (x). An operation on f (x), such a multiplication

by a constant factor operates on all the elements of f (x), effectively an infinite number of
operations! A more tangible example is; say a kind-hearted professor wanted to raise all the
grades in the class by 5%. If he had a collection of the grades in an ordered list, it would be
a lot easier (and more likely to happen) if he could multiply the whole list at once by 1.05,
rather than each grade on an individual basis.
To carry this example a little further, our class list is made up of 217 individuals (as in the
case of ENG101/200). Each of these individuals is assigned a different grade at the end of the
course. Let’s say we wanted to calculate the class average. A computation of a class average
would involve accessing all this data in some regular fashion using a computer program.
C++ provides a way of doing this by allowing you to defining an vector—a symbol that is
associated with many objects.

7.3.2 Declaring and using vectors

Suppose I wanted to declare variables associated with the individual grades in this class. I
could do the following the following:

int gradeForStudent1 = 98;

int gradeForStudent2 = 79;
int gradeForStudent3 = 88;
.
.
.
int gradeForStudent217 = 91;

This is a really dumb, repetitive way to do it! Anything that seems really repetitive for
a human can probably be done in a better way by a machine. C++ allows you to define
everything at once using the following syntax:

vector<int> gradeForStudent(217);

which declares, in one fell swoop, 217 int’s. (We could also have made them float’s or
double’s. We can make vectors out of any variable type.) So, we can refer to the collection
of grades by a single identifier, gradeForStudent, in a collective fashion.
But we still have work to do. We still have to enter the numbers somehow into the computer
program. One way is through assignment statements:

gradeForStudent[0] = 98; /* 1’st student *\

7.3. THE VECTOR CLASS 175

gradeForStudent[1] = 79; /* 2’nd student *\

gradeForStudent[2] = 88; /* 3’rd student *\
.
.
.
gradeForStudent[216] = 91; /* 217’th student *\

which also seems a little dumb, but indicates that we can also refer to the individuals by a
numerical index. (For example, 7of9 in the Borg collective. If you are not a Trekkie, please
ignore the last statement. However, for some strange reason, 7of9 is the only individual Borg
that I can name.)
In fact, for data of this nature, there is always some boring work to be done—typing in all
the grades. Unless there is an automatic way to generate the components of the vector, some
person has to do the boring job of typing it all in. The is called data entry.
The above example, however, shows that vector indices (the integer inside the []’s) start with zero.
This leads to “off-by-one” errors that plague all novice (and some experienced) programmers
in C++. So, just remember that the n’th element in a vector is referred to by the index n
- 1.
Another way of entering the data to the vector is by using an input loop. For example:

#include <iostream>
#include <vector>
.
.
.
const int NumberOfStudents = 217;
vector<int> gradeForStudent(NumberOfStudents);
for(i = 0; i < gradeForStudent.size(); i = i + 1)
{ cout << "Input grade for student number << i << ": ";
cin >> gradeForStudent[i];
}

gets the input done in another way, although someone still has to do all the typing.
There is some new stuff here that needs a little explanation. The vectors that we have just
introduced are really a class in C++. A class is defined as data and functions that operate on
the data within the class. The function size() is one of the vector class member functions.
The syntax to have a member function operate on a data variable in its class is: name the
data variable and connect it via the period, “.”, and then name the member function with
the appropriate argument list, in this case nothing. The size() member function returns
the number of elements in the vector, in this case, 217.
176 CHAPTER 7. MORE VARIABLE TYPES, DATA ABSTRACTION

There is one other new thing in the above code snippet, the introduction of the const
qualifier to a variable. All this means is that the variable is to be help constant after its
initialization. Any attempt to change it would result in an error. This is a safe way to keep
vector sizes safe from programmer error if they are known to be fixed.
The best way to input the numbers is to input them in a separate file and read this file
in during the execution of the code. This would make the code more general and the code
itself would not have to be concerned with having to enter the data faithfully. And, another
program could make use of this data. We will learn how to read and write files later on in
the course.

7.3.3 Vector syntax and rules:

• You need to #include <vector> to use vectors.

• The name of a vector (e.g. gradeForStudent) follows the naming convention for iden-
tifiers.

• Vectors can be “global” or “local”, just like individual variables, depending on where
they are declared.

• The “index” also called the “subscript” is the thing that goes inside the [ ]’s.

• What goes inside the [ ]’s is an integer or an integer expression.

• If you violate the bounds of a vector (write data either below it or above it), one of
two things can happen

– Either your program will crash, or

– The data occupying memory adjacent to the vector will be corrupted, the program
will carry on and operate on or with corrupted data.

At least in the first situation you know something is wrong. In the second you don’t
and that could be dangerous.

• The i’th element of vector someVector is someVector[i - 1]

• someVector[someIntegerExpression] denotes a value. It can go on the left of an

assignment operator “=”

• When a vector is declared all of its elements are set to zero.

• Once declared, it is best to think of vectors as regular variables. For example,

vector<float> vector2 = vector1;

7.3. THE VECTOR CLASS 177

where vector1 was previously defined, creates a new vector called vector2 with the
same size as vector1 and copies all the elements of vector1 to vector2.

Example: Computing averages

Suppose we have a class of 10 students. I want to compute the average grade of a class test.
Here is a way to do it.

//File: sumGradesGood.cpp
#include <iostream>
#include <vector> //Need this to use the vector "class"

using namespace std;

int main(void)
{ const int MaxNoStudents = 10;
vector<int> grade(MaxNoStudents);

int sum = 0;
for (int i = 0; i < grade.size(); i = i + 1)
{ cout << "Grade for student #" << i + 1 << ": "; // Note the "+ 1"
cin >> grade[i];
sum = sum + grade[i];
}

cout << "\nGrade report:\n\n";

for (int i = 0; i < grade.size(); i = i + 1)

cout << "Grade for student #" << i + 1 << ": \t" << grade[i] << "\n";

cout << "Class avg is : " << static_cast<float>(sum)/grade.size() << "\n";

return 0;
}

And here is a sample use of the code:

Grade for student #1: 1

Grade for student #2: 2
Grade for student #3: 3
Grade for student #4: 4
Grade for student #5: 5
178 CHAPTER 7. MORE VARIABLE TYPES, DATA ABSTRACTION

Grade for student #6: 6

Grade for student #7: 7
Grade for student #8: 8
Grade for student #9: 9
Grade for student #10: 10

Grade report:

Grade for student #1: 1

Grade for student #2: 2
Grade for student #3: 3
Grade for student #4: 4
Grade for student #5: 5
Grade for student #6: 6
Grade for student #7: 7
Grade for student #8: 8
Grade for student #9: 9
Grade for student #10: 10
Class avg is : 5.5

Example: A more refined way of computing averages

The above example requires that the C++ code know in advance how many students there
are in the class. So, if the number of students change, the code has to be recompiled. Why
not ask the user of the program to input the number of students, then declare the vector
and then do the calculation? Why not? Here is a better way to do it.

//File: sumGradesBetter.cpp
#include <iostream>
#include <vector> //Need this to use the vector "class"

using namespace std;

int main(void)
{ cout << "Number of students writing the test: ";
int nStudents;
cin >> nStudents;
vector<int> grade(nStudents);

int sum = 0;
for (int i = 0; i < grade.size(); i = i + 1)
7.3. THE VECTOR CLASS 179

{ cout << "Grade for student #" << i + 1 << ": "; // Note the "+ 1"
cin >> grade[i];
sum = sum + grade[i];
}

cout << "\nGrade report:\n\n";

for (int i = 0; i < grade.size(); i = i + 1)

cout << "Grade for student #" << i + 1 << ": \t" << grade[i] << "\n";;

cout << "Class avg is : " << static_cast<float>(sum)/grade.size() << "\n";

return 0;
}

A example of its use is:

Number of students writing the test: 3

Grade for student #1: 6
Grade for student #2: 8
Grade for student #3: 9

Grade report:

Grade for student #1: 6

Grade for student #2: 8
Grade for student #3: 9
Class avg is : 7.66667

Example: A even better way

I’m still dissatisfied with the above program. It requires me to count how many students
wrote the test. Why not have the vector simply grow in size as I enter more data? Why not?
Here is an even better way to do it. In this case, the input loop terminates with a negative
grade or a grade larger than 100.

//File: sumGradesBest.cpp
#include <iostream>
#include <vector> //Need this to use the vector "class"

using namespace std;

180 CHAPTER 7. MORE VARIABLE TYPES, DATA ABSTRACTION

int main(void)
{ vector<int> grade;

double sum = 0, score;

do
{ cout << "Input a student’s grade grade: ";
cin >> score;
if (0. <= score && 100. >= score)
{ sum = sum + score;
grade.push_back(score);
}
}while(0. <= score && 100. >= score);

cout << "\nGrade report:\n\n";

for (int i = 0; i < grade.size(); i = i + 1)

cout << "Grade for student #" << i + 1 << ": \t" << grade[i]
<< "\n";

cout << "Class avg is : " << sum/grade.size() << "\n";

return 0;
}

An example of its use is:

Input a student’s grade grade: 79

Input a student’s grade grade: 60
Input a student’s grade grade: 99
Input a student’s grade grade: 57
Input a student’s grade grade: -1

Grade report:

Grade for student #1: 79

Grade for student #2: 60
Grade for student #3: 99
Grade for student #4: 57
Class avg is : 73.75

The new features of the above program is a new member function of the vector class, seen
in the statements:
7.3. THE VECTOR CLASS 181

.
.
.
vector<int> grade;
.
.
.
grade.push_back(score);
.
.
.

Note that the first statement above simply declares a vector without a size! We are free to do
this. All it does is bind the identifier grade to a vector variable type. The member function
push back(score) increases the size of the vector by one and initializes the new location
with its argument, in this case, the value of score. There is another member function called
pop back(), with no argument, that reduces a vector’s size by one.

7.3.4 Vectors and functions

Remember that it is usually useful to think of vectors as simple variables. This is especially
true for vectors and functions. Take all the rules you have learned about functions and
variables and apply them to functions and vectors. To demonstrate this, consider the fol-
lowing example that demonstrates numerical integration. All the algorithm does is integrate
a simple function in three different ways. First, it puts the function into a vector with a
certain number of points based on an evenly divided mesh, or grid. Then is forms rectangles
in 3 different ways, using for its height the left mesh point, the right mesh point and the
midpoint. Can you guess why the midpoint method is so much better?

//File: integrate.cpp
#include <iostream>
#include <cmath>
#include <vector>

using namespace std;

double integrateLeft(vector<double> f, vector<double> x)

{ double sum = 0;
for (int i = 0; i < f.size() - 1; i = i + 1)
sum = sum + f[i]*(x[i + 1] - x[i]);
return sum;
182 CHAPTER 7. MORE VARIABLE TYPES, DATA ABSTRACTION

double integrateRight(vector<double> f, vector<double> x)

{ double sum = 0;
for (int i = 0; i < f.size() - 1; i = i + 1)
sum = sum + f[i + 1]*(x[i + 1] - x[i]);
return sum;
}

double integrateMiddle(vector<double> f, vector<double> x)

{ double sum = 0;
for (int i = 0; i < f.size() - 1; i = i + 1)
sum = sum + 0.5*(f[i] + f[i + 1])*(x[i + 1] - x[i]);
return sum;
}

int main(void)
{ cout << "Number of points in the integration mesh: ";
int mesh;
cin >> mesh;
vector<double> f(mesh), x(mesh);
for(int i = 0; i < mesh; i = i + 1)
{ x[i] = static_cast<double>(i)/(mesh - 1);
f[i] = exp(x[i]);
}

double integral = integrateLeft(f, x);

cout <<
"left = \t\t" << integral << " cf " << exp(1.0) - 1.0
<< " diff = " << integral - (exp(1.0) - 1.0) << "\n";

integral = integrateRight(f, x);

cout <<
"right = \t" << integral << " cf " << exp(1.0) - 1.0
<< " diff = " << integral - (exp(1.0) - 1.0) << "\n";

integral = integrateMiddle(f, x);

cout <<
"midpoint = \t" << integral << " cf " << exp(1.0) - 1.0
<< " diff = " << integral - (exp(1.0) - 1.0) << "\n";

return 0;
7.4. PROBLEMS 183

7.4 Problems
1. The inner product
Complete the program started below. You must complete the function innerProduct()
which computes the inner product of two vectors, x and y. The inner product is the
sum x0 y0 + x1 y1 + ... + xn−1 yn−1 where xi is the i + 1’th element of x and the number
of elements in the vector is n. Here is a function stub and a main routine that you
must use to test your function:

#include <iostream>
#include <vector>
#include <cstdlib>

using namespace std;

float innerProduct(const vector<float>& a, const vector<float>& b)

{ //Why did the function use the const qualifiers in the parameter list
//and pass the vectors by reference?
//Answer the question and insert your code after this line.
}

int main(void)
{ int vectorLength = 10;

vector<float> x (vectorLength);
cout << " x: ";
for (int i = 0; i < vectorLength; i = i + 1)
{ x[i] = rand()%100;
cout << "\t" << x[i];
}
cout << "\n";

vector<float> y(vectorLength);
cout << " y: ";
for (int i = 0; i < vectorLength; i = i + 1)
{ y[i] = rand()%10;
cout << "\t" << y[i];
}
184 CHAPTER 7. MORE VARIABLE TYPES, DATA ABSTRACTION

cout << "\n";

cout << "Inner product is: " << innerProduct(x,y) << "\n";

return 0;
}

In the comments of your function, answer the question: Why did the function use the
const qualifiers in the parameter list and pass the vectors by reference?

2. Maximum and minimum

Complete the program started below. You must complete the function minMax() which
returns both the minimum and the maximum elements of the vector. Here is a function
stub and a main routine that you must use to test your function:

#include <iostream>
#include <vector>
#include <cstdlib>

using namespace std;

void minMax(const vector<int>& c, int& min, int& max)

{ //Why were min and max given as "reference parameters"?
//Answer the question and insert your code after this line.
}

int main(void)
{ int vectorLength = 8;

vector<int> a(vectorLength);
cout << " a: ";
for (int i = 0; i < vectorLength; i = i + 1)
{ a[i] = rand();
cout << "\t" << a[i];
}
cout << "\n";

int minimum, maximum;

minMax(a, minimum, maximum);

cout << "The minimum array element is: " << minimum << "\n";
cout << "The maximum array element is: " << maximum << "\n";
7.4. PROBLEMS 185

return 0;
}

In the comments of your function, answer the question: “Why were min and max given
as ‘reference parameters’ ?”

3. Nothing negative
Complete the program started below. You must complete the function nothingNegative()
which accepts a vector called bothSigns containing positive and negative integers and
returns a vector of equal or lesser length that contains only the non-negative integers
of the vector bothSigns. Here is a function stub and a main routine that you must
use to test your function:

#include <iostream>
#include <vector>
#include <cstdlib>

using namespace std;

vector<int> nothingNegative(const vector<int>& a)

{ //Why can this program, when compiled with just the function stub,
//go into what looks like an infinite loop?
//Answer the question and insert your code after this line.
}

int main(void)
{ int vectorLength = 10;

vector<int> bothSigns(vectorLength);
cout << " Input vector: ";
for (int i = 0; i < vectorLength; i = i + 1)
{ bothSigns[i] = rand()%201 - 100;
cout << "\t" << bothSigns[i];
}
cout << "\n";

vector<int> noNegs = nothingNegative(bothSigns);

cout << " Output vector: ";

for (int i = 0; i < noNegs.size(); i = i + 1)
{ cout << "\t" << noNegs[i];
186 CHAPTER 7. MORE VARIABLE TYPES, DATA ABSTRACTION

}
cout << "\n";

return 0;
}

In the comments of your function, answer the question: “Why can this program, when
compiled with just the function stub, go into what looks like an infinite loop?”

4. Push and pop

Complete the program started below. Write a void function that accepts two called-
by-reference vectors of int’s. Upon entry to the function, the first vector can be any
size and contains int’s that can have any value. The second vector is empty, its size
is 0. Upon return, the first vector contains only the positive int’s (> 0) in the same
order. Upon return, the second vector contains only the negative int’s (< 0) in the
same order as they appeared in the original first vector, when the function was entered.
Important: Do this without declaring any new vectors.

#include <iostream>
#include <vector>
#include <cstdlib>
#include <ctime>

using namespace std;

//Function definition goes here...

int main(void)
{ srand(time(NULL));
int size = rand()%20 + 10; //size is a RN between 10 and 29
vector<int> in(size), out;

for (int i = 0; i < in.size(); i = i + 1)

in[i] = rand()%19 - 9; //RN between -9 and +9

cout << "Original vector is size " << in.size() << endl;
for (int i = 0; i < in.size(); i = i + 1)
cout << in[i] << " ";
cout << "\n\n";

extractNegs(in, out);
7.4. PROBLEMS 187

cout << "Returned vector is size " << out.size() << endl;
for (int i = 0; i < out.size(); i = i + 1)
cout << out[i] << " ";
cout << "\n\n";

cout << "Modified vector is size " << in.size() << endl;
for (int i = 0; i < in.size(); i = i + 1)
cout << in[i] << " ";
cout << "\n\n";

return 0;
}

5. Perfect squares
Complete the program started below. Write a function that returns a vector<int>
and accepts one constant called-by-reference vector<int>. Upon entry to the function,
the vector in the parameter list can be any size and contains int’s that are positive
(> 0). Upon return, the vector that is returned contains the indices of the first vector
whose values are perfect squares.

#include <iostream>
#include <vector>
#include <cstdlib>
#include <cmath>
#include <ctime>

using namespace std;

//Function definition goes here...

int main(void)
{ srand(time(NULL));
int size = rand()%20 + 10; //size is a RN between 10 and 29
vector<int> in(size);
for (int i = 0; i < in.size(); i = i + 1)
{ in[i] = rand()%90 + 10;
cout << in[i] << " ";
}
cout << endl;

vector<int> out = squareIndex(in);

188 CHAPTER 7. MORE VARIABLE TYPES, DATA ABSTRACTION

cout << "Returned vector is size " << out.size() << endl;

for (int i = 0; i < out.size(); i = i + 1) cout << out[i] << " ";
cout << endl;

return 0;
}

6. Sort this out

Complete the program started below. You must complete the function sort() that
has the void return type. This function accepts a vector called unsorted containing
random int’s. Here is a function stub and a main routine that you must use to test
your function:

#include <iostream>
#include <vector>
#include <cstdlib>

using namespace std;

void sort(vector<int>& a){}

int main(void)
{ cout << "Input the minimum and maximum random int: ";
int minRange, maxRange;
cin >> minRange >> maxRange;

cout << "Input the length of the vector: ";

int vectorLength;
cin >> vectorLength;

vector<int> unsorted(vectorLength);
cout << " Vector beforehand: \t";
for (int i = 0; i < vectorLength; i = i + 1)
{ unsorted[i] = minRange + rand()%(maxRange - minRange + 1);
cout << unsorted[i] << " ";
}
cout << "\n";

sort(unsorted);

cout << " Vector afterhand: \t";

7.4. PROBLEMS 189

for (int i = 0; i < unsorted.size(); i = i + 1)

{ cout << unsorted[i] << " ";
}
cout << "\n";
return 0;
}

7. A prime example
Complete the program started below. You must complete the function getPrimes()
that has the vector<int> return type. This function accepts an int called NPrimes
that is the number of consecutive prime numbers starting with 2. The return vector
contains these prime numbers in order.
You must make your function efficient by using something similar to the following test
to eliminate numbers that are not prime:

if (0 == n%divisor) nIsPrime = false;

where N is the candidate prime and divisor is a prime number. The divisor must
not be non-prime.

#include <iostream>
#include <vector>
#include <cstdlib>

vector<int> getPrimes(const int NPrimes){}

int main(void)
{ cout << "Input the number of primes to find: ";
int NPrimes;
cin >> NPrimes;

vector<int> primes = getPrimes(NPrimes); //Get the primes

cout << "The first " << primes.size() << " prime numbers: ";

for (int i = 0; i < primes.size(); i = i + 1)

{ cout << primes[i] << " ";
}
cout << "\n";
return 0;
}
190 CHAPTER 7. MORE VARIABLE TYPES, DATA ABSTRACTION

8. No repeats
Complete the program started below. You must complete the function noRepeats()
that has the void return type. This function accepts a vector called bothSigns con-
taining random int’s and eliminates any values in it that are repeated. Here is a
function stub and a main routine that you must use to test your function:

#include <iostream>
#include <vector>
#include <cstdlib>

using namespace std;

void noRepeats(vector<int>& a){}

int main(void)
{ cout << "Input the minimum and maximum random int: ";
int minRange, maxRange;
cin >> minRange >> maxRange;

cout << "Input the length of the vector: ";

int vectorLength;
cin >> vectorLength;

vector<int> hasRepeats(vectorLength);
cout << " Vector beforehand: \t";
for (int i = 0; i < vectorLength; i = i + 1)
{ hasRepeats[i] = minRange + rand()%(maxRange - minRange + 1);
cout << hasRepeats[i] << " ";
}
cout << "\n";

noRepeats(hasRepeats);

cout << " Vector afterhand: \t";

for (int i = 0; i < hasRepeats.size(); i = i + 1)
{ cout << hasRepeats[i] << " ";
}
cout << "\n";
return 0;
}
Chapter 8

More Data Abstraction, Arrays,

Structures

8.1 Arrays

An array is an extension of the vector concept. An array can represent a list of objects with
a single index, for example, Ai , for i = 1, 2, 3...N. For numerical computation, so called
one-dimensional arrays are used to represent lists of objects (e.g. a list of grades). Two
one-dimensional arrays (e.g. x[i],f[x]) can represent a function f (x) by specifying a grid
of points along the x-axis, x[i], or xi , and the function evaluated at those grid points, f[i],
or fi = f (xi ). These are the most common uses of one-dimensional arrays.
Vectors, which we encountered in the previous lecture, are really one-dimensional arrays.
However, arrays are a lower level construct that comes from C. Simply stated, arrays are or-
dered collections of things you already know about, for example, int’s, float’s and double’s
with a few special rules related to indexing, initializing and communicating with functions.
A vector, on the other hand, is a standard class in C++ and it comes with powerful member
functions like size(), push back() and pop back(), that operate on the data in vectors. For
this reason, we will not investigate one-dimensional arrays in detail in this course, choosing
instead to focus on the more powerful vector class when dealing with 1-D applications.
The multi-dimensional array is an extension of the one-dimensional array concept. A two-
dimensional array can be thought of as a grid or table of values, a set of rows and columns,
each with its own value. There are many expressions of these. A two-dimensional array can
represent a checkerboard, a chessboard, the board in game of Battleship or Minesweeper, a
football field, or the surface of the earth. (Yes, it is two-dimensional, Christopher; it’s just
not flat!) We could think of many examples, there being no limit to human creativity. After
this lecture, you will have enough syntax tools and rules to program a game of chess. With
a little more understanding of atmospheric physics (not programming), after this lecture

191
192 CHAPTER 8. MORE DATA ABSTRACTION, ARRAYS, STRUCTURES

you could write a program that predicts the weather! After only about 20 lectures we have
gotten this far! Now this is getting interesting! You have the tools and the rules, now apply
your creative thinking to design algorithms which themselves are only composed of three
things—the three pillars of algorithm design: sequence, branch and loop. It really just boils
down to this. It really is that simple and wonderful.
In more abstract terms, a two-dimensional array can represent a table of objects with two
indices, for example, Ai,j . For numerical computation in science and engineering, two-
dimensional arrays are used to represent tables of objects as in the examples above. Two-
dimensional arrays (e.g. x[i][j],f[i][j]) can represent a function of two variables, f (x, y),
by specifying a grid of points in the xy-plane, x[i][j], or xi,j , and the function evaluated
at those grid points, f[i][j], or fi,j = f (xi,j ). However, the most interesting ones for scien-
tists and engineers are “square” two-dimensional arrays, also called matrices. In this course,
we will restrict our discussion to 2-dimensional arrays. There is nothing new in three and
higher dimensions that we will not see in studying 2-dimensional ones. And, the rules for
one-dimensional arrays can be obtained easily from two-dimensional arrays.
Unfortunately, C++ has not defined a new class to describe these objects. So we will have
to grapple with the more primitive array inherited from C. Later on in the course, we will be
studying Matlab. Matlab is built on two-dimensional arrays as the the fundamental variable
type and has developed a lot of functionality for it, which we will discover later. Matlab is
a very sophisticated program (used by professional engineers worldwide). However, if you
can develop the application in C++, it will always run faster, sometimes much faster. So,
we spend some effort learning how to work with two-dimensional arrays in C++. Besides,
doing so will be an excellent exercise in algorithmic thinking—the prime reason for teaching
this course.
The ANSI standard calls for arrays of at least 12 dimensions. Believe it or not, there are
actually applications for this!
OK, enough with the sermon, already. Let’s dive into the syntax before we learn how to
exploit it for creative expression. Some of the syntax was already introduced above.

8.1.1 Declaring a 2-dimensional array

Here’s an example of how to declare and initialize a two-dimensional array:

const int NROWS = 3;

const int NCOLUMNS = 2;
int a[NROWS][NCOLUMNS]

This is called a “3 by 2 array” or more generally as an NROWS by NCOLUMNS array. It is useful

to visualize 2-dimensional arrays with the columns numbered 0 to NCOLUMNS - 1 going from
8.1. ARRAYS 193

left to right and the rows numbered 0 to NROWS - 1 going down the page. Of course, this
visualization is completely arbitrary but helps serve as a memory aid.

a[0][0] a[0][1]
a[1][0] a[1][1]
a[2][0] a[2][1]

Another useful way to think about it is as a one-dimensional array of other one-dimensional

arrays. Indeed, the notation a[NROWS][NCOLUMNS] is very suggestive of this! We can visualize
this as vectors of length NROWS aligned vertically and columns of length NCOLUMNS aligned
horizontally. Use whatever visual aid works for you. The above two suggestions work for
me.

8.1.2 Initializing a 2-dimensional array

Initializing a 2-dimensional array in the declaration statement can be done in a variety of

ways. Here are some examples:

const int NROWS = 3;

const int NCOLUMNS = 2;
int a[NROWS][NCOLUMNS] = {0}

Sets all of the array elements to zero. That is:

0 0
0 0
0 0

This feature is important to remember as it saves a lot of typing, a particular passion of

mine.
The brace notation may also be used:

const int NROWS = 3;

const int NCOLUMNS = 2;
int a[NROWS][NCOLUMNS] = {{1,2}, {3,4}, {5,6}};

The result is:

194 CHAPTER 8. MORE DATA ABSTRACTION, ARRAYS, STRUCTURES

1 2
3 4
5 6

The brace notation is nice because it may be used to initialize the array a little more sug-
gestively. For example,

const int NROWS = 3;

const int NCOLUMNS = 2;
int a[NROWS][NCOLUMNS] =
{ {1,2},
{3,4},
{5,6}
};

with the same result.

Note the use of nested braces. If a brace is not filled completely, it is filled with zeros. For
example,

const int NROWS = 3;

const int NCOLUMNS = 2;
int a[NROWS][NCOLUMNS] = {{1}, {3}, {5}};

results in

1 0
3 0
5 0

Note that it is important, when initializing arrays in this fashion, to make the array size
declared with int’s that are fixed with the const qualifier. Otherwise the compiler will
complain and not complete. Arrays can be declared anywhere in a program, for example:

const int nows = 10;

const int ncolumns = 20;
float f[nrows][ncolumns];

However, the array will have to be initialized with executable statements. Also, in contrast
to vectors, arrays are not automatically initialized to zero. It must be done either on the dec-
laration statement or explicitly initialized to zero within executable statements. Otherwise,
the array will contain bit patterns that were left in memory following previous use.
8.1. ARRAYS 195

Here’s a small program that demonstrates some of the declaration, initialization and ad-
dressing concepts.

//File: whereItsAt.cpp
#include <iostream>

int main(void)
{ const int NROWS = 3;
const int NCOLUMNS = 2;
int a[NROWS][NCOLUMNS] = {{1}, {3}, {5}};

cout << a[0][0] << ":" << a[0][1] << "\n";

cout << a[1][0] << ":" << a[1][1] << "\n";
cout << a[2][0] << ":" << a[2][1] << "\n";

cout << "&a[2][1]: " << &a[2][1] << "\n";

cout << "&a[2][0]: " << &a[2][0] << "\n";
cout << "&a[1][1]: " << &a[1][1] << "\n";
cout << "&a[1][0]: " << &a[1][0] << "\n";
cout << "&a[0][1]: " << &a[0][1] << "\n";
cout << "&a[0][0]: " << &a[0][0] << "\n";

cout << "a: " << a << "\n";

return 0;
}

which produces the following output:

1:0
3:0
5:0
&a[2][1]: 0xbffff72c
&a[2][0]: 0xbffff728
&a[1][1]: 0xbffff724
&a[1][0]: 0xbffff720
&a[0][1]: 0xbffff71c
&a[0][0]: 0xbffff718
a: 0xbffff718

Note how this multi-dimensional array is stored. Computer memory is organized as if it were
a one-dimensional array. Thus, a multi-dimensional array has to be unfolded into a “line”
196 CHAPTER 8. MORE DATA ABSTRACTION, ARRAYS, STRUCTURES

and stored. Different languages do this in different ways! C++’s convention is to store it
from the outer index to the inner index, reinforcing the “vectors of vectors” concept. In our
two-dimensional example this means that all the columns in the first row are stored, then
all the columns of the second row and so forth.
It is an important performance issue when writing programs to be aware of this storage order
and use the arrays in the most efficient manner. For example, the following program :

//File: fastArray.cpp
int main(void)
{ const int SIZE = 1000;
float a[SIZE][SIZE];

for(int k = 1 ; k <= 100 ; k = k + 1)

for(int i = 0 ; i <= SIZE - 1 ; i = i + 1)
for(int j = 0 ; j <= SIZE - 1 ; j = j + 1)
a[i][j] = 1;
return 0;
}

executes almost twice as fast on my computer than slowArray.cpp which is only different
in the ordering of the two for loops:

//File: slowArray.cpp
int main(void)
{ const int SIZE = 1000;
float a[SIZE][SIZE];

for(int k = 1 ; k <= 100 ; k = k + 1)

for(int i = 0 ; i <= SIZE - 1 ; i = i + 1)
for(int j = 0 ; j <= SIZE - 1 ; j = j + 1)
a[j][i] = 1;
return 0;
}

8.1.3 Passing a two-dimensional array to a function

Here is where multi-dimensional arrays differ significantly from one-dimensional arrays.

When a function is passed an array it has to be given enough information to know how
to move around in the array. Thus, the dimension of all the outer indices (not the inner-
most) must be specified. See how this is done in the following example.
8.1. ARRAYS 197

//File: 2d.cpp
#include <iostream>
#include <iomanip>
#include <cmath>
#include <vector>

const int SIZE = 24;

const int MAX_PRINT = 24;

void printArray(float a[][SIZE])

{ if (SIZE <= MAX_PRINT)
{ for(int i = 0; i < SIZE; i = i + 1)
{ for(int j = 0; j < SIZE; j = j + 1)
cout << setw(2) << static_cast<int>(a[i][j]) << " ";
cout << "\n";
}
}
else cout << "Array is too big to print.\n";
return;
}

void productArray(vector<float>& y, float O[][SIZE], vector<float> x)

{ for(int i = 0; i < SIZE; i = i + 1)
for(int j = 0; j < SIZE; j = j + 1)
y[i] = y[i] + O[i][j] * x[j];
return;
}

int main(void)
{ /* Initialize the D array */
float D[SIZE][SIZE] = {0};
for(int i = 0; i < SIZE - 1; i = i + 1)
{ D[i][i] = -1;
D[i][i + 1] = 1;
}

// Initialize the I array

float I[SIZE][SIZE] = {0};
for(int i = 1; i < SIZE; i = i + 1)
for(int j = 0; j <= i; j = j + 1)
198 CHAPTER 8. MORE DATA ABSTRACTION, ARRAYS, STRUCTURES

I[i][j] = 1;

// Print out D and I arrays

cout << "The \"D\" array:\n"; printArray(D);
cout << "The \"I\" array:\n"; printArray(I);

// Initialize the f and x vectors

vector<float> f(SIZE), x(SIZE);
for(int i = 0; i < SIZE; i = i + 1)
{ x[i] = -1 + 2.0*i/(SIZE - 1);
f[i] = 1.0/(1.01 - x[i]);
}

// Operate on f with D and normalize

vector<float> d(SIZE);
productArray(d,D,f);
for(int i = 0; i < SIZE - 1; i = i + 1)
d[i] = d[i]/(x[i+1] - x[i]);

// Operate on f with I and normalize

vector<float> F(SIZE);
productArray(F,I,f);
for(int i = 1; i < SIZE; i = i + 1)
F[i] = F[i]*(x[i] - x[i-1]);

// Print results
cout
<< " x "
<< " f "
<< " d "
<< " F\n";
for(int i = 0 ; i <= SIZE - 1 ; i = i + 1)
cout << setiosflags(ios::fixed)
<< setw(11) << x[i] << " "
<< setw(11) << f[i] << " "
<< setw(11) << d[i] << " "
<< setw(11) << F[i] << "\n";

return 0;
}

The output of this program is:

8.1. ARRAYS 199

The "D" array:

-1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 -1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 -1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 -1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 -1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 -1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 -1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -1 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -1 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -1 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -1 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -1 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -1 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
The "I" array:
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
200 CHAPTER 8. MORE DATA ABSTRACTION, ARRAYS, STRUCTURES

1 11 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
1 11 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0
1 11 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0
1 11 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0
1 11 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
x f d F
-1.000000 0.497512 0.258711 0.000000
-0.913043 0.520009 0.283216 0.088480
-0.826087 0.544637 0.311375 0.135840
-0.739130 0.571713 0.343954 0.185554
-0.652174 0.601622 0.381930 0.237869
-0.565217 0.634833 0.426560 0.293072
-0.478261 0.671925 0.479500 0.351500
-0.391304 0.713621 0.542947 0.413554
-0.304348 0.760834 0.619879 0.479714
-0.217391 0.814736 0.714408 0.550560
-0.130435 0.876859 0.832347 0.626809
-0.043478 0.949237 0.982116 0.709351
0.043478 1.034638 1.176305 0.799320
0.130435 1.136925 1.434410 0.898183
0.217391 1.261657 1.787930 1.007892
0.304348 1.417129 2.290509 1.131120
0.391304 1.616304 3.039655 1.271669
0.478261 1.880621 4.228182 1.435201
0.565217 2.248289 6.283189 1.630704
0.652174 2.794654 10.317343 1.873718
0.739130 3.691814 20.073689 2.194744
0.826087 5.437352 56.080322 2.667557
0.913043 10.313904 1031.390381 3.564421
1.000000 100.000000 0.000000 12.260068

What does this program do?

Using the following formula for the product of a two-dimensional array with a vector

yi = Ai0 x0 + Ai1 x1 + Ai2 x2 · · ·

we see that the “D” array differentiates and the “I” array integrates the function f (x). Yes,
you can do calculus with arrays as long as the spacing of x is such that the function f (x)
does not change to much from element to element. This is the basis of most calculations that
solve differential equations. (You won’t be tested on the information in this last paragraph!)
This is what the result look like:
8.2. CHARACTER ARRAYS 201

3
10

2
10 f
1
D*f
10 I*f
0
10

−1
10

−2
10

−3
10
−1.0 −0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0

8.2 Character arrays

8.2.1 One dimensional character arrays

• We have seen previously that the string class is really a vector in disguise. One
can also string together characters in a more basic way using one-dimensional arrays.
One should only use this form when it is inconvenient to use the string class, as
in the example we have just been discussing, because there are some special rules to
remember. Moreover, forgetting these rules can lead to problems, related to over-
running the boundaries of arrays. Indeed, some of these subtle behavior is exploited
by destructive computer hackers (the scourge of the computer industry) to break into
computers and cause damage. (Horstman has some discussion on this.)

• So, a character string may be represented as a one-dimensional array of single characters

that terminates with a specific character sentinel, the “null” character, i.e. ’\0’. See!
There is a use for something that represents nothing! So, we always have to remember
to include this in the one-character array. If we forget to do this and try to interpret a
one-dimensional array of characters as a string, then the code, as it is operating on the
202 CHAPTER 8. MORE DATA ABSTRACTION, ARRAYS, STRUCTURES

string, will look for the end-of-string sentinel until it finds it, possibly reading (or more
dangerously changing) memory locations that were not intended to be accessed. (This
is a major destructive hacking tool! Don’t do it!) The string class handles all this
automatically for you, so that is why it is preferable to use the string class whenever
possible.

• The following declares and initializes a string:

char s[4];

s[0] = ’H’;
s[1] = ’i’;
s[2] = ’\0’; /* null */

Despite the fact that we have alloted 4 bytes for the string, we have only used 3 of
them because that’s where we put the ’\0’ terminator for that string. After the above
statements s[3] is undefined.

• Note that the statements

s[2] = ’\0’; /* null */

s[2] = 0; /* the same thing */

are exactly the same thing.

• Strings define their own length with the ’\0’ terminator which acts as a “sentinel” for
completion of the string.

• A simpler way of initializing a character string a the declaration stage is:

char s[] = {’H’,’i’,’\0’};

which is more convenient than the previous one because there is no need to count the
number of array elements.

• A simpler way still is:

char s[] = "Hi";

which uses the doubles quotes " to enclose what is called a string literal or a string
constant. The above array s[] has length 3. The terminating sentinel ’\0’ is put in
automatically by the compiler.

• It is a common mistake to forget about the terminating sentinel ’\0’. For example,
say we defined a character string called mistake in the following:
8.3. STRUCTURES 203

char mistake[] = {’b’,’o’,’o’,’b’,’o’,’o’};

As for as C++ is concerned, when the character array mistake[] is accessed as a

string, this is not considered to be a string whose value is "booboo"! C++ considers
this to be a string "booboo........\0", that is, it keeps going until it runs into the
terminating sentinel ’\0’, or it runs out of memory. This is an error that can easily
crash a program or even worse, cause it to behave erratically.

Can you guess how the following program works?

//File: charArray.cpp
#include<iostream>
#include<string>

int main(void)
{ char correct[12] =
{’I’, ’A’, ’m’, ’C’, ’o’, ’r’, ’r’, ’e’, ’c’, ’t’, ’!’, ’\0’};
char moreData[] = "Will this print?";
char someData[5] = {100, 97, 114, 110, 0};
char mistake[8] = {’A’, ’m’, ’i’, ’s’, ’t’, ’a’, ’k’, ’e’};

cout << mistake << "\n" << correct << "\n";

return 0;
}

8.2.2 Two dimensional character arrays

One can make arrays out of char’s. For example, a checkerboard could be represented by:

char checkerboard[8][8];
for (int i = 0; i < 8; i = i + 1)
for(int j = 0; j < 8; j = j + 1)
checkerboard[i][j] = ’ ’; //Initialize with spaces
checkerboard[0][0] = ’R’; //Place a red checker on the board
checkerboard[7][0] = ’B’; //Place a black checker on the board

8.3 Structures
So far we have been introduced to many forms of variables that contain only one item of
information, bool’s, char’s, int’s, float’s and double’s. These are fundamental variable
204 CHAPTER 8. MORE DATA ABSTRACTION, ARRAYS, STRUCTURES

types in C++, useful interpretations of bits and bytes that are pre-defined in the definition
of the C++ language.
We have also seen more complex objects—classes like vector’s and string’s.
We have also seen arrays of one and two and more dimensions that are made up of only one
of the above fundamental variables types but contain many items referred to by indexing
within the array.
In many cases, these pre-defined variable types are insufficient to elegantly formulate a
solution to an interesting problem. Fortunately, C++ gives the programmer the ability to
make new compound variable types made up of a collection of the existing variable types.
This compound variable type is called a structure.
For example, we could define a structure representing a person and the elements of the
structure could be a string for the person’s name, an int for the person’s age, float’s for
the person’s height and weight, more strings for the person’s address and occupation and
so on. Structures are the essential composite data type for databases, which represent a
relatively large component of the software industry.
Another example relates to the car racing application of Assignment 6. Let’s say that we
wanted to introduce new, racing-like features into the game, like oil slicks that reduce traction
on the road surface, or the ability to draft behind the opponent’s car. Every grid point
representing a part of the race track would have to carry more information, the coefficient
of friction on the surface, and the direction and number of seconds past the time that a car
passed through it (so that the wind speed could be calculated). While these examples could
be done by separating the information into different variables, why not put them together
in a compound variable? After all, they are all related to one other.

8.3.1 The structure definition

An example of a structure definition:

// Define a structure called Student

struct Student
{ string name;
int section;
float grade;
};

The keyword struct begins a structure definition. The identifier Student is called the
structure tag. It is important to note that this is a definition and not a declaration. All we
are doing at this point is informing the compiler that we will be declaring variable types of
the form Student later on in the program.
8.3. STRUCTURES 205

8.3.2 Where can structures be defined?

struct’s can be defined everywhere although it is conventional to define them outside of any
programming unit such as main or another function so that all programming units will have
access to this variable type.

8.3.3 The members of a structure

The variables within the braces {}’s are the members of the structure called Student. In
this case the members defined, as suggested by the naming of the member types, are a string
that will contain a name of a student, an int that will contain the section number of the
student and a float that will contain the student’s grade. The use of a struct seems quite
natural in the application because the various things associated with any given student can
be variables of various types.

8.3.4 Declaring structure variables

The structure tag is used with the keyword struct to declare (and optionally initialize)
variables of the structure type. For example, if we had defined the above structure type
Student, in the main routine or elsewhere we could declare and assign as follows:

struct Student
Dan = {"Smith, Dan", 210, 79.8},
Jan = {"Brown, Jan", 201, 89.3};

declares two structures of the Student type called Dan and Jan and assigns them names,
section numbers and grades.

8.3.5 Assigning values to structure members

Individual structure members can be assigned values by using the “.” notation of the form
structureName.structureMember. For example, if we had not made the assignment in the
declaration statement, we could have assigned values as follows:

Dan.name = "Smith, Dan"; Dan.section = 210; Dan.grade = 79.8

Jan.name = "Brown, Jan"; Jan.section = 201; Jan.grade = 89.3
206 CHAPTER 8. MORE DATA ABSTRACTION, ARRAYS, STRUCTURES

8.3.6 Re-assigning values of structure members

Once defined and declared, we can treat these as regular variables, reassigning them, print-
ing them, manipulating them in various ways. For example, we could make the following
redefinitions:

Jan.name = "Smith, Jan"; // Jan and Dan get married!

Jan.section = 210; // Jan moves over to Dan’s section (bad idea)

We can also treat a whole structure as a single variable. For example,

Dan = Jan;

reassigns the entire “Dan” structure, giving each member the values of the “Jan” structure.
Consult the complete working code called structure0.cpp that manipulates the “Dan” and
“Jan” structures.

8.3.7 Function call-by-value of a structure

Structures can be called by value. This means that the structures are copied locally in the
called function and the structures employed by the calling routine remain untouched. Here
is an example called structure1.cpp:

//File: structure1.cpp
#include<iostream>
#include<string>

struct Student{string name; int section; float grade;};

void switchStruct(struct Student a, struct Student b)

{ // I/O statements left out
struct Student temp = a; a = b; b = temp; // Switch a and b
// I/O statements left out
return;
}

int main(void)
{ struct Student
Dan = {"Smith, Dan", 210, 79.8},
Jan = {"Brown, Jan", 201, 89.3};
8.3. STRUCTURES 207

// I/O statements left out

switchStruct(Dan,Jan);
// I/O statements left out
return 0;
}

8.3.8 Function call-by-reference to a structure

The more conventional way is to use call by reference for structures, saving memory. Here is
the same example as structure1.cpp but using called by reference. It is called structure2.cpp

//File: structure2.cpp
#include<iostream>
#include<string>

struct Student{string name; int section; float grade;};

void switchStruct(struct Student& a, struct Student& b)

{ // I/O statements left out
struct Student temp = a; a = b; b = temp; // Switch a and b
// I/O statements left out
return;
}

int main(void)
{ struct Student
Dan = {"Smith, Dan", 210, 79.8},
Jan = {"Brown, Jan", 201, 89.3};
// I/O statements left out
switchStruct(Dan,Jan);
// I/O statements left out
return 0;
}

8.3.9 Structure arrays

One of the most common used of struct’s is to make arrays of them. Let’s now define an
array of struct’s of the form Student and make each element of the array represent one
of the students of the ENG101 course. Here is how it would be done. The code is called
structure3.cpp. It creates a class of fictitious students, assigns section numbers and grades.
Then it sorts them by name, section or grade, whatever the user wants.
208 CHAPTER 8. MORE DATA ABSTRACTION, ARRAYS, STRUCTURES

//File: structure3.cpp
#include<iostream>
#include<iomanip>
#include<string>
#include<vector>
#include<cstdlib>

// Define a structure called Student

const int maxNameLength = 10;
struct Student
{ char name[maxNameLength];
int section;
float grade;
};

bool switchStruct(struct Student& a, struct Student& b)

{ struct Student temp = a; a = b; b = temp; // Switch a and b
return false;
}

void sortStruct(vector<struct Student>& list, bool n, bool s, bool g)

{ bool sorted;
if (n)
{ do
{ sorted = true;
for (int i = 0; i < list.size() - 1; i = i + 1)
{ string string1 = list[i].name;
string string2 = list[i+1].name;
if (string1 > string2)
sorted = switchStruct(list[i],list[i+1]);
}
}while (!sorted);
}
else if (s)
{ do
{ sorted = true;
for (int i = 0; i < list.size() - 1; i = i + 1)
if (list[i].section > list[i+1].section)
sorted = switchStruct(list[i],list[i+1]);
}while (!sorted);
}
else if (g)
8.3. STRUCTURES 209

{ do
{ sorted = true;
for (int i = 0; i < list.size() - 1; i = i + 1)
if (list[i].grade < list[i+1].grade)
sorted = switchStruct(list[i],list[i+1]);
}while (!sorted);
}
return;
}

int main(void)
{ cout << "How many students in the class? ";
int nStuds;
cin >> nStuds;
vector<struct Student> myClass(nStuds);

for (int i = 0; i < nStuds; i = i + 1)

{ myClass[i].section = 200 + rand()%10;
myClass[i].grade = 0.1*(rand()%1001);
int nameLength = 2 + rand()%(maxNameLength - 2);
for (int j = 0; j < nameLength; j = j + 1)
myClass[i].name[j] = 97 + rand()%26;
myClass[i].name[nameLength - 1] = ’\0’;
myClass[i].name[0] = myClass[i].name[0] - 32;
cout << setw(maxNameLength) << myClass[i].name << ", "
<< myClass[i].section << ", "
<< myClass[i].grade << "\n";
}

bool sortByName = false;

bool sortBySection = false;
bool sortByGrade = false;
cout << "Sort by name (0 (no) or 1 (yes))? ";
cin >> sortByName;
if (!sortByName)
{ cout << "Sort by section (0 (no) or 1 (yes))? ";
cin >> sortBySection;
if (!sortBySection)
{ cout << "Sort by grade (0 (no) or 1 (yes))? ";
cin >> sortByGrade;
}
210 CHAPTER 8. MORE DATA ABSTRACTION, ARRAYS, STRUCTURES

sortStruct(myClass, sortByName, sortBySection, sortByGrade);

for (int i = 0; i < nStuds; i = i + 1)
cout << setw(maxNameLength) << myClass[i].name << ", "
<< myClass[i].section << ", "
<< myClass[i].grade << "\n";
return 0;
}

8.3.10 Example using structures and arrays: Ion transport

The following code will be described in class:

//File: survivor.cpp
#include <iostream>
#include <fstream>
#include <iomanip>
#include <cstdlib>

const int NX = 20; // x-grid dimensions

const int NY = 7; // y-grid dimensions
const int STEPS = NY; // # of time steps
const int NCELL = 1000; // # of pairs per cell
const int TOTAL = (NX*NY*NCELL); // total # of pairs

struct N {int nE; int nP;}; // # electrons, # ions

ofstream resultsOnFile; // Open an output file stream

//--------------------------------------------------------------------
//---------------------- Function definitions -----------------------
//--------------------------------------------------------------------

// This function initializes the number of e-’s and ions in each cell
void init(struct N grid[][NY])
{ for (int i = 0; i < NX; i = i + 1)
{ for (int j = 0; j < NY; j = j + 1)
{ grid[i][j].nE = NCELL;
grid[i][j].nP = NCELL;
8.3. STRUCTURES 211

}
}
return;
}
//--------------------------------------------------------------------

// This function counts the number of e-’s

int countE(struct N grid[][NY])
{ int count = 0;
for (int i = 0; i < NX; i = i + 1)
for (int j = 0; j < NY; j = j + 1)
count = count + grid[i][j].nE;
return count;
}
//--------------------------------------------------------------------

// This function counts the number of positive ions

int countP(struct N grid[][NY])
{ int count = 0;
for (int i = 0; i < NX; i = i + 1)
for (int j = 0; j < NY; j = j + 1)
count = count + grid[i][j].nP;
return count;
}
//--------------------------------------------------------------------

// This function recombines the e-’s and ions

void recombine(struct N grid[][NY], int step)
{ for (int i = 0; i < NX; i = i + 1) // Loop over all rows
{ for (int j = step; j < NY; j = j + 1) // Loop over all columns
{ int nE = grid[i][j].nE;
for (int k = 1; k <= nE; k = k + 1) // Loop over all e’s
{ for (int l = 1; l <= grid[i][j].nP; l = l + 1)
{ // Potential annihilation with every ion in the cell
if (0 == rand()%2000) // Small chance of annihilation
{ // If there is an annihilation, reduce numbers by 1
grid[i][j].nE = grid[i][j].nE - 1;
grid[i][j].nP = grid[i][j].nP - 1;
break; // Break out of loop, only one life to give!
}
}
}
212 CHAPTER 8. MORE DATA ABSTRACTION, ARRAYS, STRUCTURES

}
}
return;
}
//--------------------------------------------------------------------

/* This function shifts the electrons to the right and counts how
many are collected. Note that, depending on the step, we can start
at the y index where the number of e-’s is non-zero.
*/
int tStep(struct N grid[][NY], int step)
{ int escaped = 0;
for (int i = 0; i < NX; i = i + 1)
{ escaped = escaped + grid[i][NY-1].nE;
for (int j = NY - 2; j >= step; j = j - 1)
grid[i][j+1].nE = grid[i][j].nE;
grid[i][step].nE = 0;
}
return escaped;
}
//--------------------------------------------------------------------

// This function prints out the grid

void fGrid(struct N grid[][NY],int step){

resultsOnFile << "Step: " << step << "\n";

for (int i = 0; i <= NX - 1; i = i + 1)
{ for (int j = 0; j <= NY - 1; j = j + 1)
resultsOnFile << "|" << setw(5) << grid[i][j].nE
<< "," << setw(5) << grid[i][j].nP;
resultsOnFile << "|\n";
}
return;
}
//--------------------------------------------------------------------

//--------------------------------------------------------------------
//--------------------------- Main routine ---------------------------
//--------------------------------------------------------------------

int main(void)
{ struct N grid[NX][NY]; // grid is an N struct
8.3. STRUCTURES 213

init(grid); // Initialize the grid

// Output starting conditions

cout << "Step " << setw(2) << 0
<< " : nE = " << setw(6) << countE(grid)
<< " : nP = " << setw(6) << countP(grid)
<< " : nEsc = " << setw(6) << 0 << "\n";

resultsOnFile.open("N.dat");
fGrid(grid, 0); // Write the grid to file

// Loop over time steps, set = to NY grid size

int tEsc = 0; // Total number of escapees
for (int step = 0; step < STEPS; step = step + 1)
{ recombine(grid, step); // Recombine e- & ions
int nEsc = tStep(grid, step); // Take a time step
cout << "Step " << setw(2) << step + 1
<< " : nE = " << setw(6) << countE(grid)
<< " : nP = " << setw(6) << countP(grid)
<< " : nEsc = " << setw(6) << nEsc << "\n";
fGrid(grid, step + 1); // Write grid, next step
tEsc = tEsc + nEsc; // Sum total escapes
}

resultsOnFile.close(); // Close the file

cout << "Chance of survival = " << setprecision(3)

<< static_cast<float>(tEsc)/TOTAL << "\n";
return 0;
}
//--------------------------------------------------------------------
214 CHAPTER 8. MORE DATA ABSTRACTION, ARRAYS, STRUCTURES

8.4 Problems
1. Multiplying vectors by arrays
Complete the following program. The main routine declares an int array a[ROWS][COLS].
Your program should work for any values for ROWS and COLS, not just the ones pro-
vided. Read through main() to understand what it is doing. The function print()
prints the array to cout. The function randomFill() fills the array with random int’s
between 0 and 9. Hint: Use rand()%10. The function mMult() returns a vector whose
value of its i’th element is:

y[i] = a[i][0]*x[0] + a[i][1]*x[1] + a[i][2]*x[2] + ...

+ a[i][NCOLS - 1]*x[NCOLS - 1];

Hint: Use for loops to do this. Supply the parameter lists for the three functions.
Answer the following question:
Why is the return vector always full of zeros?

#include <iostream>
#include <vector>
#include <cstdlib>
using namespace std;
const int ROWS = 5; // Set to 5 but can be anything
const int COLS = 4; // Set to 4 but can be anything

void print(/* Supply parameter list*/ )

{//Supply code for this function...

void randomFill(/* Supply parameter list*/ )

{//Supply code for this function...

vector<int> mMult(/* Supply parameter list*/ )

{//Supply code for this function...
8.4. PROBLEMS 215

int main(void)
{ int a[ROWS][COLS]; // Declare the array
randomFill(a); // Fills array with rand()%10 int’s
print(a); // Prints the array
vector<int> x(COLS); // Declare a vector

// Multiply the vector x by the array a, returning y

vector<int> y = mMult(a,x);

// Print the result

for (int i = 0; i < ROWS; i = i + 1) cout << y[i] << endl;

return 0;
}

2. Making arrays of various types

Consider the following main routine:

int main(void)
{ int I[SIZE][SIZE] = {0}; ident(I); print(I);
int U[SIZE][SIZE] = {0}; upper(U); print(U);
int L[SIZE][SIZE] = {0}; lower(L); print(L);
int H[SIZE][SIZE] = {0}; hatch(H); print(H);

return 0;
}

The 5 functions called by main() produce the output shown following, when SIZE =
10. Write the 5 functions that complete this program. Your program has to work for
any SIZE greater than 0.
(Output from the completed program, when SIZE = 10)

1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
216 CHAPTER 8. MORE DATA ABSTRACTION, ARRAYS, STRUCTURES

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1

1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0

3. Complex struct’s
This problem uses a struct defined as follows:

struct Complex {double real; double imag;};

We may use struct Complex’s to define “complex numbers”. A complex number is

really a pair of numbers, the “real” part and the “imaginary” part, as suggested by
8.4. PROBLEMS 217

the above struct definition. If a = (aR , aI ) and b = (bR , bI ) are two complex numbers,
their product is also a complex number ab = (aR bR −aI bI , aR bI +aI bR ) Write a function
that accepts two called-by-reference vector<struct Complex>’s, both of the same size
and returns a vector<struct Complex> that contains the product according to the
above rule.

4. Using structure lists

Consider the following structure definition:

struct Student {char name[10]; int section; float grade;};

Write a function compatible with the following function call:

adjustGrades(list);

where list is a vector<struct Student> with size > 0. Your function will do the
following:

(a) Raise all the grades in the class 5% to a maximum of 100.

(b) Give everyone in the class whose name starts with “Al” a grade of 100.
(c) Sort the list by grades, highest to lowest.
218 CHAPTER 8. MORE DATA ABSTRACTION, ARRAYS, STRUCTURES

8.5 Projects
1. Battleship! Sink this one!
You will write C++ code that will allow you to play the game “Battleship!” on your
computer following the rules given below.
The game is played on a 10 by 10 array of char’s. A battleship is represented by a series
of sizeShip contiguous (joined) points that lie in a horizontal, vertical or diagonal line.
This can be represented by some special character in a 10 by 10 character array, say ’S’.
For example, if the array everywhere was initialized to the character ’.’ and you wrote,
board[2][3] = ’S’; board[3][4] = ’S’; board[4][5] = ’S’; board[5][6] = ’S’;
it would represent a battleship on a diagonal occupying the above indices.
For each ship you will ask the computer to generate sizeShip such contiguous points
on a line starting from a random position within the entire array. For example, if you:
#include<cstdlib>
in the preprocessor area, the code:
i = rand()%10; j = rand()%10; board[i][j] = ’S’;
picks a random point in the array called board and assigns it the value S, indicating
that it is one of the points representing a ship. This is the first point on the ship.
The hard part is to pick sizeShip - 1 more points on a line that are contiguous with
the first point and that remain within the array. This you have to figure out on your
own. The orientation of the battleship should be random as well. You have to make
the part of the program that determines the ship’s position and orientation a separate
C++ function and the array name must be an argument (in the parameter list) of this
function. When you come to the part where you are putting more than 1 ship on the
board, it gets even harder because no 2 ships can occupy the same space.
Now comes the fun part. You (the user of the program) have 50 + shipSize*nShips/2
“bombs” to toss at the battleship, where nShips is the number of enemy ships. The
battleship position and orientation are random and are kept secret from you until the
code finishes, so you do not know where it is while you are playing. You have to drop
the bomb on the array, which is equivalent to selecting an element of the array, by
asking the user to provide two indices that lie within the board. If that array element
is an S, you have hit the ship and the program informs you that you have hit the ship.
(See the example below.) You have to hit all locations of a ship to sink it and you have
to sink every ship to win the game.
If you hit a ship once, the game strategy simplifies. You look for adjacent points (8
possibilities). If you hit it again, you know the orientation. Now, all you have to do is
make sure you get all the points that lie on the line.
Win or lose, print out a representation of the board that shows clearly: the location
of the ship, the points of the ship that were struck, and the points where bombs were
dropped but missed.
8.5. PROJECTS 219

Here is an example of a typical play of the game. Your computer output does not have
to look exactly as follows. However, you have to follow the above rules explicitly.

Number of enemy ships? 1

Size of the enemy ships? (<= 10) 4

Bombs away # 1: i j: 3 4
Bombs away # 2: i j: 7 2
Bombs away # 3: i j: 4 1
Bombs away # 4: i j: 3 6
Bombs away # 5: i j: 9 2
Bombs away # 6: i j: 6 0
Bombs away # 7: i j: 2 6 Ouch, that hurts!
Bombs away # 8: i j: 2 7
Bombs away # 9: i j: 2 5
Bombs away # 10: i j: 3 6
Bombs away # 11: i j: 3 7
Bombs away # 12: i j: 3 5 Ouch, that hurts!
Bombs away # 13: i j: 4 4 Ouch, that hurts!
Bombs away # 14: i j: 5 3 Ouch, that hurts!

Ugh, ya got me! Glub, glub, glub...

. . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . o * o . .
. . . . o * o o . .
. o . . * . . . . .
. . . * . . . . . .
o . . . . . . . . .
. . o . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . .
. . o . . . . . . .
A "." is "open sea".
An "*" is a "hit on an enemy ship".
An "S" is a "surviving enemy ship".
An "o" is a "missed bomb".
220 CHAPTER 8. MORE DATA ABSTRACTION, ARRAYS, STRUCTURES

2. Ladies and Gentlemen: Start your engines!

Write a computer program that simulates a race car negotiating an S-curve track and
either crashing or reaching the finish line. The game is played by either one player
racing against the clock, or two players competing against each other.
The game starts with a printout of a 2-D grid representing the track made up of a two-
dimensional array of characters (char’s) with 52 rows and 72 columns. The picture on
the following page represents the starting condition for a one-person game. The grid can
be printed to the terminal screen by writing the entire char grid to cout. If you have
trouble seeing the whole grid in a single window, try using <Control>-<right mouse button>
in an XTerm window and resizing the window to the whole screen.
The outer boundary of the track and the two impenetrable barriers are represented by
’X’’s, the open track by spaces ’ ’, the finish line by ’F’’s (lower right hand corner)
and the car, pictured at its starting location, grid[1][1] (upper left hand corner), by
an ’O’. In the following picture, the rows go down the page top to bottom and the
columns go left to right.
Here’s how the game is played. The user is continually prompted (until the game
ends) for a component of horizontal (positive is left to right) and vertical acceleration
(positive is top to bottom). (You imagine that this prompt is given once per second,
that is, the user has a chance to change the acceleration once/second.) The user
responds with either -1, 0, or 1 for each of these, effectively steering, accelerating and
braking the car. If the user responds with a number outside of this range, the car
crashes and the game is over, because either the engine explodes or the brakes and
tires burn up—real concerns for real race cars.
The velocity in both the vertical and horizontal directions starts at 0 and increases or
decreases after each prompt, for example, xVelocity = xVelocity + xAcceleration,
and the same for the y direction. Then, both components of the position are changed,
for example, xPosition = xPosition + xVelocity, and the same for the y direc-
tion. A car crashes when its position takes it outside the racetrack (except when it
crosses the finish line) or into a wall or barrier, or an improper acceleration was input.
Crossing the finish line “wins” the race.
8.5. PROJECTS 221

The starting grid in a one-person game (note prompt for acceleration at bottom):
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
XO XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXFFFFFFX
Horizontal and vertical acceleration (-1,0,1):

To start the programming, write a working main routine and a function called initRace
that initializes the grid to the given starting configuration, and a function called
printRace that prints the grid. The walls and barriers have to be exactly as shown
in the figure on the last page. The barrier on the left is 20 columns wide and 35 rows
high. The barrier on the right is 25 columns wide and 35 rows high.
222 CHAPTER 8. MORE DATA ABSTRACTION, ARRAYS, STRUCTURES

Then, program a one-person and a two-person game. Keep track of the total time for
each player. If a player crashes he is out of the race. The first across the finish line
wins! Hint: Program a one-person game first, then adapt your program for two people.
Warning: This game is addictive!
Consider modifying the program to do one of the following. These are quite challenging
but well within your capabilities.

• In a one-person game, keep track of the real time it takes to respond and adjust
the algorithm to work with real time. (Use the standard time library ctime. You
will have to look up the standard time functions in a different book.)
• Program a one-person-against-the-computer game with multiple plays. Initially,
the computer makes random moves. Once the player has crossed the finish line,
the computer “learns” the players solution and tries to improve it.
• Program some nice graphics for this game. (Good opportunity to read ahead in
Matlab.)
• Program a two-person game but one that generates many barriers randomly in a
game with very many columns that scrolls down the screen.
• Dream up some other nice variant of the game.

Sample plays of the race on the following pages

8.5. PROJECTS 223
User input: (0,1),(0,1)(0,1),(0,1),(0,1),(1,1),(1,1),(1,1),(1,1),(1,1)

XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
XO XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
XO XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
XO XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
XO XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
XO XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
XO XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X O XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X O XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X O XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X O XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXOXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXFFFFFFX
Crashed after 10 seconds Note the car buried in the wall! (Ouch!)
224 CHAPTER 8. MORE DATA ABSTRACTION, ARRAYS, STRUCTURES
Almost. Lost control at the very end.

XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
XO XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX O O X
XO XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX O O X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
XO XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX O O X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
XO XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX O O X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
XO XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX O OX
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
XO XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX O XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX O
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X O XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX O XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X O XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX O XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X O XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX O XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X O O XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X O O XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X O O XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X O O XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X O O XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXFFFFFFX
Crashed after 33 seconds
8.5. PROJECTS 225
Richard Petty, eat your heart out!
(Solution by Ali Mehmet Kutman, Fall 2000 ENG101/CoE student at UoM)

XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
XO XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
XO XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
XO XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
XO XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
XO XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX O O X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX O O X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX O O X
XO XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX OXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXO X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
XO XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX O XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX O X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X O XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX O XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX O X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X O XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX O XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX O X
X O XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX O XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X O O XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X O O XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX O X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
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X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
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X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX X
Finished after 31 seconds (Can anyone beat Ali’s 31 second solution?)
226 CHAPTER 8. MORE DATA ABSTRACTION, ARRAYS, STRUCTURES
Chapter 9

Miscellaneous Topics

9.1 Generating random numbers

The C++ standard library, <cstdlib>, provides a way of producing a random number, ac-
tually a “pseudo” random number using the rand() function. The rand() function produces
a pseudo random integer between 0 and RAND MAX, inclusive. The constant RAND MAX is also
defined in defined in <cstdlib>.
Here is an example program, called rand0.cpp that calls rand(). Note the inclusion of
<cstdlib>.

//File: rand0.cpp
#include <iostream>
#include <iomanip>
#include <cstdlib> // Need this for the rand() function

int main(void)
{ cout << "RAND_MAX = " << RAND_MAX << "\n\n";
cout << "The first 10 random numbers are...\n";

for(int i = 1; i <= 10; i = i + 1)

cout << "Random number "
<< setw(2)
<< i << " = "
<< rand() // Random int between 0 and RAND_MAX inclusive
<< "\n";
return 0;
}

227
228 CHAPTER 9. MISCELLANEOUS TOPICS

Compiling and executing this results in:

RAND_MAX = 2147483647

The first 10 random numbers are...

Random number 1 = 1804289383
Random number 2 = 846930886
Random number 3 = 1681692777
Random number 4 = 1714636915
Random number 5 = 1957747793
Random number 6 = 424238335
Random number 7 = 719885386
Random number 8 = 1649760492
Random number 9 = 596516649
Random number 10 = 1189641421

Note that RAND MAX and the implementation of rand() is system dependent. You should not
expect the same values on a different computer or even a different version of the operating
system on the same computer.
If you run this program again, you will note that the same random numbers are produced!
This sort of goes against the idea that rand() produces random numbers! Actually, this is
a benefit. Since the behavior is predictable, it makes it easier to debug. Imagine if you were
trying to debug a program that always gave different results! You would go bonkers trying
to find the cause of the error. So, predictable random numbers are good. But, this is why
they are called “pseudo” random numbers. They are made from a mathematical prescription
that is remarkably simple. Yet, they pass many different tests of “randomness”. They also
fail some tests as well but not ones that we are likely to try.
If you are not happy with the same random sequence every time, you can “seed” the random
number to produce another sequence. The <cstdlib> function srand() does this. All you
have to do is to provide a positive integer to the argument list of srand(). Here’s an example
called rand1.cpp:

//File: rand1.cpp
#include <iostream>
#include <iomanip>
#include <cstdlib> // Need this for the rand(), srand() functions

int main(void)
{ cout << "RAND_MAX = " << RAND_MAX << "\n\n";
cout << "Input any int to seed the random number generator: ";
int seed;
9.1. GENERATING RANDOM NUMBERS 229

cin >> seed;

srand(seed);
cout << "The first 10 random numbers are...\n";

for(int i = 1; i <= 10; i = i + 1)

cout << "Random number "
<< setw(2)
<< i << " = "
<< rand() // Random int between 0 and RAND_MAX inclusive
<< "\n";
return 0;
}

Compiling and executing this results in:

RAND_MAX = 2147483647

Input any int to seed the random number generator: 123456789

The first 10 random numbers are...
Random number 1 = 1965102536
Random number 2 = 1639725855
Random number 3 = 706684578
Random number 4 = 1926601937
Random number 5 = 71238646
Random number 6 = 1147998030
Random number 7 = 1038816544
Random number 8 = 940714160
Random number 9 = 789063065
Random number 10 = 464968134

Note the different sequence because the user provided the seed 123456789 to srand().
One way to make the start-up of a program that uses rand() appear to be different every
time, is to seed the random number generator with the int that is provided by the time()
function. The time() function is part of the standard library <ctime>. Here’s an example
code called rand2.cpp that uses it:

//File: rand2.cpp
#include <iostream>
#include <iomanip>
#include <cstdlib> // Need this for the rand() and srand() functions
#include <ctime> // Need this for the time() function
230 CHAPTER 9. MISCELLANEOUS TOPICS

int main(void)
{ cout << "RAND_MAX = " << RAND_MAX << "\n\n";
srand(time(NULL)); // Seed the random number generator
cout << "The first 10 random numbers are...\n";

for(int i = 1; i <= 10; i = i + 1)

cout << "Random number "
<< setw(2)
<< i << " = "
<< rand() // Random int between 0 and RAND_MAX inclusive
<< "\n";
return 0;
}

Try running rand2.cpp and verify that you get different numbers every time. This unique
start-up feature is very useful for programming games, in order to produce a game that starts
differently every time.
The interesting uses of rand() involve making decisions based on the output of rand() and
this simulates random behavior. In many applications you can use the modulus function to
do this. For example,

card = rand() % 13 + 1

has a one in 13 chance of being a one, a one in 13 chance of being a two, etc Thus, you
could use the above statement to simulate the random dealing of cards and you could assign
a one to an “ace”, a 2 to a “deuce”, 11 to a “jack”, etc If you were dealing with a finite
series of cards, however, you would have to take some care that you do not deal, say, 5 aces
and that would require some extra care with the coding. We won’t go into further detail
here on this topic except to say that dealing 5 aces can get you into BIG trouble in certain
circumstances.
Another way of using random numbers, more common to scientific disciplines, is to convert
the random integer to a random double or float, usually converted so that the number lies
between 0 and 1 (may be inclusive or exclusive of one or both of the endpoints).
Here is an example code, called rand3.cpp, that converts the random integer to a double
between 0 and 1 inclusive:

//File: rand3.cpp
#include <iostream>
#include <iomanip>
#include <cstdlib> // Need this for the rand() and srand() functions
#include <ctime> // Need this for the time() function
9.1. GENERATING RANDOM NUMBERS 231

int main(void)
{ cout << "RAND_MAX = " << RAND_MAX << "\n\n";
srand(time(NULL)); // Seed the random number generator
int nRandoms = 10;
cout << "The first " << nRandoms << " random numbers are...\n";

for(int i = 1; i <= nRandoms; i = i + 1)

{ double randomDouble = rand()/static_cast<double>(RAND_MAX);
cout << "Random number "
<< setw(2)
<< i << " = "
<< randomDouble // Random double between 0 and 1 inclusive
<< "\n";
}
return 0;
}

Here’s an example of its use:

RAND_MAX = 2147483647

The first 10 random numbers are...

Random number 1 = 0.174225
Random number 2 = 0.130327
.
.
.

Application: Calculating π by throwing darts

If you are as bad a dart player as I am, throwing a dart at a circular object is truly a random
process. Imagine that you have a circle inscribed in a square. It is easy to show that the
ratio of the area of the circle to the area of the square is π/4. This suggests a way to estimate
what π is by throwing darts! However, it only works well if you are a bad dart player, like
me.
Set up a circular dartboard on a wall. Draw a square on the wall so that the circle defining
the dartboard touches each side of the square only once. Now start throwing the darts
(badly). Ignore all the darts that land outside of the square. Throw a lot of darts! Count
the ones that land on the dartboard and all the ones that land within the square. The ratio
should be close to π/4. And, your estimate gets better the more darts you throw. Warning:
232 CHAPTER 9. MISCELLANEOUS TOPICS

Don’t do this in your dorms. Don’t do this at home. Try it outside against a fence
or something and make sure that other people, pets, your mother’s favorite vase, etc. do not
get damaged.
A much safer way is to do it with a computer code. The following code, called randomPi.cpp
calculates π by random sampling:

//File: randomPi.cpp
#include <iostream>
#include <cstdlib> // Need for rand() and srand()
#include <cmath> // Need for pow() and atan()
#include <ctime> // Need for time()

/* Define a conversion function that converts the int returned from

rand() to a double between -1.0 and 1.0 inclusive
*/
#define MYRAND (2.*rand()/RAND_MAX - 1.)

int main(void)
{ int nDarts = 10000; // Number of darts to throw
int nInside = 0; // Counter for those that land inside
srand(time(NULL)); // Seed the random number generator

for(int i = 1; i <= nDarts; i = i + 1)

{ double xDart = MYRAND;
double yDart = MYRAND;
if (pow(xDart,2) + pow(yDart,2) <= 1.0) nInside = nInside + 1;
}

double pi = 4.0*nInside/nDarts; // Estimate for Pi

double Pi = 4.0*atan(1.0); // This is how you can get a very
// accurate estimate of the real Pi!

cout << "The estimated value of Pi is " << pi << "\n";;

cout << "The true value of Pi is " << Pi << "\n";;

return 0;
}

There are a few new features in this program that you have not seen before.

• The statement
#define MYRAND (2.*rand()/RAND_MAX - 1.)
9.1. GENERATING RANDOM NUMBERS 233

in the pre-processor area replaces every occurrence of MYRAND throughout the rest of
the file with (2.*rand()/RAND_MAX - 1.). This happens before compilation. It is
exactly as if you took an editor, looked for every occurrence of MYRAND and pasted in
its replacement (2.*rand()/RAND_MAX - 1.). You can be as creative as you wish with
#define ’s, but make sure that you understand this as a cut and pasting procedure.
Generally, you should avoid #define ’s because the C++ parser does not help you
much with syntax errors. But, #define ’s are a part of the language and using them
can make life a lot easier sometimes. Just be careful with them.

• The expression (2.*rand()/RAND_MAX - 1.) produces a random double between -1

and 1 inclusive. Why? rand() produces an int between 0 and RAND_MAX, inclusive.
Following the rules of precedence and the rules of variable type promotion multiplying
it by “2.” produces a random double between “0.” and “2.*RAND_MAX”. Dividing
by RAND_MAX produces a random double between “0.” and “2.”. Finally, subtracting
“1.” from it produces a random double between “-1.” and “1.”. There is a lot going
on in this simple-looking expression.

• When you throw a dart on a 2-dimensional board, you are really choosing randomly
an x-coordinate and a y-coordinate. So the statements:
double xDart = MYRAND; double yDart = MYRAND;
pick a random point in a square defined by the corners:
(x, y) = (−1, −1), (−1, 1), (1, 1), (1, −1).

• The pow() function, part of the standard library <cmath>, takes the power of the first
argument to degree of the second argument. For example, pow(x,3) computes x3 .

• So, the statement:

if (pow(xDart,2) + pow(yDart,2) <= 1.0) nInside = nInside + 1;
computes x2 + y 2 and compares it to 1. If x2 + y 2 ≤ 1, the dart has landed in the circle
and it is counted.

• Finally, the standard library math function atan(), also part of <cmath> computes
the arc tangent of its argument, assumed to be in radians. Since tan−1 (1) = π/4,
4.0*atan(1.0) is a very accurate determination of π, as good as the math library can
provide, at least for a double.

Here’s what 20,000 points tossed at a circle look like, generated by the program above.
234 20000 random CHAPTER
points within a square
9. MISCELLANEOUS TOPICS
n(inside circle)/n(total) = π/4

9.1.1 Example: Integrating functions by random sampling

The same idea may be used to integrate functions by random sampling. The following code,
called randomIntegrate.cpp integrates exp(−x) for 0 ≤ x ≤ 1.

//File: randomIntegrate.cpp
#include <iostream>
#include <iomanip>
#include <cstdlib> // Need for rand() and srand()
#include <cmath> // Need for exp(), the exponential function
// and abs(), the absolute value function

/* Define a conversion function that converts the int returned from

rand() to a double between 0.0 and 1.0 inclusive
*/
#define MYRAND (static_cast<double>(rand())/RAND_MAX)
9.1. GENERATING RANDOM NUMBERS 235

int main(void)
{ int nDarts = 1000000000, under = 0;
double Ans = 1 - exp(-1);
for(int i = 1; i <= nDarts; i = i + 1)
{ double xDart = MYRAND;
double yDart = MYRAND;
if (yDart <= exp(-xDart)) under = under + 1;
if (0 == i%1000000) // Every million times
{ double ans = static_cast<double>(under)/i;
cout << setiosflags(ios::fixed) << setprecision(8)
<< "#" << setw(10) << i
<< ": I = " << setw(10) << ans
<< ", Delta = " << abs(1 - exp(-1) - ans) << "\n";
}
}
return 0;
}

There are several new features in this code:

• The standard math library functions defined in <cmath>, exp(), for the exponential
ex and abs() for the absolute value, are used.

• setiosflags(ios::fixed) allows floating point numbers to print withg trailing zeros,

nice for formatting. This only has to be done once.

• setw() sets the width of the output of the following item. It has to be set every time!
setw() is defined in <iomanip>.

• setprecision() set the precision of the following number. setprecision() is also

defined in <iomanip>.

The output of the above program looks like:

# 1000000: I = 0.63213700, Delta = 0.00001644

# 2000000: I = 0.63193800, Delta = 0.00018256
# 3000000: I = 0.63197933, Delta = 0.00014123
# 4000000: I = 0.63180525, Delta = 0.00031531
# 5000000: I = 0.63187300, Delta = 0.00024756
.
.
.
236 CHAPTER 9. MISCELLANEOUS TOPICS

The program operates very much like the program that found π by random sampling. We
find an x and a y randomly. However, the only difference is that we count only those points
that fall under the function as contributing to the area under the curve. The area under the
curve is the fraction of points that fall under the curve, times the area of the rectangle. In
the above example, the area of the rectangle is 1. If the rectangle did not have unit area,
how would you know what to multiply by? That’s what you have to figure out in assignment
4!

9.2 Simple Sorting: The bubble or sinking sort

This is called the bubble or sinking sort technique because small items “bubble” to the top
and large items “sink” to the bottom. The technique involves looping through an array
looking at pairs of values in order. If the “upper” item is bigger than the “lower” item, they
are switched. Then the next pair is considered. The “lower” item of the previous pair is
the “upper” item of the current pair. The iteration continues until you can go through the
entire array and no pair is switched.
For example, imagine that you have the following array {3, 2, 1} that you want sorted in
ascending order. We will use the convention that parentheses surround the pair under
consideration.
Here is how it would work:
Loop 1: {3, 2, 1} : {(3, 2), 1} ⇒ {2, (3, 1)} : {2, 3, 1} Change, continue
Loop 2: {2, 3, 1} : {(2, 3), 1} ⇒ {2, (3, 1)} : {2, 1, 3} Change, continue
Loop 3: {2, 1, 3} : {(2, 1), 3} ⇒ {1, (2, 3)} : {1, 2, 3} Change, continue
Loop 4: {1, 2, 3} : {(1, 2), 3} ⇒ {1, (2, 3)} : {1, 2, 3} No change, stop

Here is some “boiler plate” pseudocode that gets the job done:

bool whileThingsAreChanging = true;

while(whileThingsAreChanging)
{ whileThingsAreChanging = false; //Assume that the list is sorted
for(/* appropriate for-loop parameters */) //Careful!
{ //Loop through the list in an order fashion in one direction
//Compare adjacent pairs of things
//If the pair is out of order, switch them and set
// whileThingsAreChanging to true
}
//When the for loop completes, either nothing has changed and
//whileThingsAreChanging has remained false, or something changed and
//whileThingsAreChanging was changed to true
9.3. RECURSION—A FUNCTION CALLING ITSELF 237

}
//When the execution arrives here, the list is sorted.

9.3 Recursion—A function calling itself

Sometimes in mathematics, there are very compact ways of writing rules for generating
complicated things. For example, the factorial can be written out explicitly as:

N! = N × (N − 1) × (N − 2) · · · 3 × 2 × 1

or, it can be written more compactly as

N! = N × (N − 1)! ∀N >= 0 where 0! ≡ 1

where N is an integer.
Mathematicians prefer the second expression because it is better defined (no assumptions
about what · · · means) and it also suggests a mechanism or process for calculating N! C++
mimics this by providing the programmer a mechanism called recursion—the ability for a
function to call itself. Here is how the factorial can be calculated using this technique.

//File: recursiveFactorial.cpp
#include <iostream>

int factorial(int n)
{ if (0 == n) return 1;
else return (n * factorial(n - 1));
}

int main(void)
{ cout << "N? ";
int N;
cin >> N;
cout << N << "! = " << factorial(N) << endl;
return 0;
}

Note how compact the coding is, and how similar it is to the second mathematical definition.
Note also how the 0! is coded in the if statement. This is critical to stop the recursion process.
Try writing out the stack frames for a simple case, say 5!, to see how this works.
There are a few simple, general guidelines for using recursion:
238 CHAPTER 9. MISCELLANEOUS TOPICS

• Successive calls to functions should represent progressively simpler cases. (For example,
(N − 1)! is “simpler” than N!)

• There is an end to the recursion, the “base case”, that does not involve a recursive
call. (For example 0! = 1)

• If a function calls itself more than once, and the “nesting level” gets deep, the calcu-
lation can be very inefficient. (See the following example.)

• Recursion is a great way to crash a computer or a program! If you do not program the
stopping criterion correctly, you will cause your stack to collide with your heap, and
your program will be in a heap of trouble.

To illustrate the third point above, consider the calculation of the Fibonacci numbers defined
as follows.

f (N) = f (N − 1) + f (N − 2) ∀N > 0 where f (1) ≡ 1 f (2) ≡ 1

where N is an integer. The code can be written using recursive calls as follows:

//File: recursiveFibonacci.cpp
#include <iostream>

int fibonacci(int n)
{ if (1 == n || 2 == n) return 1;
else return (fibonacci(n - 1) + fibonacci(n - 2));
}

int main(void)
{ cout << "N? ";
int N;
cin >> N;
cout << "Fibonacci(" << N << ") = " << fibonacci(N) << endl;
return 0;
}

The fibonacci function calls itself twice. This is a NO, NO! unless N is quite small, like
less than 30. Don’t believe it! Try calculating f (1000)!
Although the above program is elegant and compact, we sometimes have to give up clarity for
efficiency, yet another compromise we must sometimes make. Here is how one can program
the Fibonacci numbers using loops.
9.3. RECURSION—A FUNCTION CALLING ITSELF 239

//File: loopFibonacci.cpp
#include <iostream>

int fibonacci(int n)
{ if (1 == n || 2 == n) return 1;
else
{ int fMinus2 = 1;
int fMinus1 = 1;
int f;
for (int i = 3; i <= n; i = i + 1)
{ f = fMinus2 + fMinus1;
fMinus2 = fMinus1;
fMinus1 = f;
}
return f;
}
}

int main(void)
{ cout << "N? ";
int N;
cin >> N;
cout << "Fibonacci(" << N << ") = " << fibonacci(N) << endl;

return 0;
}

It’s ugly but it’s fast. Try comparing the speed of execution of the above two methods. You
will be surprised at the difference.
Recursion relations play a big role in mathematics and consequently there are many examples
that could be coded in C++ and used as examples. However, another important use of
recursion relations relates to graphics. The following example recursively splits a line into
two smaller segments chosen randomly but with the same total length. This is a very simple
model of how a tree grows. The output of this program is the total number of branches
according to the user’s input of the largest branch length and the smallest branch length.

//File: tree.cpp
#include <iostream>
#include <cstdlib>

int tree(float L, float LMin)

{ if (L <= LMin) return 0;
240 CHAPTER 9. MISCELLANEOUS TOPICS

else
{ float split = static_cast<float>(rand())/RAND_MAX;
return 2 + (tree(split * L, LMin) + tree((1 - split) * L, LMin));
}
}

int main(void)
{ cout << "LTotal, LMin? ";
float LTotal, LMin;
cin >> LTotal >> LMin;
cout << "Number of branches = " << tree(LTotal, LMin) << endl;

return 0;
}

There are two companion programs that will be demonstrated in class that provide graphical
output from this program. These are called treeGraphics.cpp and anotherTree.cpp,
both posted on the web. In class, the close connection to fractals will be evident from the
graphical output. Fractals are interesting not only mathematically, but have great uses in
communications, encryption and virtual cinematography!
Before closing the section on recursion, it is worthwhile to note that this technique is also
used in numerical simulation, something the author of this lecture is passionate about. In
fact, the coding in the tree programs shares a lot in common with, to cite a few examples,
scattering of light in the atmosphere, the movement of neutrons in a nuclear reactor, the
scattering of electrons and photons in the human body during diagnostic X-ray procedures
or treatment of cancer with radiotherapy beams. Just a few of the details are different. In
order to find out what these details are, you will have to take a later course in numerical
simulation.

9.4 Input and Output using files

9.4.1 File and stream handling in C++

Why files?

• Except for a few cases where we generated random data using quasi-random numbers,
so far we have been getting data into our programs by typing input at the keyboard
and any output that our programs have generated has gone to the computer screen.
• This is really only useful for limited amounts of data, either on the input side or the
output side.
9.4. INPUT AND OUTPUT USING FILES 241

• A large quantity of data is handled more easily and more reliably with files.

• Moreover, the same data files can be used by more than one program.

How is data organized?

• Computers only know about bits - binary digits, 0’s and 1’s. These are the only
fundamental data types understood by computer hardware.

• Humans, on the other hand, are more comfortable with characters - and these, as we
have come to know are usually represented by 8 bits, a byte, by computers.

• Characters can be combined into fields—combinations of characters that have some

unique meaning, like a floating-point number, an integer, a string of characters repre-
senting a person’s name, etc

• Character fields can be gathered into records—of related fields, for example, a person’s
name, social security number, age, salary, etc as many fields as are needed for a given
application.

• Records can be combined into files—collections of records all somehow related, that
can be accessed by a computer program for some application.

• Files are collected in directories. A single directory usually contains files with re-
lated data. Directories can also contain sub-directories with their own files and sub-
directories. It is useful to think of a “tree” structure of directories. Each sub-directory
is another branch of the tree. The root directory is the “trunk” of the tree.

• The disk on a computer can contain several such “trees” or “partitions. The “disk
controller”, a hardware component in a computer, works with the operating system to
organizing or manage the files on the disk.

• A single computer can contain several disks. Some computers, file servers, can house
many.

• These disks (or portions of them) may be shared across networks with other comput-
ers either nearby (Local Area Networks [LAN’s]) or over long distances (Wide Area
Networks [WAN’s]).

• The ability to connect computers and their data together makes possible the establish-
ment of the World Wide Web [WWW], which permits access to some of the data that
resides on a computer connected to the network. This data can be made available to
anyone who knows its Uniform Resource Locator [URL]. The URL not only give the
internet address of the data, but also conveys some information about what form the
data is in.
242 CHAPTER 9. MISCELLANEOUS TOPICS

What is C++’s view of files?

• C++ views a file as a sequential stream of bytes. The end of a file is determined
anywhere by an end-of-file (EOF) marker, or at a specific byte count that the operating
system has been told about in a program.

END OF FILE (EOF)

• Files are stored permanently by the operating system, usually on a hard-disk or some
other medium (floppies, tape, CD’s, DVD’s). The operating system is responsible for
the maintenance of files.
• When a file is opened by C++ what it really means is that a request for data is sent to
the operating system and the data is put into a data stream—and C++ only concerns
itself with handling the stream, not the hardware storage device. Once data enters
the stream its is the responsibility of C++ to interpret the data using formatting
instructions.
• This allows most of C++ to be operating-system independent.
• The standard header files iostream (keyboard and screen-related Input/Output [I/O])
and fstream (file-related I/O) contains all the stream-file operating system dependen-
cies and has to be rewritten for each new operating system.
• When a C++ program starts with #include <iostream> it knows about three streams:

– stdin (standard input) is (usually) the keyboard which can be read using the
“cin >>” function.
– stdout (standard output) is (usually) the screen which can be written to using
the “cout <<” function.
– stderr (standard error) is (usually) the screen which is written to using the
“cerr <<” function. The stderr stream is used by C++ to inform the user, via
warning and error messages, that data may contain ambiguities or errors. It is
often useful to make a distinction between stdout and stderr even though they
output, by default, to the same hardware device.
9.4. INPUT AND OUTPUT USING FILES 243

• It is possible in C++ to redirect any or all of the stdin, stdout or stderr files.
We will demonstrate how to do this only as required for some specific purpose. It is
operating-system dependent.

• It is possible in C++ to define, create and read other files. Just keep in mind that
C++ creates these as streams and lets the operating system handle all the other details
of file management.

9.4.2 Creating sequential access files and writing to them

What is a sequential access file?

• A sequential access file is one in which the records do not have a fixed, specified length.

• One usually uses such files for writing and reading data that is not changed later and
that is read all at once.

• It is the most efficient way of storing files which have variable length records.

• Changing the contents of records or the numbers of records can be done, but not very
efficiently.

• Accessing the contents of some specific records can be done, but not very efficiently.

• Nonetheless, it is a useful form for storage of data with variable record length that is
all read into memory, manipulated and then all written out.

• Sequential files contain character data that is human readable and transportable (usu-
ally) from machine to machine and (usually) from architecture to architecture as long
as all the machines understand ASCII character representation. The only essential
difference is the interpretation of the end of record. UNIX uses “line feed”, MacOS
uses “carriage return” and DOS/Win uses “carriage return” followed by “line feed”.

There are 6 things to remember when writing to files

1. #include <fstream> must go in the pre-processor area.

2. Declare an output file object and name it using an identifier in C++. This is done
using the ofstream keyword. For example,

ofstream myOutputFile;
244 CHAPTER 9. MISCELLANEOUS TOPICS

associates the identifier myOutputFile with a user-declared output file stream. You
should think of this as a declaration, much as a usual variable declaration, or string
or vector object declaration. It can go anywhere in a program. It is good practice to
locate it close to where you use it for the first time.

3. Before writing to the user-define output stream, it must be “opened” using the .open()
output file object member function. For example,

myOutputFile.open("someData.dat");

opens the output file stream object called myOutputFile. It also connects the out-
put file identifier myOutputFile with a file called someData.dat. Data going to
myOutputFile will be written physically in the file someData.dat located on the com-
puter’s hard disk (usually). In this example, the file someData.dat would reside in the
same subdirectory as the load module that was used to start the program assuming
that the user started the program with a statement like:

> a.out

You can also use relative or absolute path names for the parameter of the .open()
member function. For example, a typical unix system usage would be:

myOutputFile.open("~/Private/someData.dat");

and a Dos/Win usage:

myOutputFile.open("C:\\eng101\\hw\\hw6\\hw6.dat");

Can you guess why there are double backslashes above?

Warning! If the parameter of the .open() function refers to an existing file,
that file will be destroyed unless 1) it is write-protected, or 2), you take
special care to see if it exists before opening it. (More on this later.)

4. Always check to see that the file was opened successfully using the .fail() member
function. The .fail() member function returns a true when the file open failed. For
example,

if (myOutputFile.fail())
{ //File open fail
return 1; // Return to calling function with abnormal termination code.
}
9.4. INPUT AND OUTPUT USING FILES 245

5. Write to the output stream. Remember it is just a stream, just like cout, but with
your own identifier. For example,

int i = 1, j = 2;
myOutputFile << i << ", " << j << endl;

6. When you are finished writing to the file, close the file using .close member function.
For example,

myOutputFile.close();

The .close() member function disconnects the output stream object, in this case,
myOutputFile, with the physical file, in this case, someData.dat. Although the ter-
mination of a program will properly close all files that it opened, it is a good idea to
close files as soon as you are finished with them. This frees up some system resources
for other programs and in the event of a system crash, closed files are left intact or
may be recovered more easily. Files left unclosed during a system crash may be left
incomplete. (This is somewhat system dependent and dependent upon how sudden
the crash is. Power failures are particularly nasty in this regard.)

Here is an example called fileOutput.cpp that illustrates all these concepts, plus a few
other concepts.

//File: fileOutput.cpp
#include <iostream>
#include <fstream>

using namespace std;

int main(void)
{ ofstream myOutputFile; // Create an output file object

cout << "What filename do you want to write to: ";

char fileName[20]; // 1D array of chars
cin >> fileName;

myOutputFile.open(fileName); //Connect the stream to the file

if (myOutputFile.fail())
{ // File could not be opened
cerr << "File called " << fileName << " could not be opened.\n";
246 CHAPTER 9. MISCELLANEOUS TOPICS

return 1; // Return to O/S with abnormal return code

}
else
cout << "File called " << fileName << " was successfully opened.\n";

bool keepReading = true; // Keep reading if true

do{
cout << "Two floats? ";
float x, y; // Two input floats
cin >> x >> y;;
if (cin.eof()) keepReading = false; // End of file <CNTL>-D detected
else myOutputFile << x << " " << y << endl;
}while(keepReading);

cout << "End of input detected\n";

myOutputFile.close(); //Disconnect the stream from the file

return 0;
}

This code makes use of the .eof() member function which tests to see if and end-of-file
(EOF) marker has been received in the stream that it is referring to, in this case, cin.
.eof() returns true if the EOF has been received and false otherwise. Note how this is
exploited in the above example. This is how you can control file input with an EOF sentinel.
On UNIX systems, EOF is signaled with a <RETURN><CNTL>-d, on MS systems by <CNTL>-z.
Note as well how the filename was obtained by inputting a 1D character array from the
keyboard. It would seem sensible to use a string class object to accomplish this, but many
compilers do not support the use of a string object as an argument to the .open() member
function.

9.4.3 Reading from sequential access files

• Reading from sequential access files follows the same 6 steps except for the use of the
declaration ifstream rather than ofstream and the direction of the data as indicated
by the symbols << for output and >> for input! That’s all there is to remember.
Here is an example called fileInput.cpp that reads the output created by the previous
example:

//File: fileInput.cpp
#include <iostream>
9.4. INPUT AND OUTPUT USING FILES 247

#include <fstream>

using namespace std;

int main(void)
{ ifstream myInputFile; // Create an input file object

cout << "What filename do you want to read from: ";

char fileName[20]; // 1D array of chars
cin >> fileName;

myInputFile.open(fileName); //Connect the stream to the file

if (myInputFile.fail())
{ // File could not be opened
cerr << "File called " << fileName << " could not be opened.\n";
return 1; // Return to O/S with abnormal return code
}
else
cout << "File called " << fileName << " was successfully opened.\n";

bool keepReading = true; // Keep reading if true

do{
float x, y; // Two floats
myInputFile >> x >> y;;
if (myInputFile.eof()) keepReading = false; // End of file <CNTL>-D detected
else cout << x << " " << y << endl;
}while(keepReading);

cout << "End of input detected\n";

myInputFile.close(); //Disconnect the stream from the file

return 0;
}

Opening files safely when writing

In order to protect against destroying an existing file when opening a file for writing, you
should first open it for reading. then test to see if the file open fails. If it fails, it means that
that file does not exist and it is safe to write to that filename. If the open does not fail, it
means that the file exists. In this case you should prompt the user to see if the file should
248 CHAPTER 9. MISCELLANEOUS TOPICS

be overwritten. Here’s an example:

//File: fileSafeOutput.cpp
#include <iostream>
#include <fstream>

using namespace std;

int main(void)
{ ifstream testFile; // Create an output file object
ofstream myOutputFile; // Create an output file object

cout << "What filename do you want to write to: ";

char fileName[20]; // 1D array of chars
cin >> fileName;

testFile.open(fileName);
if (!testFile.fail())
{ cout << "File called " << fileName << " already exists.\n";
cout << "Overwrite (Input 0 for no, any other int to overwrite): ";
int clobberIt;
cin >> clobberIt;
testFile.close();
if (!clobberIt) return 0;
}
myOutputFile.open(fileName); //Connect the stream to the file

if (myOutputFile.fail())
{ // File could not be opened
cerr << "File called " << fileName << " could not be opened.\n";
return 1; // Return to O/S with abnormal return code
}
else
cout << "File called " << fileName << " was successfully opened.\n";

bool keepReading = true; // Keep reading if true

do{
cout << "Two floats? ";
float x, y; // Two input floats
cin >> x >> y;;
if (cin.eof()) keepReading = false; // End of file <CNTL>-D detected
else myOutputFile << x << " " << y << endl;
9.5. COMMAND LINE ARGUMENTS 249

}while(keepReading);

cout << "End of input detected\n";

myOutputFile.close(); //Disconnect the stream from the file

return 0;
}

9.5 Command line arguments

Most unix commands are written in C or C++. For example, if you have ever listed the
contents of a directory, you have probably used the command ls. If you just type in ls
at the unix command prompt, you get a list of files that currently reside in your current
working directory. If you type in ls *.cpp you will get a listing of all the files that end in
.cpp. If you type ls -l, you get a “long” listing of files with information about ownership
and permissions for each file. The command is written in C and so you should wonder, “How
did the programmer do that?”.
The programmer did it by using command line arguments. Here’s an example code that
exploits command line arguments:

//File: commandLine.cpp
#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int main(int argc, char* argv[])

{ cout << "argc = " << argc << endl;

cout << "This program’s name is: " << argv[0] << endl;

for (int i = 1; i < argc; i = i + 1)

{ cout << "Argument " << i << " is: " << argv[i] << endl;
}
return 0;
}

Note the new way of declaring the main routine:

int main(int argc, char* argv[])

{ .
250 CHAPTER 9. MISCELLANEOUS TOPICS

.
.
}

When main is called, argc contains the number of “tokens”” (think of these as words) on
the line that ran the program. For example, if you invoked the program with

a.out word anotherWord

argc would be 3.
argv[] is an array of addresses. (The “* qualifier on a variable means that the identifier
contains one or more addresses.) These addresses contain the addresses of the starts of the
tokens of the command line. Resident at these addresses is the start of the one-dimensional
character arrays that contain the tokens. In the above example, the first token is the name
of the executable file (usually a.out in our examples). The second token would be word and
the third and last token in this example would be anotherWord.
here’s a program that can open a file based on a token given to it on the command line:

//File: fileOpen.cpp
#include <iostream>
#include <fstream>

using namespace std;

int main(int argc, char* argv[])

{ ofstream myOutputFile; // Create an output file object

char fileName[20];

if (argc == 1)
{ cout << "What filename do you want to write to: ";
cin >> fileName;
myOutputFile.open(fileName);
}
else if (argc == 2)
{ myOutputFile.open(argv[1]);
}
else
{ cerr << "Usage: a.out [filename]\n";
}
9.5. COMMAND LINE ARGUMENTS 251

if (myOutputFile.fail())
{ // File could not be opened
cerr << "File could not be opened.\n";
return 1; // Return to O/S with abnormal return code
}

myOutputFile.close(); // Disconnect the stream from the file

return 0;
}

If only one token is detected, the user is prompted to input a filename. If two tokens are
detected, the second is used as a filename. If there are more than two tokens, the program
stops and prints an error message.
252 CHAPTER 9. MISCELLANEOUS TOPICS
Chapter 10

A Potpourri of Applications

10.1 Finding a zero using the “binary chop”

Let’s say you were looking for a place where a function is zero in some interval. And let’s also
suppose that the only thing you knew about the function was that it is monotonic (either
always increasing or decreasing) and that it crossed the axis only once.
In fact, you have seen such a function (in disguise) in Assignment 4. You were asked to find
the maximum of the function:
x sin(x)
f (x) = .
1+x
The derivative of this function is:
sin(x) x cos(x)
f 0 (x) = 2
+ .
(1 + x) 1+x

f 0 (x) has the properties mentioned above for certain ranges of its argument. So, finding the
zero of f 0 (x) is exactly the same as finding the position of the extremum (in this case the
maximum) of f (x). The solution you discovered to find the maximum of f (x) involved a
laborious search over the function. The algorithm about to be described, call the binary
chop or mid-point bisection method, works much more efficiently, as we shall see with only
about 40 iterations. The pseudocode for the algorithm is:
1. Start with an initial guess for an x0 and an x1 such that the function is zero for some
x0 ≤ x ≤ x1 . From the properties of the function, we know that the sign of f (x0 ) is
different from the sign of f (x1 ).

2. Evaluate the function at the mid-point, xm = (x0 + x1 )/2.

3. If f (xm ) <  , where  is the convergence criterion, xm is the estimated zero of the
function and the algorithm can stop. Otherwise,

253
254 CHAPTER 10. A POTPOURRI OF APPLICATIONS

4. If the sign of f (xm ) is the same as the sign of f (x0 ), assign x1 = xm .

5. Else if the sign of f (xm ) is the same as the sign of f (x1 ), assign x0 = xm .
6. Go back to step 2.

Here is an example of a working code.

//file findZero.cpp
#include <iostream>
#include <cstdlib>
#include <cmath>

double myF(double x)
{ static double zero = 0;
static double f = zero/zero;
static double Pi = 4*atan(1.0);
if (zero <= x && Pi >= x) f = (sin(x)/(1+x) + x*cos(x))/(1 + x);
return f;
}

int sign(double x)
{ if (0 == x) return 0;
else if (0 > x) return -1;
else if (0 < x) return 1;
else
{ cerr << "Stopping since sign can not be determined\n";
exit(EXIT_FAILURE);
}
}

int chop(double x0, double x1, double precision, double& xNew)

{ int counter = 0;
if (0 == sign(myF(x0))) // Zero at the x0 boundary
{ xNew = x0;
return counter;
}
else if (0 == sign(myF(x1))) // Zero at the x1 boundary
{ xNew = x1;
return counter;
}
while(true){ // Search for new root
counter = counter + 1;
10.1. FINDING A ZERO USING THE “BINARY CHOP” 255

xNew = (x0 + x1)/2;

if (precision > fabs(myF(xNew))) return counter;
if (sign(myF(xNew)) == sign(myF(x0))) x0 = xNew;
else x1 = xNew;
}
}

bool badLimits(double x0, double x1)

{ if (sign(myF(x0)) == sign(myF(x1))) return true;
return false;
}

int main(void)
{ double x0, x1, x;
do
{ cout << "Two limits? ";
cin >> x0 >> x1;
}while(badLimits(x0,x1));

double precision;
cout << "Precision? ";
cin >> precision;

cout << "\n\nFinding root for function between "

<< x0 << " and " << x1 << " to precision = "
<< precision << endl;
cout << "Number of iterations = "
<< chop(x0,x1,precision,x) << endl;
cout << "Function is near 0 at x = " << x << endl;
cout << "Value of function there = " << myF(x) << endl;

return 0;
}

Apart from the idea of the algorithm, there are a few new features in this code. One is the
output stream cerr. cerr is a different output stream than cout and it is intended to be the
stream to which diagnostic or error messages are sent. For example, the int sign() function
above writes to cerr when it can not determine the sign of the function.
The other important use of cerr is when the user of a program has redirected cout to a file
via the unix redirection symbols. For example, output to cout could be captured in a file
names myOutput as follows:
red% a.out > myOutput
256 CHAPTER 10. A POTPOURRI OF APPLICATIONS

However, cerr would still print to the screen so that the user would know something had
gone wrong. If the error message had been written to cout, the user would not know until
he or she opened to file.
Another example is:
red% a.out < myInput > myOutput
which reads cin from the file called myInput rather than the keyboard. Note that the file
names are arbitrary. The names myOutput and myInput are just examples.
Chapter 11

Programming in MATLAB

11.1 A taste of MATLAB

• Chapter 11: Basic info, logical operators, logic flow control, functions (read now)

• Chapter 12: 2D and 3D graphics

• Chapter 13: Some applications

What is MATLAB?

• An interpreted computer language

• The name of the program that interprets MATLAB language

• Central idea—all data is represented by 2D arrays of doubles

Data types and variables:

• Names of variables? Same as ANSI C++

• Types of variables and declarations?

C++: Many types, MUST declare

MATLAB: 1 type (2-D arrays of doubles) only and don’t declare

• A MATLAB demo:

257
258 CHAPTER 11. PROGRAMMING IN MATLAB

>> i = 10;
>> disp(i)
10
>>

• Statements

ANSI C++: Terminated by a semicolon

MATLAB: Terminated by and end-of-line (carriage return)
unless you put a ... at the end of the line to continue
Can also terminate with a ; which suppresses the echo of the statement

• Flow control—while loops

ANSI C++:
i = 0;
while(i<10)
{ i = i + 1;
}

MATLAB:
i = 0;
while(i<10)
i = i + 1;
end

• Flow control—if/else constructs

ANSI C++:
if (i <= 10)
{ j = 0;
}
else
{ k = 0;
}

MATLAB:
11.2. ARRAYS IN MATLAB 259

if (i <= 10)
j = 0;
else
k = 0;
end

• Example of summing the integers, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10

ANSI C++:
int main(void)
{ int i = 0, s = 0;
while(i < 10)
{ i = i + 1;
s = s + i;
}
cout << s << "\n");
return 0;
}

MATLAB:
i = 0;
s = 0;
while(i < 10)
i = i + 1;
s = s + i;
end
disp(s)

• Scripts and functions

• Scripts (or script M-files) are MATLAB statements in a file that the MATLAB in-
terpreter will execute
Functions (or function M-files) are used to implement functions.
Function names are derived from file names.

11.2 Arrays in Matlab

• The idea: 2-D arrays of doubles are the fundamental data type
260 CHAPTER 11. PROGRAMMING IN MATLAB

• Creating arrays in MATLAB

– zeros —Creates and initializes arrays in MATLAB and fills the array with “0.0”’s
– ones —Creates and initializes arrays in MATLAB and fills the array with “1.0”’s
– Some examples:

>> x = ones(10,1)

x =
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1

>> whos
Name Size Bytes Class

x 10x1 80 double array

Grand total is 10 elements using 80 bytes

>> z = zeros(5,3)

z =

0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0

>> whos
Name Size Bytes Class

x 10x1 80 double array

z 5x3 120 double array
11.2. ARRAYS IN MATLAB 261

Grand total is 25 elements using 200 bytes

>>

– The colon operator (:) gives a list of “integers”

Example:

>> clear % This is how to clear stored variables

>> % This is how to make a comment
>> x = 1:10

x =
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

>> whos
Name Size Bytes Class

x 1x10 80 double array

Grand total is 10 elements using 80 bytes

>>
So x = 1:N creates a row with values 1, 2, 3...N
– You can use two colon operators (a:∆:b) to make a list of the form:
a, a + ∆, a + 2∆, a + 3∆ · · · a + N∆ where a + N∆ ≤ b < a + (N + 1)∆.

>> y = 1:2:10
y =
1 3 5 7 9

Note that the upper limit, 10, is not reached because the next number in the
series would overrun it.
– linspace —creates a 1D array with uniformly spaced elements.
x = linspace(a,b,N)—makes N equally spaced points between a and b inclusive.

(The statement x = a:(b-a)/(N-1):b seems to accomplish the same thing BUT

round-off errors may cause the end-point b to be excluded! DO NOT USE the x
= a:(b-a)/(N-1):b form!)

An example:
262 CHAPTER 11. PROGRAMMING IN MATLAB

>> clear
>> x = linspace(0,1,5)
x =
0 0.2500 0.5000 0.7500 1.0000
>>
– Literal creation:
∗ Create an array with one row and 3 columns:
>> x = [1.0,5.2,9.7]

x =

1.0000 5.2000 9.7000

>>
∗ Create an array with 2 rows and 3 columns:
>> y = [1.0,5.2,9.7;3.4,9.3,10.7]

y =

1.0000 5.2000 9.7000

3.4000 9.3000 10.7000

>>

• Array indexing

– Simple indexing
x(i) refers to the i’th element of array x
There is no off-by-one nonsense!
x = ones(1,10) =⇒ x = [1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1]
x(1) is the first element of array x
x(10) is the last element of array x
Array indices go from 1 to the number of rows/columns
>> x = [3,5;7,9]

x =

3 5
7 9
11.2. ARRAYS IN MATLAB 263

x(1,1) = 3 =⇒ row 1, column 1

x(2,1) = 7 =⇒ row 2, column 1
x(1,2) = 5 =⇒ row 1, column 2
x(2,2) = 9 =⇒ row 2, column 2

– Slice indexing
The “:” symbol as an array index means “the whole” row or “the whole column.
Example,
>> x = [1,2;3,4;5,6]

x =

1 2
3 4
5 6

>> y = x(:,2)

y =

2
4
6

>> z = x(1,:)

z =

1 2
Partial slices can be extracted by specifying ranges. Example,
>> u = x(1:2,1)

u =

1
3

>> v = x(2:3,:)

v =
264 CHAPTER 11. PROGRAMMING IN MATLAB

3 4
5 6

• Saving an array to a file

sindat is a 2 row, 1000 column array created and saved this way:

%ch11e1.m
sindat = zeros(2,1000);
sindat(1,:) = linspace(0,2*pi,1000);
sindat(2,:) = sin(sindat(1,:)); % Note: array operation!
save sindat -ascii -double

• Reading an array from a file

The following reads sindat in and plots it.

%ch11e2.m
clear
load sindat
x = sindat(1,:);
y = sindat(2,:);
plot(x,y) % Simple plotting function
pause % Pauses until any keystrike is given
close % Closes the figure
plot(x,y.^2) % Note: ".^2" means element by element squaring operation
pause
close
plot(y,x)
pause
close

Summary

• zeros—Create and initialize an array and fill the array with “0.0”’s

• ones—Create and initialize an array and fill the array with “1.0”’s
• clear—Clear variables from memory

• whos—List current variables, long form

• linspace—Create a 1D array with uniformly spaced elements

11.3. LOOPS 265

• Literal creation of arrays

• Simple array indexing

• Slice indexing, full and partial slices

• Writing/reading arrays to/from files.

11.3 Loops

11.3.1 The for loop

The general syntax of a for loop is:

for i = array
% Some loop using i where i can not be re-assigned
end

On each successive pass through the loop, i is set to the next column of array. On the first
pass through the loop, i is array(:,1), on the second pass i is array(:,2), etc
This can seem a little confusing unless we remember that the fundamental data type is an
array of doubles.
Here are some simple examples:

sum = 0;
for i = 1:10
sum = sum + i;
end
disp(sum);

Here’s another way of doing the same thing:

i = 1:10;
sum = 0;
for j = i
sum = sum + j;
end
disp(sum);

Here’s yet another way of doing the same thing:

266 CHAPTER 11. PROGRAMMING IN MATLAB

i = 1:10;
sum = 0;
for j = 1:length(i) % length(array) is a MATLAB function that gives the length
sum = sum + j;
end
disp(sum);

Here’s a weird way of doing the same thing:

i = [1,2,3,4,5;6,7,8,9,10];
sum = 0;
for j = i % j is set to the columns of i
sum = sum + j(1) + j(2);
end
disp(sum);

Why does this work?

The number of columns of i is 5 and so, the loop is executed 5 times. But on each iteration,
y is set to a column of x, in this case a column vector with two values which are summed
with the statement sum = sum + j(1) + j(2);. Weird! But it works and illustrates the
more general form of the looping index.
Some useful functions
size gives the number of rows and the number of columns as a two-element row vector.
For example (using the i array above):

>> size(i)
ans =
2 5

If you want to “capture” both the number of rows and columns, use the following:

>> [nRows,nColumns]=size(i)
nRows =
2
nColumns =
5

length gives the maximum of the number of rows and the number of columns. For example
(using the i array above):
11.3. LOOPS 267

>> length(i)
ans =
5

error error(’string’) displays the ’string’ and causes an error exit from an M-file to the
keyboard. If the string is empty, no action is taken.
Here’s an example of an integration script using length and error.

% Area under f as a MATLAB script

% Assumes that f and x already exist

if (length(x) ~= length(f))
error(’ x and f are different lengths. Stopping.’)
end

sum = 0;
for j = 1:(length(f)-1)
sum = sum + 0.5*(f(j) + f(j + 1))*(x(j+1) - x(j));
end
disp(sum);

Here’s a 2D plotting example:

N = 100;
f = zeros(1,N);
x = linspace(-5*pi,5*pi,N);
for i = 1:N
if (x(i) == 0)
f(i) = 1;
else
f(i) = sin(x(i))/x(i);
end
end
plot(x,f);

Here’s a 3D plotting example (using the above f):

g = zeros(N,N);
for i = 1:N
for j = 1:N
g(i,j) = f(i)*f(j);
268 CHAPTER 11. PROGRAMMING IN MATLAB

end
end
surf(x,x,g);

11.3.2 The while loop

The general syntax of a for loop is:

while expression
% Some loop that is executed when expression is true
end

Here’s an example

change = 1;
while change >= 0.001
change = change/2;
end
disp(change);

That’s about all you need to know about while loops.

11.4 The if/else construct

The general syntax of an if/else if/else construct is:

if expression1
% Executed when expression1 is true
elseif expression2
% Executed when expression1 is false and expression 2 is true
elseif expression3
% Executed when expression1&2 are false and expression 3 is true
.
.
.
elseif expressionN
% Executed when expression1...N-1 are false and expression N is true
else
11.5. SOME MATLAB TERMINOLOGY 269

% Executed when expression1...N are false

end

Valid syntax requires the if and the end, zero or more elseif’s and zero or one else. The
design is very much like C and therefore does not really need to be discussed further. The
use of indenting make the logical flow a little more comprehensible.
Here’s an example that makes a decision based on a random number:

x = rand;
if x < 1/3
disp(’x is less than a third’);
elseif x < 2/3
disp(’x is greater than or equal to a third but less than two thirds’);
else
disp(’x is greater than or equal to a two thirds’);
end

New function:
rand —provides an array of uniformly distributed random number between 0 and 1, see
text: Chapter 16.3, p. 171

11.5 Some Matlab terminology

scalar A scalar in MATLAB is a 1 × 1 array. For example:

>> whos
Name Size Bytes Class
s 1x1 8 double array
Grand total is 1 elements using 8 bytes

row vector A row vector of length M in MATLAB is a 1 × M array. For example:

>> rv = ones(1,8);
>> whos
Name Size Bytes Class
rv 1x8 64 double array
s 1x1 8 double array
Grand total is 9 elements using 72 bytes

column vector A column vector of length N in MATLAB is an N × 1 array. For example:

270 CHAPTER 11. PROGRAMMING IN MATLAB

>> cv = zeros(10,1);
>> whos
Name Size Bytes Class
cv 10x1 80 double array
rv 1x8 64 double array
s 1x1 8 double array
Grand total is 19 elements using 152 bytes

matrix An N by M matrix in MATLAB is an N × M array. For example:

>> a = rand(3,4);
>> whos
Name Size Bytes Class
a 3x4 96 double array
cv 10x1 80 double array
rv 1x8 64 double array
s 1x1 8 double array
Grand total is 31 elements using 248 bytes
>> a
a =
0.7382 0.9355 0.8936 0.8132
0.1763 0.9169 0.0579 0.0099
0.4057 0.4103 0.3529 0.1389

11.6 Operators in MATLAB

11.6.1 Math operators in Matlab

Operation Symbol Example Precedence

Inner expression (,) (1+2)/3 Highest
Exponentiation ^ 2^3 Medium high
Multiplication, x × y * x*y Moderate
Division, x/y, y\x /,\ y/x = x\y Moderate
Addition, x + y + x + y Medium low
Subtraction, x − y - x - y Medium low
Assignment = y = x Lowest
These are all 2-D matrix operations!
If the operands are scalars (a 1 × 1 array) the functionality is similar to that of C++.
Here are some examples:
11.7. POINTWISE OPERATORS IN MATLAB 271

>> a = 2*ones(2)
a =
2 2
2 2
>> b = a/4
b =
0.5000 0.5000
0.5000 0.5000
>> a*b
ans =
2 2
2 2

>> a+b
ans =
2.5000 2.5000
2.5000 2.5000

11.7 Pointwise operators in MATLAB

Operation Symbol Example Expansion
Pointwise exponentiation .^ x.^y x(i,j)^y(i,j)
Pointwise multiplication .* x.*y x(i,j)*y(i,j)
Pointwise division ./,.\ y./x = x.\y x(i,j)/y(i,j)
Here are some examples:

>> x = 2*ones(2)
x =

2 2
2 2
>> y = [0,1;2,3]
y =
0 1
2 3
>> x.*y
ans =
0 2
4 6
>> x.^y
272 CHAPTER 11. PROGRAMMING IN MATLAB

ans =
1 2
4 8
>> x.\y
ans =
0 0.5000
1.0000 1.5000

11.7.1 Logical Operators in Matlab

Symbol Relational operation
< , <= less than, less than or equal to
> , >= greater than, greater than or equal to
== equal to
~= not equal to
& , | AND , OR
~ NOT
Note that these operators work on arrays and can return arrays. The relational operators
operating on arrays is not discussed in this course; we will be using them as if they always
operate on scalars. Therefore, in this sense, they behave exactly as the analogous operators
in C++,
There are some differences in notation with C++ (~= vs. !=, & vs. &&, | vs. ||, ~ vs.
!) However, the biggest difference with respect to C++ is the difference in the order of
precedence of the operators. Note that even some textbooks are confused on this issue. Here
is the current state of the order of precedence of the MATLAB operators. Note that for
MATLAB Version 5.3 and lower, the precedence table is different!
Operation Symbol Precedence
Inner expression ( ) 0 (Highest)
Transpose, Exponentiation ^ .^ ’ 1
Unary plus and negation + - ~ 2
Multiplication, division .* .\ ./ * \ / 3
Binary addition, subtraction + - 4
Colon operator : 5
Relational logical operators < <= > >= == ~= 6
Logical AND & 7
Logical OR | 8
Assignment = 9 (Lowest)
For more complete information, issue help precedence. This is what you get:

PRECEDENCE Operator Precedence in MATLAB

11.7. POINTWISE OPERATORS IN MATLAB 273

MATLAB has the following precedence for the built-in operators when
evaluating expressions (from highest to lowest):

1. transpose (.’), power (.^), complex conjugate

transpose (’), matrix power (^)

2. unary plus (+), unary minus (-), logical negation (~)

3. multiplication (.*), right division (./), left

division (.\), matrix multiplication (*), matrix right
division (/), matrix left division (\)

4. addition (+), subtraction (-)

5. colon operator (:)

6. less than (<), less than or equal to (<=), greater than

(>), greater than or equal to (>=), equal to (==), not
equal to (~=)

7. logical AND (&)

8. logical OR (|)

Starting in MATLAB 6.0, the precedence of the logical AND (&)

and logical OR (|) operators now obeys the standard relationship
(AND being higher precedence than OR) and the formal rules
of boolean algebra as implemented in most other programming
languages, as well as Simulink and Stateflow.

Previously MATLAB would incorrectly treat the expression:

y = a&b | c&d

as:

y = (((a&b) |c) &d);

It now correctly treats it as:

y = (a&b) | (c&d);
274 CHAPTER 11. PROGRAMMING IN MATLAB

The only case where the new precedence will impact the result
obtained is when | appears before & within the same expression
(without parentheses). For example:

y = 1 | x & 0;

In MATLAB 5.3 and earlier, this statement would yield 0,

being evaluated as:

y = (1 | x) & 0;

In MATLAB 6.0 and beyond, this expression yields a 1 as the result,

being evaluated as:

y = 1 | (x & 0);

We strongly recommend that you add parentheses to all expressions of

this form to avoid any potential problems with the interpretation
of your code between different versions of MATLAB.

NOTE: A feature has been provided to allow the system to produce an

error for any expression that would change behavior from the old to
the new interpretation:

feature(’OrAndError’, 0) % warning for any expression that

% changed behavior (default)
feature(’OrAndError’, 1) % error for any expression that
% changed behavior

11.8 M-files

11.8.1 Script M-files

MATLAB commands may be stored in a file and executed. These files are called “script
M-files”. Any commands that you can enter in the MATLAB command window can be
entered in a file with a filename that is arbitrary except that it should contain the extension
.m, for example myMatlabScript.m. Script M-files may be created with your favorite editor
11.8. M-FILES 275

or with MATLAB’s own editor.

If you type the name, say myMatlabScript in the MATLAB command window, the following
order of execution is followed:

• MATLAB checks to see if myMatlabScript is a variable in the current workspace, the

environment of user-defined and pre-defined variables; if not

• MATLAB checks to see if myMatlabScript is built-in function; if not

• MATLAB checks to see if myMatlabScript.m is a file in the current directory; if not

• MATLAB checks to see if myMatlabScript.m exists anywhere along the MATLAB

search path;

Some useful functions for use with MATLAB script M-files:

disp(variable) displays the value of the variable, e.g..

>> n = 10; disp(n)

10
>>

echo toggles echoing.

echo off turns it off (default value)
echo on turns it on and every command executed by a script M-file is written to the screen
(useful for debugging purposes)
echo switches (toggles ) between echo off and echo on.
input prompt the user for input.

>> x = input(’Input a value for x: ’)

Input a value for x: 10
x =
10
>>

keyboard gives control to the keyboard. Return to the script M-file by typing return at
the command window prompt, (>>).
pause Pause. Continue after user presses any keyboard key.

pause(x) Pause for x seconds, then continue.

276 CHAPTER 11. PROGRAMMING IN MATLAB

>> for i = 10:-1:1

disp(i)
pause(1)
end
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
>>

waitforbuttonpress Pause. Continue after user presses any keyboard key or mouse key.

sprintf Write formatted data to string.

S = sprintf(FORMAT,A,...)
formats the data in the variable A (and in any additional arguments), under control of the
specified FORMAT string, and returns it in the MATLAB string variable S. There is a similar
function called fprintf that writes the MATLAB string variable to a file. (Do a help
fprintf for more information.)
FORMAT is a string containing C++ language conversion specifications. Conversion speci-
fications involve the character %, optional flags, optional width and precision fields, optional
subtype specifier, and conversion characters d, i, o, u, x, X, f, e, E, g, G, c, and s. See
the Language Reference Guide or a C++ manual for complete details. The %g conversion
specifier produces the nicest output for floating point numbers. See the example below.
The special formats \n,\r,\t,\b,\f can be used to produce linefeed, carriage return, tab,
backspace, and formfeed characters respectively. Use \\ to produce a backslash character
and %% to produce the percent character.
Here’s an example of a script M-file called russianRoulette.m:

clear
echo off

prob = 1/6;

disp(’Which each spin you could win 1$’)

disp(’If you lose, you lose everything!’)
11.8. M-FILES 277

disp(’It’’s best to quit while you’’re ahead.’)

disp(’Press any key to start.’)
disp(’Good luck’)
disp(’ ’)

pause

money = 0;
repeat = input(’Play? (0 = no, 1 = yes) :’);

while(repeat)

disp(’Spin....’)
pause(1)
if (rand < prob)
disp(’BANG! You LOSE!’)
return
else
disp(’Click! You WIN!’)
money = money + 1;
disp(sprintf(’Your gain is $%g’,money))
end
repeat = input(’Repeat? (0 = no, 1 = yes) :’);

end

disp(sprintf(’Your gain was $%g’,money))

disp(’End of Game’)
disp(’ ’)

Here’s a typical play of the game:

>> russianRoulette
Which each spin you could win 1$
If you lose, you lose everything!
It’s best to quit while you’re ahead.
Press any key or mouse button to start.
Good luck

Play? (0 = no, 1 = yes) :1

Spin....
Click! You WIN!
278 CHAPTER 11. PROGRAMMING IN MATLAB

Your gain is $1
Repeat? (0 = no, 1 = yes) :1
Spin....
Click! You WIN!
Your gain is $2
Repeat? (0 = no, 1 = yes) :1
Spin....
Click! You WIN!
Your gain is $3
Repeat? (0 = no, 1 = yes) :1
Spin....
Click! You WIN!
Your gain is $4
Repeat? (0 = no, 1 = yes) :1
Spin....
Click! You WIN!
Your gain is $5
Repeat? (0 = no, 1 = yes) :1
Spin....
Click! You WIN!
Your gain is $6
Repeat? (0 = no, 1 = yes) :1
Spin....
Click! You WIN!
Your gain is $7
Repeat? (0 = no, 1 = yes) :1
Spin....
BANG! You LOSE!

11.8.2 Function M-files

Compartmentalizing your code into functional subunits is...yada, yada, yada...

It’s the same sermon you got in C++! However, MATLAB makes it easy to design
functions for repeated use in many applications.
The general syntax of a function call is:

[out1,out2,...,outN] = functionName(in1,in2,inM)

and the general syntax of the function definition is to have a separate file called functionName.m
that has the following form:
11.8. M-FILES 279

function [out1,out2,...,outN] = functionName(in1,in2,...inM)

%FUNCTIONNAME A brief one line description
% A more general description of functionName with a description of the inputs and
% outputs and perhaps an example. All this text must fit into contiguous comment
% lines.
%
% See also related list of functions
% After this line starts MATLAB executable functions, important examples below
.
.
.
error(’This is an error’) % Can use this to return control to the command
% windows if an error is detected
.
.
.
warning(’This is a warning’) % Can use this to issue warnings
.
.
.
return; % Control reverts to calling M-file if a return is seen
.
.
.
% Last line in functionName, control reverts to calling M-file

Some general features of functions:

• functionName is an identifier, identical to that of variables

• Variables can only be output in the output “string” [out1,out2,...,outN]. There
can be zero or one output (in which case the square brackets are not needed).
• There can be zero, one or more inputs. If you change the value of an input variable it
is hidden from the calling M-file. If you do not change the value of an input MATLAB
will not make copies for the function’s workspace for the sake of efficiency. If you do
change the value of an input MATLAB will make copies for the function’s workspace
and the changes will be hidden from the calling M-file.
• The command window and the functions have their own workspaces, places where
variables are stored independently, much like C++’s stack frame handling.
• The first line of the function M-file is called the function declaration line. The function
name must agree with the file name. If it does not, MATLAB will use the file name.
280 CHAPTER 11. PROGRAMMING IN MATLAB

This line also serves a similar role as the function prototype in C++, checking the com-
patibility of the function definition with the function call. (MATLAB is considerably
looser, however, than ANSI C++).

• If the second line of the file is a comment, it is used by MATLAB to look for functions
and functionality using the lookfor MATLAB function.

• Comment lines following contiguously are copied to the screen when you type
help functionName

• You can have more than one function in a function M-file. However, only the first (the
primary function) is available to other M-files and the command window. The others
are called subfunctions and cannot be used by other functions, scripts or the command
window.

Here is an example called quadRoots.m:

function [root1,root2] = quadRoots(A,B,C)

%QUADROOTS quadRoots returns the two real roots of A*x^2 + B*x + C = 0
%
% The two roots are root1 = (-B + sqrt(B^2 -4*A*C))/(2*A)
% root2 = (-B - sqrt(B^2 -4*A*C))/(2*A)
%
% An error is detected if 4*A*C > B^2 (imaginary roots)
% A warning is issued if 4*A*C = B^2 (identical roots)
%
% The blame? BLIF <bielajew@umich.edu>
% This version 1.1, last modified November 27, 2000
% Warranty? None. Take it or leave it.
% Copyright: Regents of the University of Michigan

if 4*A*C > B^2

error(’Roots would be imaginary. Get real!’)
elseif 4*A*C == B^2
warning(’Roots will be the same, degenerate’)
end

root1 = (-B + sqrt(B^2 -4*A*C))/(2*A);

root2 = (-B - sqrt(B^2 -4*A*C))/(2*A);

return % This is optional

11.9. PROBLEMS 281

11.9 Problems
1. Check the appropriate circle for the following MATLAB statements.

MATLAB Statement Valid Invalid

y=3^2;
if(23==x)
23=x;
for i=-123:234
while( ~(~(~(x<3))) )
a(1:10)=1;
b=[1 2 3; 4 5;6 7];

2. Consider the following snippet of code

for p = 1:10
for g = 1:10
x(g,p) = g*p;
end
end

This piece of code:

Fills the entire first row of the array, then moves on to the next row, and so on to
fill the array.
Fills the entire first column of the array, then moves on the next column, and so
on to fill the array.
3. For each of the following tasks, check the appropriate box to state which construct is
the most natural way of implementing that task.

Counter loop Sentinel loop if/else

Initializing the elements of an array of
known dimensions
Responding to a user’s selection from a
menu
Carrying out an iterative process until
some measure of convergence is reached
Dealing a hand of cards from a deck
Determining a student’s letter grade for
this final from his or her numerical score
Computing the average score on this final
using the scores of a known number of stu-
dents
282 CHAPTER 11. PROGRAMMING IN MATLAB

4. Consider the following small script M-file and function M-file.

x = 4;
y = [2 3;6 7];
a(1,1) = dumbFunction(x,y(2,1));

function r = dumbFunction(a,b)
r = b/a;
return;

Now, complete the following sentence by filling in the blanks.

The numerical values and are passed into the function

dumbFunction. The function returns the numerical value , which
is then stored in the variable .

5. What is an algorithm?
List and describe the three capabilities that are needed to construct an algorithm.

6. MATLAB Function M-file design

Describe the roles of:

(a) the first line of a MATLAB function M-file,

(b) the second line of a MATLAB function M-file (assuming it starts with a “%”),
(c) the third and subsequent contiguous comment lines in a MATLAB function M-file
(assuming the second line starts with a “%”).

How do the MATLAB lookfor and help functions interact with these lines?

7. MATLAB Function M-files

Write a MATLAB Function M-file that provides the indicated response to the lookfor
and help commands. A human typed the stuff to the right of a >> prompt, the
computer typed the rest.

>> lookfor helpMe

HELPME Help! I need somebody.
>> help helpMe

HELPME Help! I need somebody.

Help! Not just anybody!

>>
11.9. PROBLEMS 283

8. True or false?

(a) The 3 statements

clear all; x = 1.0; i = &x;

are ALL valid MATLAB statements.

(b) The 3 statements

clear all; x = 1; i = i & x;

are ALL valid MATLAB statements.

(c) The set of statements

clear all; a = 2*ones(2,2); b = a/4; c = a*b; disp(c)

prints 1 1 to the screen.

1 1
(d) The set of statements (note use of the transpose operator ”’”)
clear all; disp(linspace(0,1,5)’)
prints 0 0.2500 0.5000 0.7500 1.0000 to the screen.
(e) The statement

a = [0,1,2; 2,3; 4,5;];

is a valid MATLAB statement.

9. Multiple choice
Circle all the correct answer(s). There may more than one correct answer but there
will be at least one choice that is correct.

(a) The following MATLAB code:

clear all; N = 5; a = zeros(N);
for i = (2:1:N)
a(i,i-1) = -1;
if i ~= N a(i,i+1) = 1; end
end
disp(a)
is supposed to print to the screen:
284 CHAPTER 11. PROGRAMMING IN MATLAB

0 1 0 0 0
-1 0 1 0 0
0 -1 0 1 0
0 0 -1 0 1
0 0 0 -1 0
but it does not. The error is
• There is an syntax error in the line: if i ~= N a(i,i+1) = 1; end
• After a = zeros(5);, nothing is changed in the first row.
• There is an syntax error in the line: for i = (2:1:N)
• There is a conceptual error in the statement: a(i,i-1) = -1;
• None of the above, there is a syntax error somewhere else.
(b) The following code is supposed to sum the squares of the matrix elements of a
random 10 by 10 array and then divide the sum by the number of elements. It
does not work as intended.
clear all;
N = 10;
s = rand(N);
s2 = s*s;
for i = 1:N for j = 1:N sum = sum + s2(i,j); end; end
disp(sum/N^2)
• N is not defined properly.
• There is a syntax error in the line that starts with for.
• sum should be initialized first, before the for loops.
• There is a syntax error in the statement disp(sum/N^2).
• There is a conceptual error in the statement s2 = s*s;.
• There is no error. The code works as intended.
• There is a conceptual error in the statement s = rand(N);.

10. Slice indexing

The following code is written with 4 for loops.

N = 100;
a = zeros(N);
for i = 1:N
for j = 1:N
a(i,j) = 1;
end
end
11.9. PROBLEMS 285

for i = N/4:3*N/4
for j = N/4:3*N/4
a(i,j) = 0;
end
end

(a) Write it without the use of for or while loops.

(b) If the variable N was set to 4 instead of 100, what would the array look like?

11. Think like a computer

Write the output that the following MATLAB code produces.

clear all;
z = ones(6);
z(3:4,:) = 0;
z(:,3:4) = 0;
disp(z);

12. Think like a computer again

Consider the following script M-file.

sign = 1;
for i = 1:5
x(i) = i - 3;
y(i) = sign*i;
sign = -sign;
end
plot(x,y);

Draw the plot that would result from executing this script.

13. Think like a computer again

Write the output that the following MATLAB code produces.

clear all;
z = -ones(7); % Don’t miss the minus sign!
z(2:3,2:3) = 1; z(2:3,5:6) = 4;
z(5:6,2:3) = 2; z(5:6,5:6) = 3;
z(4,4) = 0;
disp(z);
286 CHAPTER 11. PROGRAMMING IN MATLAB

14. Think like a computer again

Consider the following script M-file.

a = [1 2];
b = [1 2 3];
c = 1;

for ai = a
for bi = b
fprintf(’a = %f, b = %f\n’,ai,bi)
if (bi^2 - 4*ai.*c < 0)
fprintf(’No real solution\n\n’)
elseif (bi^2 - 4*ai.*c == 0)
fprintf(’Single root = %f\n\n’,-bi/(2*ai))
else
fprintf(’Root1 = %f\n’,(-bi - sqrt(bi^2 - 4*ai.*c))/(2*ai))
fprintf(’Root2 = %f\n\n’,(-bi + sqrt(bi^2 - 4*ai.*c))/(2*ai))
end
end
end

What is the output that would result from executing this script?

15. The purpose of the script M-file below is to:

• prompt the user for a number between 0 and 100

• generate a row-vector of 50 random numbers between 0 and 100
• invoke a function called nearest
• print out the results returned from the function

The purpose of the function M-file below is to :

• take in a row-vector and a scalar value

• find the entry in the row-vector that is closest to the scalar value
• return the entry that was found, and its index in the array

There are four bugs in the code, at lines 5, 7, 17 and 18. Find them and fix them.

% Script M-file testNearest.m

%
x = input(’pick a number between 0 and 100: ’); 1
11.9. PROBLEMS 287

2
b=rand(1,50)*100; 3
4
[ind,y] = nearest(b(50),x); 5
6
fprintf(’The nearest value to %f is b(%i)=%f\n’,x,ind,b); 7

% Function M-file nearest.m

function [ind,y] = nearest(a,x) 8

9
oldDiff = 1000; 10
[rows,columns] = size(a); 11
12
for i = 1:columns 13
newDiff = abs(a(i) - x); 14
if(newDiff < oldDiff) 15
y = a(i); 16
index = i; 17
newDiff = oldDiff; 18
end 19
end 20
21
return 22

16. Plot like a computer

The code below produces a 2D plot. Indicate what it would look like in the box below.

clear all;
x = [0,-0.59, 0.95,-0.95, 0.59, 0];
y = [1,-0.81, 0.31, 0.31, -0.81, 1];
plot(x,y)

17. More code debugging

In the following code I want to plot f (x) = sin(x)
x
for 0 ≤ x ≤ 5π by making two row
vectors, one for x and the other for f (x). The code does not generate any MATLAB
errors and produces a plot. However, the plot does not look anything like what I
expected. Indicate what needs to be done to fix it by writing a correct version of the
code in the box below. The code below has conceptual problems on lines 3 and 5. Take
care that your code does not have a “divide-by-zero” problem. (Hint: f (x) = 1 when
x = 0.)
288 CHAPTER 11. PROGRAMMING IN MATLAB

clear all; % Line 001

N = 1000; % Array size Line 002
f = zeros(1000); % Allocate memory for f Line 003
x = linspace(0,5*pi,1000); % Make a linspace for x Line 004
f = sin(x)/x; % Calculate f(x) Line 005
plot(x,f) % Plot it Line 006

18. Temparature conversion

Write a code that outputs a table of degrees Fahrenheit and degrees Centigrade starting
with -40 degrees Fahrenheit, ending with 140 degrees Fahrenheit in increments of 1
degree Fahrenheit. The conversion from degrees Fahrenheit to degrees Centigrade is:
C = (5/9) ∗ (F − 32)
and must be coded as a separate MATLAB function. The output should look like:

-40,-40.0
-39,-39.4
-38,-38.9
.
.
.
138,58.9
139,59.4
140,60.0

Hint: The format statement that outputs one line of the table is
fprintf(’%3.0f,%4.1f\n’,F(i),C(i)).

19. Array manipulation

Create a complete set of MATLAB instructions that makes a 1000 by 1000 matrix
called “a” that is zero everywhere except for ones in the first column and last column
and ones in the first row and last row. There are also ones on the main diagonal of the
matrix, (a(i,i) = 1) for all i. For full credit you can not use more than one for or
while loop. Otherwise, one point will be deducted for each use of a for or a while
loop. Do it the MATLAB way! There are five extra credit points on this problem for
those who remember and use correctly (from reading the book, or from attending the
last lecture) the command for making an array with ones on the main diagonal and
zeros everywhere else.

20. Turn pseudo-code into real code

Write a MATLAB code to find the zero of a function. Your code will be made up of
three M-files:
11.9. PROBLEMS 289

• a script M-file to drive the process

• a function M-file that finds zeros using a Newton procedure (explained below)
• a function M-file that contains the function for which you are finding the zero.

Pseudo-code for the three pieces is given below. Construct the MATLAB code.

Script M-file
(a) Prompt the user for an initial guess for the x value at which the zero occurs.
(b) Call the zero-finding function, with the initial guess as the input argument,
and the final answer and number of steps it took to find the final answer as
the output arguments.
(c) Print out the final answer and the number of steps it took to find the final
answer in some self-explanatory format.
Function M-file for Finding a Zero
(a) This function has one input argument, the initial guess for x.
(b) This function has two output arguments, the final approximation of the x-
value at which the zero is found, and the number of steps it took to find
it.
(c) Set a convergence criterion of  = 10−6 .
(d) Initialize the number of iterations to zero.
(e) Carry out the following steps until the absolute value of f (x) <  where f is
the function you are zeroing, and x is your current approximation of the zero.
• Calculate an approximation to the derivative of the function at this point,
from
f (x + ) − f (x − )
f 0 (x) =
2
• Calculate a new approximation to the zero, from

x = x − f (x)/f 0 (x)

• Update the number of steps that you have taken through the loop.
(f) Return to main
Function M-file f
(a) This function has one input argument, x.
(b) This function has one output argument, y.
(c) The relation is
y = sin(x)/x + x2 ;
290 CHAPTER 11. PROGRAMMING IN MATLAB

21. Temparature along an iron bar

Consider an iron bar 100 cm long. One end of it is fixed at 0◦ C while the other end is
fixed at 100◦C. You must plot the temperature as a function of the distance between
its end-points by dividing the bar into 1000 elements and using only the following
information:

• The temperature of the elements at either end is fixed. That is,

TBar(1) = 0; TBar(1000) = 100;
• Except for the fixed endpoints, the temperature in any element is determined as
the average of its neighbors. That is,
TBar(i) = 0.5*(TBar(i-1) + TBar(i+1))
• The solution is obtained by iteration within a while loop until the average temper-
ature in the bar, sum(TBar)/1000, changes by less than 0.01◦ C from the average
temperature in the bar from the previous iteration.

Write two versions of MATLAB code that solve this problem. Both versions will employ
a while loop which computes the new average temperature in the bar.
One version will have a for loop (internal to the while loop) over the elements of the
bar. The other version may not employ any for loops, employing instead MATLAB’s
array indexing method: the colon (:) syntax.
As the starting condition for the while loop, assume that the bar is 0◦ C everywhere
except at the warmer endpoint, TBar(1000).

22. Code Creation

The MATLAB script M-file below calls a MATLAB function M-file that returns the
minimum, maximum, and average value of a 2D array. The average value is the sum of
the matrix elements divided by the number of elements in the array. In the box below,
write the function. You are not required to provide any comment lines in the function.

clear all;
Nrows = 37; Ncolumns = 93;
a = rand(Nrows,Ncolumns);
[minValue,maxValue,avgValue] = minMaxAvg(a,Nrows,Ncolumns)

23. Code Debugging and Refinement

The MATLAB function M-file below called quadRoot.m was discussed in earlier in this
Chapter.

function [root1,root2] = quadRoot(A,B,C)

%QUADROOT returns the two real roots of A*x^2 + B*x + C = 0
11.9. PROBLEMS 291

%
% The two roots are root1 = (-B + sqrt(B^2 -4*A*C))/(2*A)
% root2 = (-B - sqrt(B^2 -4*A*C))/(2*A)
%
% An error is detected if 4*A*C > B^2 (imaginary roots)
% A warning is issued if 4*A*C = B^2 (identical roots)

if 4*A*C > B^2

error(’Roots would be imaginary. Get real!’)
elseif 4*A*C == B^2
warning(’Roots will be the same, degenerate’)
end

root1 = (-B + sqrt(B^2 -4*A*C))/(2*A); % This is line 15

root2 = (-B - sqrt(B^2 -4*A*C))/(2*A); % This is line 16

Unfortunately, the Professor wrote an incomplete program! When the function is

employed as follows:

>> [r1,r2] = quadRoot(0,1,1)

the following error is reported by MATLAB.

Warning: Divide by zero in quadRoot.m at line 15

Warning: Divide by zero in quadRoot.m at line 16
r1 = NaN
r2 = -Inf
>>

A problem occurs when A is zero. When A is zero there should be only one solution,
x = -C/B unless B is zero as well. If both A and B are zero, there is no solution at all!
Provide a fix-up to these problems by modifying the if/elseif/else construct above.

24. John Conway’s game of life

Write a MATLAB script M-file that plays John Conway’s game of life on a 50 by 50
grid. Here is how to initialize the grid:

• Make a 50 by 50 matrix called grid of random numbers between 0 and 1.

• Consider each cell in grid. If grid(i,j) is less than 0.4, set it to one. Otherwise,
set it to zero.

Definitions:
292 CHAPTER 11. PROGRAMMING IN MATLAB

• A cell that contains “0” is “dead”.

• A cell that contains “1” is “alive”.

Here’s how the game is played:

(a) Make an exact copy of grid into the array called oldGrid.
(b) Loop through every cell in oldGrid.
(c) Find the number of neighbors a cell has by summing the values of the eight
neighboring cells (left, right, up, down, and the four diagonal ones).
(d) If the cell is alive and it has less than 2 neighbors, it dies due to loneliness. (Set
grid(i,j) to zero.)
(e) If the cell is alive and it has 4 or more neighbors, it dies due to overcrowding.
(Set grid(i,j) to zero.)
(f) If the cell is dead and it has exactly 3 neighbors, it comes to life. (Set grid(i,j)
to one.)
(g) Any other condition, the cell stays as it was.
(h) After you have considered every cell, go back to step 1.

You do not have to write any code that produces graphical output. You just have to
code the algorithm described above.

Note that this program never terminates. Life goes on...

11.9. PROBLEMS 293

25. Slice this one up

Write MATLAB code that generates the 64 × 64 array that produces the following
plot.

60
1.8

1.6
50

1.4

40 1.2

1
30
0.8

20 0.6

0.4

10
0.2

0
10 20 30 40 50 60

You may use the following commands to plot the array:

plotIt = b; % b is the array that contains the data to be plotted

plotIt(65,:) = 0; % Increase the number of rows by 1
plotIt(:,65) = 0; % Increase the number of columns by 1
pcolor(1:65,1:65,plotIt); % Plot it
colormap(gray)
colorbar

Try to make a solution that uses no more than 2 for-loops.

The array contains the data 0, 1, 2 in a pattern that produces the above figure. The
64 × 64 array can be made up of repeated use of an 8 × 8 array.
294 CHAPTER 11. PROGRAMMING IN MATLAB

26. Any way you slice it

Write two MATLAB codes that generate the 13 × 41 array that produces the following
plot. The first version uses for-loops only. The second version contains no for-loops
but uses slice indexing of the form iStart:Stride:iEnd.

14 1

0.9
12
0.8

10 0.7

0.6

8
0.5

0.4
6

0.3

4
0.2

0.1
2

0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

You may use the following commands to plot the array:

plotIt = a; % a is the array to be plotted

plotIt(14,:) = 0; % Increase the number of rows by 1
plotIt(:,42) = 0; % Increase the number of columns by 1
colormap(gray)
pcolor(plotIt) % Plot it
shading flat
colorbar

Some helpful hints:

(a) The vertical bars are 1 unit wide and created with a Stride of 4.
(b) Note that the rectangle is in front of one of the vertical bars and in back of two
others.
(c) The color of the vertical bars and edges are established by giving them a numerical
value of 1.0.
11.9. PROBLEMS 295

(d) The color of the background is established by giving it a numerical value of 0.0.
(e) The color of the inner rectangle is established by giving it a numerical value of
0.7.
27. Array striping
Writte the MATLAB code that generates the array that produces the following plot.
It should work for any response to user inputs (see example below).

20

15

10

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

The array contains the data 0 (black stripe) or 1 (white stripe) in a pattern that
produces the above figure. The following response to the prompts produced the output
shown:

Number of stripes: 8
Number of Rows: 24
>>

28. Basketweaving
Write the MATLAB code that generates the array that produces the following basket-
weave plot.
The array contains the data 0 (background), 0.6 (vertical dark grey stripes), or 1
(horizontal light grey stripes) in a pattern that produces the above figure. The following
response to the prompts produced the output shown above:
296 CHAPTER 11. PROGRAMMING IN MATLAB

How many times does the pattern repeat on each side? 5

>>

Hint: The solution is made a lot easier when you realize that there is a small 4 × 4
array that is repeated to make the full pattern. Look at grid(1:4,1:4).

29. Minor diagonals and crosses

The built-in function, eye(M,N) creates an M ×N matrix with 1’s on the main diagonal
and 0’s elsewhere. Example:

>> eye(3,4)
ans =
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0

(a) Write a function called littleEye() that does the same thing except the 1’s are
on the minor diagonal. Example:
>> littleEye(3,4)
ans =
0 0 0 1
11.9. PROBLEMS 297

0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0
You should do this by having littleEye() call eye() and manipulating array
indices using slice indexing.
(b) Write another function called cross() that sums eye() and littleEye(), except
that the maximum element returned can not be greater than 1. Example:
>> cross(3,3)
ans =
1 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 1
You can avoid using for loops by using the min() function. For example, if A is
a scalar and B is a matrix, C = min(A,B) returns a matrix C that has no value
greater than A.

30. A smooth operation

Consider the following MATLAB script M-file that calls the function called smooth.

NH = input(’Horizontal size of plot: ’);

NV = input(’Vertical size of plot: ’);

a = rand(NV,NH);

avgChng = 1;

while(avgChng > 0.001)

[a,avgChng] = smooth(a);

plotIt = a;
plotIt(NV+1,:) = 0; % Increase the number of rows by 1
plotIt(:,NH+1) = 1; % Increase the number of columns by 1
pcolor(0:NH,0:NV,plotIt)
colormap(gray)
colorbar
pause(0.01)

end

When a user types lookfor smooth the following is received:

298 CHAPTER 11. PROGRAMMING IN MATLAB

>> lookfor smooth

SMOOTH smooth Smooth a 2D array
>>

When a user types help smooth the following is received:

>> help smooth

SMOOTH smooth Smooth a 2D array

The smooth function smoothes a 2D array, its only input parameter, by

performing adjacent horizontal and vertical point averaging following the
prescription:

Assuming:

R is the number of rows in the array

C is the number of columns in the array

When 2 <= i <= R and 2 <= j<= C

b(i,j) = (a(i-1,j) + a(i+1,j) + a(i,j-1) + a(i,j+1))/4

However, when the (i,j)’th point is in the first or last row or column of
the array, the algorithm averages only over the available horizontal or
vertical array points.

The smoothed array is returned to b, the first returned variable.

The average change is returned to the second return variable using the
following algorithm:

change = sum(sum(abs(b - a)))/(R*C)

>>

Write the function smooth.m. Your function has to respond to the lookfor and help
functions as described above.

31. Roots of a cubic equation

The roots (values of x such that f (x) = 0) of the cubic equation:

f (x) = Ax3 + Bx2 + Cx + D

11.9. PROBLEMS 299

where A, B, C and D are scalars, are given by the procedure below (attributed to
Francois Viete, 1615). You will code this algorithm into a MATLAB function called
cubeRoots.m where A, B, C and D are arrays:

• If A = 0 the above is not a cubic equation, it is a quadratic equation. Assume

that there exists a function called quadraticRoots.m somewhere on the MATLAB
path that operates on arrays in the same way that cubicRoots.m does and will
return real roots if they exist and NaN’s otherwise. Else,
• Define a, b, c as follows: a = B/A, b = C/A, c = D/A.
• Define Q = (a2 − 3b)/3, R = (2a3 − 9ab + 27c)/54.
• If R2 > Q3 there are no real roots and so the 3 roots are NaN’s. Else,
√
• Define θ = cos−1 (R/ Q3 ). (The MATLAB acos(u) function returns an array
the same dimensions as u but with its elements being the cos−1 of the elements
of u.)
• The three roots are:
q !
θ
x1 = −2 Q cos − a/3
3
!
q θ + 2π
x2 = −2 Q cos − a/3
3
!
q θ − 2π
x3 = −2 Q cos − a/3
3

where the MATLAB cos(u) and sqrt functions return an array the same di-
mensions as u but with its elements being the cos and √ of the elements of
u.)

Some notes:
• Your function quadraticRoots.m must accept four input arrays, A, B, C and D,
all with identical dimensions. Consequently, you must be careful with your use of
MATLAB operators.
• Your function returns three arrays containing either NaN’s or roots of the cubic
equation.
• Your function must respond sensibly to the MATLAB lookfor and help func-
tions.
• To make a variable into a NaN, assign it as follows: root = NaN;
32. Random, Rotated, Really
Write a MATLAB code that executes the following 5-step pseudocode. Each step is
illustrated by a working example.
300 CHAPTER 11. PROGRAMMING IN MATLAB

(a) Using the input() function, interrogate the user for R and C, a row size and
column size, respectively. Example:
Number of rows? 4
R =
4
Number of columns? 3
C =
3
(b) Using the input() function, generate a R × C random array. Example:
a =
0.0153 0.4660 0.2026
0.7468 0.4186 0.6721
0.4451 0.8462 0.8381
0.9318 0.5252 0.0196
(c) Rotate the array counter-clockwise. The first column becomes the last row, the
second column becomes the second-to-last row and so on. Example:
a =
0.2026 0.6721 0.8381 0.0196
0.4660 0.4186 0.8462 0.5252
0.0153 0.7468 0.4451 0.9318
(d) Set to zero any array element that has a greater column index than row index.
Example:
a =
0.2026 0 0 0
0.4660 0.4186 0 0
0.0153 0.7468 0.4451 0
(e) Change the sign of any array element that has a value less than 1/2. Example:
a =
-0.2026 0 0 0
-0.4660 -0.4186 0 0
-0.0153 0.7468 -0.4451 0

33. Can you (co)relate?

Write a MATLAB function M-file called correlate.m that does the following:

• Accepts a 2-dimensional array of doubles of any size. This array is the only
variable in the input list.
11.9. PROBLEMS 301

• Returns the smallest absolute difference that exists between any two array ele-
ments.
• Returns the indices of the two closest elements.
• Responds sensibly to the lookfor and help functions
• Note: abs(x) returns the absolute value of all the elements of x.

Here’s a working example:

>> lookfor correlate

CORRELATE correlate, finds the smallest difference between two array elements

>> help correlate

CORRELATE correlate, finds the smallest difference between two array elements

Returns the difference and array indices of the two closest elements

Programmer: Alex Bielajew 12/12/00

Problem on Final Exam for Eng101/200, Fall ’00

>> A = rand(3,4)
A =
0.9501 0.4860 0.4565 0.4447
0.2311 0.8913 0.0185 0.6154
0.6068 0.7621 0.8214 0.7919
>> [d,i1,j1,i2,j2] = correlate(A)
d =
0.0086
i1 =
2
j1 =
4
i2 =
3
j2 =
1

34. Minesweeper initialization

Consider the MATLAB script M-file started below:
302 CHAPTER 11. PROGRAMMING IN MATLAB

%MINESWEEPER minesweeper: Initialize the minesweeper game

clear all
echo off
clc

R = input(’Number of rows in the grid: ’);

C = input(’Number of columns in the grid: ’);
nMines = input(’Number of mines: ’);

if (nMines < 1)
error(’Too few mines’)
elseif (nMines > R*C)
error(’Too many mines’)
end

%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%
% Your part goes here.
% Write your code on the following page(s).
%
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%

disp(grid)

Here’s is what you must do.

(a) Put nMines randomly on the grid by giving that grid point the value -1. For
example, grid(i,j) = -1 means that the i,j’th point on the grid contains a
”mine”. This is very similar to what you did to place the initial point of the
battleship in Assignment 7. You will need to use both the rand and int32
functions. (int32() converts its argument to a 32-bit integer that may be used
as an array index.) Be sure that you deposit exactly nMines mines on the grid,
no more, no fewer.
(b) For each grid(i,j) point that is not a mine, count the number of mines sur-
rounding it, those that are in the range grid(i-1:i+1,j-1:j+1). Be careful
with the boundaries of the grid. Note: sum(sum(a)) sums up all the values on
the points of the array called a.
(c) Here is an example use of the program:

>> minesweeper
Number of rows in the grid: 5
Number of columns in the grid: 3
11.9. PROBLEMS 303

Number of mines: 5
1 -1 1
1 2 2
0 2 -1
1 4 -1
-1 3 -1

>>
35. This problem is a minefield
Consider the MATLAB script M-file started below:

%LANDMINE landmine: A game of landmine

clear all
echo off
clc

R = input(’Number of rows in the grid: ’);

C = input(’Number of columns in the grid: ’);
pMine = input(’Probability that a tile contains a mine: ’);

%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%
% Your part goes here.
% Write your code on the following page(s).
%
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%

showGrid = grid;
showGrid(R+1,:) = -1;
showGrid(:,C+1) = 1;
pcolor(0:C,0:R,showGrid)
header = sprintf(’\\fontsize{20}There were %d survivors\n’,nSurvived);
title(header)
axis off

This is a brief description of what you must do.

(a) Between 1:R and 2:C-1 use the random number function rand to decide whether
or not that gridpoint contains a landmine. In other words, if rand < pMine set
the grid point to -1 to indicate the presence of a mine. Otherwise, set it to 0, to
indicate that the gridpoint is safe.
304 CHAPTER 11. PROGRAMMING IN MATLAB

(b) Make the first column of the grid equal to 1. A “1” indicates a person on the
grid. These people are trying to make it to the last column on the grid without
touching a mine.
(c) Within a while loop whose logical condition is that there are still people within
grid(:,1:C-1), use a double for loop to look at every point within grid(:,1:C-1).
If that point has value 1, then do the following:
i. Attempt to advance the person one square to the right (horizontally) and
with equal chance: one square up, one square down, or no vertical change.
Restrict the vertical movements so that the person stays within the grid. Use
of the max() and min() functions, as described in class and in an earlier exam
problem, makes this restriction quite efficient.
ii. If the proposed new location contains another person, then nothing happens.
iii. If the proposed new location contains a landmine, then both the person and
the landmine are eliminated.
iv. If the proposed new location is within the last column, then that person has
safely reached home and should not move anymore.
(d) The game continues until there are no people remaining within grid(:,1:C-1)
(e) Be careful not to move a person more than once during each execution of the
double for loop.

36. War is heck

Write a MATLAB code for the game of War that is described as follows:

• The game is played on an R × C array, where R and C are inputs provided by the
user.
• The array elements are filled with random numbers using the rand() function.
• Go through each element of the array. If the element is greater than 1/2 reset the
array element to +1, else, set it to -1. Each one of these elements is a player in the
game. Those assigned +1 are the Positives. Those assigned -1 are the Negatives.
Both the Positives and Negatives think of each other not only as Opposites but
also as Opposition—deadly opposition.
• Print out the starting number of Positives and Negatives.
• The Positives and Negatives are at war and here is how the battle is fought.
• An outer while loop is executed under the condition that there are players of both
kinds still in the game.
• During each execution of the while loop, the following happens:
(a) Each player tries to moves randomly but with equal chance in one of the 4
directions, North(N), South(S), East(E) or West(W) by one array index.
11.9. PROBLEMS 305

(b) If a player wants to move outside the bounds of the array, then the player
disappears from the game. The penalty for cowardice is severe. (Set that
array element to 0.)
(c) If the array element that the player wants to move to is empty (0), the player
moves there. (The +1 or -1 gets written into the new array element. The old
array element is set to 0.)
(d) If the array element that the player wants to move to is a player of the same
type, then nothing happens.
(e) If the array element that the player wants to move contains an Opposite, then
they fight. Three things can happen, all with equal chance:
i. Mutual destruction—both players perish. (Both array elements get set
to 0.)
ii. The Positive player wins and the Negative player is eliminated from the
game. (The new location gets set to +1 and the old location gets set to
0.)
iii. The Negative player wins and the Positive player is eliminated from the
game. (The new location gets set to -1 and the old location gets set to
0.)
• When the while loop ends, there are 3 possible outcomes. Provide a message that
indicates how the game ended and the number of remaining players.

Here’s an example of running the code.

>> war
Number of rows in the game: 10
R =
10
Number of columns n the game: 12
C =
12
The game starts with 64 +’s and 56 -’s
The -’s have annihilated the +’s. There are 17 -’s remaining.
>>
306 CHAPTER 11. PROGRAMMING IN MATLAB

11.10 Projects
1. Is your dorm room cold?—Register your complaint!
Consider that your dorm room is represented by a 32×32 array, with 4 walls fixed
at 20◦ C, a window 16×1 centered on the left wall which is fixed at 0◦ C (it’s freezing
outside), and a heat register comprised of 8 contiguous pixels (array elements that all
touch another heat register array element on at least one side) that is fixed at some
higher temperature. See Figure 1 for an example. Your job is to:

(a) Locate the register in the room somewhere (not occupying the same space as a
wall or a window!) so that the temperature in the room is as uniform as possible,
(b) Heat the room to between 21 and 22◦ C by raising the temperature of the register.
(c) Full marks for algorithm design will be awarded to those who find a location for
the heat register that keeps the temperature in the room uniform to within 2
degrees. (How to calculate this is discussed later.)

Here is a step-by-step procedure for this problem:

(a) Open a file called a7.m with any editor. This will be your script M-file. Once
in MATLAB, you will run this program by simply typing a7 at the MATLAB
prompt.
(b) To start the problem, first fill a 32×32 array with zeros:
N = 32;
T = zeros(N);
(c) Then, make the first and last pixels of each row and column equal to 20, setting
the temperature on the walls, then the 16 pixels of the window (fixed at 0) and
finally the 8 pixels of the register (set at T = 65◦ C) as shown in Figure 1.
The picture in Figure 1 is displayed using the following MATLAB commands:
plotT = T; % Copy the T array
plotT(N+1,:) = 0; % Increase the number of rows by 1
plotT(:,N+1) = 0; % Increase the number of columns by 1
pcolor(1:N+1,1:N+1,plotT); % Plot it
colorbar;
Increasing the row and columns by 1 is necessary to get MATLAB to show the
walls and the window, otherwise only the interior of the room would show.
(d) Inside a while loop, the i,j’th cell gets it value from its neighbors, via an averaging
relation of the form:
T(i,j) = (oldT(i+1,j) + oldT(i-1,j) + oldT(i,j+1) + oldT(i,j-1))/4;
11.10. PROJECTS 307

where oldT is the temperature array after the previous pass through the while
loop. You have to program this in the appropriate place in the while loop and you
have to make sure that you do not violate the boundaries of the array. You can
use for loops to do this although it is much more efficient to use “slice indexing”.
(e) In the above averaging procedure, you may have overwritten some of the array
that was meant to be fixed by the initial conditions, like the register, for instance.
So, you had better make sure that you fix these up in the appropriate place before
the while loop executes another pass.
(f) The while loop is executed until the average change temperature changes less
than 0.00001. The average change is calculated from:
difference = abs(T - oldT);
change = sum(sum(difference))/(N^2);
(Do a “help” on abs and sum to find out what these functions do.)
(g) If you get everything correct, the final results look like Figure 2 which is plotted
using the commands pcolor(1:N,1:N,T); shading interp; colorbar;.
(h) Calculate and print out the average temperature and its variation:
average = sum(sum(T))/(N^2);
variation = sum(sum(abs(T - average)))/(N^2);
avg
For the above example, I got the average to be Tfinal = 21.1514 while the variation
avg
was ∆Tfinal = 5.39824. You should verify that you get this result before continuing.
While this got the average temperature to within specifications, the variation is
way out of spec. You have to do better. The easiest but most boring way to do it is
to move the register around by typing in the configuration in the script M-file and
running it again until you satisfy both the average and variation specifications.
(BLIF’s rule #197 of computer programming: Always do it the easy, boring way
first!) In this case, however, you will need some intuition to get the answers to
within specifications because there are many possibilities, both in the location of
the register and its shape. You should have a look in your dorm or other rooms
to see if you find any common relationships between placement of windows and
heat registers. You should also hope that the architects and engineers thought
about this carefully because the impact on heating costs and human comfort are
quite large.
Alternatively, you can try to find a way of automating the optimization procedure.
How you do this is up to you! Be creative!

Finally, Figure 3 shows a different starting position with the ending results shown in
Figure 4. This is a terrible solution! Not only is the variation worse, but the register
is so hot that you would burn yourself if you got close to it!
308 CHAPTER 11. PROGRAMMING IN MATLAB

60

30

50

25

40

20

30

15

20
10

10
5

0
5 10 15 20 25 30

Figure 11.1: Typical starting condition for the 32×32 room with a register on the right wall
at T = 65◦ C.
11.10. PROJECTS 309

30 60

25 50

20 40

15 30

20
10

10
5

0
5 10 15 20 25 30

Figure 11.2: Final result for a 32×32 size room starting with the configuration of Figure 1.
avg avg
In this case, Tfinal = 21.1514 and ∆Tfinal = 5.39824.
310 CHAPTER 11. PROGRAMMING IN MATLAB

100
30
90

25 80

70

20
60

50
15
40

10 30

20

5
10

0
5 10 15 20 25 30

Figure 11.3: Another starting condition for the 32×32 room with a register in one of the
corners at T = 105◦C.
11.10. PROJECTS 311

100
30

90

25 80

70
20
60

50
15

40

10 30

20

5
10

0
5 10 15 20 25 30

Figure 11.4: Final result for a 32×32 size room starting with the configuration of Figure 3.
avg avg
In this case, Tfinal = 21.1643 and ∆Tfinal = 6.1069.
312 CHAPTER 11. PROGRAMMING IN MATLAB

2. The plasma arc lamp—Do you get the point?

If you take two electrically conducting objects and connect then to opposite poles of a
battery, nothing happens—usually. However, if you touch the objects together you can
get a spark. If the voltage difference is great enough, you do not need to touch them
together to have something interesting happen. Two conductors, if connected across a
voltage that is high enough and brought close enough together, will cause an “arc” to
be produced. This is lightning on a small scale!
If causing an “arc” is desirable for some reason, it helps to have the conductors
“pointed”. This is why lightning rods are pointed—to attract the lightning in an
efficient manner and then divert it into the ground safely away from things that can
be damaged by it.
You can also make a brilliant light using high voltage and pointed conductors. These
devices are called “plasma arc lamps” or “plasma arc torches”. The point (pun in-
tended) of this problem is to make a plasma arc lamp, at least a virtual one, on the
computer. The pictures that are produced are a thing of beauty, well, at least to me.
The template for this problem is found at the end of this problem description.
Here is a step-by-step procedure for solving this problem:

(a) Type the template into a file.

(b) Start MATLAB and run the template program. The first thing that pops up is a
graphical representation of the start to the problem. It should look like:

1000

30 800

600
25
400

20 200

15
−200

−400
10

−600

5
−800

−1000
5 10 15 20 25 30

Figure 11.5: Starting conditions for a 32×32 voltage grid.

11.10. PROJECTS 313

Do not proceed unless you get this.

The initial conditions for the voltage in a square grid of points (the grid size must
be a multiple of 32) is determined as described below. The statement:
V = zeros(N);
creates an N x N array to represent the voltage and sets its values to 0. The
statement:
V(1:15*N/32,1:15*N/32) = 1000;
creates the high voltage (+1000 Volts) electrode in the lower left hand corner of
the figure, while the statement:
V(17*N/32+1:N,17*N/32+1:N) = -1000;
creates the low voltage (-1000 Volts) electrode in the upper right hand corner of
the figure. The statements:
V(1,15*N/32+1:N) = linspace(1000,0,N - 15*N/32);
V(15*N/32+1:N,1) = linspace(1000,0,N - 15*N/32)’;
V(N,1:17*N/32) = linspace(0,-1000,N - 15*N/32);
V(1:17*N/32,N) = linspace(0,-1000,N - 15*N/32)’;
establish a linear change in the voltage from the electrodes to the upper left and
lower right hand corners, so that these points at the upper left and lower right are
zero. Note the use of the transpose operator “’” in two of the above statements.
(c) If you then type a <RETURN> in the MATLAB command window, the figure on
the previous page is replaced by a shading interp version and a second window
pops up which will be empty. Now you have to start some programming.
(d) Inside the while loop, the i,j’th cell gets it value from its neighbors, via a relation
of the form:
V(i,j) = (oldV(i+1,j) + oldV(i-1,j) + oldV(i,j+1) + oldV(i,j-1))/4;
where oldV is the voltage array after the previous pass through the while loop.
You have to program this in the appropriate place in the while loop and you have
to make sure that you do not violate the boundaries of the array. You can use
for loops to do this although it is much more efficient to use “slice indexing” as
in the determination of the initial conditions above.
(e) In the above averaging procedure, you may have overwritten some of the array
that was meant to be fixed by the initial conditions. So, you had better make
sure that you fix these up in the appropriate place in the while loop.
(f) The while loop is executed until the voltage array does not change by a significant
amount. Code to test for this is provided.
314 CHAPTER 11. PROGRAMMING IN MATLAB

(g) After the voltage array is calculated, you calculate the magnitude of the electric
field from it. The magnitude of the x-component of the electric field is obtained
from:
Ex(i,j) = V(i+1,j) - V(i,j);
while the magnitude of the y-component of the electric field is obtained from:
Ey(i,j) = V(i,j+1) - V(i,j);
The magnitude of the electric field is obtained from a relation of the form
E(i,j) = sqrt(Ex(i,j)*Ex(i,j) + Ey(i,j)*Ey(i,j));
Be very careful of the array bounds!
(h) Then the magnitude of the electric field is plotted as provided by the template.
(i) If you get everything correct, the final results look like:

120

100

80

60

40

20

20 40 60 80 100 120

Figure 11.6: Final result for a 128×128 voltage grid.

11.10. PROJECTS 315

120

100

80

60

40

20

20 40 60 80 100 120

Figure 11.7: Electric field grid corresponding to the voltage in the previous figure.
316 CHAPTER 11. PROGRAMMING IN MATLAB

70

68

66

64

62

60

58

56
58 60 62 64 66 68 70 72

Figure 11.8: A “zoom in” on the previous picture to show the details of the arc. Even on a
fine 128×128 grid you can see evidence of the “digitization” of the grid.
11.10. PROJECTS 317

The code template...

N = 32; % Array size, should be divisible by 32: 32, 64, 96, 128,...
V = zeros(N); % Creates Voltage array and sets its values to 0

% Sets initial values of the V array

%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%

V(1:15*N/32,1:15*N/32) = 1000; % High voltage "point"

V(17*N/32+1:N,17*N/32+1:N) = -1000; % Low voltage "point"

% Linear ramps along edges from the high voltage point

V(1,15*N/32+1:N) = linspace(1000,0,N - 15*N/32);
V(15*N/32+1:N,1) = linspace(1000,0,N - 15*N/32)’;

% Linear ramps along edges from the low voltage point

V(N,1:17*N/32) = linspace(0,-1000,N - 15*N/32);
V(1:17*N/32,N) = linspace(0,-1000,N - 15*N/32)’;

% Plot the initialized array

%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%

% The following lets all the cells of V be printed,

% useful for making sure the array got initialized OK.
% Without this, the N’th row and column of V would not
% be displayed.
% Should NOT do it this way if using shading interp
plotV = V; % Copy the V array
plotV(N+1,:) = 0; % Increase the number of rows by 1
plotV(:,N+1) = 0; % Increase the number of columns by 1
pcolor(1:N+1,1:N+1,plotV); % Plot it
colorbar;

pause; % Wait for a keyboard event before continuing

tic; % Starts the clock

oldV = V; % Save the initial value of the array in "oldV"

% Enter a loop that ends when the change in voltage is

% equal to or less so some value
318 CHAPTER 11. PROGRAMMING IN MATLAB

change = 1; % Sets change to 1 to get the while loop started

while(0.001 <= change)

% Take the average voltage of the 4 adjacent cells

%...need student input here...

% Resets initial values that should stay constant (see above)

%...need student input here...

% Calculates the change in voltage

difference = abs(V - oldV);
change = sum(sum(difference))/(N^2);

% Prints out the change in voltage

fprintf(’Average change = %g\n’,change)

% Gives the oldV array the newly calculated voltage

oldV = V;

end

time = toc; % Stores how long the program took to run

fprintf(’Elapsed time = %g\n’,time) % Prints it out

% Plots a representation of the voltage

pcolor(1:N,1:N,V);
shading interp;
colorbar;

% Calculate the magnitude of the electric field

Ex = zeros(N-1,N); % Allocate memory for Ex
Ey = zeros(N,N-1); % Allocate memory for Ey
E = zeros(N-1,N-1); % Allocate memory for E
%...need student input here...

figure(2);
pcolor(1:N-1,1:N-1,E);
shading interp;
11.10. PROJECTS 319

3. Battleship revisited
You will write MATLAB code that will allow you to play the game “Battleship!” on
your computer. There is only one ship, the size of the ship is 4 units and you only
have 25 bombs. Otherwise the game rules are exactly the same as for the Battleship
program discussed in Chapter 8.
However, you must use graphical output to show the status of the game board (with
the ship hidden) and use the mouse to generate the bomb drops.
Hints:

Initializing the game grid

N = 10;
showBoard = zeros(N); % Make the board, value of zero for "open sea"

For more explanation:

>> help zeros
Drawing the game grid If you have an array called showBoard, here is how to dis-
play it:
plotBoard = showBoard; % Makes a copy of showBoard into plotBoard
plotBoard(N + 1,:) = 0; % Boosts number of rows in plotBoard by 1, assigns 0’s
plotBoard(:, N + 1) = 0; % Boosts number of columns in plotBoard by 1
figure(1); % Working with figure 1
pcolor(0:N,0:N,plotBoard); % Make the plot
axis off % Turn of axis labeling (may want to leave on during debugging)
For more explanation:
>> help figure
>> help pcolor
>> help axis
Choosing the first point of the ship

i = 1 + N*rand;
j = 1 + N*rand;
hiddenBoard(int32(i),int32(j)) = 1; %Ship point has value 1

Note that you will have to have two boards, one that you show during the game
and one that is kept hidden, where the ship points reside.
Note the use of the int32() function. The indices of an array should always be
integral. The statements i = 1 + N*rand; j = 1 + N*rand; are intrinsically
doubles. You need the int32() function to convert from doubles to integers.
For more explanation:
320 CHAPTER 11. PROGRAMMING IN MATLAB

>> help rand

>> help int32
Dropping bombs with the mouse

[x,y] = ginput(1);
jDrop = int32(x + 1);
iDrop = int32(y + 1);

The above generates i,j indices on the game board. You can test hiddenBoard(iDrop,jDrop)
to see if that array elements represents open sea (value 0), a part of the ship (value
1), or something else. In my version of the game, I used a value of 0.25 to represent
a bomb dropped on open sea, and a 0.75 to represent a struck ship.
For more explanation:
>> help ginput
11.10. PROJECTS 321

4. Swarm ball
This project was inspired by my 7-year-old daughter’s soccer team, The Muggles. If you
have ever watched a group of 7-year-old’s play soccer, it bears very little resemblance to
the game called soccer. It resembles more closely what would should be called “swarm
ball”.
In swarm ball, the object of the game is to surround the ball with as many of your
5 other teammates as possible, for the chances of moving the ball in the direction of
the opponents’ goal is proportional to the number of your team surrounding the ball.
Of course, the other team has a similar strategy. So, around the ball is a swarm of
players all kicking at the poor thing. The ball usually blurts out in one direction and
the swarm reassembles around the ball. Goaltenders, while still a part of swarm ball,
are almost completely irrelevant. The ball is always rolling on the ground. Would you
bend down to pick up a soccer ball surrounded by 24 flailing feet? I think not.
So, this project’s task is to program a simulation of swarm ball with the following
requirements.

(a) A 2-dimensional array, called field, contains the game, the players, the ball and
the goalposts. The width and length of the field are defined by:
fieldWidth = 31; % Width of the field
fieldLength = 41; % Length of the field
(b) The following values of the elements of field determine what that point occupies.
Use the following as it gives a sensible rendition when field is plotted using
pcolor:
grass = 0.5; % Grass color
ball = 0.62; % Soccer ball’s color
red = 0.8; % Red’s team color
blue = 0.2; % Blue’s team color
redGoal = 0.7; % Red’s goal color
blueGoal = 0.4; % Blue’s goal color
boundary = 0; % Field boundary
(c) Define the field, the boundaries and the goals as follows:
field = zeros(fieldWidth,fieldLength);
field(2:fieldWidth-1,2:fieldLength-1) = grass;
field(10:22,1) = redGoal;
field(10:22,end) = blueGoal;
(d) Define the starting position of the game using the following indices:
ballX = 21;
ballY = 16;
322 CHAPTER 11. PROGRAMMING IN MATLAB

field(ballY,ballX) = ball; % The ball’s starting position

% Red team starting positions

redX = [17,17,17,11,11,11];
redY = [13,16,19,10,16,22];

% Blue team starting positions

blueX = [25,25,25,31,31,31];
blueY = [13,16,19,10,16,22];
and then place these points on the field.
(e) The game proceeds in a series of steps, not to exceed 120, when time runs out.
During each step, the following happens:
i. Advance each player towards the ball in either the vertical, horizontal or
diagonal directions. A player can only move to an open point (no other
players, boundaries, goals or ball). Be sure that you do this in a fair fashion.
If you do not and move, say, all the red players first, they would block the
blue players from the ball and the red team would have an unfair advantage.
ii. Count the number of players (redKick, blueKick) of each team surrounding
the ball. You must check all 8 points, vertical, diagonal and horizontal, in
the vicinity of the ball. The team that kicks the ball will be determined by
the following prescription:
% Pick which team gets the kick
if (redKick == 0 & blueKick == 0)
kick = 0; % Neither team kicks
elseif (rand < redKick/(redKick + blueKick))
kick = 1; % Red team kicks
else
kick = -1; % Blue team kicks
end
iii. Pick the direction that the ball will go according to the following prescription:
% Pick a direction to kick the ball
if (kick)
% Add some randomness in the y direction, move towards the goal
randKick = rand;
if (randKick <= 0.3333)
kicky = -1;
elseif (randKick <= 0.6667)
kicky = 0;
else
kicky = 1;
end
11.10. PROJECTS 323

% Make sure kick is usually in the correct direction

kickx = 0;
if (rand < 0.75)
if (kick > 0)
kickx = 1;
elseif (kick < 0)
kickx = -1;
end
end

if (kickx == 0 & kicky == 0)

kick = false; % No kick, a total miss
end
end
iv. When the kick direction is determined, place the ball in the first available
point along the direction. If ends up in a goal, one of the teams wins and the
game is over. If the ball hits the boundary, there is no kick. (This is simpler
to program than a throw-in from the sidelines, or a goal kick.)
(f) Use a pcolor display after each repositioning and each kick.
324 CHAPTER 11. PROGRAMMING IN MATLAB

5. Going, going, going...Gone!

Baseball, like most sports, is a game of inches. (Except for soccer, of course, which is
a game of feet!) However, some things in baseball happen on a grand scale, like the
distance a ball travels when hit for a home run.
There are two parts to this problem, both to be solved with MATLAB. You can solve
them using any numerical/computational technique you like so long as it is done with
MATLAB. You must use a function called homeRunDistance which is described in a
little detail below.

(a) A baseball is struck at a height of 3 feet about the ground. It can have any velocity
between 0 (Bielajew territory) and 250 feet/second (McGuire/Sosa territory). It
can have any angle with respect to the ground from 0 (parallel to the ground) to
90 degrees (straight up in the air).
Using the equations of motion described below, write a MATLAB function that
starts something like this. (It can be different.)
function d = homeRunDistance(y0,theta,v,G,D)
%HOMERUNDISTANCE returns distance a ball travels (hits the ground)
% homeRunDistance(y0,theta,v,G,D) calculates distance a baseball travels
% before it hits the ground assuming that:
% y0 is the initial height of the ball (ft)
% theta is the angle in degrees of the start of the trajectory with
% respect to the ground (90 is straight up)
% v is the initial speed (ft/s)
% G is the magnitude of the acceleration due to gravity (ft/s/s)
% D is the magnitude of the drag factor (1/ft)
%
% The components of acceleration are:
%
% ax = -D*vx*v (x-direction in units ft/s/s)
% ay = -D*vy*v - G (y-direction in units ft/s/s)
%
% where
%
% vx = v*cos(pi*theta/180) (x-direction velocity in units ft/s)
% vy = v*sin(pi*theta/180) (y-direction velocity in units ft/s)
Using a script M-file to call the function homeRunDistance, make a 3D plot of
distance versus theta and v between the limits described above. (A 20 by 20
array should be sufficient.)
(b) For an initial velocity of 250 ft/s, what angle should the ball be hit for maximum
distance? You can determine the maximum in any way you please as long as it is
11.10. PROJECTS 325

part of the same script M-file used above and it gives you approximately the right
answer! When you obtain this angle make a 2D plot of the trajectory of the ball
both with and without air resistance (D = 0). “Plotting the trajectory” means
making a 2D plot where the y-axis is the height and the x axis is the distance.
Without air resistance it would have a parabolic shape.

11.10.1 Supplementary material: Trajectories without air re-

sistance
If a ball starts off at height y0 , horizontal position x0 = 0, with components of velocity
vx,0 and vy,0 in the presence of constant gravity providing an acceleration towards the
ground, ay = −G, the situation is one of constant acceleration.
The trajectory as a function of time may then be described by:
x = vx,0 t
1
y = y0 + vy,0 t − Gt2
2

We can solve for the time of flight, tflight , it takes for a ball to return to the ground
using the quadratic equation and obtain the time and distance as follows:
q
2
vy,0 + vy,0 + 2Gy0
tflight =
G
d = vx,0tflight

√
For example, if we use y0 = 3 (ft), vx,0 = vy,0 = 250/ 2 (ft/s), and G = 32.174
(ft/s/s) we get d = about 1950 feet for the distance! The inputs are realistic and so
we know that air resistance must play a big role. However, knowing that there is an
exact answer in the case of no wind resistance will serve as an important test of our
stepping algorithm described later.

11.10.2 Supplementary material: Trajectories with air resis-

tance
In this case, the equations of motion are different because the accelerations are not
constant. In this case they are:
q
ax = −Dvx vx2 + vy2
q
ay = −Dvy vx2 + vy2 − G
326 CHAPTER 11. PROGRAMMING IN MATLAB

where D is a measure of the resistance of the air. The total air resistance is proportional
to v 2 and points in the direction opposite to the instantaneous direction of the ball.
The drag factor is related to the physical characteristics of the ball (or projectile) and
has the form:

1
D = CD,ball ρair Aball /mball
2

where ρair air is the density of the air, Aball is the cross sectional area of the ball, mball
is the mass of the ball and CD,ball is the “drag coefficient”, a unitless quantity. For
smooth spheres, CD,ball is always very close to 0.5. However, for a baseball it’s closer
to 0.35 because of the seams. A pitcher can also change CD,ball by adding a little extra
to it (saliva, vaseline) or taking a little away (cutting the ball). Baseballs that are
newly manufactured have a shine that is rubbed off before the start of the game by the
umpires and occasionally by the pitchers. This IS legal. All they are doing is making
the CD,ball a little bit smaller to make the pitches faster.
The D for a major-league baseball can be worked out easily form the above relations.
Use D = 0.0019285 and G = 32.174 for this problem.

11.10.3 Supplementary material: Stepping algorithms

Let’s go back to the equations of motion.

q
ax = −Dvx vx2 + vy2
q
ay = −Dvy vx2 + vy2 − G

If we assume that the acceleration is constant over a small time interval, ∆t, then make
a stepping algorithm as follows:

(a) Start with the initial conditions x0 = 0, y0 = 3, vx,0 = v0 cos θ and vy,0 = v0 sin θ,
t0 = 0, and a step counter i initialized to 0.
(b) Increment the step counter i = i + 1.
(c) Calculate the acceleration at the start of the step:

q
ax,i = −Dvx,i−1 vx,i−1
2 2
+ vy,i−1
q
ay,i = −Dvy,i−1 vx,i−1
2 2
+ vy,i−1 −G
11.10. PROJECTS 327

(d) Update the positions and velocities assuming constant acceleration.

1
xi = xi−1 + vx,i−1 ∆t + ax,i (∆t)2
2
1
yi = yi−1 + vy,i−1 ∆t + ay,i (∆t)2
2
vx,i = vx,i−1 + ax,i ∆t
vy,i = vx,i−1 + ay,i ∆t

(e) Stop if yi falls below 0, otherwise go back to step 2.

There are a few subtleties you will have to work out. One is to guarantee that the
y never becomes negative. The other is to make a reasonable choice for ∆t. Justify
your choice. Recall that we are assuming that the acceleration is constant over the
step. It isn’t. However, a proper choice for ∆t make sure that the acceleration is
nearly constant. This week’s lectures will be riddled with hints on the solution of this
problem!
328 CHAPTER 11. PROGRAMMING IN MATLAB

6. This problem sucks!

Have you ever wondered how one can make a vacuum?
One can make a good vacuum, comparable to the molecular/atomic density in deep
space by employing a multi-stage process. In the first stage would we would take, say,
a cylinder with a piston in it (much like a combustion chamber in a car) and a pipe
attached to a closed canister that you want to evacuate. With a valve in the canister
(to the cylinder) open and a valve in the cylinder (to the outside) closed, withdraw
the piston. The pressure in the canister and the pipe is reduced. Now, close the valve
to the canister and open the valve to the outside, allow the piston to descend and
repeat. One can only go so far with this method. Soon there are too few molecules in
the canister and enough molecules in the mechanism of the outside valve that one gets
very little or no gain on each stage of the pump cycle.
The second stage (the one that this problem is concerned about) is to introduce a
cold trap. A separate chamber (attached to the canister) has a cold surface in it to
which molecules adhere. This further reduces the number of molecules. A third stage
might involve causing the molecules to become ionized and then they may be “swept
out” with an electric field. Making a vacuum is an interesting combination of a lot
of different technologies—mechanical, electrical, chemical... Let’s focus on the second
stage. With MATLAB, first construct two chambers of identical dimensions, connected
4

30 3.5

3
25
2.5

20 2

1.5

15
1

0.5
10

5
−0.5

−1
5 10 15 20 25 30

Figure 11.9: Two chambers and a pipe (evacuated, value = 0) surrounded by walls (solid,
value = -1).

together with a pipe. The ones I made were made up of 2D arrays and look like those
depicted in first figure. In my example I used chambers that were 30 units high and 10
units wide. The pipe was 16 units high and 10 units wide. (A “unit” is the width of
11.10. PROJECTS 329

a “cell”.) Thus the entire geometry of the pipe, the two chambers and enclosing walls
could be represented by a 32 × 32 array in MATLAB. The space within the walls is
given the value “0” for vacuum and the walls are given the value “-1”.
Now, fill one of the chambers with molecules, placed randomly. In the example in
second figure, I placed 100 molecules. Note that I allowed more than 1 molecule per
cell. Each cell contains a number that represents the number of molecules within the
cell. Since MATLAB’s random number generator seeds differently every time, your
distributions will look different.

30 3.5

3
25
2.5

20 2

1.5

15
1

0.5
10

5
−0.5

−1
5 10 15 20 25 30

Figure 11.10: The left chamber filled with 100 molecules.

Now, a time-step is executed. During this time-step, each individual molecule can move
randomly in any direction by one cell, upwards, downwards, sideways, or diagonally.
If the new direction would cause the molecule to hit one of the walls, the proposed
step is invalid and a new direction should be picked randomly. If a molecule enters
the rightmost column of cells, it “sticks” to the cold wall and can no longer be moved.
The third figure shows the distribution of molecules after 2000 time-steps.
Finally, the simulation ends when all the molecules are trapped in the cold trap. The
final configuration of my example is shown in the fourth figure.
Here is what you must do to complete this problem.
330 CHAPTER 11. PROGRAMMING IN MATLAB

30
5

25
4

20
3

15 2

10 1

0
5

−1
5 10 15 20 25 30

Figure 11.11: After 2000 time steps, 73 molecules have stuck to the cold wall in the cold
trap and 27 are still “free”.
11.10. PROJECTS 331

30
7

6
25

20
4

15 3

2
10

5 0

−1
5 10 15 20 25 30

Figure 11.12: After about 8000 time-steps all the molecules have stuck to the cold wall of
the cold trap.
332 CHAPTER 11. PROGRAMMING IN MATLAB

You must write a MATLAB script M-file that does the following:
(a) Prompt the user for:
i. Chamber height and width
ii. Connecting pipe height and width.
The pipe height must be less than or equal to the chamber height and greater
than 0.
iii. The number of molecules to simulate.
(b) Display the initial geometry as in first figure.
(c) Place the molecules in the left chamber and display the initial configuration as in
the second figure.
(d) Execute the time steps until all the molecules stick to the right most wall. Display
the final configuration as in fourth figure as well as the number of time-steps it
took to do the simulation.
Some hints:
• When testing your code, use geometries with just a few cells for height and width
and just a few molecules. This will allow the simulations to complete quickly and
will test the more subtle parts of the code, the wall collisions and the action of
sticking to the cold wall.
• When testing your code, make lots of use of visual output. Put in some graph-
ical output for some or all of the time-steps with a pause statement following
the graphics instruction. For example, the third figure shows some intermediate
graphical output. This is a very valuable way of debugging the operation of your
code.
• You may need the following MATLAB function in your code (it is not mentioned
in the book!) to place the molecules randomly at the start. Using help uint32:

UINT32 Convert to unsigned 32-bit integer.

I = UINT32(X) converts the elements of the array X into unsigned
32-bit integers. X can be any numeric object (such as a DOUBLE). The
values of a UINT32 range from 0 to 4294967295. Values outside this
range are mapped to 0 or 4294967295. If X is already an unsigned
32-bit integer array, UINT32 has no effect.
.
.
.

See also ...UINT8, UINT16, INT8, INT16, INT32.

11.10. PROJECTS 333

7. Solve the universe, plane and simple

Programmers are an ambitious lot, and so this problem is to simulate the evolution of
the universe, assuming that you know the position and velocity of every object in it1 .
After solving this problem, anything else thrown at you in the rest of your career will
seem like a “piece of cake”. For simplicity we will assume that the universe is only
3-dimensional (two for space, one for time) instead of 4-dimensional and that each
object in the universe is “point-like” with mass but with no spatial dimensions, and is
travelling at a speed much less than the speed of light.
There are two parts to this problem, both to be solved with MATLAB. You can
solve them using any numerical/computational technique you like so long as you do
them with MATLAB. You must write and use a function M-file called timeStep that
“evolves” the universe over a small increment of time DT. This function and the algo-
rithms that one can use in it are described in some detail below. You will also write a
script M-file that will interrogate its user for the following inputs:

• Number of “objects” in your universe (greater or equal to 2),

• Mass of each object in kilograms,
• Starting x and y coordinates of each object in meters,
• Starting x and y velocities of each object in meters/second,
• Time alloted to each timestep, DT in seconds, and
• The total number of timesteps to devote to the evolution, NSteps.

Note that the magnitude of the velocity, sqrt(vx^2 + vy^2) must be much less than
the speed of light, 3.0e8 m/s, for the equations described below to work sensibly. So,
make sure that the input speed is less than 3.0e6. The user should be prompted
repeatedly for inputs until sensible inputs are provided.
The script M-file will also execute a loop over all the timesteps in the evolution, and
provide final graphical output. Examples of the program output will be provided below.

11.10.4 Supplementary material: Trajectories of objects in

the universe
The x and y components of acceleration (ai,x , ai,y ) felt by the i’th object in the universe
at position (xi , yi ) because of gravitational attraction to the other N − 1 objects is:
X
N
−Gmj (xi − xj )
axi =
i6=j [(xi − xj )2 + (yi − yj )2 ]3/2
1
Interestingly enough, at the dawn of the 20th century, theoretical physicists actually thought that we
could do this. Then, quantum mechanics came along and things got a lot more “uncertain”.
334 CHAPTER 11. PROGRAMMING IN MATLAB

X
N
−Gmj (yi − yj )
ayi =
i6=j [(xi − xj )2 + (yi − yj )2 ]3/2

where G is the gravitational constant (6.673 × 10−11 nt-m2 /kg2 ). Note that the sum
PN
i6=j excludes the i’th object, as an object (being point-like) does not exert any grav-
itational force on itself.

11.10.5 Supplementary material: Stepping algorithms

If we assume that any object feels a constant acceleration over a small time interval, ∆t,
then we may construct a stepping algorithm as described in the following pseudocode:

(a) Start with time t = 0.

At t = 0 the starting conditions:
xi (0), yi (0), vix (0), viy (0) for i = 1, 2, 3 · · · N
are known.
(b) Calculate the acceleration at the start of the step for each particle in the system:

X
N
−Gmj (xi (t) − xj (t))
axi (t) =
i6=j [(xi (t) − xj (t))2 + (yi (t) − yj (t))2 ]3/2
X
N
−Gmj (yi (t) − yj (t))
ayi (t) =
i6=j [(xi (t) − xj (t))2 + (yi (t) − yj (t))2 ]3/2

(c) Estimate the positions and velocities at the end of the timestep assuming constant
acceleration.

1
xi (t + ∆t) = xi (t) + vx,i (t)∆t + ax,i(t)(∆t)2
2
1
yi (t + ∆t) = yi(t) + vy,i (t)∆t + ay,i (t)(∆t)2
2
vx,i (t + ∆t) = vx,i(t) + ax,i∆t
vy,i (t + ∆t) = vx,i(t) + ay,i ∆t

(d) Increment the time at the end of the timestep, t = t + ∆t.

(e) If the total time to evolve the universe has been reached, stop. Otherwise go back
to step 2.

There are a few subtleties you will have to think about.

11.10. PROJECTS 335

• How do you make a reasonable choice for ∆t?

Basically, unless you are prepared to do a lot of extra math and physics to work
this out, you have to guess. Leave this up to the user. I’ll be happy with an
algorithm that works as described above.
• What basic inputs should I start with?
You can dream up your own universe. However, here are some astronomical facts
that you can use to set the scale of things:
– G: 6.673 × 10−11 nt-m2 /kg2
– The Sun: Mass 1.989e30 kg
– The Earth: Mass 5.9736e24 kg, Earth-Sun orbit radius 149,600,000,000 m
– The Moon: Mass 7.35e22 kg, Moon-Earth orbit radius 384,400,000 m
Velocities? Work these out for yourself assuming that the heavier partner is
stationary and the fact that the Earth goes around the Sun once per year and
the Moon goes around the Earth once per month. If you want the data on other
planets, do a little research. I found the above numbers by surfing the web.
• Is my evolution realistic?
Only in the limit that ∆t → 0. You will find that the above equations, the
longer you iterate them will increasingly violate the physical laws of the conser-
vation of energy and momentum. There appears to be no satisfactory solution to
this problem although there are better algorithms than the one presented above.
Discussion of this would take us far beyond the scope of this course.
• How do I check that my algorithm is reasonable?
Here are some suggestions:
– Set G = 0 and verify that your objects travel in straight lines.
– The two-object case has an exact mathematical solution. You can use this
to check your results. Almost every introductory physics book discusses this
solution.

Here is an example of the Earth and Moon executing one orbit around the Sun. In
this case, I used a timestep of 3600 seconds and 365.25 × 24 timesteps.
336 CHAPTER 11. PROGRAMMING IN MATLAB

x 10
5 Wobble of the Sun’s center of mass
5

1
y−axis (m)

−1

−2

−3

−4

−5
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
x−axis (m) 5
x 10

Figure 11.13: This is the wobble of the center of mass of the Sun.
11.10. PROJECTS 337

11
x 10
Earth’s orbit
2

1.5

0.5
y−axis (m)

−0.5

−1

−1.5

−2
−2 −1.5 −1 −0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
x−axis (m) 11
x 10

Figure 11.14: This is the Earth’s orbit.

338 CHAPTER 11. PROGRAMMING IN MATLAB

10
x 10
Earth and moon together
7

6.5

5.5
y−axis (m)

4.5

3.5

2.5
1.2 1.25 1.3 1.35 1.4 1.45 1.5 1.55 1.6 1.65
x−axis (m) 11
x 10

Figure 11.15: This is part of the combined orbit of the Earth and the moon.
Chapter 12

Graphics

12.1 Two Dimensional Plots

12.1.1 A basic plot

15

% Note the use of pointwise operators

10

x = linspace(-pi,pi,1000);
5
y = (x.^2).*sin(20*x) + x;
0
plot(x,y)
pause % Use a "pause" statement to stop −5

close % Closes the figure

−10

−15
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4

12.1.2 Using different line colors

% Choose from:
% b: blue
% g: green
% r: red
% c: cyan
% m: magenta
% y: yellow
% k: black
% w: white

339
340 CHAPTER 12. GRAPHICS
15

plot(x,y,’b’) % blue 10

−5

−10

−15
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4

15

plot(x,y,’g’) % green 10

−5

−10

−15
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4

15

plot(x,y,’r’) % red 10

−5

−10

−15
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4

15

plot(x,y,’c’) % cyan 10

−5

−10

−15
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
12.1. TWO DIMENSIONAL PLOTS 341
15

plot(x,y,’m’) % magenta 10

−5

−10

−15
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4

15

plot(x,y,’y’) % yellow 10

−5

−10

−15
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4

15

plot(x,y,’k’) % black 10

−5

−10

−15
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4

15

plot(x,y,’w’) % white 10

% White!!!!!
5

−5

−10

−15
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
342 CHAPTER 12. GRAPHICS

12.1.3 Making titles Plotting white on white is dumb!

15

% Titling your graph 10

plot(x,y,’w’) % white
title(’Plotting white on white is dumb!’) 5

−5

−10

−15
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4

12.1.4 Axis labels

Same boring plot!
15

% Axis labels
plot(x,y,’k’) 10

xlabel(’This is the x-axis’);

5
ylabel(’\fontsize{16}y-axis’)
y−axis

title(... 0

’\fontsize{20}\it Same boring plot!’)

−5

−10

−15
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
This is the x−axis

12.1.5 Different line styles 1

The bell shaped curve

0.9

% A different 2D example 0.8

0.7

u = linspace(-3, 3, 1000); 0.6

v = exp(-u.^2); 0.5

plot(u,v) 0.4

title(’The bell shaped curve’) 0.3

0.2

0.1

0
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
12.1. TWO DIMENSIONAL PLOTS 343

% Plotting with different line styles

% Choose from:
% - solid line (default)
% : dotted line
% -. dash-dot line
% -- dashed line
%
% syntax plot(u,v,’:’)
% Note use of different colors and line styles
1

plot(u,v,’k:’) 0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3

plot(u,v,’g-.’) 0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3

plot(u,v,’r--’) 0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
344 CHAPTER 12. GRAPHICS
1

plot(u,v,’b-’) 0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3

The logΓ(x) function

5

% Example - The LogGamma function

4

s = linspace(0.01, 6, 20);
3
t = log(gamma(s));
plot(s,t)
y

2
title(...
’\fontsize{20}The log\Gamma(x) function’) 1

xlabel(’\fontsize{20}x’)
ylabel(’\fontsize{20}y’) 0

−1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
x

12.1.6 Point plots, plotting with point symbols

% Plotting with point symbols

% Choose from:
% . point o circle
% x cross + plus sign
% * asterisk S square
% d diamond
% V triangle down ^ triangle up
% < triangle left > triangle right
% p pentagram h hexagram
%
% syntax plot(s,t,’:’)
12.1. TWO DIMENSIONAL PLOTS 345

% Note use of different colors and line styles

plot(s,t,’k:.’)
4

−1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
5

plot(s,t,’g-.o’)
4

−1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
5

plot(s,t,’r--x’)
4

−1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
346 CHAPTER 12. GRAPHICS
5

plot(s,t,’b-+’)
4

−1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

plot(s,t,’k:*’)
4

−1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

plot(s,t,’g-.S’)
4

−1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
12.1. TWO DIMENSIONAL PLOTS 347
5

plot(s,t,’r--d’)
4

−1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

plot(s,t,’b-V’)
4

−1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

plot(s,t,’k:^’)
4

−1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
348 CHAPTER 12. GRAPHICS

plot(s,t,’g>’)
4

−1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

plot(s,t,’r<’)
4

−1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

plot(s,t,’bp’)
4

−1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
12.1. TWO DIMENSIONAL PLOTS 349
5

plot(s,t,’kh’)
4

−1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

12.1.7 Plotting more than one thing at once

% More arguments to the plot function

% Changing axes limits
clear all
x = linspace(-1, 1, 30);
f0 = ones(1,length(x));
f1 = x;
f2 = (1/2)*(3*x.^2 - 1);
f3 = (1/2)*(5*x.^3 - 3*x);

plot(x,f0,’k-’,x,f1,’k:’,x,f2,’k-.*’,x,f3,’k--o’)
title(’\fontsize{20}Plotting more than one thingPlotting
on the more same
than oneplot’)
thing on the same plot
xlabel(’\fontsize{20}x’) 1
P0
P1
P2
ylabel(’\fontsize{20}y’) 0.8
P3

axis([-1,1,-1,1.1]) %[xmin,xmax,ymin,xmax] 0.6

grid on % Turn the grid on 0.4

legend(’P0’,’P1’,’P2’,’P3’) 0.2
y

−0.2

−0.4

−0.6

−0.8

−1
−1 −0.8 −0.6 −0.4 −0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
x
350 CHAPTER 12. GRAPHICS
P0
1 P1
P2
P3
0.8

% Another way 0.6

hold on % Don’t erase when drawing new plot 0.4

plot(x,f0,’k-’) 0.2

plot(x,f1,’k:’) 0

plot(x,f2,’k-.*’) −0.2

−0.4
plot(x,f3,’k--o’)
−0.6
axis([-1,1,-1,1.1]) %[xmin,xmax,ymin,xmax] −0.8

legend(’P0’,’P1’,’P2’,’P3’) −1
−1 −0.8 −0.6 −0.4 −0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

P0
1 P1
P2
P3
0.8

% Another way - matrix form 0.6

g(1,1:length(x)) = f0; 0.4

0.2
g(2,1:length(x)) = f1;
0
g(3,1:length(x)) = f2; −0.2

g(4,1:length(x)) = f3; −0.4

plot(x,g) −0.6

axis([-1,1,-1,1.1]) %[xmin,xmax,ymin,xmax] −0.8

legend(’P0’,’P1’,’P2’,’P3’) −1
−1 −0.8 −0.6 −0.4 −0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

12.1.8 Subplots

% Yet another way, subplots

subplot(2,2,1), plot(x,f0,’k-’), title(’Plot 1’)
subplot(2,2,2), plot(x,f1,’k:’), title(’Plot 2’)
subplot(2,2,3), plot(x,f2,’k-.*’), title(’Plot 3’)
subplot(2,2,4), plot(x,f3,’k--o’), title(’Plot 4’)
axis([-1,1,-1,1.1]) %[xmin,xmax,ymin,xmax]
zoom on 2
Plot 1
1
Plot 2

1.5 0.5

1 0

0.5 −0.5

0 −1
−1 −0.5 0 0.5 1 −1 −0.5 0 0.5 1

Plot 3 Plot 4
1
1

0.5
0.5

0
−0.5

−0.5 −1
−1 −0.5 0 0.5 1 −1 −0.5 0 0.5 1
12.2. THREE DIMENSIONAL GRAPHICS 351

12.2 Three dimensional graphics

12.2.1 Plot3 plots 35

30

25
% Example using plot3
20
clear all
15
t = linspace(0, 10*pi, 1000); 10

plot3(sin(t),cos(t),t) 5

0
1

0.5 1
0.5
0
0
−0.5
−0.5
−1 −1

12.2.2 Mesh plots

1

% Mesh plots
0.5

[x,y,z] = sphere(30); 0

mesh(x,y,z)
−0.5

−1
1

0.5 1
0.5
0
0
−0.5
−0.5
−1 −1

grid off % Turn off the grid

0.5

−0.5

−1
1

0.5 1
0.5
0
0
−0.5
−0.5
−1 −1
352 CHAPTER 12. GRAPHICS
1

grid on % Turn on the grid

0.5

−0.5

−1
1

0.5 1
0.5
0
0
−0.5
−0.5
−1 −1

box on % Turn on the box

0.5

−0.5

−1
1

0.5 1
0.5
0
0
−0.5
−0.5
−1 −1

box off % Turn off the box

0.5

−0.5

−1
1

0.5 1
0.5
0
0
−0.5
−0.5
−1 −1
12.2. THREE DIMENSIONAL GRAPHICS 353

12.2.3 Axis labelling

% Provide a label for the x-axis 1

xlabel(’\fontsize{20}x-axis’) 0.5

−0.5

−1
1

0.5 1
0.5
0
0
−0.5
−0.5
−1 −1
x−axis

% Provide a label for the y-axis 1

ylabel(’\fontsize{20}y-axis’) 0.5

−0.5

−1
1

0.5 1
0.5
0
0
−0.5
−0.5
−1 −1
y−axis x−axis

This is a mesh plot

% Provide a title 1

title(’\fontsize{20}This is a mesh plot’)

0.5

−0.5

−1
1

0.5 1
0.5
0
0
−0.5
−0.5
−1 −1
y−axis x−axis
354 CHAPTER 12. GRAPHICS

12.2.4 meshc and meshz plots meshc meshz

% Two other forms of mesh plots

10 10
% meshc and meshz 8

[x,y,z] = peaks(30); 5
6

subplot(1,2,1) 0
2

0
meshc(x,y,z),title(’\fontsize{20}meshc’) −2

subplot(1,2,2) −5
−4

−6
meshz(x,y,z),title(’\fontsize{20}meshz’) −10 −8
4 4

2 4 2 4
2 2
0 0
0 0
−2 −2
−2 −2
−4 −4 −4 −4

Example using surf

10

4
12.2.5 Surface plots using surf 2

−2

[x,y,z] = peaks(30); −4

−6
surf(x,y,z) −8
3
title(’\fontsize{20}Example using surf’) 2
3
1 2
0 1
−1 0
−1
−2 −2
−3 −3

Using shading flat

shading flat % Flat shading

10
title(’\fontsize{20}Using shading flat’) 8

−2

−4

−6

−8
3
2
3
1 2
0 1
−1 0
−1
−2 −2
−3 −3
12.2. THREE DIMENSIONAL GRAPHICS Using shading interp 355

shading interp % Interpolated shading 10

title(... 8

6
’\fontsize{20}Using shading interp’) 4

−2

−4

−6

−8
3
2
3
1 2
0 1
−1 0
−1
−2 −2
−3 −3

12.2.6 Surface plots using surfc Example using surfc

surfc(x,y,z) % surf with contours 10

title(’\fontsize{20}Example using surfc’)

5

−5

−10
3
2
3
1 2
0 1
−1 0
−1
−2 −2
−3 −3

12.2.7 Surface plots using surfl Example using surfl

surfl(x,y,z) % surf with lighting 10

shading interp 8

6
colormap gray 4

title(’\fontsize{20}Example using surfl’) 2

−2

−4

−6

−8
3
2
3
1 2
0 1
−1 0
−1
−2 −2
−3 −3
356 CHAPTER 12. GRAPHICS

12.2.8 Contour plots using contour 3

Example using contour

2
[x,y,z] = peaks(30);
contour(x,y,z,20) 1

title(’\fontsize{20}Example using contour’)

0

−1

−2

−3
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3

With shading interp

3

2
colorbar % Show the colorbar 4

title(’\fontsize{20}With shading interp’) 1

−1
−2

−2
−4

−3
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3

12.2.9 Contour plots using contour3 Example using contour3

contour3(x,y,z,20) 8

title(’\fontsize{20}Example using contour3’) 4

grid off 2

−2

−4

−6
3
2
3
1 2
0 1
−1 0
−1
−2 −2
−3 −3

Example using pcolor

12.2.10 Contour plots using pcolor 3 8

6
2

% Example using pcolor 4

pcolor(x,y,z) 1

colorbar % Show the colorbar 0

0
title(’\fontsize{20}Example using pcolor’)
−1
−2

−2 −4

−6
−3
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
 with shading interp
12.2. THREE DIMENSIONAL GRAPHICS 3 357 8

6
2

shading interp % Interpolated shading 4

1
title(’\fontsize{20}with shading interp’) 2

0
0

−1
−2

−2 −4

−6
−3
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3

Example using contourf

12.2.11 Contour plots using contourf 3

% Example using filled contour 4

contourf(x,y,z,12) 1
2

colorbar % Show the colorbar 0

0

title(’\fontsize{20}Example using contourf’)

−1 −2

−4
−2

−6
−3
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3

Example using contour w/labels

3

12.2.12 Contour plots with labels 1.35

2.46
2 4.69 5.8

6.91

% Example using contour with labels 1

3.57

C = contour(x,y,z,12); −1.98
0.24

1.35
clabel(C) 0
−0.872
2.46
0.24
3.57
title(... −1
2.46

’\fontsize{20}Example using contour with labels’) −1.98

−5.32
−4.21
−2
−0.872 −3.1

−3
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
358 CHAPTER 12. GRAPHICS
Chapter 13

Miscellaneous topics

13.1 Pitfall review

13.1.1 Review of for loops

This module gives some review on MATLAB’s implementation of for loops mostly by way
of example.
The general syntax of a for loop is

for k = vectorOrColumnList
% MATLAB statements
end

There are several ways of stepping through the elements of a row vector.
Example (Need vector value but not index):
The most common usage is C++-like syntax

%File: fex1.m
% For loop requiring vector value but not the index
for k = 1:3
fprintf(’k = %g\n’,k)
end
% Prints
k = 1
k = 2
k = 3

359
360 CHAPTER 13. MISCELLANEOUS TOPICS

or

%File: fex1a.m
% For loop requiring vector value but not the index
for k = 1:2:8
fprintf(’k = %g\n’,k)
end
% Prints
k = 1
k = 3
k = 5
k = 7

or

%File: fex1b.m
% For loop requiring vector value but not the index
for x = 1.0:-0.1:0.0
fprintf(’x = %g\n’,x)
end
% Prints
x = 1
x = 0.9
x = 0.8
x = 0.7
x = 0.6
x = 0.5
x = 0.4
x = 0.3
x = 0.2
x = 0.1
x = 0

or

%File: fex1c.m
% For loop requiring vector value but not the index
theta = linspace(0,90,3);
for thetai = theta
fprintf(’theta = %g\n’,thetai)
end
% Prints
13.1. PITFALL REVIEW 361

theta = 0
theta = 45
theta = 90

Example (Need vector value and index):

%File: fex2.m
% For loop requiring vector value and the index
v = linspace(0,250,3);
for i = 1:length(v)
fprintf(’velocity(%g) = %g\n’,i,v(i))
end
% Prints
velocity(1) = 0
velocity(2) = 125
velocity(3) = 250

Example (Nested for loops):

%File: fex3.m
% Nested for loops
theta = linspace(0,90,2);
v = linspace(0,250,2);
for thetai = theta
fprintf(’theta = %g\n’,thetai)
for i = 1:length(v)
fprintf(’velocity(%g) = %g\n’,i,v(i))
end
end
% Prints
theta = 0
velocity(1) = 0
velocity(2) = 250
theta = 90
velocity(1) = 0
velocity(2) = 250

Example (when the index is a column vector):

%File: fex4.m
% For loop where the index is a column vector
362 CHAPTER 13. MISCELLANEOUS TOPICS

a = [1 2 3
4 5 6];
[rows,columns] = size(a);
fprintf(’a is a %g x %g matrix\n’,rows,columns)
for b = a
disp(b);
disp(’-------’)
end
% Prints
a is a 2 x 3 matrix
1
4
-------
2
5
-------
3
6
-------

Note in this example that b is a new column vector on each iteration of the loop.

13.1.2 Review of functions

Some detail is given in Chapter 13 of Austin and Chancogne. However, the definitive ref-
erence for this course is given in the Chapter 11 that was handed out and is on the web.
This lecture gives some review on MATLAB’s implementation of functions mostly by way
of example.
Recall:
The general syntax of the function definition is to have a separate file called functionName.m
that has the following form:

function [out1,out2,...,outN] = functionName(in1,in2,...inM)

%FUNCTIONNAME A brief one line description (optional)
% .
% .
% More description (optional)
% .
% .
% .
13.1. PITFALL REVIEW 363

% First executable statement follows this line

.
.
.
% Valid executable MATLAB statements and comments
.
.
.
% Last line in functionName, control reverts to calling M-file or command window

The function call is made with the following statement:

[out1,out2,...,outN] = functionName(in1,in2,...inM)

Functions with no input or output arguments

Here’s a function called noEvil.m that does nothing except printing something silly:

function noEvil
%NOEVIL noEvil is a function that does nothing
%
% ENG101 class example

%File: noEvil.m
disp(’See no evil’)
disp(’Hear no evil’)
disp(’Do no evil’)
disp(’A function that does absolutely nothing’)

Functions with one output argument

Here’s a function called square.m computes the square of its argument:

function a2 = square(a)
%SQUARE square is a function that squares an argument
%
% It can accept scalars, vectors or matrices
%
% ENG101 class example

%File: square.m
a2 = a.^2;
364 CHAPTER 13. MISCELLANEOUS TOPICS

and some examples of its use on a scalar, a vector, a matrix and the element of a matrix:

>> square(2)
ans = 4

>> y = linspace(0,10,11)
y = 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
>> square(y)
ans = 0 1 4 9 16 25 36 49 64 81 100

>> x = round(10*rand(4))
x = 5 10 3 2
2 7 4 8
6 4 9 6
3 7 7 1

>> square(x)
ans = 25 100 9 4
4 49 16 64
36 16 81 36
9 49 49 1

>> x(3,3) = square(x(3,3))

x = 5 10 3 2
2 7 4 8
6 4 81 6
3 7 7 1

>> z = square(x(2,2))
z = 49

Functions with more than one output argument

Here’s a function called squareCube.m computes the square of its argument:

function [a2,a3] = squareCube(a)

%SQUARECUBE squareCube is a function that squares and cubes its argument
%
%
% It can accept scalars, vectors or matrices
%
13.1. PITFALL REVIEW 365

% ENG101 class example

%File: squareCube.m
a2 = a.^2;
a3 = a.^3;

and some examples of its use on a scalar, a vector and a matrix:

>> squareCube(2)
ans = 4
>> [u,v] = squareCube(2)
u = 4
v = 8

>> y = linspace(0,10,11)
y = 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
>> squareCube(y)
ans = 0 1 4 9 16 25 36 49 64 81 100
>> [u,v] = squareCube(y)
u = 0 1 4 9 16 25 36 49 64 81 100
v = 0 1 8 27 64 125 216 343 512 729 1000

>> x = round(10*rand(4))
x = 10 9 8 9
2 8 4 7
6 5 6 2
5 0 8 4
>> squareCube(x)
ans = 100 81 64 81
4 64 16 49
36 25 36 4
25 0 64 16
>> [u,v] = squareCube(x)
u = 100 81 64 81
4 64 16 49
36 25 36 4
25 0 64 16
v = 1000 729 512 729
8 512 64 343
216 125 216 8
125 0 512 64
366 CHAPTER 13. MISCELLANEOUS TOPICS

>> [a,b] = squareCube(x(2,2))

a = 64
b = 512

Note that if you want to employ all the outputs you have to assign them, else only the
first output is displayed. These functions work on scalars, vectors, matrices and elements of
matrices.

Subordinate functions

Let’s rewrite squareCube.m in the following way:

function [a2,a3] = squareCallsCube(a)

%SQUARECALLSCUBE squareCallsCube is a function that .^2’s and .^3’s its argument
%
% squareCallsCube calls a subordinate function called cube.m
% It can accept scalars, vectors or matrices
%
% ENG101 class example

%File: squareCallsCube.m
a2 = a.^2;
a3 = cube(a);
return

function c = cube(b)
c = b.^3;

squareCallsCube.m works the same way as if you had called squareCube.m. However, the
function cube.m is only known to the function squareCallsCube.m.

>> cube(a)
??? Undefined function or variable ’cube’.

>> help cube

cube.m not found.

>>
13.2. THE MATLAB WAY 367

13.2 The MATLAB way

One of the most important things to remember is that MATLAB is organized around the
variable type of two-dimensional arrays of doubles. Hence, MATLAB’s intrinsic functions
are optimized to use this variable type. If you are making use of this aspect of MATLAB,
you are doing things “the MATLAB way”.
If you are not (and could be), then your application will almost certainly run slower.
For example, let’s consider a temperature diffusion problem. (Examples of a heat diffu-
sion calcuation in 1 dimension is given in the example codes ironbarPointJacobi.m and
ironbarGaussSeidel.m. A 2-dimensional example may be found in the example codes
heat.m, heatSlow.m, and heatFast.m) The part of the algorithm that takes all the time is:

for i = 2:N-1
for j = 2:N-1
T(i,j) = 0.25*(oldT(i-1,j) + oldT(i+1,j) + oldT(i,j-1) + oldT(i,j+1));
end
end

Here is a faster solution obtained by using the intrinsic matrix operations of MATLAB. The
essential change is made by converting the for loops to
and changing them to

T(2:N-1,2:N-1) = 0.25* ...

( ...
oldT(1:N-2,2:N-1) + oldT(3:N,2:N-1) + oldT(2:N-1,1:N-2) + oldT(2:N-1,3:N) ...
);

This will be demonstrated in lecture on a related problem. The speedup is highly dependent
on computer architecture. On the laptop the typical speedup is a factor of only about 2 for
a 50 by 50 array of temperature. On a high-end workstation, I’ve obtained as high as 30
times faster.

13.3 Selected Applications

13.3.1 Free fall with air resistance

Let’s consider another trajectory problem that we will solve using the stepping method.
Consider taking an object at some height, y0 and dropping it with zero velocity, v0 = 0.
368 CHAPTER 13. MISCELLANEOUS TOPICS

This is a one-dimensional problem and can be solved completely with equations. However,
we will execute a computer solution as a model for solving more complex problems, like
trajectories of baseballs. The air resistance on a baseball is very significant. If there were no
air resistance, the longest home runs (about 600 feet or so) would travel half a mile!
The acceleration on the object is:
a = Dv 2 − G (13.1)
where D is the drag and G is the acceleration due to gravity.
We can “solve” this in a formal fashion as follows:
Z t Z t0
0
y(t) = y0 + v0 t + dt dt00 a[v(t00 )] (13.2)
0 0

In fact, even if a were dependent on position y and time t we could write a formal solution
as: Z t Z t0
0
y(t) = y0 + v0 t + dt dt00 a[y(t00 ), v(t00 ), t00 ] (13.3)
0 0

But, this is a formal solution only and does not lead to any practical answers, only methods
of attack on this problem.
One such attack on the problem is to divide the integral above over a set of time interval ∆t
and set up an iterative equation as follows.

Z ti−1 +∆t Z t0
0
yi = yi−1 + vi−1 ∆t + dt dt00 a[y(t00 ), v(t00 ), t00 ] (13.4)
ti−1 ti−1

which is still exact. However, if we make the approximation that the acceleration is constant
over the step, that is

ai [y(t00), v(t00 ), t00 ] ≈ ai [y(ti−1 ), v(ti−1 ), ti−1 ] (13.5)

we get
1
yi ≈ yi−1 + vi−1 ∆t + ai [y(ti−1), v(ti−1 ), ti−1 ]∆t2 (13.6)
2
and an algorithm that we can program:

1. Set initial conditions y0 , v0 at t = 0.

2. Initialize a counter i = 1.

3. Increment the counter i = i + 1

4. Calculate the acceleration ai [y(ti−1 ), v(ti−1 ), ti−1 ]

5. Take a small step yi = yi−1 + vi−1 ∆t + 12 ai [y(ti−1 ), v(ti−1 ), ti−1 ]∆t2

13.3. SELECTED APPLICATIONS 369

6. Calculate the new velocity vi = ai [y(ti−1 ), v(ti−1 ), ti−1 ]∆t

7. Update the time ti = ti−1 + ∆t

8. Go back to step 3 unless some stopping criterion is reached.

Note that two-dimensional problems are not really more complicated. There would just be
more variables to carry around.
Now the central question arises.
How small should I make ∆t?????
The answer to THIS question is the art of computer programming and lies at the heart of the
general field of “Numerical Methods”. The field of “Numerical Methods” is also concerned
with developing better and faster techniques for solving problems than by the “brute force”
method outlined above. However, for this problem, we can more or less guarantee that our
results are good if the acceleration changes very little over a time step, namely

da
∆t  a (13.7)
dt

At this point, let’s simplify the discussion and consider just our problem. If we apply the
above condition to the problem we get

1
∆t  (13.8)
2Dv

Does this make sense? It does! If there is no drag, D = 0, and we can make ∆t anything we
like! This is because with no drag there is constant acceleration and we don’t have to make
the steps small to get an accurate solution! (We have to be careful that we do not violate
our stopping criterion, however. More on this later.)
What if the v is small? In this case we can set ∆t to be large because the drag is not affecting
the motion very much. If D and/or v are large enough such that Dv is large, we had better
use small time steps because drag forces are strongly affecting the trajectory.
How do we know how to set ∆t for our problem? The greater the velocity, the greater care
we have to take by setting smaller time steps. The greatest velocity we can reach with our
problem is called the “terminal” velocity. This is when the drag force and the acceleration
force exactly balance each other and there is no net acceleration. For free fall with air
resistance, this velocity is
s
G
vT = (13.9)
D
For our baseball the terminal velocity is something like 129 ft/s.
370 CHAPTER 13. MISCELLANEOUS TOPICS

This is the upper limit of the velocity and so we are conservative by saying that
1
∆t  √ (13.10)
2 DG
or ∆t  2.
How much smaller than 2 shall we make ∆t? Usually as small as you can get away with!
If you want the error to be of the order of 1% or less, you should set it to something below
0.02 seconds. At least we have some indication from a simple analysis.
Now we implement the algorithm with MATLAB coding. Here is what the essential working
part of the algorithm would look like:

y = 1000; % Starts at 1000 feet

v = 0 ; % with 0 velocity
while (y > 0)
a = D*v^2 - G; % Acceleration at beginning of step
y = y + v*dT + 0.5*a*dT^2; % Position at end of the step
v = v + a*dT; % Velocity at end of the step
end

Here’s what the complete code would look like. It gives some example of organization and
plotting:

%File: drag.m
clear % Clears variables
echo off % Turns off echo
clc % Clears the screen

G = 32.174; % Force due to gravity

D = 0.0019285; % Drag on a baseball
dT = 10; % Initial time step

vT = sqrt(G/D); % Terminal velocity

fprintf(’Terminal velocity is %g ft/s\n’,vT)

while dT > 0

dT = input(’What delta time to use (0 or less to stop)? >’);

fprintf(’ Using dT = %g\n’,dT)
if dT <= 0
return % dT <= 0 used as an input sentinel
13.3. SELECTED APPLICATIONS 371

end

y = 1000; % Starts at 1000 feet

v = 0 ; % with 0 velocity

index = 1; % Index into the counting arrays

Y = y; V = v; T = 0; % Plotting arrays

while (y > 0)
a = D*v^2 - G; % Acceleration at beginning of step
y = y + v*dT + 0.5*a*dT^2; % Position at end of the step
v = v + a*dT; % Velocity at end of the step

% Plotting arrays
index = index + 1;
Y(index) = y;
V(index) = v;
T(index) = T(index - 1) + dT;
end

subplot(1,2,1)
zoom on
hold on
plot(T,Y,’-’)
title(’y as a function of t’)
xlabel(’time (s)’)
ylabel(’height (ft)’)

subplot(1,2,2)
zoom on
hold on
plot(T,V,’-’)
title(’v as a function of t’)
xlabel(’time (s)’)
ylabel(’height (ft/s)’)

fprintf(’Final velocity = %g\n’,V(end));

end

When we run this code, as demonstrated in class, we see that the trajectory always “over-
372 CHAPTER 13. MISCELLANEOUS TOPICS

shoots”. We always end up with a negative y at the end. We have to make ∆t very small to
get the final position close to zero. We can fix this problem relatively easily.
What we can do is check to see if the ∆t we are about to use will cause an overshoot and if
it will, to truncate it accordingly.
How do we truncate it? Recall that we are assuming that the acceleration over the course
of the step is constant. If that is so, we can calculate the ∆t required to bring it exactly to
zero. It must satisfy the quadratic equation:
1
0 = yi−1 + vi−1 ∆t + ai [y(ti−1 ), v(ti−1 ), ti−1 ]∆t2 (13.11)
2
You can solve this with the quadratic equation and convince yourselves that the solution is:

dT = -(v + sqrt(v^2 - 2*y*a))/a;

Here is the new working part of the algorithm incorporating this idea. (See the example
code drag0.m.)

y = 1000; % Starts at 1000 feet

v = 0 ; % with 0 velocity

while (y > 0)
a = D*v^2 - G; % Acceleration at beginning of step
yTest = y + v*dT + 0.5*a*dT^2; % Position at end of the step
if yTest < 0
% Handle the overshoot
dT = -(v + sqrt(v^2 - 2*y*a))/a;
y = 0;
else
y = yTest;
end
v = v + a*dT; % Velocity at end of the step
end

So now we have a trajectory that always ends in the right place and an algorithm that is
guaranteed to get us close to the right answer. We are now a long way towards solving more
complicated problems, like two-dimensional trajectories of baseballs.

13.3.2 Diffusion of charged ions in an electric field

This is the problem of positive and negative ions created somehow (like a pulse of radiation)
in a gas drifting in opposite directions under the influence of a constant electric field. Run
13.3. SELECTED APPLICATIONS 373

the following code called ion.m that resides in the classcodes area. Note how the leading
edge is more populated with ions than the trailing edges since the longer an ion spends in
the vicinity of ions of opposite charge the greater the chance that it will “recombine’ and
neutralize.

%File: ion.m
clear all
echo off
clc

NSteps = 100;
NIon = 2000;

for i = 1:NIon
x1(i) = rand; y1(i) = rand;
x2(i) = rand; y2(i) = rand;
end

plot(x1,y1,’b*’,x2,y2,’r*’)
axis([-1 2 0 1])
axis off
title(’\fontsize{20}Initial configuration’)
pause

for time = 1:NSteps + 3*sqrt(NSteps)

for i = 1:NIon

if (rand < 2/NSteps & x1(i) < 1)

y1(i) = -100;
end
theta = 2*pi*rand;
x1(i) = x1(i) + (1 + cos(theta))*0.5/NSteps;
y1(i) = y1(i) + sin(theta)*0.5/NSteps;

if (rand < 2/NSteps & x2(i) > 0)

y2(i) = -100;
end
theta = 2*pi*rand;
x2(i) = x2(i) - (1 - cos(theta))*0.5/NSteps;
y2(i) = y2(i) + sin(theta)*0.5/NSteps;

end
374 CHAPTER 13. MISCELLANEOUS TOPICS

plot(x1,y1,’b*’,x2,y2,’r*’)
axis([-1 2 0 1])
axis off
title(’\fontsize{20}\leftarrow +ions | -ions\rightarrow’)
pause(0.01)
end

13.3.3 Calculation of Electric fields

Constant electric fields as employed in the problem above are really fictional. In this sim-
ulation we mock-up a realistic electric field situation. Run the following code called phi.m
that resides in the classcodes area. Note how strong the electric field is near the insulator.
(It helps to have come to class get the full description of this problem!)

%File: phi.m
clear all
echo off
clc

N = input(’Number of cells = N x N. Input N: ’)

delta = input(’Convergence criterion delta: ’)

V = zeros(N);
V(1,N/2:N) = 1000;
V(N,N/2:N) = 1000;
V(:,N) = 1000;

oldV = V;

change = 10;

tic

counter = 0;
while(change > delta)
V(2:N-1,2:N-1) = ...
0.25*( ...
V(1:N-2,2:N-1) + V(3:N,2:N-1) + V(2:N-1,1:N-2) + V(2:N-1,3:N) ...
);
difference = abs(V - oldV);
13.3. SELECTED APPLICATIONS 375

change = sum(sum(difference))/(N^2);
counter = counter + 1;
if mod(counter,100) == 0
fprintf(’Interation %g, average change = %g\n’,counter,change)
end
oldV = V;
end

toc

pcolor(1:N,1:N,V);
shading interp;
xlabel(’\fontsize{20}X-grid’);
ylabel(’\fontsize{20}Y-grid’);
title(’\fontsize{20}Voltage in the chamber’);

pause

figure

[Ex,Ey] = gradient(V);
E = sqrt(Ex.^2 + Ey.^2);
warning off
pcolor(1:N,1:N,log(E));
shading interp;
xlabel(’\fontsize{20}X-grid’);
ylabel(’\fontsize{20}Y-grid’);
title(...
’\fontsize{20}Mag. of electric field in the chamber’);

pause

figure

surf(1:N,1:N,log(E));
shading interp;
xlabel(’\fontsize{20}X-grid’);
ylabel(’\fontsize{20}Y-grid’);
title(...
’\fontsize{20}Mag. of electric field in the chamber’);
376 CHAPTER 13. MISCELLANEOUS TOPICS

13.4 Summary of the Course

By now you are conversant in two languages, C++ and MATLAB. You have noted the
differences between them. C++ is hard to make work properly. It is a powerful, general-
purpose language that runs numerical calculations very fast.
MATLAB is specialized for engineering-type problems. It has lots of engineering-type utility
built in and has very nice plotting capabilities, particularly in 3 dimensions. It is easy to get
an application “up and running”, but it is relatively slow for large-scale problems.
Not every computer language is suitable for every purpose. Here’s how a research scientist
would use both of these computer languages to their best advantage.

1. Design a computer algorithm in pseudo-code

2. Convert it to MATLAB

3. Debug the concept of the algorithm using MATLAB

4. Develop graphics output to interpret results

5. Develop a set of test problems that can be completed by MATLAB in a reasonable

time.

6. When the MATLAB version is acceptable, re-code the algorithm in C++ starting with
the MATLAB code.

7. Run the same set of test problems using the C++ code.

8. Make sure that the C++ results and the MATLAB results of test problems are iden-
tical.

9. When the C++ code passes the tests, increase array size or introduce sufficient com-
plexity to solve the problem you really want to solve.

10. Have C++ write data arrays that MATLAB can read in an display, using MATLAB’s
excellent graphics capabilities.

11. Publish results!

The upshot is that both ways of doing it has its strengths and weaknesses. Why not use
both?
Chapter 14

Programming Style Guide for C++

Programming Style Guide for C++

This programming style guide is a set of mandatory requirements for C++ code layout. These
stylistic “laws” are not made for arbitrary reasons. Experience teaches that conforming to
this style, more or less standard through the industry with few exceptions, makes code easy
to maintain and allows it to be read less painfully by others. This style guide is mandatory
for ENG101, and can only be relaxed under specific instructions from GSI’s and Prof’s.
In summary, the style guide is summarizes as:

• Indent 3 spaces relative to the preceding for every new nesting level. Curly brackets
must always align vertically. Example,

int main(void)
{
int i = 0, k = 1;
if (i < k)
{ int temp = i;
i = k;
k = temp;
if (0 == k)
{ i = i*i;
k = -i;
}
}
return 0;
}

377
378 CHAPTER 14. PROGRAMMING STYLE GUIDE FOR C++

• Variable and function names are in lowercase, terse but descriptive, enough information
conveyed within the programming context, with capital letters to start new words
internal to the identifier. Example,

numStuds = 211;
degToRad = 180/PI;

Don’t overdo it! Bad example,

numberOfStudentsInTheENG101Setion200Class = 211;
conversionFactorForDegreesToRadians = 180/PI;

The first encouter with a variable merits a short comment unless the meaning is com-
pletely obvious. Example,

numStuds = 211; //Number of students in the ENG101 Section 200 class

degToRad = 180/PI; //Conversion factor for degrees to radians.

• Never use underscores in function and variable names. Bad example,

this_variable_name_is_difficult_to_type = 211;
cute_______________but_dumb = true;

• Constant names should be in uppercase. Leading underscores are forbidden. Under-

scores in the middle or acceptable although dicouraged. Example,

const float PI = 3.14159;

const float EULER_CONSTANT = 0.577216;

• Variable should be initialized near where they are first used and should only be defined
within the scope for which they are relevant. Examples,

const int SIZE = 10;

float x[SIZE], y[SIZE];
for (int i = 0; i < SIZE; i = i + 1) // i only needed with scope of for loop
{ x[i] = 0;
y[i] = 0;
}

float z[SIZE] = {0};

int i; // i needed outside scope of for loop
for (i = 0; i < rand()%SIZE; i = i + 1) z[i] = 1;
cout << "The first " << i << " elements of y were set to one.\n";
 379

• There are spaces before and after the binary operators =, +, -, ==, !=, <, <=, >, >=, &&
and ||. Examples,

float result = x + y - z; //Good

float result=x+y-z; //Bad

• There are no spaces before and after the binary operators *, /, and %. There is no
space following the unary operators - and !. Examples,

float result = x*y + z; //Good

bool decision = ! go; //Bad

• No hardwired constants!
Bad example:

int a[10][10]
for (i = 0; i == 9; i = i + 1)
for (j = 0; j == 9; j = j + 1)
a[i][j] = 1;

Good example:

const int SIZE = 10;

int a[SIZE][SIZE]
for (i = 0; i < SIZE; i = i + 1)
for (j = 0; j < SIZE; j = j + 1)
a[i][j] = 1;

• Functions should be small enough so that they fit on the screen. That’s about 30 lines
of code.

• The use of goto, break and continue is disallowed.

• Use of non-constant global variables is discouraged.

C++ Code layout

Every C++ file, including main() is laid out as follows:

• Header comment block

380 CHAPTER 14. PROGRAMMING STYLE GUIDE FOR C++

• #include statements

• Constants

• Global variables

• Functions, with own headers. Function prototypes are optional unless required by
ordering constraints.

Here is an example of code layout:

 381

// HEADER COMMENTS GO AT THE TOP ************************************

/********************************************************************
Copyright (C): University of Michigan
Project: ENG101/200 - Class example
File: C++example.cpp
Purpose: Coding example to show code layout
Compiler: g++
Programmer: Alex Bielajew
Start Date: 01/18/01
*********************************************************************/

// INCLUDE statements ***********************************************

#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

// CONSTANTS ********************************************************

// No constants in this example

// GLOBAL VARIABLES *************************************************

// No global variables in this example

// FUNCTIONS ********************************************************

float pow(float x, int n)

/*********************************************************************
Purpose: Calculate the integral power of a float using the algorithm
of al-Kashi
Receives: "x" which is to be raised to the power "n"
Returns: a float, the result of x raised to the power n
*********************************************************************/

{ float result; // The result of the calculation

//An implementation of the al-Kashi algorithm

if (0 > n)
{ n = -n;
382 CHAPTER 14. PROGRAMMING STYLE GUIDE FOR C++

x = 1/x;
}

result = 1;
while(1 <= n)
{ if (0 == n % 2)
{ n = n/2;
x = x*x;
}
else
{ n = n - 1;
result = result*x;
}
}
return result;
}
 383

int main(void)

/*********************************************************************
Purpose: To prompt the user for a float x and and int n and call a
function that computes x to the power of n
*********************************************************************/

{ cout << "A calculation of x (float) to the power of n (int) \n";

float x; // The float to be raised to a power

int n; // Power to be raised to
cout << "Input x (float) and n (int): ";
cin >> x >> n;

float result; // The result of the calculation

result = pow(x,n);

cout << x << " to the power " << n << " = " << result << "\n";

return(0);
}
384 CHAPTER 14. PROGRAMMING STYLE GUIDE FOR C++
Chapter 15

Syntax reference for beginning C++

4 Bit Computer Arithmetic

BINARY HEX UNSIGNED SIGNED BINARY ARITHMETIC (BASE 2) i (integer), ~i (bit-complement of the integer)
0000 0 0 0 0000 + ? = ? + 0000 = ? The integer 5 in 4 bit binary is 0101
0001 1 1 1 0001 + 0001 = 0010 The complement of 5 is ~5 = 1010
0010 2 2 2 0010 + 0001 = 0001 + 0010 = 0011 5 + ~5 = 0101 + 1010 = 1111
0011 3 3 3 0011 + 0001 = 0100 5 + ~5 + 1 = 1111 + 0001 = 0000
0100 4 4 4 0010 + 0010 = 0100 -i = ~i (bit-compliment of i) + 1
0101 5 5 5 0001 * ? = ? * 0001 = ? -5 = ~5 + 1
0110 6 6 6 0010 * 0011 = 0110 1011 = 1010 + 0001
0111 7 7 7 0011 * 0011 = 1001
1000 8 8 -8
1001 9 9 -7
1010 A 10 -6
1011 B 11 -5
1100 C 12 -4
1101 D 13 -3
1110 E 14 -2
1111 F 15 -1

32 Bit Computer Arithmetic

BINARY HEX UNSIGNED SIGNED i = 00000000000000000000000000010001
00000000000000000000000000000000 00000000 0 0 ~i = 11111111111111111111111111101110
00000000000000000000000000000001 00000001 1 1
00000000000000000000000000000010 00000002 2 2 i 00000000000000000000000000010001
... ... ... ... + ~i = + 11111111111111111111111111101110
00000000000000000000000000001111 0000000F 15 15 ---- ----------------------------------
00000000000000000000000000010000 00000010 16 16 11111111111111111111111111111111
00000000000000000000000000010001 00000011 17 17
... ... ... ...
01111111111111111111111111111111 7FFFFFFF 2,147,483,647 2,147,483,647
10000000000000000000000000000000 80000000 2,147,483,648 -2,147,483,648
... ... ... ...
11111111111111111111111111111110 FFFFFFFE 4,294,967,264 -2
11111111111111111111111111111111 FFFFFFFF 4,294,967,265 -1

385
386 CHAPTER 15. SYNTAX REFERENCE FOR BEGINNING C++

Algorithms and Pseudocodes

An Algorithm is a set of simple (i.e. well-defined) instructions to be carried out in sequence to accomplish some task. It
has a start and a stop and can execute bramches and loops.

A Pseudocode is a way of expressing the actions and ordering to be taken place on a computer in an exact yet informal
way, without details or syntax of a particular computer language.

e.g. IF such-and-such THEN DO

this-and-that
OTHERWISE DO
something-else

Order of Precedence Logical Expressions

OPERATOR ASSOCIATIVITY
() left to right
* / % left to right
+ - left to right
< <= > >= left to right T && T = T, T && F = F, F && T = F, F && F = F
== != left to right T || T = T, T || F = T, F || T = T, F || F = F
&& left to right !T = F, !F = T
|| left to right False is the same as 0, True is anything else
= right to left
 387

If/Else
if(logical expression 1) • else if’s are optional

{ STATEMENT BODY 1 • else is optional independent of the existence of else if’s

} • If there is only one statement in the statement body, you

else if(logical expression 2) may ignore the {}, but for clarity it is better to keep them

{ STATEMENT BODY 2

// more else if’s if needed

else

{ STATEMENT BODY N

Loops
While

while(logical expression) • If the logical expression is False the first

{ STATEMENT BODY time, the statement body is never executed

} • If the logical expression is always True, then

you have an infinite loop

Do/While

do • The statement body is evaluated once before

{ STATEMENT BODY the logical expression is evaluated at all

}while(logical expression); • Do NOT forget the ; at the end

For

for(expression 1; logical expression; expression2) • expression 1 is optional

{ STATEMENT BODY • logical expression is optional

} • expression 2 is optional

• ;; are not optional

• for(;;){} is an infinite loop

Example Programs
CODE OUTPUT CODE OUTPUT

#include<iostream> 1 #include<iostream> 1
388 CHAPTER 15. SYNTAX REFERENCE FOR BEGINNING C++

using namespace std; 2 using namespace std; 2

3 int main(void) 3
int main(void) 4 { int j = 0; 4
{ int i; 5 5
for(i = 1; i <= 10; i = i + 1) 6 do 6
cout << i << "\n"; 7 { j = j + 1; 7
8 cout << j << "\n"; 8
return 0; 9 }while (j <= 10); 9
} 10 cout << j << "\n"; 10
return 0; 11
} 11

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main(void) i is 2. j is -2.
{ int i = 2,j = -2; i is 1. j is -1.
while(j <= i)
{ if(j < 0 )
{ cout << "i is " << i <<". "
<< "j is " << j << ".\n";
i = i - 1;
}
j = j + 1;
}
return 0;
}
Chapter 16

Syntax reference for more advanced

C++

Addresses
The address of a variable is its location in memory—typically some number from between 0 and 232 − 1.

The address of a variable is obtained with the unary & operator.

The piece of code {int i; cout << &i << "\n";} should be read as “i is declared an int. Print the address of i in hexadecimal
format.”.

Functions, call by value, call by reference

There are two important things to remember for functions (1. The function definition, and 2., The function call):

The function definition is written at the top of the C++ file outside of main or any other function. A function definition
must be given before any code that uses the function via a function call. Generic syntax:

[void|int|float|...] functionName(variable type & name list separated by ","’s){C++ code}

Examples: int function1(int a, float b){int c;...;return c;}

void function2(int& c, float& d){...;return;}
Note: Variable types and names in parameters lists of function definitions MUST BE INCLUDED.
If the return value is NOT void, the function must return the correct variable type.
If the return value IS void, the return; is OPTIONAL.
Functions can “return” at most ONE VARIABLE.

The function call is made inside of main or another function. Generic syntax:

[variable =] functionName(variable name list separated by ","’s);+

Example: int a,c;float b;...;c = function1(a, b);

Note: Variable names in parameters lists of function calls MUST BE INCLUDED.

Variable types in parameters lists of function calls MUST NOT BE INCLUDED.

389
390 CHAPTER 16. SYNTAX REFERENCE FOR MORE ADVANCED C++

Function call by value means that the parameter list of the function definition contains values. Example:

float function1(int c, float d){return d/c;} // function definition

x = function1(a, b); // function call

Note:Copies of these values are made available to the function. These are lost when the function returns.

Function call by reference means that the parameter list of the function defnition contains addresses. Example:

function2(int& c, float& d){d = d/c;} // function definition

function2(a, b); // function call

Note: Functions called by reference can change the contents of the addresses that are made available to the
function in the reference list.

Vectors
Using vectors
#include <vector> // Must be included in the pre-processor area
Note: Vectors are a “class” defined in standard C++

Declaring vector<int> vectorName(10); // An int vector called vectorName of size 10;

Note: Vectors are initialized to 0 when they are declared.

Accessing vector elements

for(i = 0; i < 10; i = i + 1){vectorName[i] = i + 1}; // for loop assigns all elements of vectorName

i = vectorName[0]; // i is assigned 1st element of vector vectorName

vectorName[9] = i; // The last (10th) element of vector vectorName is assigned the value of i

Note the “off-by-one” syntax in the above three examples

Passing vector to functions

double function1(vector<double> b){...} // Typical definition for call-by-value

vector<double> a(10);...;x = function1(a); // Typical call-by-value
double function2(vector<double>& d){...} // Typical definition for call-by-reference
vector<double> c(10);...;x = function2(c); // Typical call-by-reference

Vector class functions

vector<double> a(10);cout << a.size(); // Prints the size of the a vector

vector<float> b(10);b.pop_back(); // Reduces the size of the b vector by one to size 9
vector<int> c(10); int d = 42; c.push_back(d); // Increases the size of the c vector by one to size 11,
// with value of int d in the last vector element

Two dimensional (2D) arrays

Declaring int arrayName[2][3]; // Array called arrayName of size 2 rows by 3 columns

Declaring and initializing

int arrayName[2][3] = {{1,2,3},{4,5,6}}; // Initialize all the elements of arrayName;

int arrayName[2][3] = {{1,2,3}}; // Initialize the first row of arrayName, rest to zero;
 391

int arrayName[2][3] = {0}; // Initialize all the elements of arrayName to zero;

Accessing array elements

// for loops below assign all elements of arrayName

for(i = 0; i < 2; i = i + 1) for(j = 0; j < 3; j = j + 1) arrayName[i][j] = 3*i + j;

i = arrayName[0][2]; // i is assigned 1st row/3rd column element of array arrayName

arrayName[1][1] = i; // The last 2nd row/2nd column element of array arrayName is assigned the value of i

Note the “off-by-one” syntax in the above three examples

Note: arrayName is the address of arrayName[0][0], that is, arrayName is the same as &arrayName[0][0]

Passing 2D arrays to functions Remember that an array name is the address of the start of the array

// Note that column dimension must be specified below

void function(double b[][3], int rowSize, int columnSize){...} // Typical definition

double a[2][3];...;function(a); // Typical call

Note that that the column size (second index) must be known by the function!

Characters and strings

char’s are one-byte integers, strings are arrays of chars that includes a special ending character

Declaring a character char ch; // Declares a character;

Declaring and initializing a character

char ch = ’a’; // Declares a character called ch and initializes it to ’a’. Note single quotes.

Declaring a string string name; // Declares a string

Declaring and initializing a character string

string name = "Albert Einstein"; // Declares a string

Note the use of double quotes in assigning strings.

Printing strings

string name = "Barry Manilow"; cout << name;

Structures
are compound data types. Structures have to be: 1) defined, 2) declared, 3) initialized, 4) used.

Defining a structure
struct AgeAndHeight {int age; float height;}; // Structure tag AgeAndHeight with an int and a float;

Declaring a struct

struct AgeAndHeight Wilma; // Declares Wilma as an AgeAndHeight struct and initializes it

Declaring and initializing a character

struct AgeAndHeight Wilma = {26,65.5}; // Declares Wilma as an AgeAndHeight struct and initializes it

Referencing struct elements

392 CHAPTER 16. SYNTAX REFERENCE FOR MORE ADVANCED C++

Wilma.age = 27; // Wilma’s age is assigned the value 27

printf("Wilma’s height is: %f\n",Wilma.height); // Prints Wilma’s height

Struct vectors

vector<struct AgeAndHeight> theFlintstones(4); // A vector of struct’s of the AgeAndHeight type

cout << theFlintstones[0].height; // Prints the height of 1st element

Struct arrays

struct AgeAndHeight townOfBedrock[100][5]; // A array of struct’s of the AgeAndHeight type

Struct vectors and arrays are passed to functions in the same way as the standard variable types.

Recursion
Functions can call themselves. Factorial example:
int factorial(int n)
{ if (0 == n) return 1;
else return (n * factorial(n - 1));
}

The guidelines are:

• Successive calls to functions should represent progressively simpler cases. (For example, (N − 1)! is “simpler” than N !)
• There is an end to the recursion, the “base case”, that does not involve a recursive call. (For example 0! = 1) Not doing this
will lead to a program or computer crash.
• If a function calls itself more than once, and the “nesting level” gets deep, the calculation can be very inefficient.
Chapter 17

Syntax reference for MATLAB

MATLAB Workspace and Variables

The basic variable type in MATLAB is a two-dimensional array of doubles (64-bit represen-
tation).
A scalar is a 1 × 1 array.
A row vector of length N is a 1 × N array.
A column vector of length M is an M × 1 array.
A matrix of dimensions M rows and M columns is an M × N array.

Variable name conventions

MATLAB is case sensitive
Starts with A-Z, a-z
Up to 31 letters, digits and underscores

Default MATLAB variables

ans result of last unassigned calculation
eps smallest number that can be added to 1.0
and still be different
flops count of floating point operations
Inf infinity e.g. 1/0 = Inf
NaN Not a Number e.g. 0/0 = NaN
pi Value of Pi (3.1415...)
realmax Largest real number MATLAB can represent

393
394 CHAPTER 17. SYNTAX REFERENCE FOR MATLAB

realmin Smallest real number MATLAB can represent

User defined variables

clear clear all or selected variables (or functions)
from the current workspace
length length of a vector or maximum dimension of an array
size display dimensions of a particular array
who display current workspace variable names
whos display current workspace variable names,
types and associated sizes

Command/Figure Window control

clc clear the command window
clf clear the figure window
figure start a new figure window
figure(N) Make figure with index N active. If N is an
integer and figure(N) does not exist, create it
close close current figure window
close(N) close figure with index N

Useful Workspace functions

help obtain help generally or for a specific function
lookfor obtain one-line help if it exists
more toggles pagination, useful for longs “helps”
load read variables in from a disk file
save save all or selected variables to a disk file

MATLAB path and environment

cd change to s specific directory
dir list files in the current directory
path display or modify the function search path
 395

MATLAB punctuation
. decimal point 325/100, 3.25 and .325e1 are all the same
... three or more decimal points at the end of a line cause
the following line to be a continuation
, comma is used to separate matrix subscripts and arguments
to functions, also used to separate statements in
multi-statement lines
; used inside brackets to indicate the ends of the rows of a
matrix, also used after an expression or statement
to suppress printing
% begins comments
’ Quote. ’ANY TEXT’ is a vector whose components are the
ASCII codes for the characters. A quote within the text is
indicated by two quotes. For example: ’Don”t forget.’

Assignment
Individual elements with a row can be delimited by a comma or
a space.

Explicit assignment using ;’s to end rows

a = [1,2,3;4,5,6;7,8,9]

Explicit assignment using “newline” to end rows

a = [1,2,3
4,5,6
7,8,9]

Explicit assignment using continuation lines

b = [1 2 3 4 5 6 ...
7 8 9 10]

Useful ways to initialize variables

linspace(a,b,N)
396 CHAPTER 17. SYNTAX REFERENCE FOR MATLAB

Linearly spaced intervals between a and b (inclusive)

comprised of N points
zeros(m,n) An m by n array of zeroes
zeros(n) An n by n array of zeroes
ones(m,n) An m by n array of ones
ones(n) An n by n array of ones
eye(m,n) An m by n array with ones on the diagonal
eye(n) An n by n identity matrix
ones(n) An n by n array of ones
rand(m,n) An m by n array of random numbers
rand(n) An n by n array of random numbers

Vector/Matrix operators
These are Vector and Matrix operators

+ addition
- subtraction
* multiplication
/ left division
\ right division
^ exponentiation
’ transpose

Point-by-point operators
These operate on matrix elements in point-wise fashion

.* point-wise multiplication
./ point-wise left division
.\ point-wise right division
.^ point-wise exponentiation

Logical operators
< less than
<= less than or equal
> greater than
 397

>= greater than or equal

== equal
~= not equal
& logical AND
| logical OR
~ logical NOT

List generation/variable indexing

i:k:l List generation syntax = 1stValue:Stride:LatValue
v(1) 1st element of vector v
v(end) Last element of vector v
v(1:2:9) 1st, 3rd, 5th, 7th, 9th elements of vector v
v(2:3:9) 2nd, 5th, 8th elements of vector v
a(2,3) 2’nd row, 3’rd column of matrix a
a(:,3) all elements in column 3
a(1,:) all elements in row 1
a(1:2:end,:) all odd rows of matrix a
a(1:2,2:4) sub-matrix of rows 1 and 2, columns 2 through 4
a(1,end) last element in 1’st row

Script M-files
Sequences of MATLAB commands can be stored in text files with the extension .m. The
commands can be executed with typing the name of the files (without the extension) or
through the file management tools provided by the Command Window menu.

Useful M-file functions

Function M-files
Function definition

Define a separate file called functionName.m with the following form:

function [out1,...,outN] = functionName(in1,...inM)

%FUNCTIONNAME A brief one line description (optional)
398 CHAPTER 17. SYNTAX REFERENCE FOR MATLAB

% .
% .
% More description (optional)
% .
% .
% .
% First executable statement follows this line
.
.
.
% Valid executable MATLAB statements and comments
.
.
.
% Last line in functionName

Function call

The function call is made with the following statement:

[out1,out2,...,outN] = functionName(in1,in2,...inM)

Useful M-file functions

disp display a string
fprintf write data to screen of file
echo toggle command echo
error display message and abort
input prompt for input
keyboard transfer control to keyboard
pause wait for time or user response
return return to caller
warning display warning messages

Performance monitoring
tic,toc stopwatch timer functions
flops counts floating point operations
 399

Formatting
format short Scaled fixed point format with 5 digits
format long Scaled fixed point format with 15 digits
format compact Suppress extra line-feeds
format loose Puts extra line-feeds in the output

Program Flow control

for loops

for k = vectorOrColumnList
% MATLAB statements
end

while loops

while logicalExpression
% MATLAB statements
end

if/elseif/else construct

if logicalExpression1 % Mandatory
% MATLAB statements
elseif logicalExpression2 % Optional
% MATLAB statements
elseif logicalExpression3 % Optional
.
.
.
elseif logicalExpressionN % Optional
% MATLAB statements
else % Optional
% MATLAB statements
end % Mandatory
400 CHAPTER 17. SYNTAX REFERENCE FOR MATLAB

Plotting
contour Contour plot on a plane
contour3 3-D contour plot with displayed depth
mesh 3-D mesh surface
meshc Combination mesh/contour plot
meshz 3-D mesh with curtain
pcolor Pseudocolor (checkerboard) plot
plot Basic 2D plots
plot3 Plot lines and points in 3-D space
surf 3-D colored surface
surfc Combination surf/contour plot
surfl 3-D shaded surface with lighting

Plotting annotation
clabel Contour plot elevation labels
colorbar Display color bar (color scale
legend Graph legend
title Graph title
xlabel X-axis label
ylabel Y-axis label

Additional plotting functions

box Toggle the box display
colormap color look-up table
grid Toggle the grid state
hold Control multiple plots on a single figure
shading Color shading mode e.g. flat, interp
subplot control multiple plots in one window
zoom Enable mouse-based zooming